OPERATOR DEVELOPMENT

PROGRAM
PROGRESSION COURSE
PHASE ( 2 )

INSTRUMENTATION & PROCESS

CONTROL
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Instrumentation
A system of devices and techniques to
measure, display, monitor and control plant
equipment and process operations.

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Purpose of Instrumentation
Optimize process efficiency
Produce a better product at lower cost in less time.
Improve product quality.
Optimize process throughput and yield.
Provide reliable data on raw material, product
qualities and services related to process economics.
Perform inspection and testing functions rapidly and
reliably.
Provide safety systems for personnel, plants and
process.
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Automatic Control
It is a control in which regulating and
switching operations are performed
automatically in response to pre-determined
conditions.

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Purpose of Automatic Control

To maintain the process operating

conditions in stable and consistent
manner.

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Control Loop
A control loop has a number of elements, work
together to control a certain process variable.
The elements of the control loop form a circuit
through which action signals are passed from
one element to the other to accomplish the
controlling process.

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Types of Control loops

1. Open Loop
Flow of information
or action signals
between elements
does not form a
complete circuit

Indicator

Control
Valve

Transmitter

Process
Measuring
element

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Types of Control loops

2. Closed Loop
Flow of information
or action signals
are continuously
passing from each
element to the
other forming a
complete circuit.

Controller

Control
Valve

Transmitter

Process
Measuring
element

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Components of Automatic Control

Loop
1)
2)
3)
4)

Process.
Measuring Element
Controlling Element
Correcting Element

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Components of Automatic Control

Loop
Indicator

Recorder

Controller

Transducer
Transmitter
Control
Valve

Process
Measuring
element

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10

Components of Automatic Control Loop

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11

Process
System that operates, under certain conditions, to yield products at
specific rate &/or quality.

1.
2.
3.
4.

The conditions of the process may be one or all of the following

process variables:
Pressure
Temperature
Flow
Level

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12

Set Point
Desired value of a process variable

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13

Types of Process Disturbance

1) Supply Disturbances ( Supply Load )
Change in energy (or materials) input to the process.
In the cooler (Next Slide), the changes in water temperature
and water (flow) valve opening are supply disturbance
2) Demand Disturbance ( Demand load )
Change in energy (or material) output from a process.

In the cooler, change in process fluid temperature and the rate

of fluid flow are demand disturbance
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14

Typical Process Plant Control System

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15

Measuring Unit
It has two elements i.e.,
1. Detecting Element
Located in the field to detect or sense the value of
the process variable.
2. Measuring Element
The measuring element receives an input from the
detecting element and produces a corresponding
output signal representing the measured value.

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16

Transmitter
Receives the detecting element output
and generates a corresponding signal,
pneumatic (from 3 to 15 psi) or electric
(from 4 to 20 mA) and transmits this
signal to the controller.

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17

Indicator
Receives the Indicator
transmitter
signal and
generates a
corresponding
movement in a
dial pointer or
a digital
indication to
provide a
visual
indication of
the actual
process
variable value.
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Recorder

Controller

Transducer
Transmitter
Control
Valve

Process
Measuring
element

18

Recorder
Receives the
Indicator
transmitter
signal and
generates
a movement of
a pen on a
moving chart
to provide a
continuous
recording of
the process
variable
changes.
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Recorder

Controller

Transducer
Transmitter
Control
Valve

Process
Measuring
element

19

Signal Range
All instruments are operated by the following
signal range.
1. ( 0.2 -------- 1.0 ) Bar
Pneumatic Signal
2. ( 4.0 -------- 20.0 ) m A

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Electrical Signal

20

DETECTING & MEASURING

ELEMENTS

Types
1.
2.
3.
4.

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Flow Elements
Temperature Elements
Pressure Elements
Level elements

21

Flow Elements
a.

b.
c.
d.

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Differential-pressure meters
(i)
Orifice plate
(ii)
Venturi tube
Rotameters
Positive displacement meters
Turbine meters.

22

Differential-Pressure meters

The principle of operation is based on the

following equation:
Q=Kx
Where:
Q =
K =
DP =

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( D P)
Flow rate
Coefficient (a constant)
Differential pressure
23

Differential-Pressure meters

The flow rate

is associated
with the
differential in
pressure
generated
upstream and
downstream
of a throttle
placed in the
pipeline
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P1

Permanent pressure loss

P2

Disadvantage

Orifice Plate

DP = P1 - P2

24

Orifice Plate
Disc with a hole which
fits into a pipe
Hole is centered &
circular.
Hole diameter is usually
between a half and three
quarters of the pipe bore.

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The Orifice Plate

25

Orifice Plate

Differential pressure
formed upstream
and downstream of
the plate, is received
by the transmitter (a
signal converter)

Converted into a
transmission signal

Sent to a receiving
instrument, and the
differential pressure
indicated on the
instrument as a flow
rate.

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Orifice Plate
Transmitter
(D.P. Cell)

26

Orifice Plate Installation

Orifice plates must be installed in the correct

flow direction.
The orifice data, e.g., Tag no., material, etc., is
clearly marked at the upstream side of the
orifice plate.
It is mostly used to measure the flow rate of
fluid which flows through pipes of 1- and
large

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Limitation of orifice Plate

Orifice plates may give wrong readings if
fluids are
1) At freezing temperature.
2) Highly viscous
3) Corrosive
4) Dirty.
5) Solid suspension & cloggy.

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28

Venturi Tube
H.P.

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L.P.

29

Venturi Tube

Flow measurements with the Venturi tube are similar

to measurements with the orifice plate.

The Venturi tube is mounted in the line and forms a

throttle causing a pressure difference which is
measured by a differential pressure (D/P) cell.

The flow can be measured using the same formula,

mentioned before, for the orifice plate.

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Venturi Tube
Advantages

The throttle is smoother

There is no blind angles.
A smaller chance of
contamination.
A lower permanent
pressure loss.

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H.P.

L.P.

31

Venturi Tube
Disadvantages

More expensive.

Needs longer
distance for
installation.

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H.P.

L.P.

32

Rotameters
Working Principle
As the liquid flows upward through the
annular gap between the float and the bore
of the tube, there will be a pressure drop
where the fluid passes through the gap.
The resulting force from the pre. diff. acts
on the float and lifts it until it finds the
balance position.

Tapered
glass
tube

Float

For any flow rate , the float assumes an

equilibrium position at a particular height in
the tube

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Positive Displacement Meters

Devices that separate a

flowing stream into
individual volumetric
increments and count these
increments .
The meters are machined so
that each volumetric
increment is accurately
known, and the summation
of the increments gives a
very accurate measurement
of the total volume passed
through the meter.

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Positive Displacement Meters

Are used mainly: where a higher degree of accuracy is needed.
Reliability in liquid flow integration is
required.

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Turbine Meters

Measures the velocity of the fluid

flow by means of a rotor in which
the axis is fitted in the direction of
the fluid flow with rotating blades.

The fluid passing the rotor causes

the blades to turn with an angular
velocity that is proportional to the
fluid linear velocity and, therefore,
the volumetric flow rate.

A magnetic pick-up transducer or a

mechanical counter measures the
velocity of the turbine which gives
the volumetric flow rate.
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Turbine Meters
Advantages

High flow range-ability for low viscosity fluid,

such as naphtha and light hydrocarbons.
Economically justifiable for high flow rate
measurement, such as in large diameter
pipeline service.

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37

Temperature Elements

Glass Thermometers
Filled systems
Thermocouples
Bimetallic
Resistance elements.

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38

Glass Thermometers

Working Principle

It is based on the difference in expansion

between glass and a liquid when
temperature increases.

Capillary
tube

Scale

As the liquid in the reservoir is warmed, the

volume of the liquid increases. This causes
the liquid to rise in the capillary tube. The
height of the liquid in the tube is a measure
of the temperature .
Mercury
bulb
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Glass Thermometers
Properties of liquid in the reservoir

Constant (linear) expansion.

Good heat conduction.
Should not stick to the glass.

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40

Filled - Thermometer
Working Principal

It is based on the diff. in expansion

between the bulb metal and liquid /
gas with rise in temp.
The sensor is a metal bulb connected
by a capillary to a bourdon manometer
.
The system is completely filled with
liquid or gas. The liquid or gas
expands when heated, causing the
pressure to increase and the bourdon
gauge to bend slightly which is
transmitted to the circular movement
of the pointer.
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Bourdon
Tube

Indicator

Bulb

Capillary
Tube

41

Bimetal Thermometer
Working Principle

It is based on the volume change

of metal caused by temp. and it is
not same for all metals.
If two straight strips of different
metals are bonded together and
heated, the resultant strip will
bend toward the side of the metal
with the lower expansion rate.
The bimetal is wound spirally,
with one end attached to the
casing. The other free end is
mechanized to indicator which
moves on the dial as temp.
changes

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Spiral
(a)

Helical
(b)

42

Bimetal Thermometer
Advantages

The movement of the bimetal is transmitted,

without gears, directly to the indicator.
It is possible to fit a much longer strip of
bimetal in this way than if it were stretched
out.

Disadvantages

The bimetal thermometer can only be used for local

temperature indication and not for remote
measurement.
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Thermocouples

It consists of two wires of dissimilar

metals, joined together at one end.
This joint is called the hot junction.
The other ends ( Cold Junction )are
connected through a meter. When
the joint is heated, a small electromotive force (e.m.f.) is generated.
The e.m.f. depends on the
temperature. The e.m.f. is measured
by the meter and indicated on a
scale.
The amount of movement depends
on the temperature change. The
meter scale is therefore graduated to
read temperature directly.

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Meter

Cold Junction

Iron
wire

Constantan
wire

Hot Junction

44

Thermocouples
Hot Junction

Terminals

Ceramic
insulators

Cold Junction
Weld or Braze

Advantages

Wide Range
Versatility
Rapid Response
Economical
Remote Function.

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The wires of the

Thermocouple

Porcelain
Head

Disadvantages
1) Dirty or corroded connections at the
thermocouple or in connecting leads,
which cause defective reading
2) Dampness which generally causes low
readings.
3) Incorrect polarity

45

Resistance Thermometer
Working Principle

It depends upon the relation between temperature and resistance of the measuring element,
i.e. higher the temperature, higher will be the resistance, therefore, the current flow through
the circuit will be less and vise versa.

Resistance is measured with wheatstone Bridge

When temp. changes, the resistance of element change

By this, the balance of Wheatstone Bridge change which is measured and indicates in term of
temperatue

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46

Resistance Thermometer
Advantages

Wide Range ( -220 to 600 C )

Versatility
Rapid Response
Economical
Remote reading

Disadvantages

Dirty or corroded connections at the thermometer

element or in connecting leads, which cause defective reading

Dampness which generally causes low readings

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The Thermo-well

Protective casing where the

sensing elements is placed
Here the medium does not come
into contact with the
sensing/measuring element.
The advantage is that the
element cannot be
damaged by the medium.
Also the sensor can be changed
without depressurizing or
draining the lines.
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48

Pressure Elements

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U-Tube Manometer
Bourdon Tube
Bellows
Diaphragm Element

49

U-Tube Manometer

Consists of a transparent U-shaped tube

Half filled with liquid ( water, oil or mercury ) mounted
vertically.
In principle, this is a pressure difference meter. If one side
is connected to a pressure P1 and the other to a pressure
P2, a difference in the liquid level (h) is created, so that:

P1 - P2 = h.p.g

P1

P2

If the connection for P2 is left open, P1 is measured as

gauge-pressure
If P1 is left open, P2 is measured as negative-pressure
(vacuum)
It is not very safe and can only operate at very low
pressure.

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50

Bourdon Tube
Working principle

It is based on a tube with a

flattened cross-section,
arranged in the form of a circular
arc tends to
straighten as the pressure
increases inside the tube.
There is a rigid connection
between the open end of
the Bourdon tube and the pressure
line.
The closed end is connected by a
transmission
mechanism to the indicator
pointer.

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Scale

Pointer

Bourdon
Tube
Motion
transfer
mechanism

Pressure
connection

51

Types of Bourdon Tube

Helical Bourdon Tube

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Spiral Bourdon Tube

52

Bourdon Tube
Materials of construction

Material

Phosphor
Bronze
Beryllium
Copper
Stainless Steel
Alloy steel.

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Pressure

Corrosion
Resistance

Uses

70 Bar

Low

On clean fluidi

350 B

Low

400 B
6000 B

Good
Variable

On non-corrosive
fluid
On corrosive fluid
At high pre. where
fluid is not
corrosive to alloy
53

Bourdon Tube
Not suitable for the following fluid
1) Corrosive materials.
2) Liquids with high solidification points.
3) Liquids, in which solid particles are
suspended, which could clog the lines
For such fluids, Sealed Bourdon Tube is used

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54

Sealed Bourdon Tube

Bourdon Tube with an accessory, which

consists of a diaphragm clamped between two
flanges.
The whole area above the diaphragm,
including the bourdon tube, is filled with seal
oil.
The diaphragm is made of teflon-covered steel
or of corrosion resistant steel.
Diaphragm
The diaphragm serves only to separate the
medium and the seal oil.
The medium is the process material, of which
the pressure must be measured.
The diaphragm is very flexible, the pressure
under the diaphragm is transmitted unchanged
to the seal oil above the diaphragm. Thus, the
manometer shows the pressure of the medium.
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Bourdon
Tube

Seal Oil

55

Bellows

The pressure is indicated by the

elastic movement of the bellows
caused by pressure inside the
bellows.
The bellows is made of a thinwalled, seamless pipe, in which
deep circular ridges are pressed.
If a pressure is exerted on the
bellows, the ridges expand, due to
the resistance of a coiled spring.
The spring is used because the
bellows itself offers too little
resistance.
A pointer is mechanized to the
bellows for pressure indication
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Pointer

Bellows

56

Bellows With Spring

Pointer

To make the whole device more

compact, a spring can be fitted
inside the bellows
so that the pressure is exerted on
the outside of the bellows. In this
case the pressure will compress
the bellows instead of expanding
it.

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Spring

Bellows

57

Differential pressure Bellows

gauge

By using two bellows to

work against each other,
a simple differential
pressure gauge can be made

P1

Pointer

P2

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58

Diaphragm Element

Pressure applied to the diaphragm

causes an elastic movement in direct
proportion to the applied pressure.
In a diaphragm sensor this movement
is slight, depending on the thickness
and diameter of the metal.
The movement of the diaphragm is
mechanized to the pointer in a
pressure gauge, or to a pressure
Diaphragm
transmitter for remote signal
transmission.
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Pointer
connection

59

Diaphragm Element
Advantages

Used where a normal bourdon manometer would get

clogged.
This manometer can be made corrosion resistant by
coating the bottom of the diaphragm with teflon and
making the lower flange of stainless steel.

Disadvantages

The movement of the diaphragm is very small, this

manometer is less accurate than the bourdon
manometer

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60

Level Elements

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Level gauge
Float element
Pressure differential
Displacer
Pneumatic bubble

61

Level gauge ( Open Tank )

Transparent tube made of glass or

plastic
Connected to the bottom of a tank.
a scale is placed next to or behind
this tube
The method only works well with
open tanks and open tubes.
Since the tank and the gauge are
connected, the liquid level will be
the same in both areas.
The level of the tank can be read
off the scale.

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62

Level gauge (Closed Tank)

In closed tank, the top and

bottom of the of the gauge
is connected to the top and
bottom of the tank
respectively.
By opening the top / bottom
valves of the gauge, the
liquid level in tank and
gauge will be equal .
A scale is placed behind the
tube where the reading
can be taken.

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63

Types of level gauge glasses

1. Reflex gauge
The reflex gauge depends on the change in reflection
of light as it passes through a transparent solid
(glass or plastic) to a liquid or to a gas.

The light rays reflect back if there is gas behind the

glass

They pass through liquid without reflection, due to

the difference in Refractive Index in liquids and
gases.

Uses for clean and non-viscous fluids

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Reflux Level Gauge

Gas

U Bolt

Light Rays

Glass

Liquid

Light Rays

Principle of Reflux Gauge

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65

Transparent Gauge

Uses where the process

material is colored or
viscous or for interface
detection.
No grooves for light
reflection
It is installed on both
front and back of the
chamber for light to pass
through.
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Glass
Bolt

Glass

66

Float Element in Open Tank

Consists of a float on the

surface of the liquid
A tape connected to the
float, and a counterweight
over one or more pullies
Scale is mounted behind
the counter weight
The counter weight acts
as the level indicator.

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67

Float Element in Closed Tank

Consists of a magnetic
coupled float
A tape connected to
the float, and a
counterweight over the
pullies
Scale mounted on the
exterior of the tank
Counter weight acts as
the level indicator.

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Doughnut
float with
magnetic
follower

Permament
magnet

68

Pressure Differential Pressure Gauge

(Open Tank)

Depends on hydrostatic pressure of

liquid level in the tank.
Higher the liquid level, higher will be
the pressure on the bottom of the
tank. i.e., hydrostatic pressure.
Hydrostatic pressure can be
calculated by
P = hxpxg
h

Calibrate the pressure gauge in

terms of height and read the
level directly.

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PI

69

Pressure Differential Pressure Gauge

(Closed Tank)

Pressure shown on the bottom

gauge is the sum of the
pressure on the liquid and the
hydrostatic pressure of liquid
Differential pre. Cell measure
the pressure diff . Between
tope and bottom of the tank
This pre. Diff. is calculated as

P2
h2

P1 P2 = (h. p. g) + P2 - P2
P = h. p. g ------- Hydr. Pre.

Calibrate the P pressure

gauge in terms of height and
read the level directly.
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h1

P1

D. P. Cell

P2

70

Displacer
Depends on Archimedes' law.

Apparent weight = The actual weight - the weight of

displaced liquid.

The apparent weight which acts as tension on the

spring, depends on:
a) The volume of the cylinder immersed in the
liquid, which represents the liquid level.
b) The density of the liquid.
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Displacer

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72

Displacer

Spring tension on the spring can be converted

to an output signal representing the liquid level
inside the vessel.
This signal can be transmitted for remote
indication or level control loops.
Difficult to transmit the movement of
displacer in high pressure tanks & vessels due
to friction and leak problem.
Torsion tube is good for this purpose.

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Torsion Tube
Cross section and assembly
is shown in Fig.

Function
a. To supply resilience,
making a spring
unnecessary.
b. To provide pressure
tight and frictionless
transmission of
movement of the
displacer .

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Displacer

A complete
assembly of
displacer and
its associates
is shown in
the fig.

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75

Enraff Level Gauge

Consist a float , operated by an

electric motor

Function

If the level drops, the float

drops and pulls the lever on the
motor slide down. The top
contact is now closed and the
motor lowers the float until the
lever breaks the top contact.
If the level rises, the tension in
the cable drops & works vice
versa.
As a result, the motor pulls the
cable tight and lifts the float
until the contact is broken
again.
The level is shown by a counter
attached to the motor.
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76

Pneumatic (Bubble) Gauge (Open Tank)

Pipe is placed in a tank through

which air passes at certain pre.
Experience a back pressure
when liquid level increases.
Higher the liquid level, higher
will be back pre. i.e.,
Hydrostatic pre.
The dosing equipment keeps the
bubble pipe bubbling.
The back pressure is calibrated
in terms of level height
The method is used if there is a
lot of solid particles in the liquid
(slurries).
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PI
Air supply
Dosing
device

Bubble
tube

77

Pneumatic (Bubble) Gauge (Closed Tank)

Pressure on the bottom is the sum
of the pressure on the liquid and the
hydrostatic pressure of liquid
Differential pre. Cell measure the
pressure diff . Between tope and
bottom of the tank
which is a back pressure to air
passing through the pipe
Calibrate the P pressure in terms
of height and read the level
directly.

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D.P. Cell
Air supply
Dosing
device

Bubble
tube

78

Controller

Receives the transmitter signal ( MV )

Compares it with the set-point ( SV )
Generates an output signal
corresponding to the amount of
deviation between the measurement
value and the set point.

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Pneumatic Controller

Function

The comparison mechanism includes bellows & a spring.

Movement of the bellows is controlled by the measurement
signal from the process variable.
This movement is opposed by the spring force which is the
set-point value.
Set-point is fixed by the process operator.
When the opposing forces of the spring and the bellows are
equal, there is no movement of the flapper .
Difference in opposing forces, produce an error signal which
move the flapper either towards or away from the nozzle.

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Pneumatic Controller
Conti.

The controller air supply enters the nozzle assembly through

a restriction.
The air escapes through the nozzle or through the controller
output connection.
The movement of the flapper against the nozzle varies the
output signal according to the error signal.
If the flapper is close to the nozzle, little air will escapes and the
output signal will increase .
If the flapper is away from the nozzle, more air will escape
and the output signal will decrease.

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81

Pneumatic Controller

Block Diagram of Controller

Operating Sequence
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82

Pneumatic Controller
Actual
Mechanism
Diagram

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83

Electronic Controller

Comparing element receive the variable voltage signal .

a) Measured value of Process variable.

b)

Set point Value

Comparison Element does the comparison and generates the

error signal in the voltage form.

This signal is amplified and sent out to the final control

element.

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84

Electronic Controller

Block Diagram of Controller

Operating Sequence
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85

Electronic Controller

Electronic controller mechanism

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86

Final Control Element (Correcting Unit )

Control valve , actuated by a pneumatic or electric

actuator.
The valve actuator receives the signal generated by
the controller, through a transducer or a positioner
Moves the valve according to the value of signal
received.
The movement of the valve directly affects a process
stream or a flow in a pipeline which can regulate the
process variable.

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87

CONTROL MODES

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ON-OFF control Mode.

Proportional control mode.
Reset control mode.
Rate control mode.

88

ON OFF Control Mode

Moves the final control element to fully open

or fully close position in response to a control
signal
when the process variable deviates a
predetermined amount from the set-point.

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ON OFF Control Mode

Applications
1. Alarm system.
2. Start up and shut down controls (Interlocks).
3. Limit controls.

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On Off Control Mode

OnOff
Control
For a

High
Pressure
Alarm

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91

On Off Control Mode

On-Off

Level
Control

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92

Proportional Control

Produces an output signal which is proportional

to the error e.
Where:
error e = Set-point - Measured Variable
It can not remove the Off-set ( Disadvantage ).

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93

Proportional Band

The output signal required to move the valve

from fully closed to fully open.
Proportional band is:

P.B. (%) =

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Input signal x 100

Output signal

94

Narrow Proportional Band

Proportional band less
than 100%

Properties
i) Control action is rapid
ii)

iii)

The rapid control

action increase the
amount of cycling.
System takes longer
time to come in steady
form.
Off-set is Less

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Wide proportional band

Proportional band
that is greater than
100%.

Properties

Reduce the amount

of cycling in a
process control
system.
Control action is
relatively slow.
As a result there is
more off-set.
Takes less time to
bring the system in
Steady form.

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Proportional Band Relationship

With Input and Output Signals

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Reset Control (Integral Control)

Adjusts the output of a proportional controller to

eliminate the off-set.
Reset is expressed in terms of minutes per repeat or
(mpr). In some cases, it may be expressed as repeats
per minute or (rpm).

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Reset Control (Integral Control)

Disadvantages
Reset control does not exist alone, it is
always combined with proportional control.,
Longer period of oscillation
Longer time required for oscillation to cease

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Mode Comparison

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Rate (Derivative) Control

It changes the control valve position in

proportion to the rate of deviation.
Controller speeds up the response
Minimizes the process oscillation or cycling
Returns the process variable to set-point in less
time.

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Rate (Derivative) Control

Disadvantages
It can not
work alone
Also, with
rate control,
there is some
off-set.

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Comparison
Of The
Different
Controller
Modes

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CONTROL LAGS
1.
2.
3.
4.

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Process Lag
Measurement Lag.
Transmission Lag.
Response Lag.

104

Degree of Accuracy
Fastness to response the process change and to
get the required correction
Factors affecting the degree of accuracy
1.
Process Lag.
2.
Measurement Lag.
3.
Transmission Lag.
4.
Response Lag
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Process Lag.

Time difference between the control element

change takes place and the maximum amount
of process variable change in response

Caused by the cumulative effect of

1.
2.
3.
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Capacity of Process
Process Resistance
Dead Time
106

Process Capacity
Process ability to hold energy (or a quantity of
material)

Process Resistance
It is the opposition to transfer of energy or flow
through the process.

Dead Time
Time difference between the control element
change takes place and the process variable change
start.
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Process
Lag
And
Dead time

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Measurement Lag
Time difference from
the moment the
process temperature
changes, to the
moment the sensing
element transmits
this information.

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Transmission Lag
Time interval between the signal transmitted from
detecting element to the controller then to the final
control element, for its response.
Factors affecting transmission lag in pneumatic control
loops
i)
ii)
iii)

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distance between the instruments in the loop

size of the pneumatic tubing
signal pressure.

110

Transmission Lag

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Response Lag
Time interval between the arrival of the signal to the
control valve until the control valve responds to the
signal (moving towards opening or closing).
Factors affecting transmission lag

The strength of the spring in the valve actuator.

The friction between the valve stem and the packing.
The fluid pressure on the valve plug

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Lags affecting the Process Control on a Heat

Exchanger

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MULTIPLE LOOP CONTROL

1.
2.
3.
4.

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Cascade Control
Split range Control
Override Control
Ratio Control

114

Cascade Control

The output signal from one controller

(Master), is the set-point for an other
controller ( Slave ).

Master controller has an independent

process measurement.

Only the slave controller has an output

to the final control element.

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Cascade Control
Advantages :

Reduces time lags.

Increases controllability and process
stability.
Reduces the effect of process load changes
Used when highly accurate control is
required.

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Cascade Control

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Split Range Control

In split range control, two control valves

are operated by a output signal from a
single controller.

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Split Range Control

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Split Range Control

Suppression
Span
And

Dead
Zone

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Override Control

Two controllers (which control two process

variables) are connected to a single control
valve
Which is alternately positioned by one
controller or the other,
As process conditions change via selecting
relay.

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Override
Control

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Ratio Control

Control system where a secondary process

variable is to be controlled in a given
proportion (or ratio) to the primary Process
Variable

Applications

Fuel Air system in combustion process.

Maintain good ratio between feed components
to reactor & absorber etc.

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Ratio Control
Two Methods for controlling the System

Ratio relay method

Ratio controller method

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Ratio Control
With
Ratio Relay

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Ratio Controller Method

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Alarm System
Alarm
Protective device used to alert the operator for
critical conditions in a system .

Abnormal condition
Condition where the Process variable has
exceeded either the high operating limit, or
the low operating limit (off-limit).
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Abnormal Process conditions

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Types of Alarm
Audible Alarm

Sound is generated from a horn, bell or buzzer at the

time of abnormal process condition.

Visible Alarm

Light is flashed or lit continuously on important

places of the plant, control panel , to warn the plant
personnel about the abnormal process condition.

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Alarm System

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Alarm Mechanism

Basically an ON-OFF control circuit

Uses a limit-sensing device connected to a warning device.
Depending upon the process variable, the limit sensing device will be:
1.
Pressure switch.
3. Float-operated switch
2.
Temperature switch
4.
Flow-actuated switch.
Each device responds to a specific process condition and acts to close
an electrical switch mechanism.
Once the switch contacts have been closed, an electrical circuit is
energized to activate the alarm devices.
Another way the alarms can be energized by using the output signal
from the transmitter.
Transmitter signal reaches a pre-determined off-limit value, the alarms
will be activated.
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Visible Alarms

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Announciation

Signaling device, usually electric, but

sometimes pneumatic, that provides an audible
or visual alarm of abnormal
condition ( off-limit ) within a process or piece
of equipment.

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Announciation Sequence

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Alarm And Shutdown Sequence

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Shutdown Control

Shutdown operations are usually initiated by the same

sensing devices used for the alarm and annunciation
systems.
In some process units, separate off-limit sensing devices
are placed in parallel with the alarm system as an additional
safety measure.
These devices are set to activate various control valves,
solenoid valves and electrical switchgear that will shut the
affected process equipment down.

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Off-Limit Conditions Shutdown A Process

Compressor

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Typical alarm and shutdown sequence

for a process Furnace

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Interlocks

Control devices that assure an orderly

sequence of control operations

Permissive interlock system.

Each control function must be properly

completed before the interlock will permit the
next function to occur.

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Tripping Interlocks To Shutdown Part

Of a Process Unit

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