INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

Earthquake Engineering
It can be defined as the branch of engineering devoted to mitigating earthquake hazards. In this
broad sense, earthquake engineering covers the investigation and solution of the problems created
by damaging earthquakes, and consequently the work involved in the practical application of these
solutions, i.e. in planning, designing, constructing and managing earthquakeresistant structures
and facilities.

Scope

Seismicity, Nature, Measures and Recording of earthquakes.

Planning for Seismic Risk Assessment & Mitigation
Analysis, Design and Construction of Earthquake Resistant Structures
Evaluation of Buildings for Earthquake Resistance
Retrofitting of Earthquake damaged Structures
Earthquake Management and Security

Earthquake
An earthquake is the motion or vibration, sometimes violent, of the earths surface that follows a
release of energy in the earths crust. This energy can be generated by a sudden movement of
segments (plates) of the earth crust, by a volcanic eruption or even by manmade explosions.

Sources of Ground Movements

Tectonic Earthquakes
Volcanoes
Explosions
Collapse of Mines & Large Reservoirs
Tsunami

Earthquake Hazards

Failure of Slopes
Occurrence of Fire
Building Collapse
Bridge Collapse
Land Slide
Disturbance

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History of Earthquakes In Pakistan

Major Earthquakes In Pakistan

1974 Earthquake Hunza, KPK

2005 Earthquake Muzaffarabad, AJK

Magnitude = 7.6

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2008 Earthquake Ziarat, Balochistan

2011 Earthquake Dalbandin, Balochistan

Causes of Earthquakes

Tectonic Earthquakes

These are caused by the sudden movement of large rock masses along geological faults within the
earth's crust. The Earth is formed of several layers that have very different physical and chemical
properties. The outer layer, which averages about 70 kilometers in thickness, consists of about a
dozen large, irregularly shaped plates that slide over, under and past each other on top of the partly
molten inner layer .Most earthquakes occur at the boundaries where the plates meet.

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Fault:
A fault is a fracture within some particular rocky mass within the earth's crust. Earthquakes are
caused by active faults, that is, faults along which the two sides of the fracture move with respect
to each other.

Earthquake Focus:
The point on the fault where rupture initiates is referred to as the focus or hypocenter of an
earthquake. The hypocenter of an earthquake is described by its depth in kilometers, its map
location in latitude and longitude, its date and time of occurrence, and its magnitude.
The term epicenter is the point on the earths surface directly above the hypocenter.

Volcanic Earthquakes
Explosions
Collapse Earthquakes

Seismic waves:
What happens during an earthquake?
During an earthquake, seismic waves arise from sudden movements in a rupture zone (active fault)
in the earth's crust. Waves of different types and velocities travel different paths before reaching a
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buildings site and subjecting the local ground to various motions. The ground moves rapidly back
and forth in all directions, usually mainly horizontally, but also vertically.

Two different types of seismic waves are generated by the sudden movement on a fault: P-waves
(primary waves) and S-waves (secondary waves).
A third type of seismic wave (Surface waves) is generated by the interaction of the P- and S-waves
with the surface and internal layers of the Earth.

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Importance of ground conditions:

What happens to the structures?
If the ground moves rapidly back and forth, then the foundations of the structures are forced to
follow these movements.
The upper part of the structure however (would prefer) to remain where it is because of its mass
of inertia.

In comparison with rock, softer soils are particularly prone to substantial local amplification of the
seismic waves.

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Note that the ground displacement amplifies with decrease in soil stiffness.

Case Study
The 1.6 mile ling cypress freeway structure in Oakland, USA, was built in the 1950s. Part of the
structure standing on soft mud (dashed red line) collapsed in the 1989 magnitude 6.9 Loma Prieta
earthquake. Adjacent parts of the structure (solid red) that were built on firmer ground remained
standing. Seismograms (upper right) show that the shaking was especially severe in the soft mud.

The characteristics of each structure are different, whether in size, configuration, material,
structural system, age, or quality of construction: each of these characteristics affects the structural
response.
The ground motion parameters and other characteristic values at a location due to an earthquake
of a given magnitude may vary strongly. They depend on numerous factors, such as the distance,
direction, depth, and mechanism of the fault zone in the earth's crust (epicenter), as well as, in
particular, the local soil characteristics (layer thickness, shear wave velocity).

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Earthquake Magnitude & Intensity:

Magnitude: Earthquake magnitude is a quantitative measure of the size of the earthquake at its
source. When an earthquake occurs, its magnitude can be given a single numerical value on the
Richter Magnitude Scale. The Richter Magnitude Scale measures the amount of seismic energy
released by an earthquake.
Richter
magnitudes
< 2.0
2.0-2.9
3.0-3.9
4.0-4.9
5.0-5.9

Description Earthquake effects

6.0-6.9
7.0-7.9
8.0-8.9
9.0-9.9
10.0+

Strong
Major
Great

Micro
Minor
Light
Moderate

Epic

Micro earthquakes, not felt.

Generally not felt, but recorded.
Often felt, but rarely causes damage.
Noticeable shaking of indoor items, rattling noises. Significant damage unlikely.
Can cause major damage to poorly constructed buildings over small regions. At most slight
damage to well-designed buildings.
Can be destructive in areas up to about 160 kilometres (100 mi) across in populated areas.
Can cause serious damage over larger areas.
Can cause serious damage in areas several hundred miles across.
Devastating in areas several thousand miles across.
Never recorded

Intensity: Intensity is the way of measuring or rating the effects of an earthquake at different
sites. The severity of earthquake shaking is assessed using a descriptive scale the Modified
Mercalli Intensity Scale.
Category
MM 1:
Imperceptible
MM 2:
Scarcely felt
MM 3: Weak
MM 4:
Largely
observed
MM 5: Strong

MM 6:
Slightly
damaging
MM 7:
Damaging
MM 8:
Heavily
damaging

Definition
Barely sensed only by a very few people.
Felt only by a few people at rest in houses or on upper floors.
Felt indoors as a light vibration. Hanging objects may swing slightly.
Generally noticed indoors, but not outside, as a moderate vibration or jolt. Light sleepers may be
awakened. Walls may creak, and glassware, crockery, doors or windows rattle.

Generally felt outside and by almost everyone indoors. Most sleepers are awakened and a few people
alarmed. Small objects are shifted or overturned, and pictures knock against the wall. Some glassware
and crockery may break, and loosely secured doors may swing open and shut.
Felt by all. People and animals are alarmed, and many run outside. Walking steadily is difficult. Furniture
and appliances may move on smooth surfaces, and objects fall from walls and shelves. Glassware and
crockery break. Slight non-structural damage to buildings may occur.
General alarm. People experience difficulty standing. Furniture and appliances are shifted. Substantial
damage to fragile or unsecured objects. A few weak buildings are damaged.
Alarm may approach panic. A few buildings are damaged and some weak buildings are destroyed.

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MM 9:
Destructive
MM 10: Very
destructive
MM 11:
Devastating
MM 12:
Completely
devastating

Some buildings are damaged and many weak buildings are destroyed.
Many buildings are damaged and most weak buildings are destroyed.
Most buildings are damaged and many buildings are destroyed.
All buildings are damaged and most buildings are destroyed.

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