Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Flight
Instruments
To
give
pilots
an
accurate
indication
of
their
current
flight
condition,
planes
come
equipped
with
numerous
flight
instruments.
Similar
to
the
gauges
in
a
car,
pilots
can
use
their
instruments
to
determine
such
things
as:
how
fast
they
are
going,
how
high
they
are,
the
direction
they
are
heading,
et
cetera.
If
you
have
ever
seen
the
inside
of
an
airplane,
youd
know
there
can
be
a
lot
of
instruments,
and,
at
first
glance,
it
can
look
a
bit
overwhelming.
Well
organize
the
chaos
into
smaller,
manageable
groups
of
instruments
and
what
theyre
showing,
and
how
they
work.
Well
start
with
the
old
analog
round
dial
instruments,
and
then
move
over
to
the
newer
advanced
avionics
and
glass
cockpit
systems
like
the
G1000.
This
lesson
will
cover:
Pitot-Static
Instruments
Gyroscopic
Instruments
The
Magnetic
Compass
And
the
Garmin
G1000
2
to
the
pitot
tube
is
the
static
port.
The
location
of
this
port
will
vary
with
different
aircraft
designs,
but
should
be
in
a
location
where
it
can
measure
the
static
pressure
of
the
air,
unaffected
by
the
dynamic
airflow
around
the
airplane.
On
the
Cessna
172,
the
static
port
is
located
on
the
left
side
of
the
forward
fuselage.
The
pitot
tube
and
static
port
openings
are
connected
to
tubes
that
join
into
the
pitot-static
instruments.
The
pressure
inside
the
instruments
match
the
pressure
of
the
outside
atmosphere.
All
three
pitot-static
instruments
connect
to
the
static
port,
but
only
the
airspeed
indicator
connects
to
the
pitot
tube.
Sounds
simple
right?
Lets
discuss
how
each
pitot-static
instrument
works.
Altimeter
Perhaps
the
most
basic
of
all
the
pitot-static
instruments
is
the
altimeter,
which
displays
the
airplanes
altitude.
The
instrument
contains
a
set
of
aneroid
wafers,
which
expand
and
contract
based
on
the
pressure.
The
air
inside
the
wafers
is
trapped,
but
the
air
in
the
rest
of
the
case
is
able
to
change
to
match
the
pressure
from
the
static
port.
As
we
increase
altitude,
the
static
pressure
goes
down.
This
means
that
the
air
inside
the
case
will
escape
out
the
back,
and
result
in
there
being
less
air
pressure
in
the
case
compared
to
the
wafers.
Because
of
this,
the
wafers
will
expand
until
both
pressures
are
equal.
Getting
the
wafers
to
result
in
an
altitude
readout
is
done
through
a
series
of
gears,
pinions,
arms,
and
levers,
also
known
as
the
mechanical
linkages.
These
linkages
will
rotate
the
hands
on
the
face
of
the
instrument
and
show
the
airplanes
altitude.
Now,
when
the
airplane
descends
the
opposite
happens.
Descending
to
a
lower
altitude
results
in
a
higher
static
pressure.
Air
from
the
static
port
will
now
enter
the
case
of
the
instrument
and
squeezes
the
aneroid
wafers
until
both
the
case
pressure
and
the
wafer
pressure
are
equalized.
The
mechanical
linkages
will
then
rotate
the
hands
on
the
face,
to
show
a
lower
altitude.
The
face
of
the
altimeter
contains
three
hands:
the
10,000
foot,
1,000
foot,
and
100
foot
hands.
These
hands
move
clockwise
and
counterclockwise
to
display
the
appropriate
altitude.
Most
altimeters
in
smaller
aircraft
will
only
work
up
to
around
20,000
feet,
but
those
airplanes
usually
cant
get
that
high
anyway.
Here
are
some
examples
of
altitudes.
3,000ft
8,400ft
12,000ft
5,280ft
This
altimeter
is
actually
called
a
sensitive
altimeter,
not
because
you
have
to
hug
it
every
once
in
a
while,
but
because
it
can
be
adjusted
for
the
current
atmospheric
pressure.
Because
the
pressure
at
any
given
point
on
earth
never
stays
the
same,
altimeters
would
always
read
incorrectly.
Fortunately,
pilots
can
correct
this
issue.
Once
the
pilot
knows
the
current
atmospheric
pressure,
also
known
as
the
altimeter
setting,
all
they
have
to
do
is
rotate
the
dial
on
the
lower
left
side
of
the
instrument
until
the
current
pressure
is
selected
in
the
little
window
on
the
face,
called
the
Kollsman
Window.
This
then
realigns
the
gears
inside,
and
the
instrument
reads
accurately.
The
realignment
is
accomplished
by
rotating
the
entire
inside
mechanics
of
the
instrument.
3
There
are
five
types
of
altitudes
that
pilots
interact
with
on
a
daily
basis;
but
an
altimeter
typically
is
only
going
to
display
one:
the
height
above
Mean
Sea
Level,
or
in
other
words,
the
height
above
the
average
sea
level.
An
indication
of
3,000
on
the
altimeter
is
read
off
as
3,000
feet
MSL.
The
other
types
of
altitude
include:
AGL,
or
Above
Ground
Level
Pressure
Altitude
Density
Altitude
And,
finally,
True
Altitude
As
the
name
implies,
an
AGL
altitude
is
the
vertical
distance
between
the
aircraft
and
the
ground
below.
This
is
simply
just
the
MSL
altitude
minus
the
terrain
elevation.
Pressure
and
Density
altitudes
are
theoretical
altitudes
used
to
calculate
the
performance
of
the
airplane.
Simply
put,
its
the
altitude
that
the
airplane
performs
like
its
flying
at.
This
is
based
on
the
pressure
and
temperature
of
the
atmosphere.
More
of
this
will
be
explained
in
the
Performance
lesson.
Finally,
there
is
True
Altitude,
which,
similar
to
Pressure
and
Density
altitudes,
takes
both
the
pressure
and
temperature
of
the
air
into
account
to
give
a
more
accurate
reading.
Altimeter
Errors
Although
the
altimeter
is
very
reliable,
it
is
susceptible
to
a
few
errors.
Mechanical
Error
Every
time
you
begin
a
flight
you
will
check
the
accuracy
of
your
instruments.
When
checking
the
altimeter,
it
should
not
be
more
than
75
feet
off
the
airports
elevation,
after
setting
in
the
correct
altimeter
setting.
If
you
notice
that
it
is
off
by
more
than
75
feet,
the
instrument
should
be
checked
by
an
appropriate
maintenance
technician.
The
altimeter
can
read
incorrectly
as
a
result
of
a
pressure
change.
If
the
altimeter
setting
is
not
corrected
when
flying
to
an
area
of
lower
pressure,
the
airplane
will
then
be
lower
than
what
the
altimeter
is
reading.
This
could
also
pose
a
threat
for
mountain
or
obstacle
clearance.
There
is
a
saying
to
remember:
When
flying
from
an
area
of
High
to
Low,
look
out
below.
Similar
errors
can
also
happen
based
on
the
temperature
of
the
air.
When
the
temperature
is
warmer
than
standard,
the
air
is
less
dense
and
the
pressure
levels
are
farther
apart.
What
this
means
is
that
when
the
airplanes
altimeter
is
reading
5,000
feet
on
a
warm
day,
that
airplanes
true
altitude
is
actually
higher
than
5,000
feet.
The
opposite
is
also
appropriate
on
a
cold
day.
Since
cold
air
is
more
dense,
the
pressure
levels
are
closer
together,
so
an
altimeter
reading
5,000
will
be
at
a
true
altitude
that
is
lower
than
5,000
feet.
This
could
be
a
bad
thing
when
the
airplane
is
flying
in
an
area
with
mountains
or
obstacles.
So,
also
remember
the
saying:
When
flying
from
HOT
to
COLD,
look
out
below.
4
Vertical
Speed
Indicator
Another
instrument
that
uses
only
the
information
from
the
static
port
is
the
vertical
speed
indicator,
more
commonly
called
the
VSI.
The
VSI
measures
the
vertical
speed
of
the
aircraft
in
terms
of
feet
per
minute.
This
is
accomplished
by
comparing
the
current
pressure
of
the
air
with
the
pressure
of
the
air
from
a
few
seconds
ago.
Inside
the
VSI
is
a
diaphragm
connected
to
some
mechanical
linkages
that
move
the
needle
on
the
face
of
the
instrument.
The
diaphragm
has
a
direct
connection
to
the
static
port,
meaning
that
the
pressure
inside
of
it
matches
the
current
atmospheric
pressure
from
outside.
The
case
of
the
instrument
is
also
filled
with
static
pressure,
but
the
connection
between
the
case
and
the
static
port
is
constricted
by,
whats
called,
a
Calibrated
Leak.
This
calibrated
leak
is
nothing
more
than
a
tiny
hole,
which
limits
the
rate
at
which
the
pressure
of
the
case
can
change.
When
a
plane
climbs
or
descends,
the
diaphragm
pressure
will
change
instantly,
but
the
case
pressure
changes
slowly.
This
results
in
two
different
pressures.
The
difference
in
pressure
allows
the
instrument
to
display
the
vertical
speed.
Be
aware,
however,
that
it
takes
a
few
seconds
to
read
accurately,
so
anticipate
a
slight
amount
of
lag.
Here
is
an
example
of
how
it
works.
Say
you
have
a
Cessna
flying
at
3,000
feet.
The
air
pressure
in
the
diaphragm
and
the
case
are
the
same,
so
the
VSI
is
reading
zero
feet
per
minute.
If
the
Cessna
starts
to
climb,
the
air
pressure
in
the
diaphragm
is
decreasing,
but
the
case
pressure
is
decreasing
more
slowly.
This
results
in
the
case
having
a
higher
air
pressure
than
in
the
diaphragm.
This
higher
air
pressure
will
squeeze
the
diaphragm,
and
make
the
VSI
read
a
climb.
Once
the
aircraft
levels
off
again,
the
case
pressure
will
finally
equalize
with
the
diaphragm,
and
then
the
VSI
will
show
zero
again.
Airspeed
indicator
The
airspeed
indicator
is
the
only
pitot-static
instrument
that
uses
both
input
from
the
static
port
and
the
pitot
tube.
The
pitot
tube
is
used
to
measure
whats
called
Ram
pressure.
The
faster
the
airplane
travels,
the
greater
the
ram
pressure
is.
The
ram
air
entering
the
pitot
tube
gets
sent
to
the
airspeed
indicator,
and,
similar
to
before,
goes
into
a
diaphragm.
The
greater
the
pressure,
the
more
the
diaphragm
expands.
So,
the
diaphragm
will
expand
as
the
airspeed
increases.
Then,
through
mechanical
linkages,
the
appropriate
airspeed
will
display
on
the
front
of
the
instrument.
But
what
about
the
static
port,
you
ask.
Well,
remember
how
the
pressure
of
the
atmosphere
changes
with
altitude?
Well,
if
this
wasnt
taken
into
account,
then
the
airspeed
would
indicate
different
speeds
at
different
altitudes,
even
if
the
plane
was
actually
going
the
same
speed.
To
fix
this,
the
static
port
connects
and
fills
the
case
surrounding
the
diaphragm
with
static
air.
This
will
subtract
out
the
static
air
pressure
that
the
pitot
tube
captured
and
only
allow
for
the
dynamic
pressure
to
be
read
on
the
instrument.
This
keeps
the
airspeed
indicator
reading
the
correct
values
no
matter
what
the
altitude
of
the
airplane
is.
[GRAPHIC:
Ram
Pressure
-
Static
Pressure
=
Dynamic
Pressure]
The
face
of
the
instrument
displays
various
color-coded
speed
ranges
that
the
pilot
should
be
aware
of
while
they
fly
to
avoid
exceeding
any
limitations
of
the
aircraft.
The
green
arc
is
for
normal
operations;
the
white
arc
is
when
youre
allowed
to
extend
the
flaps;
the
yellow
arc
is
limited
to
flight
in
smooth
air
only;
and
the
red
line
indicates
the
maximum
allowed
speed.
5
Just
like
there
were
various
types
of
altitude,
there
are
also
various
types
of
airspeed.
The
most
commonly
used
airspeed
is
called
Indicated
Airspeed.
Quite
simply,
this
is
the
airspeed
that
is
read
directly
off
of
the
instrument.
Next,
we
have
Calibrated
Airspeed.
This
airspeed
takes
the
indicated
airspeed
and
corrects
for
any
known
installation
or
instrument
errors.
To
calculate
this,
the
pilot
must
reference
the
charts
in
their
flight
manual.
The
next
airspeed
on
our
list
is
Equivalent
Airspeed.
This
takes
the
calibrated
airspeed
and
corrects
for
any
potential
compressibility.
Compressibility
is
only
a
factor
for
speeds
above
200
knots
and
altitudes
above
20,000
feet.
This
compression
causes
higher
airspeed
readouts
than
what
they
actually
are,
so
Equivalent
Airspeed
is
lower
than
Calibrated
Airspeed.
True
Airspeed
is
next.
This
is
the
actual
airspeed
that
you
are
traveling
at,
after
all
the
corrections
have
been
made.
This
airspeed
is
found
by
correcting
for
the
temperature
of
the
air.
Just
like
how
temperature
can
affect
the
accuracy
of
our
altimeter,
it
can
also
affect
out
airspeed.
Finally,
we
get
to
Mach.
Mach
is
the
ratio
of
true
airspeed
to
the
speed
of
sound.
If
an
aircraft
is
going
Mach
0.74
is
going
74%
as
fast
as
sound
travels.
The
speed
of
sound
varies
with
temperature,
but
averages
to
be
about
600
knots.
Blockages
The
pitot-static
system
is
subject
to
suffer
from
blockages
of
the
pitot
tube
or
static
port
from
anything
from
ice,
to
insects,
or
other
debris.
Because
of
the
importance
of
these
instruments,
it
is
vital
to
know
how
this
affects
the
instruments
and
how
to
recognize
these
scenarios.
If
the
pitot
tube
opening
gets
blocked,
but
the
drain
hole
remains
open,
the
ram
air
is
no
longer
able
to
enter
the
system
and
any
ram
air
that
was
in
the
system
will
vent
out
through
the
drain
hole.
Since
the
airspeed
indicator
compares
the
pitot
pressure
to
the
static
pressure,
both
pressures
would
be
the
same,
so
the
airspeed
indicator
would
read
zero.
If
both
the
pitot
tube
and
drain
hole
become
blocked,
the
pressure
in
the
pitot
tube
is
trapped
and
the
airspeed
indicator
will
not
change,
as
long
as
the
airplanes
altitude
remains
the
same.
If
the
airplane
descends,
the
pitot
tube
pressure
will
remain
trapped
but
the
static
pressure
will
increase
and
push
against
the
diaphragm.
This
will
then
show
a
decrease
in
airspeed,
no
matter
what
the
real
airspeed
actually
is.
If
the
airplane
climbs,
the
opposite
happens.
The
pitot
pressure
will
still
be
trapped,
but
the
static
pressure
will
decrease.
As
this
happens,
the
pressure
pushing
on
the
diaphragm
decreases,
which
allows
it
to
expand,
which
will
show
an
increase
in
airspeed.
As
stated
earlier,
to
minimize
the
potential
of
the
pitot
tube
from
freezing
over,
it
is
equipped
with
a
heater.
If
the
static
port
becomes
blocked,
it
will
affect
all
three
of
the
pitot
static
instruments.
First,
the
airspeed
indicator.
If
the
static
port
gets
blocked,
the
airspeed
indicator
loses
its
static
reference
so
it
will
not
be
able
to
correctly
show
dynamic
pressure.
For
example,
if
an
airplane
were
flying
at
100
knots
when
the
static
port
became
blocked,
the
airspeed
indicator
would
remain
at
100
knots.
If
the
airplane
starts
to
descend,
the
airspeed
indicator
would
start
to
increase
because
it
is
referencing
static
air
from
the
higher
altitude
where
the
air
was
less
dense.
Because
the
lower
air
is
denser,
the
pitot
is
gathering
more
air
molecules,
which,
when
compared
to
the
static
pressure
from
higher
up,
will
make
it
read
that
the
airplane
is
going
faster.
The
opposite
is
also
true.
When
climbing,
the
airspeed
will
decrease.
6
The
altimeter
and
VSI
static
blockages
are
much
easier
to
explain.
When
the
static
port
is
blocked,
the
altimeter
will
freeze
at
the
altitude
the
blockage
occurs
because
it
is
not
getting
any
new
static
air
inside
the
case
to
act
on
the
aneroid
wafers.
The
same
is
true
with
the
VSI,
it
will
read
zero
because
no
static
air
is
changing.
To
combat
this
potentially
dangerous
problem,
most
aircraft
are
equipped
with
an
alternate
static
source.
A
valve
inside
the
cabin
of
the
airplane
can
be
activated
by
the
pilot,
which
would
bypass
the
external
static
port
and,
instead,
receive
the
static
pressure
inside
the
cabin.
The
one
downside
to
doing
this
is
that
the
inside
and
outside
pressures
are
not
quite
the
same.
In
fact,
the
cabin
pressure
is
actually
a
little
bit
lower.
As
the
air
moves
around
the
fuselage
of
the
airplane,
a
venturi-like
effect
takes
place,
which
draws
air
out
of
the
cabin,
decreasing
the
pressure.
This
will
cause
a
few
effects
on
the
instruments.
The
airspeed
indicator
will
read
higher
than
the
actual
airspeed,
the
altimeter
will
read
higher
than
actual
altitude,
and
the
VSI,
while
in
level
flight,
will
momentarily
show
a
slight
climb.
These
are
important
things
to
keep
in
mind
if
you
ever
find
yourself
in
that
type
of
situation.
Gyroscopic
Instruments
The
gyroscopic
instruments
include
the
attitude
indicator,
the
heading
indicator,
and
the
turn
coordinator.
These
are
considered
gyroscopic
instruments
because
each
one
relies
upon
a
gyroscope
to
function.
They
can
either
be
driven
by
air
suction
or
electricity.
These
instruments
provide
the
pilot
with
such
things
as
their
pitch,
bank,
yaw,
and
heading.
Before
we
get
into
each
instrument,
lets
talk
about
what
a
gyroscope,
or
gyro,
is,
and
how
it
works.
In
its
simplest
form,
a
gyro
is
a
heavily-weighted
spinning
disc
that
is
able
to
maintain
its
position
and
orientation.
Gyros
operate
based
on
two
principles:
Rigidity
in
Space,
and
Precession.
Rigidity
in
Space
&
Precession
Rigidity
in
space
refers
to
a
gyros
ability
to
remain
in
a
fixed
position
in
the
plane
in
which
it
is
spinning.
By
mounting
the
gyroscope
on
a
set
of
gimbal
rings,
the
gyro
is
able
to
rotate
feely
in
any
direction.
Thus,
if
the
gimbal
rings
rotate,
the
spinning
gyro
will
remain
in
the
same
plane
in
which
it
was
originally
spinning.
The
other
property
of
a
gyro
is
known
as
Precession.
Precession
is
the
tilting
or
turning
of
a
gyro
in
response
to
a
force.
For
instance,
a
small
force
is
applied
to
the
gyro
whenever
the
airplane
changes
direction.
However,
instead
of
the
gyro
responding
at
the
source
of
the
force,
as
expected,
the
result
will
instead
occur
90
degrees
ahead
of
that
point,
in
the
direction
of
rotation.
What
this
means
to
you
is
that
sometimes
the
instruments
may
have
some
unwanted
errors,
such
as
slow
drifting
and
minor
erroneous
indications
in
the
instruments.
The
good
news
is
that
all
the
gyroscopic
instruments
have
ways
to
either
automatically
or
manually
correct
for
this
precession
error.
Sources
of
Power
In
order
for
the
gyroscopic
instruments
to
work,
the
gyros
have
to
spin
at
a
very
high
speed.
As
previously
stated,
the
instruments
can
either
be
powered
by
air,
or
electricity.
For
safety
reasons,
different
instruments
are
powered
by
different
sources,
so
that
if
one
source
fails,
the
other
source
will
still
work.
The
attitude
and
heading
indicators
are
typically
powered
by
air,
and
the
turn
coordinator:
powered
by
electricity.
7
The
spinning
of
the
gyros
with
air
is
accomplished,
not
by
blowing,
but
sucking
air
around
it.
A
vacuum
pump,
connected
to
and
powered
by
the
engine,
draws
filtered
air
from
the
cabin,
through
the
instruments,
spinning
the
gyros,
and
then
dumps
the
air
out
into
the
engine
compartment.
Also
included
in
this
vacuum
system
is
a
vacuum
regulator,
which
maintains
the
pressure
of
the
system
at
an
ideal
level.
And
finally,
either
a
transducer
or
sensor
is
used
to
display
the
vacuum
pressure
to
the
pilot.
Lets
look
at
some
of
the
different
instruments
that
use
gyros.
Attitude
Indicator
An
attitude
indicator
is
an
instrument
used
to
inform
the
pilot
of
the
orientation,
or
attitude,
of
the
aircraft
relative
to
earth.
It
indicates
pitch,
which
is
the
fore
and
aft
tilt,
and
bank
or
roll,
which
is
the
side-to-side
tilt.
Through
the
use
of
an
artificial
horizon
and
miniature
airplane,
the
instrument
depicts
the
position
of
the
airplane
in
relation
to
the
true
horizon.
This
is
especially
useful
when
the
natural
horizon
is
obscured
by
clouds,
the
visibility
is
poor,
or
when
flying
at
night.
Along
the
outer
rim
are
tick
marks
to
indicate
bank
at
the
0,
10,
20,
30,
60,
and
90
degree
angles
of
bank.
Degrees
of
pitch
are
located
both
above
and
below
the
artificial
horizon
in
either
5
or
10
degree
increments.
At
the
top
of
the
instrument
is
a
small
triangle
that
points
to
the
current
bank
angle
the
plane
is
in.
The
center
of
the
miniature
airplane
lines
up
with
the
current
pitch
the
plane
is
in.
The
gyro
in
this
instrument
spins
around
the
vertical
axis,
meaning
that
the
gyro
spins
level
with
the
horizon.
The
2
gimbals
holding
the
gyro
allow
the
gyro
to
move
freely
and
maintain
its
level
orientation
as
the
airplane
maneuvers.
Connections
to
the
instrument
face
will
then
show
the
aircrafts
attitude
to
the
pilot.
Note
that
if
the
airplane
is
experiencing
an
excessive
pitch
or
bank,
or
if
vacuum
pump
is
not
providing
enough
suction
to
spin
the
gyro,
this
instrument
can
read
inaccurately.
Heading
Indicator
The
heading
indicator
senses
the
airplanes
movement
and
displays
heading
based
on
a
360
degree
azimuth
in
5
degree
increments.
The
tick
marks
are
labeled
every
30
degrees,
with
the
final
zero
omitted.
For
example,
the
number
6
indicates
a
heading
of
60
degrees,
21
indicates
a
heading
of
210
degrees.
The
heading
indicator
does
not
have
any
built
in
heading-sensing
ability,
so
at
the
start
of
every
flight,
after
the
engine
is
running,
the
pilot
must
realign
the
instrument
to
the
correct
heading,
referencing
the
aircrafts
magnetic
compass.
To
accomplish
this,
push
in
the
knob
on
the
lower
left
side
of
the
instrument.
This
both
disconnects
the
gyro
from
the
compass
card,
and
aligns
the
gear
of
the
knob
with
the
gears
connected
to
the
compass
card.
When
complete,
release
the
knob,
and
the
gyro
will
reconnect
to
the
compass
card.
Unlike
the
attitude
indicator,
the
heading
indicator
is
oriented
so
that
only
the
horizontal
axis
is
used
to
drive
the
display.
When
the
aircraft
turns,
the
gyro
and
attached
Main-Drive
Gear
remain
in
their
original
orientation.
This
then
causes
the
Main-Drive
Gear
to
rotate
the
Compass
Card
Gear,
which
then
rotates
the
Compass
Card
on
the
face
of
the
instrument.
Note
that,
due
to
friction
and
precession,
the
heading
indicator
may
slowly
drift
away
from
the
correct
heading.
Because
of
this,
the
pilot
should
double-check
the
accuracy
of
the
instrument
against
the
magnetic
compass,
and
realign
as
necessary.
This
should
be
done
roughly
every
15
minutes
or
so.
Keep
in
mind
that
if
the
vacuum
pump
is
not
producing
sufficient
suction,
when
the
engine
is
idling,
the
drift
may
be
greater.
8
Turn
Coordinator
The
turn
coordinator
is
a
supporting
instrument
used
while
banking.
It
is
used
both
to
indicate
the
rate
and
quality
of
turns.
It
can
also
be
used
as
a
backup
source
of
bank
information
in
the
event
the
attitude
indicator
fails.
In
the
center
of
the
face
of
the
instrument
lies
a
miniature
airplane
that
indicates
the
rate
of
turn
the
aircraft
is
currently
in.
Two
tick
marks
indicate
level,
and
the
two
other
tick
marks
indicate,
whats
called,
a
standard-rate
turn.
A
standard-rate
turn
is
one
that
takes
2
minutes
to
complete
a
360
degree
full
circle.
This
is
the
rate
that
all
pilots
fly
when
in
Instrument
Meteorological
Conditions,
meaning
they
have
no
outside
references
to
follow.
Below
the
miniature
aircraft
is
an
inclinometer,
which
incorporates
a
ball
inside
a
tube
filled
with
kerosene.
The
ball
can
freely
move
left
and
right,
and
will
travel
in
whatever
direction
aerodynamic
forces,
push
and
pull
it.
Ideally,
the
ball
should
always
be
centered,
which
means
the
aircraft
is
coordinated.
If
aerodynamic
forces
are
unbalanced,
the
ball
will
slide
left
or
right.
This
happens
when
there
is
either
too
much
or
too
little
rudder
being
used
with
the
current
amount
of
bank.
These
two
conditions
are
referred
to
as
a
slip
and
a
skid.
In
a
slip,
there
is
not
a
great
enough
rate
of
turn
for
the
amount
of
bank.
The
pilot
needs
to
add
more
rudder
and/or
reduce
the
bank.
In
a
skid,
there
is
too
much
of
a
rate
of
turn
for
the
amount
of
bank.
The
pilot
needs
to
add
more
bank
and/or
reduce
the
amount
of
rudder.
The
easiest
way
to
remember
how
to
fix
these
situations
is
just
to
step
on
the
ball.
This
means
that
when
the
ball
is
deflected
off
center,
step
on
the
respective
rudder
pedal
that
the
ball
is
deflected
toward.
A
ball
deflected
left
means
step
on
the
left
rudder.
Conversely,
a
ball
deflected
right
means
step
on
the
right
rudder.
To
get
this
instrument
to
function,
it
is
typically
powered
by
electricity.
For
this
instrument,
the
gyro
rotates
from
a
motor
located
in
its
center.
The
gyro
is
mounted
so
that
it
can
remain
upright
while
in
a
turn.
Mechanical
linkages
then
connect
the
gyro
to
the
miniature
airplane
on
the
front
of
the
instrument.
A
spring
is
installed
to
help
return
the
mini
airplane
back
to
level.
Because
of
this,
the
pilot
would
never
know
if
the
instrument
has
failed.
So,
if
the
instrument
is
not
receiving
electrical
power,
a
red
flag
will
be
visible
on
the
face
of
the
instrument.
Another
important
aspect
to
notice
on
the
inside
of
the
instrument
is
that
the
gimbal
holding
the
gyro
is
not
level.
In
fact,
it
is
actually
rotated
30
degrees.
Unlike
its
older
cousin,
the
turn-and-slip
indicator,
this
change
allows
the
instrument
to
also
measure
the
rate
of
roll
as
you
enter
the
turn.
Magnetic
Compass
The
magnetic
compass
is
one
of
the
oldest
instruments
installed
in
an
airplane;
and
in
many
older
aircraft,
its
the
only
direction-seeking
instrument.
The
compass
is
a
self-contained
instrument,
and
does
not
require
electricity
or
any
other
mechanism
to
work.
To
determine
direction,
the
compass
uses
a
simple
set
of
two
magnets,
each
with
two
poles.
The
magnets
are
mounted
to
a
float
so
they
can
pivot
freely
and
align
with
the
earths
magnetic
field.
Aircraft
compasses
are
considered
wet
compasses
because
their
cases
are
filled
with
a
liquidin
this
case
kerosene.
The
liquid
helps
to
stabilize
the
magnets
and
keep
them
from
rocking
around
too
much,
especially
when
the
aircraft
encounters
turbulence.
Attached
to
the
float
is
a
compass
card
which
labels
all
360
degrees
of
heading
for
the
pilot
to
reference.
Similar
to
the
heading
indicator,
the
last
zero
digit
has
been
removed
from
the
labels.
To
coincide
with
the
card
is
a
reference
line,
called
a
Lubber
Line,
positioned
in
the
center
of
the
window,
so
the
pilot
knows
specifically
what
heading
they
are
flying.
You
may
notice
that
the
compass
card
looks
backwards.
In
fact,
if
you
compare
the
compass
to
the
heading
indicator,
youll
notice
that
they
turn
in
opposite
directions.
This
is
because
when
youre
looking
at
the
compass,
youre
actually
9
looking
at
the
back
side
of
the
instrument,
so
everything
must
be
reversed.
If
we
start
on
a
heading
of
north,
you
can
see
on
the
right
side,
the
heading
330.
Instinct
may
tell
you
to
turn
right
to
get
to
that
heading,
but
actually
you
would
need
to
turn
left.
Variation
As
we
know,
the
earth
rotates
around
the
axis
formed
by
the
north
and
south
poles.
However,
this
is
not
the
same
axis
that
magnets
line
up
with.
Another
axis
is
formed
by
the
magnetic
north
and
south
poles.
Lines
of
magnetic
force
flow
out
of
each
pole
in
all
directions,
and
eventually
return
to
the
opposite
pole.
These
are
the
lines
that
magnets
will
align
with.
The
angular
difference
between
the
true
and
magnetic
poles
is
referred
to
as
variation.
Since
most
aviation
charts
are
oriented
to
true
north
and
the
aircraft
compass
is
oriented
to
magnetic
north,
you
must
convert
a
true
direction
to
a
magnetic
direction.
The
amount
of
variation
you
need
to
apply
is
dependent
upon
your
location
on
the
earths
surface.
To
find
what
the
variation
is
at
any
point,
you
can
reference
the
isogonic
lines
on
sectional
charts.
The
Mississippi
River
falls
pretty
close
to
zero
degrees
of
variation,
called
the
agonic
line.
Everywhere
in
the
US
to
the
West
of
this
line
is
where
the
magnetic
north
pole
is
located
to
the
east
of
the
true
north
pole.
This
is
East
Variation.
On
the
eastern
side
of
the
agonic
line
is
where
the
magnetic
pole
falls
to
the
west
of
true
pole.
This
is
West
Variation.
Isogonic
lines
depict
where
the
variation
is
equal,
and
are
labeled
on
sectional
charts
as
a
dashed
magenta
line.
Daytona
Beach,
Florida
is
located
on
an
isogonic
line,
labeled
as
six
degrees
west.
To
calculate
the
correction,
we
can
use
the
saying
East
is
least,
and
West
is
best.
This
means
with
easterly
variation
we
SUBTRACT
the
variation
from
the
true
heading,
and
on
westerly
variation,
we
ADD
to
the
true
heading.
Lets
say
we
are
flying
a
true
heading
of
North
in
Daytona
Beach.
That
would
make
our
heading
zero
degrees
true.
Since
the
variation
is
6
degrees
west,
we
must
add
six
degrees
to
zero,
which
is
six
degrees.
If
we
want
to
fly
a
true
heading
of
north,
our
compass
must
be
reading
six
degrees.
Deviation
To
coincide
with
variation,
we
have
another
error
we
must
take
into
account
as
pilots.
This
error
is
called
Deviation.
Deviation
refers
to
a
compass
error
which
occurs
due
to
disturbances
from
other
magnetic
and
electrical
objects
within
the
airplane
itself.
Although
it
cannot
be
completely
eliminated,
deviation
error
can
be
minimized
by
tweaking
the
compensating
magnets
located
within
the
compass
housing.
Whatever
error
cannot
be
removed
will
be
recorded
onto
a
chart,
called
a
compass
correction
card,
which
is
mounted
near
the
compass
for
the
pilot
to
reference.
On
the
top
half
of
the
card
you
find
what
heading
you
want
to
fly,
and
then
look
at
the
bottom
half
for
the
heading
you
should
fly
to
achieve
that
desired
heading.
After
correcting
for
variation,
the
pilot
should
then
correct
for
deviation
to
get
a
more
accurate
heading
to
fly.
Compass
Errors
Although
you
can
correct
for
variation
and
deviation,
the
compass
is
still
susceptible
to
other
types
of
errors
which,
although
predictable,
can
make
it
difficult
to
use.
Events
such
as
turbulence,
turning,
or
accelerating
can
make
the
compass
temporarily
inaccurate,
or
even
unusable.
The
compass
is
normally
used
as
a
backup
source
of
heading
information
while
the
gyroscopic
heading
indicator
is
used
as
the
primary
heading
reference.
If
your
heading
indicator
fails
and
you
understand
the
limitations
of
the
magnetic
compass,
you
should
still
be
able
to
navigate
properly.
When
you
are
referring
to
the
compass
for
heading
information,
remember
that
it
is
accurate
only
when
your
airplane
is
in
smooth
air
and
in
straight-and-level,
unaccelerated
flight.
10
G1000
As
we
progress
through
the
digital
age,
more
and
more
pilots
are
transitioning
from
the
traditional
analog
instruments
that
we
just
covered,
and
moving
towards
digital
instrument
displays.
This
new
setup
is
referred
to
as
a
glass
cockpit.
One
of
the
most
popular
glass
cockpit
systems
available
on
the
market
today
is
the
Garmin
G1000.
Embry-Riddle
utilizes
the
G1000
in
all
of
its
Cessna
and
Diamond
training
aircraft.
This
system
integrates
all
the
various
flight
instrument
and
navigation
and
communication
equipment
that
the
pilot
interacts
with,
and
displays
them
on
LCD
screens
in
a
clean,
unobtrusive
manner.
This
simplifies
aircraft
operation
and
navigation,
and
allows
pilots
to
focus
only
on
the
most
pertinent
information.
The
G1000
setup
typically
consists
of
two
display
units,
one
called
the
Primary
Function
Display,
or
PDF,
and
the
other
one
called
the
Multi-Function
Display,
or
MFD.
Between
the
two
displays
is
an
integrated
communications
panel.
This
panel,
along
with
the
two
displays,
allow
the
pilot
to
interact
with
the
system
through
buttons
and
dials.
The
rest
of
the
system
is
contained
behind
the
scenes,
and
consists
of
various
computers
and
components
working
together
to
control
the
system.
The
PFD
displays
the
basic
flight
instruments
we
have
just
become
familiar
with.
While
the
display
of
the
instruments
is
a
little
different
from
that
of
the
old
round
dials,
it
is
still
relatively
easy
to
understand
what
is
going
on.
In
the
center
of
the
screen,
youll
find
the
Attitude
Indicator.
This
instrument
looks
almost
identical
to
that
of
the
original
instrument.
The
big
difference
is
that
the
horizon
bar
in
the
background
takes
up
the
entire
screen.
This
really
places
the
necessary
emphasis
on
the
instrument,
so
that
the
pilot
can
still
see
it
when
focusing
on
a
different
instrument.
To
the
left
of
the
attitude
indicator
is
the
airspeed
indicator.
Instead
of
a
dial,
this
instrument
is
displayed
in
vertical-tape
format.
At
the
bottom
of
the
tape
is
the
airplanes
True
Airspeed.
The
G1000
calculates
this
automatically,
based
upon
the
outside
temperature.
The
right
side
of
the
screen
is
home
to
the
altimeter
and
vertical
speed
indicator.
Like
the
airspeed
indicator,
these
instruments
are
also
displayed
in
vertical-tape
format.
At
the
bottom
of
the
tape,
is
the
altimeter
setting
that
the
pilot
has
selected.
The
top
of
the
tape
shows
the
altitude
the
pilot
has
selected
to
bug.
This
places
a
small
marker
next
to
the
selected
altitude
on
the
tape,
to
help
remind
the
pilot
of
an
altitude
they
might
be
trying
to
maintain.
Immediately
to
the
right
of
the
altimeter
is
the
vertical
speed
indicator.
Instead
of
the
tape
sliding
up
and
down
like
the
previous
instruments,
the
black
marker
instead
slides
up
and
down
to
indicate
the
current
vertical
speed.
Unlike
the
round-dial
version,
this
instrument
displays
the
vertical
speed
instantaneously,
without
any
lag.
The
bottom
of
the
screen
is
home
to
the
heading
indicator,
although,
in
this
case,
this
instrument
is
referred
to
as
a
Horizontal
Situation
Indicator,
or
HSI.
An
HSI
can
be
thought
of
as
a
heading
indicator
with
additional
navigation
capabilities
displayed
in
the
center.
Like
the
round
dial,
the
compass
card
spins
around
to
show
the
current
heading.
A
numerical
display
is
also
shown
above
the
dial
to
give
an
exact
heading
readout.
This
instrument
also
contains
a
bug,
that
the
pilot
can
set,
to
remind
them
of
what
heading
they
might
be
trying
to
fly.
The
only
instrument
not
being
displayed
similar
to
its
original
method
is
the
turn
coordinator.
The
G1000
splits
this
instrument
into
two
separate
components:
the
slip/skid
indicator
and
the
heading
trend
vector.
The
slip/skid
indicator,
also
known
as
the
brick,
is
displayed
as
part
of
the
attitude
indicator.
Just
like
the
inclinometer,
this
brick
slides
left
and
right
of
center
to
indicate
which
rudder
pedal
needs
to
be
pressed
to
get
coordinated.
Standard
rate
turns
are
accomplished
with
the
heading
trend
vector.
This
is
a
magenta
line
traveling
around
the
top
of
the
HSI,
and
tells
the
pilot
10
11
what
heading
theyll
be
at
in
six
seconds.
Two
tick
marks
on
each
side
indicate
standard
rate
and
half-standard
rate
turns.
The
MFD,
on
the
right,
can
be
used
to
display
a
wide
array
of
menus
and
features,
however
its
main
purpose
is
to
display
a
navigational
map
of
the
area
surrounding
the
plane.
While
this
map
is
not
an
approved
method
of
actually
navigating,
it
greatly
aids
the
pilot
in
being
aware
of
their
surrounding
area,
and
any
traffic
that
may
potentially
become
a
hazard.
On
the
left
side
of
the
screen
contains
the
aircrafts
engine
gauges
and
other
aircraft
system
gauges.
The
gauges
are
spilt
into
multiple
pages,
with
the
most
vital
ones
shown
on
the
main
screen.
Now
that
we
know
what
we
are
looking
at,
lets
talk
about
how
the
system
works.
As
we
previously
talked
about,
the
system
is
made
up
of
various
individual
components,
each
with
a
specific
task,
all
connected
together,
and
working
in
unison.
While
the
exact
science
behind
how
these
components
work
is
proprietary,
we
can
cover
what
the
purpose
behind
each
component
is,
and
the
basics
of
how
they
work.
This
lesson,
however,
will
only
focus
on
the
components
related
to
the
flight
instruments.
First
on
our
list
is
the
Air
Data
Computer.
This
component
works
with
the
Pitot-Static
system
to
calculate
our
airspeed,
altitude,
and
vertical
speed.
Instead
of
the
instruments
calculating
the
information
themselves,
the
pitot
tube
and
static
port
pressures
are
sent
to
this
computer
to
be
measured.
The
computer
takes
those
measurements,
makes
the
necessary
calculations,
and
sends
the
outputted
airspeed,
altitude,
and
vertical
speed
to
the
screen
to
be
displayed.
The
computer
also
connects
to
an
external
thermometer,
called
the
Outside
Air
Temperature
sensor
to
calculate
the
True
Airspeed.
The
gyroscopic
instruments
of
yesterday
are
now
powered
by
the
Attitude
Heading
Reference
System,
or
AHRS.
Instead
of
gyros,
the
system
uses
steady-state
sensors,
much
like
those
found
in
video
game
controllers,
to
sense
any
change
in
pitch,
bank,
and
yaw.
Connected
to
the
AHRS
is
a
magnetometer,
which
is
like
a
digital
version
of
the
magnetic
compass.
This
allows
the
system
to
find
magnetic
north,
and
prevents
the
pilot
from
having
to
periodically
resynchronize
the
heading
indicator
with
the
compass.
Todays
flight
systems
are
incredibly
reliable.
However,
as
part
of
a
FAA
certification,
aircraft
much
still
have
backup
round
dial
instruments
of
the
airspeed
indicator,
attitude
indicator,
altimeter,
and
magnetic
compass.
In
case
part
of
the
G1000
fails,
the
respective
round
dial
instrument
then
becomes
your
primary
source
of
aviating.
Conclusion
Whether
you
end
up
flying
an
aircraft
with
the
classic
round-dial
instruments,
or
you
fly
with
the
latest
glass
cockpit,
reading
and
interacting
with
your
instruments
is
inevitable.
Therefore,
every
pilot
needs
to
have
a
complete
and
proper
understanding
of
their
instruments,
including
how
they
work.
That
way,
should
a
system
failure
occur,
that
error
can
be
identified,
and
hopefully
corrected
without
incident.
11