Chapter 1: Cement

1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials

Chapter 1
CEMENT
1.1. Types of Cement
1.2. Chemical Composition
1.3. Testing of Cement
1.4. Manufacturing of Cement
1.5. Cement for high performance concrete

Cement is a manufactured construction material and widely used for

structural constructions such as buildings, bridges, tunnels, dams, factories,
pavement and etc. It is an instant glue and capable to bond mineral
fragments into compact whole. There are variety type of cements can be
found in the market. Each type is manufactured under certain condition
depending on its special properties. However today, Portland cement is the
most commonly used as mortar and concrete in structural construction.
Mortar:
A mixture of cement, fine aggregates or sand and water
to form a paste
Concrete:
A mixture of cement, sand, coarse aggregates and water
under certain ratio

Portland cement was patented by Joseph Aspdin in 1824 and was named
after the limestone cliffs on the Isle of Portland in England.
1.1
Types of Cement
Cement is manufactured with two basic raw ingredients called calcareous
and an argillaceous material. The cement in making of concrete has the
property of setting and hardening under water by virtue of chemical
reaction with it and this type of cement is called hydraulic cement.
Calcareous:
The calcareous material is a calcium oxide, such as limestone, chalk, or oyster
shells.
Argillaceous:
Argillaceous is a combination of silica and alumina that can be found from clay,
shale, and blast furnace slag.

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Chapter 1: Cement
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials

Setting Time
Setting refers to the stiffening of the cement paste or the
change from a plastic state to a solid state. The setting time
refers to changes of the cement paste from fluid to rigid.
Setting is usually described in two levels namely, initial
setting and final setting.
Initial Setting
Initial setting is defined as the beginning of the noticeable
stiffening in the cement paste and its corresponding to the
rapid rise temperature. This normally takes about 45 175
minutes.
Final Setting Time
This refers to completion of setting which correspond to the
peak temperature in the cement paste. The stiffening of
cement paste increase as the volume of the gel increases and
the stage at which this is completed, the final hardening
process begins. It normally takes between 3 to 10 hours for
this to happen.
Hardening
This is referred to the gained of the strength of the cement
paste. Actually during the setting time, the cement gained very
little strength.

Different concrete applications require cements with different properties.

Some applications require rapid strength gain to expedite the construction
and other applications require low heat hydration to control volume change
and associated shrinkage cracking. Hence, each type of cement is
manufactured by altering the ratios of four basic compounds namely
Tricalcium Silicate, Dicalcium Silicate, Tricalcium Aluminate and Tetracalcium
Aluminoferitte to fit the applications.
Table 1.1:

Main compound of Portland cement

Name of Compound

Usual Abbreviation

Reaction

Tricalcium Silicate
Dicalcium Silicate
Tricalcium Aluminate
Tetracalcium Aluminoferitte

C3S
C2S
C3A
C4AF

Quick
Slow
Very quick
Not very important

Cements can be classified into two categories namely hydraulic cement

and high alumina cement.
1.1.1 Hydraulic Cement
Hydraulic cement is consists of silicates and aluminates of lime. This type of
cement can be classified as;

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Chapter 1: Cement
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials

a. Natural Cement
Natural cements are powders obtained from certain natural rocks (clayey
lime stone type) which are quarried, crushed and processes. Enough
heat is required to dry off carbonic acid gasses. Besides, it is brown in
colour and sets slowly or quickly when mixed with water, depending on
the amount of clay in the limestone. The strength is low and not used for
concrete work.
b. Aluminous Cement
The chief ingredients of aluminous cement are calcareous and
aluminious materials (limestone or chalk and bauxite). These are heated
to a temperature of 1400oC and the whole mass is grinded to powder
form.
c. Portland Cement
The hardening of Portland cement is a chemical process during which
heat is evolved. Modified forms of Portland based on different ratio of four
main compositions are made, to suit the varying demands of different
kinds of structural application.
Table 1.2:

Classification of Portland cements

Name

Application

Normal

General concrete work when the special properties of

other types are not needed. Suitable for floors,
reinforced concrete structures, pavements, etc.

Moderate Sulfate
Resistance

Protection against moderate sulfate exposure, 0.1-0.2%

weight water soluble sulfate in soil or 150-1500ppm
sulfate in water (sea water). Can be specified with
moderate heat of hydration, making it suitable for large
piers, heavy abutments, and retaining walls. The
moderate heat of hydration is also beneficial when
placing concrete in warm weather.

High Early of Hydration

Used for fast-tract construction when forms need to be

removed as soon as possible or structure need to be put
in service as soon of possible. In cold weather, reduces
time required for controlled curing.

Low Heat of Hydration

Used when mass of structure, such as large dams,

requires careful control of heat of hydration.

High Sulfate
Resistance

Protection from severe sulfate exposure, 0.2-2.0%

weight water soluble sulfate in soils or 1500-10,800
ppm sulfate in water

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Chapter 1: Cement
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials

What is cement hydration?

Hydration is chemical reaction between cement particles and water. The features of this reaction are the change in matter, the change i
Tricalcium silicate + Water Calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) + Calcium hydroxide

C-S-H makes the hydrated cement paste strong and calcium hydroxide is susceptible to attack by sulfate and acidic water

Type of cement based on usage

i)

Ordinary Portland Cement OPC ( BS 12 : 1971)

OPC has a medium rate of hardening and is suitable for most
type of work. It is the one most commonly used for structural
purposes when the special properties specified for other four
types of cement are not required.

ii)

Rapid Hardening Portland Cement RHPC (BS 12 : 1971)

RHPC hardens rather more rapidly than OPC. It is similar in
chemical composition to OPC but the proportions of the various
compounds may be slightly different, and it is finely ground.
Due to its finer grinding, it will increase the rate of hydration at
early ages, and this leads to the increased rate of early
hardening as implied by the name.
This early strength is achieved by increasing C 2S and C3A
content of the cement and finer grinding. Since it has high heat
evaluation, RHPC should not be used in large masses. With
15% of C3A, it has lower sulfate resistance. The may be limited
to obtain moderate sulfate resistance or to 5% when high
sulfate resistance is required.
Rapid-hardening Portland cement should not be regarded as
quick-setting cement. The setting time specified in BS 12:1971
for RHPC is similar as specified for OPC
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Chapter 1: Cement
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials

iii)

White and Coloured Portland Cement (BS 12 : 1971)

Generally used for decorative work. It is made by using China
clay in place of ordinary clay to exclude impurities, especially
iron oxide and limestone.
Coloured cements are made by mixing pigments with Portland
cement

iv)

Low Heat Portland Cement LHPC (BS 1370: 1974)

LHPC hardens and evolves heat more slowly than OPC. It has
slightly different chemical composition. It is obtained by
increasing the proportion of C2S and reducing C3S and C3A. It
thus hydrates more slowly and evolves heat less rapidly than
OPC. The strength of LHPC is slow developed but the ultimate
strength is same. However, the initial setting time is greater
than OPC.
Trace Setting Time for OPC,
RHPC and LHPC

Setting Time

OPC
RHPC

Initial Setting
Time, minutes
(min)
30
30

Final Setting
Time, minutes
(max)
600
600

LHPC

60

600

Cement
Type

v)

Portland Blustfurnace Cement - PBC (BS 146: 1973)

PBC is made by grinding a mixture of OPC clinker with selected
granulated blast furnace slag. The proportion of slag is limited
by the British Standard to not more than 65% of the finished
cement.
The properties of blast furnace cement are very similar to those
of OPC but it hydrates slower than those of Portland cement so
this cement evolves less heat and hardens more slowly than

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Chapter 1: Cement
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials

vi)

OPC. The resistance to sulfate is often considered to be

intermediate between that of sulfate-resisting Portland cement.
Sulfate-Resisting Portland Cement SRPC (BS 4027: 1972)
SRPC is specified where there is extensive exposure to sulfate.
Typical applications include hydraulic structure exposed to
water with high alkali content and structures subjected to
seawater exposure. The surface resistance to SRPC is
achieved by reducing the C3A content to a minimum since that
compound is most susceptible to sulfate attack. It usually has a
higher content of C4AF. Concrete made with this cement is
more resistant to attack by sulfate compounds which may be
found dissolved in ground water and which are present in sea
water. SRPC tends to be darker in colour than OPC.

vii)

High Strength Portland Cement HSPC

HSPC is produced from the same material as the case of OPC.
The higher strength achieved by increasing C 3S content and
also by finer grinding of clinker. The initial and final setting times
are the same as that of OPC. At higher water cement ratios, the
HSPC has about 80% higher strength and at lower cement ratio
40% higher strength than OPC.

viii)

Masonry Cement (BS 5224: 1976)

For hand work such as rendering and bricklaying, mortar
composed only of Portland cement and sand are not ideal.
Such mortars harden too quickly, are too strong, and lack the
plasticity and water retention desirable in a masonry mortar. It
has been customary to overcome this difficulty by mixing lime
with the cement mixtures. Masonry cement, under various
brand names consists of Portland cement with a fine inert
admixture and plasticizing agent.

Table 1.3: Minimum compressive strength of concrete cube specified

by BS 4550 for Portland cement
Compressive Strength (N/mm2)
Type of Portland Cement
OPC
RHPC

3 days
13
18

7 days
-

28 days
29
33

PBC

14

22

LHPC

19

SRPC

10

27

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Chapter 1: Cement
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials

1.1.2 High Alumina Cement

High alumina cement is quite different both in composition and properties
from Portland cement. It is comparatively slow-setting but rapid hardening,
thus, produces very high early strength. As a considerable amount of heat is
generated during the setting and hardening process, it should not be used in
rich mixes or large masses. It is essential that the concrete be kept
continuously wet for at least 24 hours from the time it begins to harden.
About 80% of the ultimate strength is developed at the age of 24 hours. High
alumina cement has an initial setting time about 4 hours and final setting
time about 5 hours. The heat that generated during the hardening period has
one advantage, as it enables the concrete to be placed at lower
temperatures than OPC.
For the same water cement ratio, the alumina cement is more workable than
Portland cement. If high alumina cement concrete is used in place where
moisture and a high temperature present simultaneously, there will be a loss
strength whether these conditions occur early of late in the life of the
concrete. High alumina cement concrete is more resistant than OPC to the
action of sulfates, therefore suitable under sea water applications. The
chemical oxide composition for high alumina cement is as shown in Table
1.4.
The raw materials are limestone or chalk and bauxite which are crushed into
lumps not exceeding 100mm. The materials are heated to the fusion point at
about 1600oC. The solidified material is fragmented and then ground to a
fineness of 2500-3200 cm2/g. The product of very dark grey powder is
passed through magnetic separators to remove metallic iron. The alumina
cement is considerably more expensive.

Table 1.4: Chemical oxide composition for High Alumina cement

Alumina (Al2O3)
Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3)

39%
10%

Lime (CaO)

38%

Ferrous Oxide (FeO)

4%

Silica (SiO2)

6%

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Chapter 1: Cement
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials

1.2
Chemical Composition
Several types of cements can be obtained by changing the percentages of
chemical composition. Table 1.5 shows the chemical composition limit of
Portland cement:
Table 1.5: Chemical composition limit of Portland cement
Name of Raw Material
Lime
Silica
Alumina
Iron Oxide
Magnesium
Alkalis (Soda and or/ potash)
Sulphur Trioxide

Chemical Composition
CaO
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
MgO
Na2O,K2O
SO3

Percentage Limit
60 67
17 25
38
0.5 6
0.1 4
0.2 1.3
1-3

The interaction of Portland cement raw materials are interacted in kiln by

forming complex chemical compounds. Calcination in the kiln restructures
the molecular composition by producing four main chemical compounds.
Table 1.6: Main compounds of Portland cement
Name of Compound

Chemical Formula

Usual Range by
Weight (%)

Tricalcium Silicate
Dicalcium Silicate
Tricalcium Aluminate
Tetracalcium Aluminoferitte

3CaO.SiO2
2CaO.SiO2
3CaO.Al2O3
4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3

45 60
15 30
6 12
6-8

The minor compounds such as magnesium oxide, titanium oxide,

manganese oxide, sodium oxide, and potassium oxide are represented a few
percentages by weight of cement.

1.3

Testing of Cement

1.3.1 Setting
Vicat Set Time Apparatus
Setting time can be determined with the Vicat apparatus. The Vicat test
requires sample of cement using the amount of water required for normal
consistency according to a specified procedure.

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Chapter 1: Cement
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials

Procedure:
The 1 mm (0.04in) diameter needle is allowed to penetrate the paste for 30
seconds and the amount of penetration is measured. The penetration
process is repeated every 15 minutes until a penetration of 25 mm (1in) or
less is obtained. By interpolation, the time when a penetration of 25 mm
occurs is determined and recorded as the initial set time. The final set time is
when the needle does not penetrate visibly into the paste.

Figure 1.1: Vicat set time apparatus

Gilmore Set Time Apparatus
The Gilmore requires a normal consistency cement paste sample. A pat with
a flat top is molded and the initial Gilmore needle is applied lightly to its
surface. The application surface is repeated until the pat bears the force of
the needle without appreciable indentation, and the elapsed time is recorded
as the initial time. This process is then repeated with the final Gilmore needle
and the final set time is recorded.

Figure 1.2: Gilmore set time apparatus

Soundness
Soundness of the cement paste refers to its ability to retain its volume after
setting. Expansion after setting, caused by delayed or slow hydration or

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Chapter 1: Cement
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials

10

reactions, could result if the cement is unsound. The autoclave expansion

test is used to check the soundness of the cement paste. In this test, cement
paste bars are subjected to heat and high pressure, and the amount of
expansion is measured. ASTM C150 limits autoclave expansion to 0.8%.

Figure 1.3: Cement autoclave expansion

Compressive Strength
Compressive strength of mortar is measured by preparing 50mm (2in.) cubes
and subjecting them to compression according to ASTM C109. The mortar is
prepared with cement, water and standard sand (ASTM C778). Minimum
compressive strength values are specified by ASTM C150 for different
cement types at different ages. The compressive strength of mortar cubes is
proportional to compressive strength of cylinders. However, the compressive
strength of the concrete cannot be predicted accurately from mortar cube
strength, since the concrete strength is affected by aggregate characteristics,
the concrete mixing and the construction procedures.
1.4

Manufacturing of Cement

Production of Portland cement deals with two basic raw ingredients namely
calcareous and argillaceous. These materials are crushed and stored in the
silos. The raw materials, in the desired proportions, are passed through
grinding mill, using either wet or dry process. The ground material is stored
until it can be sent to the kiln.
Modern dry process cement plants use a heat recovery cycle to preheat the
ground material, or feed stock, with the exhaust gas from the kiln. Some
plants use a flash furnace to further heat and feed stock. Both the preheater
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Chapter 1: Cement
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials

11

and flash furnace improves the energy efficiency of cement productions. In

the kiln, the raw materials are melted at temperatures 1400 oC to 1650oC,
changing the materials into cement clinker. The clinker is cooled and stored.
The small amount of gypsum is added to regulate the setting time of the
cement in the concrete.
The finished product may be stored and transported in either bulk or sacks.
The cement can be stored for long periods of time, provided it is kept dry.

Figure 1.4: Portland cement manufacturing processes

1.5 Cement for high performance concrete

High strength concrete will normally contain not only Portland cement,
aggregate and water, but also superplasticizers and supplementary
cementing materials. It is possible to achieve compressive strengths of up to
98 Mpa using fly ash or ground granulated blast furnace slag as the
supplementary cementing materials. However, to achieve the strengths of
100 Mpa, the use of silica fume has been found to be essential.

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Chapter 1: Cement
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials

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Table 1.7: Composition of special cement for high strength concrete by

comparison to ordinary Portland cement
Name of Compound
C2S(%)
C3S(%)
C3A(%)
C4AF(%)
MgO(%)
SO3(%)
Na2O(%)
Blaine fineness (m2/kg)
Heat of hydration (kcal/kg)
Setting time (min) : initial
final

OPC(SP30)
18
55
8
9
3
3.3
1.1
300
71
120
180

SP30-4A
28
50
5.5
9
1.5-2.0
2-3
0.6
310
56
140
200

SP30-4A MOD
28
50
5.5
9
1.5-2.0
2-3
0.6
400
70
120
170

1.5.1 Silica fume

Is a waste by-product of the production of silicon and silicon alloys, and thus
not a very well-defined material. Consequently, important to characterize any
new source of silica fume by determining the specific surface area by
nitrogen adsorption, silica, alkali and carbon contents as well as minimize the
crystalline material. Available in bulk form, its unit weight of 200-250kg/m 3,
but also more preferred in the densified form of 400-450 kg/m 3. Available in
market already blended with Portland cement at 6.7 to 9.3%, by weight of the
total mass of cementitious material.
1.5.2 Fly ash
Most fly ashes result in strengths of not more than 70 MPa, but sometimes in
conjunction with silica fume can reach to the strength of 98MPa. Generally,
for producing high strength concrete, fly ash uses at 15% of the cement
content.
1.5.3 Blast furnace slag
Slag used well in ordinary concrete are suitable in high strength concrete.
The dosages rates are between 15 30% of cement content. For the design
of more than 98MPa, slag are to be mixed with silica fume

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Chapter 1: Cement
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials

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1.6 Foam concrete

Foam concretes are divided into two groups: on the one hand the physically
foamed concrete is mixed in fast rotating pug mill mixers by using foaming
agents. This concrete cures under atmospheric conditions. On the other hand
the autoclaved aerated concrete is chemically foamed by adding aluminium
powder. Afterwards it is cured in a saturated steam atmosphere.
New alternatives for the application of foam concretes arise from the
combination of chemical foaming and air curing in manufacturing processes.
These foam concretes are new and innovative building materials with
interesting properties: low mass density and high strength. Responsible for
these properties are the macro-, meso- and microporosity.
Macropores are created by adding aluminium powder in different volumes
and with different particle size distributions. However, the microstructure of
the cement matrix is affected by meso- and micropores. In addition, the
matrix of the hardened cement paste can be optimized by the specific use of
chemical additives for concrete. The influence of aluminium powder and
chemical additives on the properties of the microstructure of the hardened
cement matrices were investigated by using petrographic microscopy as well
as scanning electron microscopy.

Figure 1.5: Classification of mineral-bound foams according to

the manufacturing process

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Chapter 1: Cement
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials

14

Mineral-bound foams with porous structure and low mass density have
stablished themselves in the construction industry. These fine-grained
concretes are based on German standard DIN 4164, which in the meantime
is no longer valid. They have a mass density 2000 kg/m3 and are classified
as lightweight concretes. Subject to the production processes,
mineral-bound foams are called autoclaved aerated concrete or foam
concrete.
Foam is a dispersive system made of gas and liquid and/or gas and solids,
where the proportion of gaseous volume is dominant. With all genuine foams,
each individual bubble represents a cavity closed in itself, with no gas-filled
connections between neighbouring gas bubbles.
By using different grain sizes of the aluminium powder, the air void
distribution in the hardened material was controllable, whereas the air void
volume was adjusted by the total quantity. The water/cement ratio has a
crucial influence on the increase of volume of the cement paste during
expansion.
Binder
Additives

:
:

Plasticizer
Admixtures

:
:

Cement CEM I 42.5 R

Aluminium Powder I (average 6070 m)
II (average 2030 m)
III (average 1520 m)
IV(average 15 m)
PCE
Microsilica Suspension

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Chapter 1: Cement
1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials

15

Figure 1.6 : Foam concrete polished sections (left: w/c ratio=0.45; right:
w/c ratio=0.35); total image width: 80 mm
.

Tutorial 1

Q1: What is the best storing system for cement?. Explain

Q2: How to speed up the strength development of concrete?. Explain.
Q3: What are the effects of non-potable water on concrete quality?
Explain.

Prepared by: Ahmad Fahmy Kamarudin, January 2010