UNIT I

INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE

Definitions of Architecture
Origin of Architecture
Architecture as a discipline
Context for architecture as satisfying human needs: functional, aesthetic and
psychological
Outline of components and aspects of architectural form -site, structure, skin,
materials, services, use, circulation, expression, character, and experience
Introduction to the formal vocabulary of architecture
Gestalt ideas of visual perception

DEFINITIONS OF ARCHITECTURE
Architecture is both the process and product of planning, designing and construction.
'Architecture' can mean:

Buildings and other physical structures.

The style of buildings and other physical structures.
The method of constructing buildings and other physical structures.
The practice of the architect.

Architecture as the practice of the architect refers to planning, designing and

constructing form, space and ambience. It extends from urban design and
masterplanning to building design, the design of individual spaces and even fixtures
and fittings. It also includes the pragmatic aspects of realising buildings and structures,
including programming, procurement and contract administration.
The term architecture is also commonly used to describe the process of designing
any kind of system, and is commonly used in describing information technology.

ORIGIN OF ARCHITECTURE
Buildings first evolved from a need to satisfy the human needs of shelter, security,
worship, and so on. The way these needs were satisfied using the available materials,
space and skills gave rise to a wide range of building techniques and styles.

The origins of human-made shelters can be traced back over 40,000 years to the ice
age and the Siberian Steppe, where remains have been found of simple shelters
constructed from animal skins draped between sticks. It is likely that structures of this
type were the first dwellings constructed by humans.
These tented structures thrived in regions where materials were scarce, or where
survival required mobility; both conditions which tended to be brought about by low
rainfall. Changing climates brought about a slow transition from nomadic tents to
permanent huts and vice versa, and it was from the resultant process of intermediate
modification that an enormous range of composite dwellings evolved.
Some of these basic generic forms of structure are still used in remarkably un-changed
forms throughout the world today, for example; the black tent, the mud brick hut and
the yurt (a composite structure still in common use in Mongolia).
It was through the maintenance and personalisation of these early structures, that
decoration was introduced, and they became more than purely functional shelters. As
cultures developed and knowledge was formalised, the process of building became a
craft and vernacular Architecture emerged.

ARCHITECTURE AS A DISCIPLINE
The term 'architect' has been in existence for many centuries, however the architect as
its own recognised profession is a relatively modern concept dating back to the mid
16th century, from the French architecte and Italian architetto (originating from the
Greek arkhitektn, where arkhi means 'chief' and tektn 'builder'). The term and what it
represents has evolved through history to its current form in which architects are seen
as highly qualified and educated professionals.
It is often assumed that architecture as a profession dates back to the ancient Greeks,
the Egyptians or the Romans, and although the origins of the word date back to these
times, it wasnt until much later that the Architect became a recognised profession in its
own right.
Vitruvius Pollio (born c. 8070 BC, died after c. 15 BC), is often considered as the first
recognisable 'architect', known as a great Roman writer, engineer and builder. However
Vitruvius wasnt strictly an architect and did not conform to our perception of architects
today. After Vitruvius, the term architect fades into history, overshadowed by religious
or political figures.

'Architects' first began to develop as a distinct discipline in Italy during the renaissance
period. Until this time, the practice of architecture, as we understand it today, was not a
recognised profession, and unlike the painter or sculptor, the designer of buildings did
not have a clearly defined place within the trades. There was no standard training for
those wishing to engage in architecture, there was no guild devoted specifically to the
professional interests of architects, and the men who made the plans for churches and
palaces were ranked alongside humble artisans.
Arguably the first architect practicing in the way that we view the profession today was
Palladio who worked almost entirely in what was the Venetian Republic in Italy. Palladio
is regarded as the greatest and most prominent architect of the 16th century. His
reputation was established by his numerous villa designs and by his palace projects.
What also makes Palladio comparable to the architect of modern times is his
experimentation and use of a range of materials to suit individual clients needs. His
place in history as an architect is not only based on the beauty of his work but also for
the variety of his clients, the varying scale of his buildings and their harmony with the
culture of the time.

CONTEXT FOR ARCHITECTURE AS SATISFYING HUMAN NEEDS: FUNCTIONAL,

AESTHETIC AND PSYCHOLOGICAL
Man has certain primary physical needs without which he cannot survive. Some of
them, like air and water, are available in the natural environment in a ready form, and
their utilization does not require any modification to their natural composition. Other
primary needs, like food, shelter and clothing are, with minor exceptions, not available
in a readily consumable form in nature and they have to be deliberately derived from
the environment.
The environment in this case provides what we may call the raw materials, which, by
modification and transformation, have to be converted into consumable and utilizable
objects. Food has to be cooked, a shelter constructed and clothing manufactured.
These latter primary needs, therefore, fall into a different category from the former, as
they require a conscious productive effort for their satisfaction. When we speak of
primary needs below, we shall be meaning needs of this latter category only.
Primitive Man, physically weak and unadapted to a hostile environment, was almost
exclusively concerned with satisfying his primary needs and all his energies were
absorbed in the process. With gradual increase in knowledge and social organization,
Man was able to increasingly control his environment, to transform it from something
hostile into something subservient, and it became increasingly easy to satisfy primary

needs. Human energy, hitherto completely absorbed in purely survival activities,

became surplus, and began to flow into more civilizing-activities.
Whether this change occurred consciously or instinctively, or whether merely due to
curiosity and playfulness, cannot be established. The fact remains that human energy
ceased to expend itself only on the bare necessities of life and began instead to initiate
new transformations which had quite different aims. Man began to refine his food,
shelter and clothing in such a way that they came to provide not only physical
satisfaction, but aesthetic pleasure as well.
Food ceased to be merely food, it had to be distinguished by variety in selection and
preparation, clothing was no longer simply material wrapped around the body, it had to
be embroidered and patterned to become personal adornment; the shelter was given
conscious form and complexity so as to make it decorative. Objects which had
previously only utilitarian value now became sources of emotional value as well. The
habit of deriving aesthetic pleasure from objects of use gradually stabilized itself into a
secondary psycho-logical need which we may refer to as the need for beauty.
Both needs, physical and psychological, found satisfaction in the same object. An
article of clothing, a weapon, a vessel or a dwelling, became simultaneously both
useful and beautiful. It is important to note that at this stage of human development the
secondary need, i.e. the need for beauty had no independent existence: it was
subsidiary to, and fused with, the primary need. There was as yet no conception of
beauty for its own sake. In early societies this fusion of utility and beauty was a
universal phenomenon, and every individual was, in one way or another, personally
involved in the creation or enjoyment of objects having both utility and beauty.

GESTALT IDEAS OF VISUAL PERCEPTION

Gestalt is a psychology term which means "unified whole". It refers to theories of visual
perception developed by German psychologists in the 1920s. These theories attempt
to describe how people tend to organize visual elements into groups or unified wholes
when certain principles are applied. These principles are:

Similarity
Continuation
Closure
Proximity
Figure & ground

Similarity
Similarity occurs when objects look similar to one another. People often perceive them
as a group or pattern.

The example above (containing 11 distinct objects) appears as a single unit because
all of the shapes have similarity.
Unity occurs because the triangular shapes at the bottom of the eagle symbol look
similar to the shapes that form the sunburst.

When similarity occurs, an object can be emphasised if it is dissimilar to the others.

This is called anomaly.

The figure on the far right becomes a focal point because it is dissimilar to the other
shapes.

Continuation
Continuation occurs when the eye is compelled to move through one object and
continue to another object.

Continuation occurs in the example above, because the viewer's eye will naturally
follow a line or curve. The smooth flowing crossbar of the "H" leads the eye directly to
the maple leaf.

Closure
Closure occurs when an object is incomplete or a space is not completely enclosed. If
enough of the shape is indicated, people perceive the whole by filling in the missing
information.

Although the panda above is not complete, enough is present for the eye to complete
the shape. When the viewer's perception completes a shape, closure occurs.
Examples

Proximity
Proximity occurs when elements are placed close together. They tend to be perceived
as a group.

The nine squares above are placed without proximity. They are perceived as separate
shapes.

When the squares are given close proximity, unity occurs. While they continue to be
separate shapes, they are now perceived as one group.

The fifteen figures above form a unified whole (the shape of a tree) because of their
proximity.

Figure and Ground

The eye differentiates an object form its surrounding area. A form, silhouette, or shape
is naturally perceived as figure (object), while the surrounding area is perceived as
ground (background).
Balancing figure and ground can make the perceived image clearer. Using unusual
figure/ground relationships can add interest and subtlety to an image.

Figure
The word above is clearly perceived as figure with the surrounding white space ground.

In this image, the figure and ground relationships change as the eye perceives the form
of a shade or the silhouette of a face.

This image uses complex figure/ground relationships which change upon perceiving
leaves, water and tree trunk.

REFERENCES:
1. Francis D.K. Ching, Architecture-Form, Space and Order, Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company, New York, 2007.
2. Simon Unwin, Analysing Architecture, Rouledge, London, 2003.
3. Pramar V.S., Design Fundamentals in Architecture, Somaiya Publications
Private Ltd., New Delhi, 1973.
4. Yatin Pandya,Elements of Space making, Mapin 2007.
5. Leland M.Roth, Understanding Architecture: Its Experience History and
Meaning, Craftsman house, 1994.
6. Peter von Meiss, Elements of architecture from form to place, Spon Press
1977.
7. Rudolf Arnheim, The dynamics of architectural form, University of California
Press, 1977.
8. Neils Prak, The language of Architecture, Mounton & Co., 1968.
9. Paul Alan Johnson, The Theory of Architecture Concepts and themes, Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, 1994.
10. Helen Marie Evans and Carla David Dunneshil, An invitation to design,
Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc., New York, 1982.