Professional Documents
Culture Documents
OF
AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF OPEN, DISTANCE &
eLEARNING
IN COLLABORATION WITH
INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTING
Course Journals
Whiteboard, Computers and Internet, Books and Journals.
Assessment information
The module will be assessed as follows;
40% Continuous Assessment Tests
60% Examination.
iii
Contents
1 Introduction To Information Systems
1.1 System Definition Rationale . . . . . .
1.2 System Components and Characteristics
1.2.1 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 Procedures . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3 Data/Information . . . . . . . .
1.2.4 Intermediate Data . . . . . . . .
1.2.5 Processes . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.6 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.7 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.8 Environment . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.9 Feed Back . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.10 Boundaries and Interfaces . . .
1.3 Classifications of System . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Physical or Abstract System . .
1.3.2 Open or Closed System . . . . .
1.3.3 Man made Information System .
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Why organizations are so much alike and why organizations are so different . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Key System Applications in the Organization . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Different Kinds of Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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CONTENTS
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.3.4
CONTENTS
Types of Information Systems . .
Transaction Processing Systems .
Management Information Systems
Decision Support Systems . . . .
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Input Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 Processing Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Machine Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Systems Software . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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CONTENTS
3.2.17 Application Software . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
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Ethics in general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.4 Computer Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.5 Differences Between Ethics and Law . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Definition of Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Definition of Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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CONTENTS
5.1
CONTENTS
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Trade Secrets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Patents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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5.2
5.3
5.4
Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1 Traditional file processing systems . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Communication Networks . . . . . . . . . . . .
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CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Feasibility Study . . . . . . .
System Analysis . . . . . . .
System Design . . . . . . . .
Coding . . . . . . . . . . . .
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . .
Implementation . . . . . . .
Maintenance . . . . . . . . .
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viii
LESSON 1
Introduction To Information Systems
What is a System?
The term system originates from the Greek term systema, which means to place
together. Multiple business and engineering domains have definitions of a system.
This text defines a system as:
System An integrated set of interoperable elements, each with explicitly specified and bounded capabilities, working synergistically to perform value-added
processing to enable a User to satisfy mission-oriented operational needs in
a prescribed operating environment with a specified outcome and probability
of success.
1.1. System Definition Rationale
The definition above captures a number of key discussion points about systems.
By an integrated set, we mean that a system, by definition, is composed of
hierarchical levels of physical elements, entities, or components.
By interoperable elements, we mean that elements within the systems
structure must be compatible with each other in form, fit, and function,
By each element having explicitly specified and bounded capabilities, we
mean that every element should work to accomplish some higher level goal
or purposeful mission. System element contributions to the overall system
performance must be explicitly specified. This requires that operational and
functional performance capabilities for each system element be identified and
explicitly bounded to a level of specificity that allows the element to be analyzed, designed, developed, tested, verified, and validated either on a stand
alone basis or as part of the integrated system.
By working in synergistically, we mean that the purpose of integrating the
set of elements is to leverage the capabilities of individual element capabilities to accomplish a higher level capability that cannot be achieved as standalone elements.
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LESSON 2
Information Systems In Organizations
2.1. Organization and Information Systems
Information systems and organizations have a mutual influence on each other. Information systems must be aligned with the organization to provide information
needed by important groups within the organization. Meanwhile, organization must
be aware of and open itself to the influences of information systems in order to benefit from new technologies. The interaction between information technology and
organizations is very complex and is influenced by a great many mediating factors, including the organizations structure, standard operating procedures, politics,
culture, surrounding environment and management decisions.
Figure 2.1: the two-way relationship between organization and information technology.
Figure 2.2: illustrates the two-way relationship between organization and information technology.
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Figure 2.3: the behavioral view of an organization that emphasizes group relationships, values and structures
An organization is more stable than an informal group in terms of longevity and
routine-ness. Organizations are formal legal entities, with internal rules and procedures, that must be abide by laws. Organizations are also social structure because
they are a collection of rights, privileges, obligations and responsibilities that are
delicately balanced over a period of time through conflict and conflict resolution
(behavioral definition).2.3below shows the behavioral view of an organization that
emphasizes group relationships, values and structures.
Why organizations are so much alike and why organizations are so different
According to Weber, all modern organizations (bureaucracies):
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. What is an Organization
Solution: is a stable, formal social structure that takes resources from the environment and processes them to produce outputs (technical definition).
E XERCISE 2.
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LESSON 3
Input, Processing And Output Components
3.1. What is a computer system?
Regardless of size, age, function or capability, all computers have the same basic
components and operate according to the same basic principles. A computer must
handle four basic operations: accept data, store data and instructions, process data
and lastly output data. In recent years, almost every computer has also been expected to support data communications. Computers conduct these operations with
the same basic equipment.
3.2. General Overview of A Computer System
Basically, a Computer system is a combination of five elements:
The hardware i.e. the CPU4. , memory, and the input/output devices
The software i.e. the operating system and the application programs
Data / information
Procedures
The users i.e. people, machines or other computers.
When one computer system is set up to communicate with another computer system, connectivity becomes a sixth element.
The purpose of a computer system is to convert data into information.
Data is raw, unevaluated facts and figures, concepts or instructions.
Information is the product of data processing the facts are processed into a form
that will be of value to the receiver of the processed material.
The information processing cycle involves:
Data input phase (data is captured and converted into a form that can be processed by a computer),
The processing phase, where all the number and character manipulation activities are done that are necessary to convert the data into an appropriate form
of information.
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Input Hardware
The purpose of the input hardware is to collect data and convert it into a form
suitable for computer processing. Input devices include:
The keyboard: is the most common input device used to issue instructions to the
computer. Is a sophisticated electromechanical component designed to create special standardized electronic codes when a key is pressed. The codes are transmitted
along a cable to the computer system unit, where the incoming code is analyzed
and converted into the appropriate computer usable form.
The mouse: used for graphical user interface operating environment. It has two or
three buttons that are used to issue the commands and a rolling ball that is used to
direct the pointer.
Terminals : used for inputting to and retrieving data from a remotely located main
system. Are used mainly by those who do their work on minicomputers, mainframe
or supercomputers.
Scanners: enable users to convert (digitize) a hard copy picture or a photograph
into a Computer usable graphics file that can be understood by desktop publishing
software or graphics software.
Light pens: are like the usual pens and is connected to the Computer by a cable.
They use photoelectric (light sensitive) cell to signal screen position to the com-
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Machine Cycle
For every instruction a processor repeats four basic operation. These four operations
constitute the machine cycle.
1. Fetching This is the process of obtaining a program instruction or a piece
of data from memory
2. Decoding This is the process of translating an instruction into electronic
signals that can be executed by the computer
3. Executing This is the process of carrying out commands
4. Storing This is the writing of results back to primary memory
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where to position the read/write head, and the sector number indicates where to
activate the read/write head as the disk spins.
The rigid magnetic disks are referred to as hard disks and the flexible magnetic
disks are referred to as floppy disks or diskettes. Typically, the hard disk consists
of one or more platters (disks), arranged one on top of the other. The read/write
head floats between the surface of the platters, and never touch the surfaces of the
disks. Any contamination such as a dust particle can cause a head crash/disk crash,
which destroys some or all of the data on the disk. The hard disks are the largest
backup storage device, and are usually fixed inside the system unit. Floppy disks
are smaller in capacity and size as compared to hard disks.
3.2.7. Magnetic tapes
These are similar in principle to the tapes used domestically for audio and video
recording. The tape consists of a strip of plastic, coated with metal oxide on one
side. The width of the tape is divided into rows called tracks, and the length divided
into vertical columns called frames. Each recording position on the track can be
magnetized (representing a 1), or not magnetized (representing a 0). Each frame
contains 9 bits (for a 9 track tape) and is used to represent one character.
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The data recorded in a tape cannot be practically altered, and data can only be
accessed sequentially. Data can be written onto or read from a magnetic tape using
a tape drive. Magnetic tapes are not prominent in the current computers.
3.2.8. Optical disks
They use a high power laser beam to pack information densely on a removable disk,
thus can store a lot more data. They look similar to the compact disks (CDs) used in
home audio systems. They include the usual audio CDs and other special software
CDs which contains the computer programs.
The media on which data is stored is much less susceptible to deterioration or contamination than magnetic recording media, because nothing touches the optical
disks surface except for a beam of light. They are also less susceptible to head
crashes because the optical head is suspended farther from the surface of the disk.
They are easily loaded and removed without risk of damaging either the optical disk
or drive.
They have much higher recording densities than conventional magnetic disks. Because lasers can be focussed with such precision, the tracks recorded on an optical
disk are much closer together than those of a magnetic disk, and the amount of
space required torecord an optical bit is much less than that required to record a
magnetic bit.
However, the primary disadvantage of optical storage is in the time taken to retrieve
the data are slow.
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Systems Software
These are programs with associated documentation that control the way the computer operates or provide facilities that extend the general capabilities of the system.
System software tells the computer how to interpret data and instructions, how to
run peripheral equipments like printers and disk drives, and how to use the hardware
in general. It also allows you, the user, to interact with the computer.
As you boot the computer, the system software is stored in the computers memory,
which instructs the computer to load, store, and execute an application.
System software includes operating systems, language translators (such as compilers and interpreters), and utility programs.
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Solution:
Input hardware
Processing hardware
Storage hardware
Output hardware
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LESSON 4
Organising And Managing Data And Information Resources
4.1. Problems with traditional file environment
Traditional file environment (flat file organization/data file organization) is a way of
collecting and maintaining data in an organization that leads to each functional area
or division creating and maintaining its own data files and programs. Traditional
file environment will results the following problems:
Data redundancy and confusion.
Program-data independence.
Lack of flexibility.
Poor security.
Lack of data sharing and availability.
The above mentioned problems can be solved by using a database.
4.1.1. Database environment
Database is a collection of data organized to service many application at the same
time by storing and managing data so that they appear to be in one location.
A database management system (DBMS) is special software to create and maintain a database and enable individual business applications to extract the data they
need without having to create separate files or data definitions in their computer
programs. A DBMS has three components:
A data definition language.
A data manipulation language.
A data dictionary.
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Ethics in general
1. We often see pirated CDs, software and VCD being sold at the night market.
Buying pirated software is an example of unethical activity in computer ethic.
2. A guideline is needed to stop the current technology products from being exploited, for example by replicating originals CDs and selling them as pirated
software. This unethical behavior can be controlled by the code of conducts.
3. Computer ethics is a system of moral standards or values used as a guideline
for computer users.
4.2.4. Computer Ethics
Ethics in general, is amoral philosophy where a person makes specific moral choice
and sticks to it.
In computing, ethics are the moral guidelines to referred to when using the computer
and computer networks.
Computer ethics is a system of moral standards or values used as computer guidelines for computer users.
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Definition of Ethics
1. In general, ethics is a moral philosophy where a person makes a specific moral
choice and sticks to it
2. On the other hand, ethics in computing means moral guidelines to refer to
when using the computer and computer networks. This includes the Internet.
Definition of Law
1. Law is a legal system comprising of rules and principles that govern the affairs of a community and controlled by a political authority.
2. Law differs from one country to another. In the era of technology, computer
law is needed to clarify goods or actions that fall under the computer law.
Computer law refers to all areas in law that requires an understanding of
computer technology such as hardware, software and Internet.
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Respecting privacy and confidentiality We should respect other peoples privacy and confidentiality by refraining ourselves from reading their mails or
files without their permission. If we do so, it is considered as violating an individuals right to privacy and confidentiality.
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LESSON 5
Organizing Data and Information Resources
5.1. Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lesson, the learner should be able to:
1. Understand the traditional way of organizing data.
2. Explain the value added by databases in organizing data and information
3. Identify the basic components and functions of telecommunication systems
5.1.1. Traditional file processing systems
Before databases came to be computer file processing systems were used to store,
manipulate and retrieve large files of data. As business applications grew and became more complex, these file systems experienced several limitations and were
thus gradually replaced by databases.
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The earliest DBMS were the hierarchical model which organizes data in a treelike
structure. A record is subdivided into segments that are connected to each other
in one-to-many parent-child relationship. The most common hierarchical DBMS
is IBMs IMS (Information Management System). The network data model is a
variation of the hierarchical data model. This model is useful for depicting manyto-many relationships. Relational data model is a type of logical database model
that treats data if they were stored in two-dimensional tables. It can relate data
stored in one table to data in another as long as the two tables share a common
data element. Object relational data model is a model used mostly for Internet
databases. It can handle both structured and unstructured data.
The table below shows a comparison of the database models
Database model Processing efficiency
Flexibility
End-user friendliness Programming comp
Hierarchical
High
Low
Low
High
Network
Medium-high
Low-medium
Low-moderate
High
Relational
High
High
Low
Object relational
High
High
High
High
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Communication Networks
Networks can be classified by their shape (topology) or by their geographic scope
and type of services provided.
Networks as classified by their topology:
Star network is a network in which all computers and other devices are connected to a central host computer. All communications between networks
devices must pass through the host computer.
Bus network is a topology that links a number of computers by a single
circuit with all messages broadcast to the entire network.
Ring network is a network in which all computers are linked by a closed loop
in a manner that passes data in one direction from one computer to another.
Networks as classified by their geographic scope:
Private branch exchanges (PBX) is a central switching system that handles a
firms voice and digital communication.
Local area networks (LAN) is a telecommunication network that requires its
own dedicated channels and that encompasses a limited distance, usually one
building or several buildings in close proximity.
Wide area networks (WAN) is a network that spans a large geographical distance. May consist of a variety of cables, satellite and microwave technology.
Value-added network (VAN) is a private, multi-path, data-only, third-party
managed network that is used by multiple organizations on a subscription
basis.
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E XERCISE
Further Reading
Modern database management 5th Edition by Fred Mcfadden, Jeffrey A. Hoffer, Mary B. Presoft
Fundamentals of database systems 3rd edition by Elmasri Navathe
Any relevant material on Networking Essentials or Introduction to Networking
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LESSON 6
Ethics and Social Issues in Information Systems
Learning outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to answer the following questions
1. What ethical, social, and political issues are raised by information systems?
2. What specific principles for conduct can be used to guide ethical decisions?
3. Why do contemporary information systems technology and the Internet pose
challenges to the protection of individual privacy and intellectual property?
4. How have information systems affected everyday life?
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Imagine instead that the disturbing force is a powerful shock of new information
technology and systems hitting a society more or less at rest. Suddenly, individual actors are confronted with new situations often not covered by the old rules.
Social institutions cannot respond overnight to these ripples it may take years to
develop etiquette, expectations, social responsibility, politically correct attitudes, or
approved rules. Political institutions also require time before developing new laws
and often require the demonstration of real harm before they act. In the meantime,
you may have to act. You may be forced to act in a legal gray area.
We can use this model to illustrate the dynamics that connect ethical, social, and
political issues. This model is also useful for identifying the main moral dimensions
of the information society, which cut across various levels of action individual,
social, and political.
6.2. Five Moral Dimensions of The Information Age
The major ethical, social, and political issues raised by information systems include
the following moral dimensions:
Information rights and obligations. What information rights do individuals
and organizations possess with respect to themselves? What can they protect? What obligations do individuals and organizations have concerning this
information?
Property rights and obligations. How will traditional intellectual property
rights be protected in a digital society in which tracing and accounting for
ownership are difficult and ignoring such property rights is so easy?
Accountability and control. Who can and will be held accountable and liable for the harm done to individual and collective information and property
rights?
System quality. What standards of data and system quality should we demand
to protect individual rights and the safety of society?
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Trade Secrets
Any intellectual work product a formula, device, pattern, or compilation of data
used for a business purpose can be classified as a trade secret, provided it is not
based on information in the public domain. Protections for trade secrets vary from
state to state. In general, trade secret laws grant a monopoly on the ideas behind
a work product, but it can be a very tenuous monopoly. Software that contains
novel or unique elements, procedures, or compilations can be included as a trade
secret. Trade secret law protects the actual ideas in a work product, not only their
manifestation. To make this claim, the creator or owner must take care to bind
employees and customers with nondisclosure agreements and to prevent the secret
from falling into the public domain. The limitation of trade secret protection is
that, although virtually all software programs of any complexity contain unique
elements of some sort, it is difficult to prevent the ideas in the work from falling
into the public domain when the software is widely distributed.
Copyright
Copyright is a statutory grant that protects creators of intellectual property from
having their work copied by others for any purpose during the life of the author plus
an additional 70 years after the authors death. For corporate-owned works, copyright protection lasts for 95 years after their initial creation. Congress has extended
copyright protection to books, periodicals, lectures, dramas, musical compositions,
maps, drawings, artwork of any kind, and motion pictures. The intent behind copyright laws has been to encourage creativity and authorship by ensuring that creative
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Patents
A patent grants the owner an exclusive monopoly on the ideas behind an invention
for 20 years. The congressional intent behind patent law was to ensure that inventors
of new machines, devices, or methods receive the full financial and other rewards
of their labor and yet make widespread use of the invention possible by providing
detailed diagrams for those wishing to use the idea under license from the patents
owner.
The strength of patent protection is that it grants a monopoly on the underlying
concepts and ideas of software. The difficulty is passing stringent criteria of no obviousness (e.g., the work must reflect some special understanding and contribution),
originality, and novelty, as well as years of waiting to receive protection.
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E XERCISE 6.
Describe a scenario within the application of IS and ICTs that
would result in an ethical dilemma
Example . Describe the application of the following in solving the dilemma described above
a) Ethical analysis process
b) Ethical principles
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LESSON 7
System analysis and Design
7.1. Learning Outcomes
After going through this lesson, you should be able to
1. Define a system
2. Explain the different phases of system development life cycle
3. Enumerate the components of system analysis
4. Explain the components of system designing
7.2. Introduction
Systems are created to solve problems. One can think of the systems approach as
an organized way of dealing with a problem. In this dynamic world, the subject
System Analysis and Design (SAD), mainly deals with the software development
activities.
7.3. Defining System
A collection of components that work together to realize some objectives forms a
system. Basically there are three major components in every system, namely input,
processing and output.
In a system the different components are connected with each other and they are
interdependent. For example, human body represents a complete natural system.
We are also bound by many national systems such as political system, economic
system, educational system and so forth. The objective of the system demands
that some output is produced as a result of processing the suitable inputs. A welldesigned system also includes an additional element referred to as control that
provides a feedback to achieve desired objectives of the system.
Feasibility Study
In case the system proposal is acceptable to the management, the next phase is to
examine the feasibility of the system. The feasibility study is basically the test of
the proposed system in the light of its workability, meeting users requirements,
effective use of resources and of course, the cost effectiveness. These are categorized as technical, operational, economic and schedule feasibility. The main goal
of feasibility study is not to solve the problem but to achieve the scope. In the process of feasibility study, the cost and benefits are estimated with greater accuracy
to find the Return on Investment (ROI). This also defines the resources needed to
complete the detailed investigation. The result is a feasibility report submitted to
the management. This may be accepted or accepted with modifications or rejected.
The system cycle proceeds only if the management accepts it.
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System Analysis
Systems analysis is a process of collecting factual data, understand the processes
involved, identifying problems and recommending feasible suggestions for improving the system functioning. This involves studying the business processes, gathering operational data, understand the information flow, finding out bottlenecks and
evolving solutions for overcoming the weaknesses of the system so as to achieve the
organizational goals. System Analysis also includes subdividing of complex process involving the entire system, identification of data store and manual processes.
The major objectives of systems analysis are to find answers for each business process: What is being done, How is it being done, Who is doing it, When is he doing
it, Why is it being done and How can it be improved? It is more of a thinking process and involves the creative skills of the System Analyst. It attempts to give birth
to a new efficient system that satisfies the current needs of the user and has scope
for future growth within the organizational constraints. The result of this process is
a logical system design. Systems analysis is an iterative process that continues until
a preferred and acceptable solution emerges.
System Design
Based on the user requirements and the detailed analysis of the existing system, the
new system must be designed. This is the phase of system designing. It is the most
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Coding
The system design needs to be implemented to make it a workable system. This demands the coding of design into computer understandable language, i.e., programming language. This is also called the programming phase in which the programmer
converts the program specifications into computer instructions, which we refer to
as programs. It is an important stage where the defined procedures are transformed
into control specifications by the help of a computer language. The programs coordinate the data movements and control the entire process in a system. It is generally
felt that the programs must be modular in nature. This helps in fast development,
maintenance and future changes, if required.
Testing
Before actually implementing the new system into operation, a test run of the system is done for removing the bugs, if any. It is an important phase of a successful
system. After codifying the whole programs of the system, a test plan should be
developed and run on a given set of test data. The output of the test run should
match the expected results. Sometimes, system testing is considered a part of implementation process. Using the test data following test run are carried out:
1. Program test
2. System test
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Implementation
After having the user acceptance of the new system developed, the implementation
phase begins. Implementation is the stage of a project during which theory is turned
into practice. The major steps involved in this phase are:
1. Acquisition and Installation of Hardware and Software
2. Conversion
3. User Training
4. Documentation
The hardware and the relevant software required for running the system must be
made fully operational before implementation. The conversion is also one of the
most critical and expensive activities in the system development life cycle. The
data from the old system needs to be converted to operate in the new format of the
new system. The database needs to be setup with security and recovery procedures
fully defined. During this phase, all the programs of the system are loaded onto the
users computer. After loading the system, training of the user starts. Main topics
of such type of training are:
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Maintenance
Maintenance is necessary to eliminate errors in the system during its working life
and to tune the system to any variations in its working environments. It has been
seen that there are always some errors found in the systems that must be noted and
corrected. It also means the review of the system from time to time. The review of
the system is done for:
1. knowing the full capabilities of the system
2. knowing the required changes or the additional requirements
3. Studying the performance.
If a major change to a system is needed, a new project may have to be set up to
carry out the change. The new project will then proceed through all the above life
cycle phases.
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E XERCISE 7.
Write True or False for the following statements.
A collection of components that work together to realize some objectives forms a
system.
System life cycle is not an organizational process of developing and maintaining a
system.
In the system analysis and design terminology the system development life cycle
means software development life cycle.
Coding is not a step in system development life cycle.
System analysis and system design are the same phase of system development life
cycle.
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LESSON 8
Types of Information Systems
Learning Outcomes
After going through this lesson, you should be able to
1. Identify the various types of information systems
2. Explain the roles of the various information systems
3. Match an information system with its corresponding management level
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E XERCISE 8.
Transaction Processing systems are a major source of information
to all other types of information systems. Justify
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Exercise 1
Exercise 2.
Transaction processing systems
Management information systems
Decision support systems
Exercise 2
Exercise 3.
The hardware i.e. the CPU4. , memory, and the input/output devices
The software i.e. the operating system and the application programs
Data / information
Procedures
The users i.e. people, machines or other computers.
Exercise 3
Exercise 7.
(a) True
(b) False
(c) True
(d) False
(e) False
Exercise 7
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