Advancedgeometry00mcdo 1 PDF

RINGED
GEOMETEY
E HIGH SCHOOLS
SOLID
ANALYTICAL
M? DOUGALIi,
RB158,052
Presented to the
LIBRARY of the
UNIVERSITY OF
TORONTO
by
Gopp, Glaxk Pitman Ltd,
5^
3,
ADVANCED GEOMETRY
HIGH SCHOOLS
SOLID AND ANALYTICAL
PART I.SOLID GEOMETRY

PART 11.ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
A. H.
McDOUGALL,
B.A., LL.D.
Principal Ottawa Collegiate Institute
TORONTO
THE COPP CLARK COMPANY, LIMITED
Copyright, Canada, 1923, by The Copp Clark Company, Limited,

Toronto, Ontario
PREFACE
The Regulations
Ontario require
Upper School
is
of the
all
Department
of
Education of
candidates in the Geometry of the
to take the Analytical Part.
An
option
allowed between Synthetic and Solid Geometry.
In the edition
of 1919, the Synthetic
Parts are given,

Solid
and Analytical
while the present edition contains the
and Analytical Parts.
Schools
may
thus exercise
the option without the pupils having to purchase the

part they do not require.
The sequence
of the propositions follows closely the
order given in the Regulations.
In compiling the part on Solid Geometry, the writer

has received valuable assistance from Professor John
Matheson
of
Queen's University,
Beatty of the University of Toronto.
Ottawa, June,
1923.
and from Dr.
S.
CONTENTS
PAGE
Lines and Planes in Space
Parallel Lines and Planes

Perpendicular Line and Plane
6
.
Dihedral Angles
7
14
Line Perpendicular to a Plane.
Parallel Lines
Common Perpendicular to Two Lines
....
16
20
26
Polyhedra
29
Parallelepiped and Tetrahedron
37.
Pyramids
40
Prisms
49
Cylinders
Cones
55
Spheres
Miscellaneous Exercises
52
.......
59
68
GEOMETRY
SOLID
Lines and Planes in Space
L The
between
difference
Plane Geometry and
Solid Geometry.
Plane Geometry deals with figures in one plane and

not concerned with figures outside of that plane. Solid
Geometry deals with figures, whether they are situated
is
in a single plane or not.
A plane is defined
2.
line joining
as a surface such that the straight
any two points
in the surface lies wholly in
that surface.
From
the definition
(a)
segment
it
follows that:
of a straight line cannot lie in a plane
and another part without the plane.

If
(h)
two planes have two common
line joining the points lies

3.
into
Since a plane extends indefinitely,
two
plane,
but, in general,
parts,
and a straight
divides space
curved surface does not

it
A plane is
lines,
lie
in one
two
two points on opposite
also divides space into
line joining
sides of the surface passes

4.
it
and the straight line joining two points

the plane but on opposite sides of it must pass
parts;
not in
through the plane.
and
points, the straight

wholly in each of the planes.
through the surface.
determined by a combination of points

the only plane which contains those
if it is
points and lines.

1.
GEOMETRY
SOLID
5. Three points which do not

straight line determine a plane.
Let two planes, A and

the three points
P,
in
lie
B,
the
same
pass through
Q, R.
Draw
the straight lines PQ, QR, RP.
Then
these three lines
lie
wholly in
each of the planes.
plane.
Then
Let
since
it
Any st. line in plane- A must intersect

two of the lines PQ, QR, RP in that
cut two of them in X and Y.
X and Y
XY
of a plane, th-e line
Hence every st.

and
in the other,
are also in B,
lies in
by the
definition
the plane B.
line in either of the planes lies

.'.
wholly
the planes coincide.
Thus any three points not

mine a plane.
in the
same
st. line
deter-
6. A straight line and a point not on it determine

a plane.
Let P, Q be two points on the
XR
line and R the point not on the
line.
Then a plane that contains the

PQ and the point R passes
line
through the three points

and, by
5, is
P,
determined.
Q,
LINES AND PLANES
Two
7.
intersecting: straight
lines
determine a
plane.
Let the two
st.
lines intersect
at P.
Take a point Q on one
line
and
a point R on the other.
Then a plane that contains

the two intersecting
Q,
lines pas-
st.
through the three points
ses
R and, by
Two
8.
P,
determined.
5, is
parallel straight lines
determine a plane.
Let PQ, RS be the two
lines.
By
the definition of
and RS are
in the
PQ
lines,
1
same plane.
Then the plane containing PQ

^~
^
Fig.
by
4.
and RS contains PQ and any point

R in RS.
is determined.
generated
be
by a st. line moving to
9. A plane may
line
intersecting
another; or it may
one given st.
and
line
be generated by a st.
revolving about a point and
cutting a given st. line not containing the point.
.*.
6,
the plane
SOLID
GEOMETRY
Two intersecting:
planes cut one another in a

straight line and in no other point.
10.
Let AB,
CDE he two
It is required to
other in a
St.
line
planes intersacting at E.
prove that these planes cut one anin no point without that line.
and
In the plane CDE take

C, D on the same
side of the plane AB.
two points
Join C, E and produce CE

through E to P.
C,
side of
Fig.
.*.
'.
opposite sides,
5.
D and P are on opposite
Let DP cut
E and
st. line
By
EQ
AB
at Q.
sides.
Draw
EQ.
are in each of the planes
lies in
6, if
D are on the same

C, P are on
AB and
both planes.
AB and CED,
the
( 2, b.)
any point not in EQ

must coincide.
is
common
to the
two
planes, the planes

.*.
the planes cut in no other point.
11.
which
Common
lies
common
section of two planes.

wholly in each of two planes
section of the planes.
The
is
st.
line
called the
EXERCISES
12.
Exercises
(a)
1.
Can
three or
more planes contain a common
st.
line?
Illus-
trate with diagrams.

2.
How many planes are determined by

How many by five points?
four points given in
space?
3.
What
4.
Hold two pencils to show that two

in the same plane.
eral,
5.
is
the only rectihnear figure that
How many common
is
necessarily a plane?
lines are not, in gen-
st.
sections have three given planes?
a given point; AB, CD two st. lines not in the same

to determine a st. line passing through P and
intersecting AB and CD.
When is this impossible?
6.
plane.
is
Show how
7. OPP', OQQ', ORR' are three st. lines not in the same plane,
QR, Q'R' meet at L; RP, R'P' meet at M PQ, P'Q' meet at N.
Show that L, M, N are coUinear. Note. Show that L, M and N
are on the common section of the planes determined by P, Q, R
and by
P', Q', R'.
SOLID
GEOMETRY
two straight lines are parallel, any plane

them intersects the other.
RS and the plane A intersects PQ at T.
13. If
intersecting one of
PQ
1
1
prove
It is required to
that
/R
iP
intersects RS.
By 8, PQ and RS determine a plane. Call this

plane B.
A and B
the planes
intersect at T, their
mon
section
through T.
st.
comline
fig.
g.
( 10.)
The common section is in B and cuts PQ, one

it must also cut RS at some point V.
the plane A intersects RS at V.
lines,
1
is
of the
.'.
.*.
14. Definitions:
plane,
if it
A straight
line
is
parallel
to a
does not meet the plane however far they are
extended.
Two
planes are parallel,
far they are extended.
if
they do not meet however
PARALLEL PLANES
15. If
two planes are parallel, any straight line

them intersects the other.
The plane A
the plane
B, and the line KL intersects
A at L.
intersecting one of
It is required to
that
KL
prove
intersects B.
In B take any point M.

L, M and draw MN
KL.
Join
V MN
FiG.
/.
by
13,
sects
7.
MN
II
KL and B
inter-
at M,
B intersects KL.
Perpendicular Line and Plane

16. Definition:
if it is
A line
is
perpendicular to a plane,
perpendicular to every
plane and that meets the line.
st.
line that lies in
that
The plane is also perpen-
dicular to the line.

17.
If
a straight line
is
two intersecting straight

section,
it is
their plane
section.
perpendicular to each of
lines at their point of inter-
perpendicular to every straight line in

their point of inter-
and passing through
GEOMETRY
SOLID
PK is to each of KL and KM, and

determined by KL and KM.
It is required to
prove
Draw any
st. line
in the plane
PK KQ.
Fig.
KQ is
8.
cutting KL,
KQ and KM
in L,
Q and
respectively.
In
PK
take any point P and produce
KN=43K.
Draw
PL, PQ,
From congruent As LKP, LKN;

PM = NM.
From congruent As PLM, NLM;
"
As PMQ, NMQ;
"
AsPKQ, NKQ;
/. PK KQ.
Cor. If
a straight line
PK
to N
making
PM, NL, NQ, NM.
is
two straight lines through
PL = NL.
ZPML= ZNML.
PQ = NQ.
ZPKQ=ZNKQ.
perpendicular to each of
perpendicular
its foot, it is
to the plane containing the
Similarly
two lines.
PERPENDICULAR LINE AND PLANE
straight lines intersecting: a given straight

a given point and perpendicular to it lie in a
(Converse of theorem in 17).
plane.
18. All
line at
Fio.
At K
in
PK
KM, KN are PK.

prove that KL, KM, KN are in
the lines KL,
It is required to
same
9.
the
plane.
Let A be the plane determined by KL and KN and B

Let KQ be the
the plane determined by PK and KM.
common
KL,
section of
KN
A and
in the plane
B.
are both
PK
and KQ
is
also in A,
by
17,
KQ
But, by hypothesis
in the
.*.
same
same plane
KQ
PK.
KM
coincides with
plane.
PK; and KQ, KM, KP are
B.
KM, and KL, KM, KN
are in the
SOLID
10
19.
Exercises
Prove that thessctions mads in two
1.
arc
GEOMETRY
I|
planes by a third plane
||.
2.
Two
3.
Each
The
points
and
lines
terminated in two
is
is J_
||
planes are equal.
of three concurrent st. lines is _L to each of the other
Prove that each
two.
4.
II
is _L
to the plane of the other two.
locus of a point which
a plane which bisects the

to that line.
is
equidistant from
st. line
joining the
two fixed
two points
The
locus of a point which is equidistant from three given

a st. line J_ to the plane containing the points and passing through the centre of the circle through the points.
5.
points
is
The plane A passes through a point F and is _L to a line EF.

A two points G and H are taken such that FH > FG. Prove
EH > EG.
plane A, and R is any point in A. Show
7. The st. line PQ
that the common section of A and the plane determined by PQ
6.
In
and
is
II
PQ.
PERPENDICULAR LINE AND PLANE
one of two parallel straight lines
20. If
dicular to a plane, the other
11
is
perpen-
is also.
Fig. 10.
KL
MN
I!
and KL
It is required to
KL and MN
cut
Join
In
L, N.
LK
cut
V KL
From
off
is
_L
rt.
17,
LP, QN, QP.
rt.
are both
rt.
Zs, and NL, NQ,
QLP
Then v MN
MN
A.
MNP
From
Z,
is
same plane;
by
.-.
is
NL.
As PNL, QLN; PL = QN.

As PNQ, QLP; ZPNQ=ZQLP.
A;
PNQ is a rt. Z
V ZPNQ, ZPNL
A.
Z.
rt.
.*.
are in the
MN
A in L and N.
A draw NP
Draw
LQ = NP.
the congruent
But V KL
plane A.
MN and KLN
II
MNL
/.
prove
is
rt.
Z.
to each of
NL and NP,
NM
GEOMETRY
SOLID
12
21. If
same
two straight
lines are perpendicular to the
plane, they are parallel.
(Converse of
20.)
Fig. 11.
KL and MN
are both
It is required to
It is necessary to
in the
same
prove KL
'
PN
but
is
QL
II
||
MN.
show that KL and

_L
NL and LQ
to the plane determined
PN;
MN
are
plane.
Draw LN, and in A draw NP

V Zs PNL, PNM are rt. Zs,
.*.
plane A.
by
20,
QL
||
NP.
by LN and NM;
to the plane deter-
mined by LN and NM.
But Z KLQ
by
and MN.
.*.
18,
is
KL
rt.
is
Then v KL, MN are

KLM, MNL are rt. Zs,
.-.
KL
II
MN.
in the
in
plane determined by LN
the same plane,
and Zs
EXERCISES
13
22. Exercises
1.
Prove the proposition in
(a)
by making a construction
21
similar to that in 20.
Prove this proposition by the indirect method.
(5)
KL X plane A and PQ is any

Hne in A. In A, LM is drawn
PQ and KM is drawn. Prove
2.
St.
KM
PQ.
Cut off equal distances
MP, MQ and draw LP, LQ, KP,
KQ, or, through M, draw a line
_L
(Note.
KiG. 12.
II
In the figure of Ex. 2,

PQ; prove LM PQ.
3.
4.
is
LK.)
KL A
a given point in a given
Through P
plane.
if
lines are
of the intersections of these lines

5.
How many
Three concurrent
(6)
Three
with
st. lines
st.
Show
PQ.
planes are determined
(a)
PQ, and
st. line,
drawn
KM
and from K,
is
A is
is
drawn
a given
that the locus
st. line.
by:
lines?
which do not
all
he in the same plane?
C are three planes. Prove that:

(a) If the common section of A and B and the common section
of A and C meet at a point O, the common section of B and C
6.
A, B,
passes through
(&)
If
the
and C,
B and to that
of
(Note.
common section of A and B is to the common section

the common section of B and C is
to that of A and
1
||
of
and C.
A general enunciation of
and
(a)
(b)
The common
and
is:
sections of three planes are either concurrent or are parallel two

two.)
7.
The
st. line
joining
two points that
plane and at equal distances from
it is
||
are on the
same
to the plane.
side of a
SOLID
14
GEOMETRY
Dihedral Angles
23.
Two
consecutive leaves of a book, or a creased
sheet of paper, can be used to represent a dihedral angle.

Definition:
A dihedral angle, or dihedral,
by two planes which meet and
common
are called the faces of the dihedral
section
24. If a plane
main
formed
by
their
section.
The planes
common
is
are terminated
and the
called its edge.
is
moves while two points
in the plane re-
fixed in space, the rotating
plane in moving from one position

to another generates a dihedral angle of
which the straight
ing the fixed points

25.
Two
is
line join-
the edge.
intersecting
planes
form four dihedral angles of which

those having a common face are
said to be adjacent; and those
having no face in common are
said to be vertically opposite.
Fig. 13.
26. A and B are the faces and KL the

edge of a dihedral. P is any point in KL.
In A the line PQ is drawn J_ KL and in B
the line PR is drawn also Jl KL.
The
angle
QPR
is
called the
plane angle
of the dihedral.
The plane angle measures the amount of

when a plane revolving about the
rotation
edge passes from one face of the dihedral

Hence the magnitude of the
to the other.
dihedral angle is that of the plane angle QPR
DIHEDRAL ANGLES
27.
15
A dihedral is said to be right, acute,
or straight according as
its
plane angle
obtuse, reflex
right, acute,
is
obtuse, reflex or straight.
Two
28.
planes are perpendicular when the dihedral
by them
angle formed
is
a right angle.
a straight line is at right angles to a plane,

any plane passing through the line is perpendicular
29. If
to the plane.
KL
is
plane
A and
plane B passes through KL.
It
is
A.
required to prove
MN
In A draw LP
common
section
the
of the
planes.
V KL J_ A,
Zs KLM,
KLP are rt. Zs.
V KL and PL are both
.-.
A_
MN,
Z KLP is the plane Z
the edge
.*.
of the dihedral
formed by
A and B
and Z KLP has been shown to be a
/.
B.
rt.
SOLID GEOMETRY
16
Line Perpendicular to a Plane.
To draw a
30.
Parallel Lines
perpendicular to a given plane from
a given point.
Let the given point P be without the given plane A.
(1)
\
N
y5
l/
Fia. IG.
In A draw any st. line KL.

In plane PKL draw PM _L KL.
In A draw MN J_ KL.
In plane PMN draw PQ MN.
Draw
Then PQ is the required .
V Zs KMQ and KMP are rt. Zs,
KM
.-.
J_
plane PMQ.
MK; /. by 20, QR
Z PQR is a rt. Z
V Zs PQR, PQM are rt. Zs,
PQ A.
Also
QR
II
.'.
.-.
(2)
Let the given point P be in A.
From an external
point Q draw QR A,
by(l).
Â
Through P draw PS QR.

V SP QR and QR _L A,
by 20, SP A.
||
II
.-.
Fig. 17.
QR
KL.
LINE PERPENDICULAR TO A PLANE
17
31. One and only one straight line can be drawn

through a given point and perpendicular to a given
plane.
a given point either in or without the given plane A.

30, it has been shown that a _L can be drawn
is
In
from K to
A.
Fig. 18.
It is required to
from K to
show that only one
can be drawn
A.
two s KM, KN be drawn to A.

the intersecting st. lines KM, KN are ||;
If possible, let
By
is
21,
this
impossible.
in either case, there
.'. ,
is
but one
from K to
A.
The perpendicular from a given point to a plane

the shortest distance from the point to the plane
32.
is
From
KM
the given point
the
drawn to plane A, and

KN is any other st. line drawn
from K and terminis
ated in A.
It
is
prove
required to
KM <
KN.
Draw MN.
V
KN
.-.
KM
is
Fia. 19.
_L A,
Z KMN
is
the hypotenuse of a
KM <
KN.
rt.
rt.
Zd
Z.
and
is
> KM.
18
33. If
30LID GEOMETRY
two straight
lines are parallel to the
same
straight line they are parallel to each other.

_K
Fio. 20.
Line
PQ and
It is required to
line
PQ.
1
1
prove
L.
In the plane containing K and PQ draw
and
QR
_L
PQ,
and PQ draw QS PQ.

V Zs PQR, PQS are rt. Zs,
PQ is the plane determined by QR and QS.
V K PQ, and PQ plane RQS,
by 20, K plane RQS.
in the plane containing L
II
.-.
Similarly L _L plane RQS.
..,by21, K||
L.
EXERCISES
19
34. Exercises
1. KL, KM ars two equal st. lines terminatGd in a plane A at L
and M. Prove that L and M are equidistant from the foot of the
_L from K to A
2. KL is a line of fixed length drawn from a fixsd point K and

terminated in a fixed plane at L. Show that the locus of L is a
circle.
KL
3.
and
N is
NL > NM.
A, and
Show
4.
KM
drawn from K to points L and M in a plane

If KL > KM, prove
_L from K to A.
are
the foot of the
that the locus of a point that
is
equally distant from
points on the circumference of a fixed circle
the centre of the circle and
all
a st. line through

to the plane of the circle.
is
Prove that the lines joining in order the middle points of the
edges of a skew quadrilateral form a |Igm.
5.
(Note.
Skew
st.
lines are lines that are
not in the same plane.

all lie in one
closed rectilinear figure, the sides of which do not
plane
6.
is
called a skew figure.)
Show
that a plane J_ the edge

_L to the faces of
of a dihedral is
the dihedral.
(Note. KL
is
is
the edge,
the faces of a dihedral.
and B
The plane C
KLatO. Draw OP the common

A and C. In C draw OQ
section of
OP.
Prove 0 . A. With a simconstruction prove C _L B. For

a shorter proof use 29.
ilar
7.
The
St. line
A plane B
A.
is
KL lies in the plane

X KL. Show that
B X A.
8.
If
Fig. 2
two
lines
OL,
common section
LN X the common
the
and 3
of 22.)
OM
of
are
and B
section.
respectively to
plane
Draw ON,
LOM.
MN
two planes A, B,
(Note. Draw
and use
exercises 2
20
solid
geometry

35. If
two intersecting straight
lines are parallel
Fig. 22.
KL
NP and they
and they
lie
lie
on the same side of KN.
on the same
It is required to
side of
prove Z
KM
1
1
NQ
KN.
LKM = Z PNQ.
KR = NS; and
From KL and NP cut off

NQ cut off KT = NV. Draw KN,
V KR is and = NS,
from
KM and
RS, TV, RT, SV.
II
/.
RS
is
II
Similarly
.-.
RS
is
II
and = KN.
TV
is
||
and =
and = KN.
TV.
RT = SV.
Then from the congruence
Z RKT = Z SNV.
/.
of
As RKT,
SNV,
two planes have a common perpendicular,

they are parallel; and conversely, if two planes are
parallel, straight lines can be drawn that are perpen36. If
dicular to both planes.
PARALLEL PLANES
1.
The
EF
st. line
is
A and
to each of the planes
prove A
It is required to
21
B.
B.
A is not
their common
If
GH
II
let
B,
Z F
is
rt.
Z E
is
Similarly
be
In
section.
take any point
draw EK and FK.

V EF _L Band FK
.*.
GH
K and
lies in B.
rt.
That is, the A EFK contains

two rt. Z s, which is impossible.
.-.
II
fw.
23.
B.
711.
A and Bare
1
It
that
is
planes.
required to prove
st.
lines
be
can
drawn that are

both A and B.
to
In A take any point

Fig. 24.
E,
and, by
EF
JL B.
30, draw
Through E
st. lines EG, EH in the plane A.

Let the plane determined by EG, EF cut B in FK and
the plane determined by EH, EF cut B in FL.
V EG is in A, FK in B and also A and B do not intersect,
EG and FK do not intersect.
draw any
.*.
And EG and FK
EG
V EG
.-.
II
FK.
same plane.
FL.
EH
are in the
Similarly
||
Z GEF + Z EFK = two rt. Zs.

But, V EF B,
Z EFK is a rt. Z.
Z GEF is a rt. Z
Similarly Z HEF is a rt. Z
EF A, and EF is a common _L to A and B.
II
FK,
.-.
.-.
.*.
Cor. If a straight line is perpendicular to one of

parallel planes,
it is
perpendicular to the other.
two
SOLID
22
GEOMETRY
37. If two planes are parallel to the same plane,

they are parallel to each other.
Plane A
plane C and
plane B
plane C.
||
||
It
All
is
required to prove
B.
Draw EG
V All
by
Fig. 25.
*.*
EG
_L
C,
36.
Similarly
A and
also
EG
C.
and EG
Cor.
EG
_L C,
EGA.
_L B.
J- B,
..,by36, 1,A|1B.
38. If two intersecting straight lines are respectively parallel to two other intersecting straight lines,
the plane of the first two is parallel to the plane of
the second two.
.
EF
II
It
is
HK and EG
||
HL.
required to prove
that the plane
FEG
||
plane KHL.
Draw EM
the
plane KHL.
KHL draw
HK and MP HL.
In the plane
MN
II
||
V MP|| HL and EG
||
HL,
EG
MP.
GEM
Z
+ Z EMP =
rt.
Z
s.
two
But Z EMP is a rt. Z, and
Similarly Z FEM is a rt. Z.
.*.
II
.-.
/.
EM _L the plane FEG.

the planes FEG, KHL have a common
by 36, 1, plane FEG 1| plane KHL.
is
J_
rt.
EM
PARALLEL PLANES
23
Straight lines which are cut by three, or more,
39.
parallel planes are cut proportionally.
The
St. lines
are cut
C at
A, B,
EFG,
by the
E,
HKL
||
planes
F,
G and
H, K, L respectively.
It
that
required to prove
is
EF
-
= HK
Draw HG
^'
27.
V EH and FM
B,
Iî'aw
are respectively in
they do not meet.

And EH, FM are in the same plane,
||
cutting B at
EH and FM.
planes
A and
that deter-
viz.,
mined by GE and GH.

/.
FM
in the
EF
HM
'
EH.
II
EGH, FM
||
EH;
FG ~ MG'
Similarly
it
may
EF
HK
FG
KL'
be proved that
^ = HK
KL"
Concurrent straight lines cut by two parplanes are cut proportionally.
Cor.
allel
GE and GH
A, B
and
it
are concurrent
T.
st.
lines cut
.
has been shown that
EF
FG
by the
HM
MG
planes
24
GEOMETRY
SOLID
40.
of twO parallel
plane containing only one
lines is parallel to the other.
EF
1
1
GH and the plane A

GH but does not
contains
contain EF.
required to prove
It is
EFllA.
Let B be the plane deter-
fig. 28.
mined by EF and GH.

All points
EF
.*.
in
common
wholly in
lies
if
to
A and B
lie
in
GH.
B.
EF and A have a common point,
it
must be
GH.
But EF and GH do not meet.

.*.
EF does not meet
A,
i.e.
EF
||
A.
a straight line is parallel to a plane, the

section of the plane and any plane passing
through the line is parallel to the line.
41. If
common
(Use the diagram of
EF
cuts
II
The plane B
plane A.
in
GH.
It is required to
prove
EF and
GH
GH
wholly in A.
lies
GH
EF.
are in the plane B.
EF does not meet
A.
.*.
EF does not meet GH.
.*.
EF
II
||
GH.
40.)
passes through EF and
EXERCISES
25
42. Exercises
1.
If
each of two intersecting st. lines is

is
to the given plane.
plane of these lines

2.
how
3.
is
to
EF and
GH
GH
4.
to
EF and
I|
Show how
Show
same plane.
GH.
are lines that are not in the
a given point.
EF and
to a given plane, the
are lines that are not in the
to pass a plane through
EF and
||
||
same plane and P

P that is
to pass a plane through
GH.
Prove that a
line
to the edge of a dihedral
is
is
to the
1
1
faces of the dihedral.

5. Prove that a line
edge of the dihedral.
(Note.
Pass
to each face of a dihedral
a plane through the
line,
to the
to one face of the di-
1
1
hedral and intersecting the other face.)

6.
The two planes determined by two

to the two
1
lines
and a point not
in
their plane intersect in a line
lines.
is
CD are st. lines that are not in the same plane. P is

AB and PQ is drawn H CD. Show that the Z QPB
(Note: The constant Z QPB is said to be the Z
constant.
of
AB, CD.)
7.
AB,
any point
in
GEOMETRY
SOLID
26
Common Perpendicular
To draw a
43.
lines not in the
Two
to
Lines
perpendicular to two given straight
same
plane.
Q
7
Fig. 29.
GH
EF,
It
are the given
st. lines.
Through any point H

be the plane determined
F,
common. _L
required to draw a
is
to
GH draw HK
by KH and HG.
in
any two points in EF, draw

V A contains KH, and EF
..,by40, EFil A.
V EL and FM are both
_Ls
EF and GH.
EF, and let A
From E and
EL and FM to
A.
KH,
||
||
A,
..,by21, EL|i FM.
The plane containing EL and FM

EF
is
II
..,by41, EF|| LM.

is not
EF;
But GH
Let
cuts
in
A.
LM
||
cut
GH
in P,
.*.
LM
is
not
||
ana draw PQ
PQ is the required _L
V EP is a ||gm. and Z L is a rt. Z,
Z EQP is a rt. Z
V QP EL and EL A,
by 20, QP A.
Z QPG is a rt. Z
and PQ is to EF and to GH.
^
.*.
.-.
.*.
GH.
||
LE.
LM, and
COMMON PERPENDICULAR TO TWO LINES

44.
There
is
common perpendicular
only one
Fig. 30.
GH
are
two
st.
more than one common
Then, by
.*.
cannot have
_L s
PQ, RS to EF and
EF.
SV.
QT, SV are in the same plane A and as
through two points, Q and
V EF
II
TQ and PQ
PQ
Similarly
by
_L
8, in
EF,
it is
PQ
GH
passes
also in A.
_L
TQ.
A.
But PQ
/.
GH
_L
draw two common
Draw QT, SV both

33, QT
GH.
not in the same plane.
lines
required to prove that EF and
If possible,
two
EF,
to
same plane.
straight lines not in the
It is
27
GQ.
RS
21,
_L A.
RS
II
RS and PQ are
PQ.
same plane.
RP and SQ are in the same plane.
But, by hypothesis, RP and SQ are not
in the
.'.
in the
same
plane.
.*.
EF and GH cannot have more than one common
_L
SOLID GEOMETRY
28
45.
1.
Plane
Exercises
Prove that a
plane B.
common section of A and B is _L B.

2. From any point P on the common
PQ
3. Plane A
point in A
and B,
drawn
is
JL
plane B.
to
lies in
drawn
section of
Prove that
A.
_L
line
PQ
Prove that a
in
two
lies in
J_
to the
planes
B.
drawn from any
line
A.
each face of a dihedral is _L to a plane, the edge of the

(Note: From any point in the
is also J. to the plane.
edge draw a J_ to the plane and use exercise 3 above.)
If
4.
dihedral
KM
5.
PK
on
other
St.
is
the projection
of
and through K any

line KN is drawn in A.
PKM < Z PKN.

(Note: Cut off KN = KM.
The Z formed by a line and its
Prove Z
projection on a plane
called
is
the inclination of the line

6.
II
plane
8.
st. lines
intersecting the
The common
7.
is
to
3^
to the plane.)
two
same plane
st.
are equally inclined to it.
lines that are
not in the same
the shortest line that can be drawn between the two lines.
Through a given point draw a
st.
line
||
to each of
two
intersecting planes.
two st. lines are cut by four planes, the two segments inby the first two planes have the same ratio as the two
segments intercepted by the last two planes.
9.
If
tercepted
||
29
DEFINITIONS
POLYHEDRA
46. Definitions:
solid
is
the finite portion of space
by a closed surface.
polyhedron is a solid bounded by planes.
The bounding planes of a polyhedron are called the
inclosed
The
faces of the polyhedron.
faces intersect in straight
lines called the
The
hedron.
edges
of the poly-
points where three, or
more, edges meet are called the vertices of the polyhedron.
tetrahedron
having four faces.
the four faces of the tetrahedron ABCD. Name the six edges.
Fig. 32.
A hexahedron
faces
six faces,
of
is
a polygon
Name the
hexahedron
edges has it ?
the
How many
many
a polyhedron
Name
having
is
six
AG.
How
vertices ?
47. If three,
or more, planes
meet at a vertex they form a

fiq. 33.
polyhedral angle, or a corner.
A trihedral angle, or trihedral, is a polyhedral angle
having three and only three faces.
The angles at the vertex, contained by adjacent
edges, are face angles.

If
Fig. 34.
a vertex and
is
the vertex of a trihedral angle
and B, C, D points on the edges that

meet at A, the trihedral angle is denoted
D by A BCD. The same symbol is used
to represent a tetrahedron of which A is
BCD
is
the opposite face.
30
SOLID
GEOMETRY
48. In a trihedral the sum of any two face angles

at the vertex is greater than the third and the sum
of the three face angles is less than four right angles.
;
1.
Let Z BAD be the
greatest of the three

at the vertex
trihedral
Then
Zs
of the
Z A BCD.
it is
evident that
Z BAD + Z BAG >

Z CAD and that Z BAD
+ Z CAD > Z BAC.
It is required to
that
prove
ZBAC + ZCAD>
Fig. 35.
ZBAD.
BAD cut off Z BAE =
Z BAC and make AE = AC. Draw BE and produce it
Draw BC and CF.
to meet AD at F.
From the congruent As BAC, BAE; BC = BE.
In the A BCF, BC + CF > BF.
From these unequals take the equal parts BC, BE respectively and CF > EF.
OJK = EA,
In the As CAF, EAF, AF = AF,
In plane BAD,
from Z
ICF
/.
>
EF.
Z CAF > Z EAF.
To these unequals add respectively the = Z s BAC, BAE.

Z BAC + Z CAF > Z BAF.
II. It is required to prove Z BAC + Z CAD + Z BAD
<
4 rt. Zs.
Produce BA to
B'
and DA to
Z A
D'.
CB'D', by 1, Z B'AD'<
Z CAB' + Z CAD'.
But Z BAD' = Z BAD, Z CAB = 2 rt. Z s - ZBAC
and Z CAD' = 2 rt. Zs - Z CAD.
Z BAD < 2 rt. Zs - Z BAC + 2 rt. Zs Z CAD.
Z BAC + Z CAD + Z BAD < 4 rt. Zs.
Then
.-.
.-.
in the trihedral
euler's equation
31
49. In a polyhedron the sum of the number of faces

and the number of vertices is two greater than the
number of edges.
Fia. 30.
Let
/, V, e
be respectively the number of faces, vertices
and edges.
prove f
v = e -\- 2.
Imagine the polyhedron built up by beginning with
It is required to
one face, as ABCD, and adding adjacent faces, ABFE,
FBCG,etc.
In the
number
the
first
face the
of vertices
number
number of edges is the same as the

the sum of the one face and
and
of vertices
.*.
is
one greater than the number
of edges.
When
the last face, as EFGH,
increase in the
number
is
added there
of vertices or in the
is
number
edges, so that, in this case again the increase in the
number of faces and of vertices

increase in the number of edges.
of the
the
is
no
of
sum
one greater than
SOLID GEOMETRY
32
all other cases when a face is added the increase in

number of edges is one greater than the increase in
the number of vertices, for example, when ABFE is added
to the original face ABCD there are three new edges, AE,
EF and BP, but only two new vertices, E and F; so that
In
the
sum of the one face and of the

added equals the number of edges
in all these cases the
number
of vertices
added.
/.
the
sum of the number of faces and of
of vertices exceeds the
each of the
and
first
50. Definitions:
if
number
by one in
the
of edges only
last faces.
2.
Notk. The above theorem
(Historical
ent,
number
is
due
to Euler, 1707-1783.)
Two polyhedral angles are congru-
one can be made to coincide with the other; the
vertex of one coinciding with the vertex of the other

and the edges drawn from the vertex of the one coincid-
ing with the edges drawn from the vertex of the other.
regular polyhedron
is
a polyhedron whose faces

and whose polyhedral
are congruent regular polygons,
angles are
congruent.
all
Fig. 38.
Fia, 37.
each face Z
51.
is
The sum
hedral angle
(Note:
is
rt.
For example, in a
regular tetrahedron
each face is an equilateral A and each
face Z is an angle of
60; in a cube each
face is a squarc and
of the face angles of a convex polyless than four right angles.
48, II. is a particular case of this proposition.)
REGULAR POLYHEDRA
V EFGHK
It
is
is
33
a polyhedral angle.
required to prove
Z EVFH- Z FVG
+ etc. <4rt. Z
s.
Pass a plane cutting the

faces in the polygon EFGH KLet M be any point within
EFGHK and draw EM, FM,
etc.
Z VFE
In the trihedral Z
EVG, by
48,
ZVFG>
1,
ZIVIFE+ ZMFG.
Similarly Z VGF +
Fig. 39.
Z VGH > Z MGF +
Z MGH; etc.
Adding, sum of the base Zs of the As with vertex
V > sum of base Zs of As with vertex M.
But, sum of all Zs of As with vertex V = sum of all
Zs of As with vertex M.
the sum of Zs at V < sum of Zs at M.
sum of Zs at V < 4 rfc. Zs.
52. There are not more than five regular polyhedra.
The polyhedral Z at each vertex of a regular poly.*.
.*.
hedron must have at least three faces; and, by 51, the
sum
If
of the equal face
Zs
at a vertex
<
360.
each Z = 60 and
be formed with three, four, or five,
the faces are equilateral As,
a polyhedral
Z may
but not more than five, Zs of 60.

not more than three regular polyhedra can be
.*.
bounded by equilateral As.

If the faces are squares, each Z = 90
and a polyhedral Z may be formed with three, but not more than
three,
Zs
of 90.
not more than one regular polyhedron can have

squares for its faces.
.*.
SOLID GEOMETRY
34
If
the faces are regular pentagons,
each Z
108
and a polyhedral Z may be formed with three, but not

more than three, Zs of 108.
not more than one regular polyhedron can have
regular pentagons for
its faces.
more than five sides each Z

not < 120; and no polyhedral Z can be formed with
Zs that are not <120.
no regular polyhedron can have faces of more than
With
regular polygons of
is
.*.
five sides.
.*.
53.
there are not
The
more than
Fm.
Fig. 43.
44.
ICOSAHEDRON
(20 faces)
(12 faces)
r69-500 B. C.)
polyhedra.
regular polyhedra.
DODECAHEDRON
Historical
five regular
polyhedra were known to Pythagoras

the dodecahedron was discovered by Hippasus (about 470 B. C.)
Notb: Four
of the regular
REGULAR POLYHEDRA
35
54. The five regular polyhedra can be constructed

from cardboard by drawing plane figures similar to those
given below, cutting through on the outline and half
through on the dotted lines, bending on the dotted
lines and bringing the appropriate edges together.
FiQ. 49.
CUBE
Fig. 45.
DODECAHEDRON
Fig. 46.
Fig. 48.
lOOSAHEDRON
OCTAHEDRON
Fig. 47.
TETRAHEDRON
36
GEOMETRY
SOLID
55.
Exercises
1. Count the number of faces, vertices and edges of the regular

polyhedra and in each chsck up with the formula / -\- v = e -\- 2.
2.
Show that
Zs >
of the face
3.
that
In a
ZBCD<4rt.
Show
5.
sum
of
/V\
the fourth.
//
ABCD show
ADC + Z BAD +
tetrahedron
ABC + Z
4.
Z
any three
in the polyhedral
at V, (Fig. 50), the
Zs.
the centres of the

adjacent faces of a cube be joined, the
polyhedron with these lines as edges
is a regular octahedron.
that,
if
perpendicular
is
hedron to the opposite

perpendicular
= two
drawn from a vertex

face.
Show
'
4i
~\~
-y
of a regular tetra-
that the square on the
thirds of the square on an edge of the tetra-
hedron.
6. E is any point in the base BCD of a tetrahedron ABCD.
Show that Z BAC + Z BAD > Z EAC + Z EAD.
(Note: Draw CE and produce it to meet BD in F; join AF.
Prove Z BAC + Z BAD > Z CAF + Z FAD and Z CAF +
Z FAD > Z EAC + Z EAD.)
Show
7. E is a point in the base BCD of a tetrahedron ABCD.
that the Zs that AE makes with AB, AC, AD are together <
the sum but > half the sum of the Zs that AB, AC, AD make
with each other.
PARALLELEPIPED
37
Parallelepiped and Tetrahedron

56. Definitions:
parallelepiped
is
a hexahedron
with three pairs of parallel faces.
The diagonals
of a parallelepiped are the four straight
lines joining the opposite vertices.
rectangular parallelepiped
is
a parallelepiped whose
faces are all rectangles.

57.
Each face
of a parallelepiped is a parallelogram.
A
Fig. 51.
AG
is
a parallelepiped.
It is required to
EH and FG
EH
is
EFGH
is
a ||gm.
same plane EFGH.

ADHE, FG is in the plane FBCG
are in the
in the plane
and these planes are

.'.
prove that
EH and FG do not
EH
FG.
intersect.
II
Similarly
.*.
EFGH
it
may
is
a ||gm.
be shown that EF
||
HG.
SOLID GEOMETRY
38
The
58.
four diagonals of a parallelepiped are con-
current and bisect each other.
Fig. 52.
AG
is
a parallelepiped.
It is required to
prove that AG, DF, BH and EC are
concurrent and bisect each other.
Draw EB and HC.

By 57, EG is a ||gm;
.*.
EH
II
and = FG.
Similarly
.-.
.-.
.*.
EH
EB
II
II
BC
and
||
and = FG.
BC.
HC, and EBCH
( 33.)
is
a |lgm.
EC and HB, the diagonals
of
EBCH,
bisect each
other.
Similarly
it
may
be shown that any two of the
diagonals bisect each other.

.*.
they are concurrent at the middle point of any one.
TETRAHEDRON
59.
The
39
four straight lines which join vertices of a
tetrahedron to the centroids of the opposite faces meet

in a point
which divides them in the
the three straight lines

opposite edges
ratio of 3
and
which join the middle points
of
meet in the same point and are bisected
there.
ABCD
a tetrahedron, E
is
the middle point of
The
centroids of
BCD
^
meet
at O.
1.
that
...- =
But
-;
ABE
A AOB
and
III
III
Similarly the
of the opposite face
.*.
is
respectively.
BF
required to prove
~. =
j;
and that
As ABD, ABC respectively pass through O.
Draw GF.
V AF = 2 FE and BG =
It
the lines AG,
the Hues from C, D to the
Fig. 53.
centroids of
are F,
ABE
In
CD.
As ACD,
These four
2 GE,
GFllAB.
FGE; and
A GOF; and
st.
.-.
lines joining
g=g=
^=^ = ^ =
?.
|.
C or D to the centroid
may be shown to cut B Fin the ratio 3:1.

st. lines
are concurrent.
40
SOLID GEOMETRY
In
II.
AAEB draw EO
It is required to
AB; and that HE
prove that H
is
V AO = 3 OG,
V BE = 3GE,
/.
.-.
and produce
it
to cut
AB
in H.
the middle point of
is
bisected at O.
.-.
/.
A AOE = 3 A GOE.
A BOE = 3 A GOE.
AOE = A BOE.
AAOH _ HO _ A BOH
AAOE ~ OE ~ A BOE"
AOH =
AH = HB.
BOH, and
AAOB _ AO _ AAOE
A BOG ~ OG ~ AGOE'
A BOG = 2 A GOE.
A ABO = 2 A AOE.
But V AB = 2 AH,
A ABO =
A AHO = A AOE; and HO
But
/.
.-.
.*.
.*.
Similarly
it
may
be shown that the
the middle points of BC,
O and
AD and
of AC,
AHO.
OE.
st.
lines joining
BD
pass through
are bisected at that point.
Pyramids
60. Definitions:
A pyramid is a polyhedron one
whose faces is a polygon and whose other faces are
triangles having a common vertex.
of
all
The polygon is the base of the

pyramid; the triangles are the
lateral faces;
the intersections
of the lateral faces are the lateral
edges; and the
common
vertex
of the lateral faces is the vertex.
The perpendicular from the

tex to the base
the pyramid.
is
ver-
the altitude of
PYRAMID
41
regular pyramid
is a pyramid whose base is a

and whose altitude meets the base at
The slant height of a regular pyramid is
its centre.
the altitude of any lateral face.
regular polygon,
The pyramid of which the vertex is V and the base

EFG may be represented by V EFG.
61. Any plane section of a pyramid taken parallel to
the base is similar to the base and the area of such a
section varies as the square of its distance from the
;
vertex.
PQRST
II
a plane section
is
to the base
EFGHK
of a
pyramid whose vertex
The
VM
altitude
V.
is
cuts the
section in N.
It is required to
1.
that
PQRST
By
|||
prove
EFGHK.
39, Cor.,
Fm.
yo _ VR
PE ~ QF ~ RG
55.
VP
V PQ, EF
in the
.-.
||
are in the
planes
PQ
II
same plane VEF, and
QR FG.
VPQ HI A VEF, and
PQ VQ
QR
.
^^^nTf
= FG'^^^
VQR
EF and QR
||
û
byalternation
tional to the corresponding sides of
35,
|||
PQRST
EFGHK.
Similarly the remaining sides of
II
being
||
V PQ
by
PQRST and EFGHK they do not meet,
EF.
Similarly
.*.
etc.
FG,
Z PQR - Z EFG.
VFG.
PQ
= -.
are propor-
42
SOLID
GEOMETRY
Zs of PQRST are
Zs of EFGHK.
EFGHK.
Area of PQRST
Similarly the remaining
the corresponding
/.
PQRST
111
It is required to
II.
prove
Area
EFGHK
of
equal to
VN'
VM^"
Draw NQ and MF.

V VM
QN
EFGHK,
.-.
II
Then from
But,
*.*
.*.
,
by
similar
As,
Cor.
VN PQRST.
PQ
VQ _ VN
EF ~ VF ~ VM*
the polygons are similar,
PQRST
PQ2
2. (O. H. S.
EFGHK
PQRST
EFGHK ~ VIV|2"
Cor. If
36.
FM.
Geometry,
p. 290.)
two pyramids have equal bases and equal

and equidistant
altitudes, sections parallel to the bases,
from the vertices are equal.

62. The volumes of two pyramids
and equal base areas are equal.
Fig. 56.
of equal heights
Fig. C7.
The pyramids E FGHK,0 LMN have = bases

FH and LMN and the altitude of each = h.
VOLUME OF A PYRAMID
43
It is required to prove the volume of E

the volume of O LMN.
FGHK =
Place the two pyramids with their bases in the same

to the base and
plane and let them be cut by a plane
at a distance x from each vertex making the sections
1
PQRS and TVW.

V FH = LMN,
by 61, cor., PQRS = TVW.
X increases continuously from o to
If
h,
the sections
PQRS and TVW generate the volumes of the two pyramids.

Thus each volume is the sum of an infinite number
of thin sections and for each value of x the corresponding sections are equal.
volume
.*.
63.
the volume of
O LMN.
of a triangular pyramid, of
which the
of E
The volume
FGHK =
three lateral edges are three edges of a rectangular

parallelepipeji, is
one sixth of the volume of the paral-
lelepiped.
B
Fig. 58.
BA, BC, BF are three concurrent edges of the rectangular parallelepiped BH.
It is required to prove that B AFC = \ of BH.
Join DO, DF, HF, AH.
By
.*.
57,
AD
II
AD
II
EH and FG
FG, and
AFGD
is
||
EH;
a plane dividing
two wedge-shaped polyhedraABF
BH
into
DCG andAEF DHG.
44
SOLID
GEOMETRY
divide ABF DCG into three

ABC, F ADC and F CDG.
F ADC have = bases, As ABC,
The planes FAC, FDC

triangular pyramids F
V F ABC and
ADC, and the same altitude FB,
by 62, F - ABC = F - ADC.
/.
F ABC and F CDG have = bases.
FCG and equal altitudes AB, DC,
/. F - ABC = F - CDG.
,
As
BCF,
.*.
ABC = ^ of the polyhedron ABF DCG.

- AHF = J of AEF - DHG.
the sum of F ABC and E AHF = J of BH.
F
Similarly E
/.
But,
base
.-.
Cor.
ABC =
EHF and
base
edges BA, BF,
BF =
BC
of the lengths of BA,
The volume
each of the
at right angles to each of the other
is
two, the volume of the pyramid

64.
altitude
- ABC = E - AHF.
F - ABC, i.e., B - AFC = J of BH.
In a triangular pyramid B AFC, if
altitude AE,
is
one sixth of the product
BF and FC.
of a triangular
third of the product of its
base and
pyramid equals one

its altitude.
Fig. 59.
Let h be the altitude and

of the triangular
pyramid E
the area of the base
FGH.
FGH
VOLUME OF A PYRAMID
FGH =
FGH draw HK FG
prove E
It is required to
In the plane
_L
plane
plane, B,
FGH and
||
JiA.
GK
and
||
Through E pass a
GM
45
the plane
cutting B at M.
GF.
FGH and draw

Draw MF, MK
and FK.
FGH =
M FGK
have
by
FGK;
/.
the pyramids E
FGH
and
bases; also their altitudes are equal,
- FGH = M -
62,
But, since of the edges GF,
FGK.
GM
and
GK
each
is _L
to each of the other two;
by
i h
Cor.
63,
M - FGK =
cor.,
GF GK = i
E - FGH =
i hA.
The volume
of
product of
GF .GK GM =
.
hA.
its altitude
any pyramid
and base.
is
one third
of the
Pass planes through one

edge VA and through
the diagonals AC, AD drawn
lateral
from A.
The pyramid
is
thus divided into triangular
pyramids having the same

altitude
pyramid.
Then V ABCDE = the sum

and V - AED.
.
of
ABCDE.
the
Let h
given
the
altitude.
FiQ. 60.
= ih A ABC
= ih {A ABC
with
of
V ABC, V ACD
+ ih A ACD + ih A
+ A ACD + A AED) =
.
AED
area
GEOMETRY
SOLID
46
Exercises
65.
altitude of a pyramid is 10 in. and its base is a square

What is the area of a section the base and 3
on a side.
Ans. 36 sq. in.
in. from the vertex ?
regular
pyramid
(a). The lateral edges of a
2. Show that
are equal, (b). The lateral faces of a regular pyramid are congruent
Ths
1,
20
in.
|1
isosceles
As.
A regular
3.
the altitude
The
4.
edge
The
edge
Show
its slant
height
height
its slant
of
is
its lateral
area
is I
is
is a,
3 {a^
pyramid
has
-\/
pyramid is h and
3a
that
which a side
+
is
12
its
base
h^).
h and
its
base
^ y3
-j-
4:
h^.
that the lateral surface of any pyramid is > its base.

is the altitude of the pyramid, AB a base edg3. Draw
VM
and draw MA, MN, MB.
VN AB,
Show
7.
that
Show
Show
6.
that
altitude of a regular hexagonal
is a.
Note.
Show
h.
altitude of a regular triangular
is a.
5.
pyramid on a square base
that, in
any
Use Exercise
3, 22.
parallelepiped, the triangular pyramid, of
which the three lateral edges are the three edges of the parallelepiped which intersect at one corner, is one sixth of the parallelepiped.
Hence show that the volume of any parallelepiped = the product

and altitude.
of its base
Each edge
8.
ume
of the
9.
octahedron
is
pyramid having one
10.
section of a
Show
whose base
12.
Show
that the vol-
of the faces of a
its
cube for
base and
its
vertex, contains one sixth of the
of the cube.
Any
opposite edges
11.
is a.
<^^-
the centre of the cube for
volume
octahedron
of a regular
The
is
tetrahedron
made by a plane
that the volume of a pyramid whose altitude

is
to
two
a ||gm.
an equilateral
A each side of which
and 15
in.
h and
is a, is
pyramid is 21 in. and the sides

Find its volume. Ans. 588 cu. in.
altitude of a triangular
of its base are 13, 14
is
FRUSTUM OF A PYRAMID
66. Definitions:
A frustum of a pyramid
inclosed between the base of the pyramid

allel
and cutting
to the base
The
47
altitude of a frustum
is
the part
and a plane par-
the lateral edges.
all
the perpendicular between
is
the parallel planes.

67.
To
find the
volume
of a
frustum
of a pyramid.
Fig. G1.
Let A, B represent the areas of the bases
EFGH
By
VP2
(VP + hy
h VB
A'
61^
VP
VA -
The volume
mid V
(VP
I I
1
-3
|
1
A)
(A
A B)
VP
/i
the difference of pyra-
- EFGH
B
( 64, cor.)
A
j
/lVB(A- B)
VA - VB +^""1
1
' + VB) +
'- (VA
VB
'
frustum
and pyramid V
VP
VB"
of the
- KLMN
= i
=
KLMN and
respectively and h the altitude PQ.
;^(A
+ B + VAB).

48
SOLID
68.
GEOMETRY
Exercises
Prove that:
1.
(a)
The
lateral edges of
a frustum of a regular pyramid are
equal.
(6)
A lateral face
(c)
The
of a
frustum of any pyramid
lateral faces of
is
a trapezium,
a frustum of a regular pyramid are
congruent.
The bases
2.
sides of
is
in.
3.
of a frustum of a regular pyramid are squares the

which are 10 in. and 4 in. and the height of the frustum
Ans. 364 cu. in.
Find its volume.
The
sides of the bases of
pyramid are a and

is
^
4.
is
10
(a2
62
_|_
and
a frustum of a regular triangular

Show that its volume
its altitude is h.
ah).
The lateral edge of a frustum of a regular hexagonal pyramid

in. and the sides of its bases are 13 in. and 7 in.
Find ths
volume of the frustum.
Ans. 1236 \/3 cu.
in.
The lateral edge cf a frustum of a regular triangular pyramid

Find its
15 in. and the sides of its bases are 18 in. and 8 in.
5.
is
lateral area.
Ans. 390 \/2 sq.
in.
PRISMS
49
Prisms
69. Definitions:
A prism
is
a poly-
hedron two of whose opposite faces

are congruent polygons in parallel
planes, and whose other faces are all
parallelograms.
The
lateral faces of the prism are
the parallelograms;
the lateral edges
are the intersections of the parallelo-
grams.
triangular prism
is a prism on a
prism is a right
Fig. 62.
prism or an oblique prism according as the lateral faces
are perpendicular or not perpendicular to the base.
A regular prism is a right prism of which the base is
A truncated prism is that portion
a regular polygon.
of a prism bounded by the base and a plane not parallel
triangular base.
to the base, cutting all the lateral edges.

70.
The volume
product of
its
of a triangular prism is equal to the

base and altitude.
Let A be the area of the
base FG H and h the altitude
of the prism FGH KEL.
It is required
to prove
that the volume of the prism
= hk.
Pass planes through
H and
prism into three pyramids,

E - FGH, E - KFH and
E KHL.
Fig. 63.
KG
is
a ||gm,
F, E,
H dividing the
K, E,
GEF =
KEF.
SOLID GEOMETRY
50
and E KFH are on

:. the pyramids E FGH
equal bases GEF, KEF and have the same altitude, the
_L from H to the face KG
by 62 E - FGH = E - KFH.
Similarly the pyramids E KFH, E KHL are on
equal bases KFH, KHL and have the same altitude, the _L
from E to the face FL.
/. E - KFH = E - KHL.
the volume of the prism = 3 times E FGH.
But, by 64, E - FGH = \ h A;
the volume of the prism
= h A.
.*.
Cor.
The volume
of
any prism
its base
equals the product of
and
altitude.
Divide the prism into triangular prisms of the same altitude
by passing planes through an

^
element.
Fig. 64.
71.
truncated triangular prism equals the
three pyramids
base
either
is
sum
of
whosecommon
base
of
the
truncated prism, and whose

vertices are the three vertices
of the other base.
EFG,
HKL
are the triangular
faces of the prism.
prove that E
prism = the
EFG, H - EFG,
It is required to
the truncated
sum
L
of
K -
EFG.
Fig. 65.
The planes KEG, KHG divide the prism into three

pyramids K EFG, K - EHG, H-LKG.
51
PRISMS
The s from K and F on the plane EHG are =, /.

K EHG and F EHG have the same base EHG, and
have equal altitudes, and
- EHG = F - EHG;
62, K
= H - EFG.
EHG
K
by
/.,
i.e.,
The _Ls from H and E on LKG

H - LKG = E - LKG
i.e., H - LKG = K - LEG.
The _Ls from K and F on LEG
K - LEG = F - LEG;
i.e., K - LEG = L - EFG.
.*.
are equal,
are equal,
.-.
.-.
- LKG =
EFG.
the truncated prism

EFG, L - EFG.
.*.
H -
72.
1.
Find the volume
whose base
is
the
sum
of
K EFG,
Exercises
of a regular triangular
a and whose altitude
is h.
prism the side of

-Ans.
2. Find the length of a diagonal of a rectangular parallelepiped

Ans. 51.
whose dimensions are 24, 27 and 36.
Find thie volume, and the area of the entire surface, of a cube
Ans. 125 cu. in. and 150 sq. in.
which the edge is 5 in.
3.
of
4.
Find the
and the volume of a right triangular

base 6, 9 and 11 in. and its altitude
Ans. 260 sq. in. and 269.8 cu. in. nearly.
lateral area,
prism, having the sides of
10
in.
5.
its
Find the volume of a regular hexagonal prism of which the

and the altitude is 18 in. Ans, 1728-v/3 cu. in.
side of the base is 8 in.

6.
The volume
of
a truncated, right, triangular prism

sum of the lateral edges.
J of
the product of the base by the

7.
The plane through two diagonally opposite edges
lelepiped divides
it
into
two equal triangular prisms.
of a paral-
52
SOLID
GEOMETRY
Cylinders
A cylindrical surface is a surface

generated by a moving straight line
which constantly intersects a given curve
73. Definitions:
and
constantly parallel to a given
is
straight line.
Any
position of the
element
cylinder
is
Fig. 66.
an
line is
a solid bounded
Cylindrical surface
parallel planes
moving
of the surface.
which intersect
and by portions
all
by a
two
of
the
elements of the surface.
The
portions of the parallel
planes
are the bases of the cylinder.
A right cylinder is a cylinder whose

elements are perpendicular to its bases.
A
right circular cylinder
cylinder whose base
The
is
is
a right
enclosed by a
circle.
axis of a circular cylinder
is
the straight line
joining the centres of its bases.

74. Properties of the cylinder.
a rectangle rotates about a fixed side, the oppogenerates the curved surface of a right circular
cylinder and the ends of the rectangle generate the two
1.
If
site side
bases.
2.
The
locus of a point in space which
is
at a given
distance from a fixed straight line of infinite length
is
circular cylindrical surface.

3.
its
The
section of a cylinder
elements
is
by a plane through one
of
a parallelogram; in the case of a right
cylinder this section
is
a rectangle.
CYLINDERS
The bases
4.
of a right circular
53
cylinder are equal
circles.
If the
5.
curved surface of a right circular cylinder
down an element and spread out
is
becomes a
rectangle contained by two straight lines one of which
is equal to the circumference of the base and the other
slit
flat,
it
to the element.
Thus the area
of the
curved surface of a right circular
cylinder equals the product of the circumference of the
base and the height of the cylinder.

If r is
the radius of the base and h the height of a
right circular cylinder, the total area of its surface
2Trrh
6.
27rr2
27rr (r
/j).
Let a regular polygon be
inscribed in the base of a right

circular cylinder. The elements
through the vertices of the polygon lie in the cylindrical surface
and cut the upper face at the
vertices of a polygon congruent
Thus a
with that in the base.
prism is inscribed in the cylin-
der; and,
of the
of its
by
70, cor., the
volume
prism equals the product

base and height.
fiq. es.
Let the number of sides in the polygon be indefinitely

increased; then the length of each side is indefinitely
decreased and the prism approaches coincidence with
the cylinder. The polygon approaches the circular base
of the cylinder and the altitude has not changed.
the volume of a right circular cylinder equals the
area of its base multiplied by its altitude.
.*.
If r is
the radius of the base and h the altitude, the
volume =
irr'^h.
SOLID
54
75.
How many
1.
2.
ft.
cylindrical well
number
the
of cu.
How many
ft.
ft.
of water
in diameter
it
make a pipe 9
Ans. 23.6 sq.
will hold.
and 21
nearly.
ft.
deep.
Find
Ans. 148.5
c"u. ft.
ft.
metal are there in a hollow cylindrical

outside length is 14 ft., diameter 10
and the thickness of the metal one in.?
3.
TT
are required to
in length?
is
cu. in. of
tube closed at both ends,

in.
Exercises
sq. ft. of tin plate
diameter and 10
in. in
GEOMETRY
3.1416.
4.
The
and
its
to be
if its
Ans. 4850.6 cu.
cross section of a tunnel
length
removed
is
is
a semicircle 18
ft.
in.
nearly.
in diameter
200 yds. Find the number of cu. yds. of material

Ans. 2827 cu. yds. nearly.
in its excavation.
CONES
55
Cones
76. Definitions.
A conical surface
is
a surface gen-
erated by a moving straight line which constantly inter-
and passes through a
sects a curve
fixed point not in the
plane of the curve.

Tlie point
moving
is
The
the vertex of the conical surface.
line in
any one
position
an element
is
of the
conical surface.
cone
is
a solid included by a conical surface between
the vertex and a plane intersecting
all
the elements of
the surface.
The plane
of a
is called the base of the cone. The altitude

cone is the perpendicular from the vertex to the base.
circular cone
is
a cone whose base
is
inclosed
by a
circle.
The
axis
of
circle
a straight line through the
is
centre and perpendicular to the plane of the circle.
A
is
right circular cone
is
a circular cone whose vertex
in the axis of its base.
A frustum of a cone is the portion of a cone included

between its base and a plane parallel to the base.
77. Properties of the cone.
1.
right-angled triangle rotating about a fixed
arm
of the right angle generates a right circular cone.

2.
The
section of a cone
two elements
is
made by
a plane through
a triangle.
3. The section
made by a plane
of the
curved surface of a circular cone
parallel to the base
is
circle.
56
SOLID
4.
If
GEOMETRY
the surface of a right circular cone
is slit
along
an element and is spread out flat, it becomes the sector

of a circle of which the radius is the slant height of the
cone and the arc is the circumference of the base.
Let A be the area of
the curved surface of
the
cone,
slant
its
height and c
the
cumference of
its
Then A
the
is
the area of
sector,
flat
cir-
base.
radius and'c
its
Fig.
its arc.
70.
The area of a sector of a circle is the same fraction of

the area of the circle as the arc of the sector is of the
circumference of the circle.
Thus
If r is
A =
TTS^
and
.*.
27rs
=^
J cs.
the radius of the base of the cone,
and
27rr
irrs.
EF the slant height
5.
of
frustum of a right circular cone
s,
and
the radii of
its
bases
6.
The curved surface of the frustum = the difference of the curved

surfaces of the
7ra(VE
Fig. 71.
VE
TT
+
(a
s)
two cones =
7r6
6)
as
|
But
VE
VE + s
and
VE {a-h) =
VE =
bs;
a'
the curved surface of the frustum
ws (a+h).
CONES
6.
57
Let a regular polygon be inscribed in the base of
a right circular cone.
The
lines
joining the vertex of the cone to
the vertices of the polygon
/ /'\\
in
lie
the surface of the cone, and form
with the polygon
pyramid
in-
By
64, cor.,
the volume of the \V"
of the
/
/
'
'
\
'
product of
its
\
\
\
scribed in the cone.
pyramid = J
~~~\~
}y
~f
^^'^L.=.^:^^^,_X>>^
altitude into the area of its base.
72.
Let the number of sides in the polygon be indefinitely

increased, then the length of each side
is
indefinitely
decreased and the pyramid approaches coincidence with

the cone. The polygon approaches coincidence with the
base of the cone and the altitude has not

changed.
the volume of the cone = ^ of its base multiplied
circular
.*.
by
its altitude.
If r is the radius of
right circular cone, its

7.
By
shown
reasoning similar to that in
that,
frustum
the base and h the

volume = ^hirr'^.
if
R,
altitude of a
67,
it
may
be
are the radii of the bases of a
of a right circular cnne
and h
the frustum, the volume of the frustum
is
the height of
SOLID
58
78.
GEOMETRY
Exercises
1. Find the lateral area and the total area of a right circular
cone the radius of whose base is 7 in. and whose alitude is
Ans. 550 sq.

2.
The
and the
in.
and 704
slant height of a frustum of a right circular cone
and 14
radii of its bases are 21
in.
sq. in.
is
Find the area
Ans. 880 sq.

3.
plane
the ratio
4.
An
in.
to the base of a right circular cone bisects its
||
Show
altitude.
in.
of its
the volume of the cone
is
divided into parts in
7.
equilateral
through one of
A, whos3
and
side is a, rotates
its vertices
about a
to the opposite side.
the volume of the solid generated
= âV.
st.
line
Show
that
SPHERES
59
Spheres
79. Definitions.
surface, all points of
sphere is a solid bounded by a

which are equally distant from a
point within, called the centre.
radius of a sphere
any point
centre to
sphere
is
is
a straight line drawn from the
of the surface.
diameter of a
a straight line through the centre that has
its
extremities on the surface.
great circle of a sphere
made by a
is
the section of
plane passing through
its
centre.
its
surface
small
a sphere is the section of its surface made by a

plane that does not pass through its centre.
The poles
of a circle of a sphere are the points where the axis of
circle of
the circle cuts the surface of the sphere.

80.
One sphere and only one can pass through

same plane.
four
points not in the
Fig. 73.
E, F,
G, H are four points not in the
It is required to
can pass through
same
plane.
prove that one and only one sphere
E, F,
G, H.
SOLID GEOMETRY
60
Draw
the tetrahedron EFGH.
FHG draw KM
the plane
_L
HG;
Bisect
HG
at K.
in the plane
In
EHG draw
L and M be respectively the centres of

the circumscribed circles of the As EHG and FHG.
In
the plane LKM draw s to LK and MK respectively and
let these s meet at O. In the plane FHG draw IV1N MK.
By 17, cor., HKG plane LKM.
V PKG plane LKM, and plane FHG passes
through HKG,
by 29, plane FHG plane LKM.
MK is the common section of these planes, MN in
one of the planes and MO in the other are both MK.
Z OMN is the plane Z of the dihedral Z of the
KL
HG;
J_
let
.*.
planes
Z OMN is a rt. Z.
V ZsOMK, OMN are rt. Zs,
OM plane FHG.
OM produced both ways is the locus of all points
equidistant from F, H and G.
.-.
.*.
..
Similarly OL produced
distant from
is
.'.
E,
the only point
O
G and
is
is
the locus of
all
points equi-
H and G.
common
to these loci.
the centre of a sphere that passes through
is no other point that can be the

through these points.
81. Properties of the Sphere.
E, F, H,
there
centre of a sphere
is
1.
The
circle.
2.
section of the surface of a sphere
Any number
of great circles
may
by a plane
pass through the
extremities, of the diameter of a sphere; but through
two points on the surface that are not the extremities of

a diameter only one great circle can pass.
3. Small circles of a sphere made by planes equidistant
from the centre are equal.
SPHERES
61
4. Of small circles of a sphere

made by planes
unequally distant from the centre, that made by the
more remote plane is the smaller.
5.
The common
secting spheres
axis
6.
is
is
section of the surfaces of
two
inter-
the circumference of a circle whose
the line of centres of the spheres.
sphere
may
be generated by the rotation of a
semi-circle about its diameter.

7.
if
plane touches a sphere, or
is
a tangent
plane,
the perpendicular from the centre to the plane equals
the radius of the sphere.

8. A straight line is a tangent to a sphere, if the perpendicular from the centre to the line equals the radius.
The tangent
lines
drawn from an external point
to a
sphere form a tangent cone.

9.
volume
plane through the centre of a sphere bisects the

of the sphere, and also bisects its surface.
SOLID GEOMETRY
62
82.
What
1.
Exercises
kind of circles of the earth are ||s of latitude? the

What kind is the equator ? Note : Assume the earth
meridians?
to be a sphere.
The radius
2.
Find the area of a small

from the centre.
of a sphere is 10 in.
whose plane
circle
is
in.
3. From an external point at a distance a from the centre of a

sphere of radius h, tangents are drawn to the sphere forming a tangent cone.
Show that the area of the curved surface of the cone,
bounded by
its circle of
contact,
is
^.
in. in length is placed inside a sphere of diameter

that the locus of the middle point of the chord is
the surface of a sphere of radius 3 in.
4.
10
chord 8
Show
in.
Three balls each a inches in diameter lie in contact on a plane

and a fourth equal ball is placed on them. Show that the
height of the centre of the fourth ball above the plane is
5.
surface
Prove that a circle

through its poles.
6.
of a sphere is at rt. Zs.
to all the great
circles
7.
Prove that the great
circle
through the poles of two given
great circles has for its poles the intersections of the given great
circles.
8.
All points
on the circumference
of a circle of a sphere are
equidistant from one of the poles of the
circle.
with a = 15, 6 = 9, c = 12.

Prove that the
a
9. ABC
locus of a point in space that is equidistant from B and C and at
a distance from A of 3.5 is a circle with radius 2.8.
is
Any st, lines are drawn in space

10. P and Q are given points.
Show that
through P and J.s are drawn to these lines from Q.
the locus of the feet of the _Ls is the surface of a sphere of which
PQ is a diameter.
11.
points
of
The
is
ratio of the distances of a point in space
constant.
Show
a sphere.
(Note: See Ontario H.
S.
from two
that the locus of the point
Geometry, page
248, Ex. 18.)
is
fixed
the surface
ZONE AND SPHERICAL SEGMENT
63
zone is the portion of the surface

between two parallel planes. A lune
the portion of the surface of a sphere bounded by two
83. Definitions.
of a sphere included
is
semicircles of great circles.
A spherical segment is the portion of a sphere included

between two parallel planes.
The bases of a spherical
segment are the circular sections made by the parallel
planes.
The
altitude of a spherical
segment
is
distance between the parallel planes.
ment
one base
of
planes
is
is
the perpendicular
spherical seg-
a segment one of whose bounding
tangent to the sphere.

KE, HM and
84. EG F is a semicircle.
GN are drawn the diameter EF.
If
the figure rotates about EF as axis,
the semicircle generates a sphere;
the
semicircumference EGF generates the

surface of the sphere; KE generates a
tangent plane; the arc GH generates a
zone; the figure GHMN generates a spherFig. 74.
ical
segment; the figure
EHM
generates
a spherical segment of one base.

85.
The
To
find the area of a zone.
ACB roAB generates

The arc CD gen-
semicircle
tating about
a sphere.
erates a zone of the sphere.
Bisect the arc
CD
at E
and draw CE, DE. The _Ls

on these chords from O are
= and bisect the chords, Draw CF,
AB.
and draw CH
1
Fig. 75.
MN and EG
AB;
SOLID
64
The chord CE
rotating about
surface of a frustum of a
subsection
5,
GEOMETRY
AB
generates the curved
circular cone, and,
rt.
the area of the frustum
by
77,
= 7r.CE(CF+EG)
27r.CE. MN.
MN = CH OM = FG OM.
.*.
CE
.'.
the area of the frustum generated by
CE =
27r.FG.OM.
generated by ED
Similarly area of frustum
2.7r.GK.OIVI.
The sum
of these areas
27r
OM
FK.
draw the chords of these

from O on one of these chords.
Bisect the arcs CE, ED;

arcs;
and let OM^ be the
Then the sum of the areas of

= 27r OMi FK.
frustums
If
the four corresponding
the divisions be indefinitely continued, the
sum
frustums approaches the area of

OM approaches R, the radius of the
of the surfaces of the
the zone and the
_L
sphere.
.*.
is
the area of the zone
27rR
FK =
27rR/i,
where
the altitude of the zone.
Cor. The surface of a sphere may be regarded as a

Then
zone whose altitude is a diameter of the sphere.
the surface of the sphere = 27rR 2R = 47rR2.
.
VOLUME OF A SPHERE
86.
To
find the
volume
65
of a sphere.
Let a sphere and a right circular cylinder having the

diamet'sr, 2r, stand on the same plane surface.
same
D
Fig. TG.
the base through the centre of the

Pass a plane
sphere and cutting the cylinder in a section whose centre
A right circular cone on the same base with the
is P.
1
cylinder has its vertex at P.
Pass a plane
to the base
|]
and at the height x above
tne base, cutting the sphere in the circle with centre E,

the cylinder and the cone in circles both with centre
F.
OE = PF = R - x; EH2 = r2 _ (r _ xY; FK = R;
FG = FP = R - a;.
The area of the section with centre E = t EH^
.
The area
F
is
.*.
TT
FK2
of the ring
TT
FG2
between the two
TT
j R2
(R
circles
a;)2
the area of the section of the sphere
with centre
the area of
the section of the solid between the curved surfaces of

the cylinder and of the cone.
If
x increases continuously, from 0 to R, the sections

the moving plane generate the volumes of the
made by
hemisphere and of the solid between the cylinder and

the cone.
SOLID
66
GEOMETRY
Thus each of these volumes is the sum of an infinite

number of thin, plane sections and for each value of x
the corresponding sections are equal.
= the difference
/. the volume of the hemisphere
between the volumes of a right circular cylinder and of
a right circular cone each having a base whose radius =
the radius of the sphere and altitude also = the radius
of the sphere = ttR^ R | R ttR^ = f ttR^.
.
the volume of the sphere
.'.
4
^ttR^.
The volume of a spherical segment.

From the diagram and proof of 86 it
87.
in a sphere,
of radius R, the
volume
is
seen that,
of a spherical seg-
of one base and of height }i = the difference between the volume of a cylinder of height h and radius R
and the volume of a frustum of a cone of height h whose
bases have radii of R and R h
ment
=:
tR% - ^|R2 + (R-/i)2 + R
(R-;i)|,74,77,
(3R-/.).
The volume of a spherical segment may be found by

taking the difference of the volumes of two spherical
segments each of one base.
Historical Note. Archimedes, born at Syracuse in Sicily, died 212 B.C.,

proved that the surface and volume of a sphere are respectively of the total surface
and of the volume of the right cylinder circumscribed about the sphere.
EXERCISES
88.
Exercises
1.
Find the area and volume
2.
What
is
metal
of a sphere whose radius is 6 in.

Ans. 144 TT sq. in. and 288 tt cu, in.
number
the radius of a sphere, the
area of whose surface

3.
67
the
number
an outer diameter
Find the number of cu.
spherical shell has
is
one inch thick.
of sq. in. in the
of cu. in. in its
volume?
and the
metal in the
of 12 in.
in. of
Ans. 381g cu.
The diameters
4.
circular cylinder
and
of the bases of a rt. circular cone
and
in.
of a rt.
also the altitude of each are respectively the
same as the diameter
Show
of a sphere.
that the volumes are
in A. P.
Spheres are inscribed in and circumscribed about a given cube.

that the volumes of the cube, the inscribed sphere and the
circumscribed sphere are as 6 vr Stta/S. Show also that the areas
5.
Show
of their surfaces ase as 6
6.
ume
cube
of the
is
tt
Stt.
inscribed in a sphere of radius 6 in.
Find the vol-
by the plane of a face

Ans. IGtt (9 4^3) cu. in.
and circumscribed spheres of
a; and show that the volume
minor spherical segment cut
of the cube.
off
7. Find the radii of the inscribed

a regular tetrahedron whose edge is
of the circumscribed sphere is 27 times that of the inscribed sphere.
Show that the radii
8.
of a regular
and circumscribed spheres

1
Show
9.
the
of the inscribed
octahedron are in the ratio of
that the area of the zone of the earth's surface between

of North latitude 45 and 60 is to the whole surface of the
!ls
earth as
10.
VS V2
Show
4.
that, in order to see
^th
of the surface of the earth,
the height of an observer above the surface must be
r>
of the
radius.
11.
cap and
is
the pole of the circle inclosing the base of a spherical

any point on the circumference of that circle. Show
A is
that the area of the cap

12.
moon.
The diameter
What
is
tt.
AP^.
of the earth is
about four times that of the

? of their volumes ?
the ratio of their surfaces
GEOMETRY
SOLID
68
13.
The radius
a plane 5
the cap.
of a sphere is 8 in.
from the centre
spherical cap
is
cut
off
by
Find the volume of

Ans. 63 t cu. in.
14. The radius of a sphere is 10 in.
A spherical segment is cut
planes, 4 in. and 6 in. from the centre.
off by
Find the volume
in.
of the sphere.
II
of the spherical segment.

15.
The radius
Ans.
of a solid sphere is 10 in.
cu. in.
cylindrical hole of
diameter 12 in. is cut through the sphere, the axis of the cylinder
passing through the centre of the sphere.
Show that the volume
.
19527r
of the part cut out is
(a)
Prove that the line joining the middle points of one pair of
opposite sides of a sekw quadrilateral bisects the line joining the
middle points of the other pair.
2. If from any point within a regular tetrahedron _Ls are drawn
1.
sum
to the four faces, the
s =
of these
the altitude of the
tetrahedron.
3.
AB, AC,
the edge
4.
If,
AD
is a.
are three edges of a cube of which the length of
Show
that the
in a tetrahedron
VEFG,
from
A to
BCD = ^^.
Zs EVF, EGF
the plane
the bisectors of the
meet in EF, the bisectors of the Zs VEG, VFG meet in VG.

5. If two lines in one plane are equally inclined to another
plane, they are equally inclined to the common section of the two
planes.
(Note: CE, DF, in plane A, are equally inclined to plane
Make CE = DF and
B, and EF is the common section of A, B.
draw CM, DN both B. Draw MP, NQ both _L EF, etc.)
6. Ai, Vi are respectively the area and volume of a cube inscribed in a sphere; A2, V2 the area and volume of a regular octa-
hedron inscribed
7.
Each edge
its faces
in the
same sphere.
of a tetrahedron
are acute
Zd
Show that
~ V2 ^
the opposite edge.
\/3'
Prove that
As.
The area of the surface

Show that S3 = SOttV^.
8.
of a sphere
is
S and
its
volume
is
V.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES
9.
A ABC
Zd
rt.
rotates about its hypotenuse
that the volume generated
ated surface
10.
AB.
and that the area
of the gener-
The sum
of the squares
on the edges
st.
any tetrahedron
of
lines joining the
is
middle
if two pairs of opposite edges are _L

the
and the sum of the squares on each pair of
In a tetrahedron,
third pair are
Prove
7rah{a+b)
four times the sum of the squares on the

points of opposite edges.
11.
69
(Note: See Ex. 7, 42, Note.)

is the same.
In any trihedral Z the three planes bisecting the three
dihedral Zs intersect in the same line.
the three planes passing through the
13. In any trihedral Z
edges and the respective bisectors of the opposite face Z s intersect
opposite edges
12.
in the
same line.
The sum of the squares on
all the edges of a parallelepiped

square on the four diagonals.
the volumes of two pyramids which have the
15.
same altitude have the same ratio as the areas of their bases.
16. The six planes, each of which passes through an edge of a
tetrahedron and bisects the opposite edge, have a common point.
14.
the
17.
sum of the
Show that
A frustum
of
a triangular pyramid
planes into three pyramids, one of which
may
is
be divided by two
the
mean
proportional
between the other two.

18.
is
faces that
a corner of a cube;
meet at A.
Show
AB, AC,
AD
the diagonals of the
that the tetrahedron
ABCD
is
one
third of the cube.

19.
part 3
ft. in diameter consists of a cylindrical

high surmounted by a conical part.
The vertex of the
6 ft. from the ground. Show that the area of canvas is
cone is
44 IT sq.
20.
circular tent 8
ft.
ft.
sphere
is
parts in the ratio
by a plane which divides the diameter into

3:5. Show that the plane divides the sphere
cut
into segments whose volumes are as 81

21.
In general, an
intersecting
22.
infinite
any three given
number
175.
of st. lines
Find a point within a tetrahedron such that,
to the four vertices, the tetrahedron

of equal volumes.
(Note:
can be drawn
st. lines.
Use
is
if it be joined
divided into four tetrahedra
59.)
GEOMETRY
SOLID
70
23.
Show
that the
from a corner
of a
cube to a diagonal that
does not pass through the corner
an edge
of the cube.
in the ratio 1
VEFG
Show
= gV^, when
is
the length of
also that the JL divides the diagonal
2.
a regular tetrahedron and K is the middle point

Show that each of KE, KF,
to the face EFG.
KG is to each of the other two.
25. The plane which bisects a dihedral Z of a tetrahedron
divides the opposite edge into segments proportional to the areas
of the faces containing the dihedral Z
26. O is any point within the tetrahedron A BCD.
AO, BO,
24.
of the JL
from
DO
CO,
is
produced cut the faces in P,
OP
OQ OR OS
Show that AP + BQ + CR + DS
27. OA, OB, OC are three edges of
^
of
which the dimensions are
the
A ABC
Q,
R,
respectively.
a, 6,
and
a rectangular parallelepiped
Show that the area of
c.
Vcâ^+a^b^+feV.
Show that
a point within the tetrahedron ABCD.
PA2
PB2
PC2 4- PD2 is a minimum, if P coincides with the
intersection of the lines joining the middle points of opposite sides
P
28.
is
of the tetrahedron.
29.
St.
30.
st.
Find the locus of a point at a given distance from a given
line of given length.
Show
line is in
that line
31.
a given ratio to
ABCD.
s from
is
distance from a fixed plane
pair of opposite edges of a tetrahedron are equal.
st.
lines joining the
of opposite edges are

32.
its
B, C,
the
to the plane
to the opposite faces of
BCD
BCD
of the tetrahedron
at
intersects the
ABCD.
radius of the base of a right circular cone
radius of a given sphere,
the sphere.
the sphere.
Show
the orthocentre of the base
Show that
The
to
middle points of the other two pairs
33. Draw a st. line terminated in two skew lines and

given direction.
34.
J_
a conical surface.
is
One
that the
that the locus of a point whose distance from a fixed
and the volume
is
!|
toa
twice the
of the cone equals that of
Prove that the height of the oone equals the radius of
71
35. F and G are opposite corners of a cube and the adjacent

middle points of the six edges which do not pass through either F or
G are joined. Prove that these joining Hnes lie in a plane bisecting FG at rt. Z s and form a regular hexagon.
The
36.
equal to the lateral surface of a

and the
two thirds of the volume of the cylinder.
surface of a sphere
is
right circular cyUnder circumscribed about the sphere;
volume
37.
of the sphere is
Show
that the small circle of 30 North Latitude bisects the
surface of the Northern Hemisphere.

38.
Show
that the part of the surface of the earth bounded
the equator and the small circle of 45 North Latitude
by
\/2
of the
is
whole surface.
The edges
of the base of a right triangular prism are 13, 14,

Find the area of a section made by a plane passing through
an edge of the base and making an Z of 60"" with the base.
Ans. 168 sq. cm.
40. A variable line drawn from a fixed point P meets the surface
of a fixed sphere at G and H.
Show that the rectangb PG PH
39.
15 cm.
is
constant.
(6)
a given point in a given plane A; and P, Q are two

given points not in A.
It is required to draw in A a line through
E such that the s to the required line from P and Q meet it at
the same point.
(Note. Draw PM, QN both X A and through
E draw a line JL IVIN.)
41.
is
42.
E, P,
and R are four given points
to determine a line through
E such
in space.
It is required
that the _Ls from P,
and R
to the required line are concurrent.

43.
Prove that the
right triangular prism
drawn
JL
to the lower base of a truncated
from the centroid
upper base, is equal

(Note. Drop a JL
to the lower face from the middle point of one of the lines joining
the centroid of the upper face to a vertex.)
to one third of the
44.
sum
of the
of the lateral edges.
Prove that the shortest distance between two opposite edges

middle points and
of a regular tetrahedron is the line joining their
that
it
where a
is
the length of an edge.
72
GEOMETRY
SOLID
The
45.
tively,
tively;
line
St.
PQRS
cuts the
A st.
and PQ = RS.
and a st. line
||
planes A,
PCD cuts A, B
SEP cuts B, A at E,
As QCF, RED are = in area.
Prove that the

46. Given three
lines,
at Q,
at C,
line
no two
of
R
D
respec-
respec-
respectively.
which are in the same plane,
construct a parallelepiped three of whose edges are in these lines.

47.
is
a point within the tetrahedron
ABCD.
Prove that the
sum of the Zs subtended by the sides of the A ABC at D < the

sum of the Z s subtended at P by the same sides. (Note. Produce
AP
DBC
to cut the plane
Draw AF and CE.

ZPAC, etc.)
DC
PAB +
produce to cut
DAB + Z DAC >
Prove Z
at F.
BE and
Join
at E.
The A ABC rotates about a Hne XAY in the plane of the

and such that it does not cut the A and is not BC.
Prove
that the volume generated by A ABC = the product of the area
generated by BC multiplied by one third of the length of the
from A to BC.
49. P is any point in the face EFG of the tetrahedron V EFG.
Through P lines PQ, PR, PS drawn to VE, VF, VG respectively
48.
|I
||
meet the faces in Q, RandS.
Show that
(Note: EP cuts FG at L.
Show
PQ
PR
+ yp +
that V,
Q, L
PS
are in a
1.
st.
line, etc.)
50.
Shbw
OC
OA, OB,
that
are three lines each of which
and from
the other two,

is
_L
OM
is
the orthocentre of the
drawn
is _L
to each of
to the plane
ABC.
ABC.
51. Having given tho three plane Zs of a trihedral Z, find,

construction, one of the dihedral Z s.
E,
by
OA, OB, OC are produced to points D,

Prove that the volume of the tetrahedron
to the volume of the tetrahedron O DEF as
52.
The skew
respectively.
st.
lines
O ABC is
OA OB OC is to OD OE OF.
53. O is the orthocentre of the acute Zd A ABC and AX
From O a _L OP is drawn to the plane ABC.
Show that,
BC.
if 0P2 = AO
OX, eachsid of the A ABC subtends a rt. Z at P.
.
the centre of a small circle of a sphere whose centre is

A spherical cap with apex N and a cone with vertex O have
O.
If the area of the cap = the
the small circle as a common base.
54.
is
area of the cone,
show that -j^^ =
g.
Part
1. ANALYTICAL
GEOMETRY
FORMULA
The following important
results
from algebra and trigonometry
are frequently used in analytical geometry

1.
The
roots of the quadratic equations ax"^
+ Jb^ -
ac
2bx
0 are
- ac
Jh''
These roots are

or
real,
if
b"^
imaginary,
if
6^
equal to each other,
if
6^
< ac
=
ac
ac
equal in magnitude but

ODDosite in sign,
if
rational,
if
6^
One
if
if
root ==0,
both roots
The sum
of
0,
the
roots
=
=
perfect square.
0.
is
~
a
The product
2.
The
fraction
of the roots
^ =
oo
if
0 and a
not
0.
b
3.
The equation ax + by +
nx^
2bx
5.
is
_^
a perfect square,
a^x
b-^y
and a^x
62?/
If
the same as
^_A_
if
4.
c-^z
if
6^
^5
px + qy {
ac.
then
^1^2 ~ ^2^1
câa - câ^
iii
(^^b^
a^b-^
0,
FORMULA
IV
6.
For
values of
all
sin
tan
sin
(A
cos
(A
sin
A+
7.
If
8.
9.
if\
10. tan
/ A
(A
k, a
B)
B)
sin
n,
cos
o\
B)
=
=
=
sin
cos
B =
tan
A
A
"^/c.
cos
cos
2 sin
1.
B
B +
cos
sin
('^'^
= tan
A tan B
1 + tan A tan B
A
A
~
sin B.
sin B.
^, etCc
CONTENTS
Chapter
paqb
C ARTESIAN Coordinates
Rectangular Coordinates
The Distance Between Two Points
Area of a Triangle
14
Loci
18
Chapter
II
The Straight Line
25
The Angle Between Two Straight Lines
...
Perpendiculars
Chapter
40
45
III
The Straight Line Continued
57
Transformation of Coordinates
62
Review Exercises
66
Chapter IV
The Circle
72
Tangents
79
Poles and Polars
88
Tangents from an Outside Point

Radical Axis
..
..o <,,....
Answers
95
o
97
99
113
ELEMENTARY ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY

CHAPTER
Cartesian Coordinates
1.
Analytical, or algebraic,
by Descartes in
beginning of
the
mathematics.
it
and
geometry was invented

invention marks the
the modern period of
this
history of
It differs
down a
lays
1-637,
from pure geometry in that

by a few
general method, in which,
simple rules, any property can be at once proved or

disproved, while in the latter each problem requires a
special
method
The
of its own.
In plane analytical geometry the

positions of all points in the plane are determined by
their distances and directions as measured from a fixed
2.
Origin.
point.
If the points are all in a
st. line,
most conveniently taken in that
Thus,
if
the fixed point
is
line.
the distance and direction of each of the
points A, B, C, D, E from the point

positions of these points are
The point O
is
are given, the
known.
called the origin, or pole.

1
Use
3.
and minus.
of plus
In algebra
the
signs
plus and minus are used to indicate opposite qualities

the numbers to which they are prefixed
of
and in
analytical geometry, as in trigonometry, these signs are
used to show difference of direction.

line
st.
measured from
distances
right are taken
In a horizontal
the
origin
the
to
to be positive, while those to the left
negative
and in a vertical st. line distances
measured upward are positive, while those measured
downward are negative. Thus, in Fig. 1, if OA = 2 cm.,
1 cm., and OE = 3 cm.,
OB = 3 cm., OO := 5 cm., OD
are
--^
the positions of
sented
by
2,
these
3,
5,
points
and
are
3,
respectively
repre-
the understood unit
being one centimetre.
Rectangular Coordinates
4.
Coordinates.
st. line,
When
points are not in the same
their positions are determined
Fig.
from two
st.
lines
st.
lines.
their distances
2.
xOx and
origin, the distances being
the given
by
y'Oy drawn through the

measured in directions
to
||
RECTANGULAR COORDINATES
These lines are called the axes of coordinates, or

shortly, the axes.
x'Ox
called the axis of x,
is
and y'Oy
called
is
the
axis of y.
From a
point P
draw PM Oy and PN Ox, terminated

\\
||
in the axes.
PM
is
called the ordinate of P,
the
called
abscissa
abscissa
of
and PN
= OM),
is
These two distances, the
P.
and ordinate, are
called
the
coordinates of
the point.
Sometimes, from the name of the inventor, they are
spoken of as cartesian coordinates.

5.
rt.
Rectangular coordinates.
Zs
to
When
the axes are at
each other, the distances of a point from
the axes are called
its
rectangular coordinates.
y.
-r
41-
y
Fig. 3.
To
locate the point of
the ordinate 3
when the
which the abscissa
is
4 and
coordinates are rectangular,
measure the distance OM = 4 units along Ox and at

M erect the J_ PM = 3 units. P is the required point.
-i i
-f
r
-\
-(
J-
\-
Fig.
4.
(Unit
i inch.
2*8, the ordinate

In Fig. 4, the abscissa of P = OM
P = PM = 2. The position of tliis point is then
indicated by the notation (2 '8, 2).
For Q, the abscissa =
ON = - 1"6, the ordinate = QN = 2 6 and the position
of
of the point is indicated
Similarly
that of S
the
is (1-4,
xOy, yOx\
by
position
of
1*6,
R
is
2-6).
(
1,
1*6),
and
-1-2).
x'.Oy'
and y'Ox are respectively called

and fourth quadrants; and we
the
first,
see
from the diagram, that:
second, third
for a point
are positive;
in
the
first
quadrant both coordinates
EXERCISES
quadrant the abscissa
for a point in the second
negative and
ordinate
tlie
for a point in
tlie
is
positive
is
third quadrant both are negative;
and
for a point in the fourth the abscissa
the ordinate
Thus the
is
positive
and
negative.
is
signs of the coordinates
which quadrant the point
is
show
at once in
located.
6. Exercises
1.
Write down the coordinates

H and O in Fig. 5.
of the points A, B, C, D,
E, F, G,
V-
1
1
)-
-f
\
\
Fm.
2.
the
(Unit
5,
Draw a diagram on
following points : A
-
4,
2),
(0,
2-8).
inch.)
squared paper, and mark on

(4,
3),
(4-6,
0),
2,
it
3),
Indicate the unit of measurement
on the diagram.
Draw
3.
diagram on squared paper and mark the

- 3, - 4), ( - 4, 3), (0, 5),
3), (3, 4), (
following points -(4,

:
(0,
5),
5,
0).
Describe a circle with centre
O and
6
radius
5.
Should the
circle pass
through the seven
points'?
Why?
The
4.
an equilateral A = 2a. One vertex is at

is on the axis of x and the A is in the
side of
the origin, one side
What
quadrant.
first
vertices
One corner
f).
the
are
coordinates
of
the
three
coincide with
of a square is taken as origin
two
sides.
The length
of a side
and the axes

is
h.
What
are the coordinates of the corners, the square being in the
quadrant?
first
The Distance Between Two Points

7.
by
In general, the abscissa of a point
X,
8.
the ordinate by
To
and the
find the distance
Fig. 6.
V PMO
.-.
P02 =
i.
is
represented
between a point P
orig-in.
From P draw PM
is
y.
Ox.
a rt.-zd A,
OM2 + PM2
(cc^
y{)
THE DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS
To
9.
(^2.
distance
the
find
between
(x^,
and
2/2)-
y
Fig.
Draw PM and QN
QL =
NM
PL = PM
_L 0:c
OM
LM = PM
V PLQ
.*.
is
ON
î;^
7.
QL
-
QN =
i.
PM.
x.,.
^1 - y^.
a rt.-Zd A,
PQ' = QL^
PL2
PQ
10.
O,
X.2
Q
= 0.
If the point
= 0 and
y.,
expression for
PQ
in
9 coincides with the origin
Substituting these values, in the
in that article
PO =
^/x^'
we
2/1'.
This shows that the result in 8

of that in
is
a particular case
9.
The result in 9 holds good, in the same form,

any two points whether the coordinates are positive
11.
for
obtain
or negative.
For example
between P (- 3,
required
is
it
and Q
2)
to
(5,
the
find
distance
2).
-f )
Fig.
Draw PM, QN i
The length of
ML
of
i*^
inch.)
QL PM.
= length of
PL = PM
.-.
The length
(Unit
8.
Oa?
4-
QL = NM =
PQ2 = QL2
64+
ML
= 2
3 =
8.
4-
NQ =
2.
4.
PU
16 = 80.
in the expression for PQ found in

and
2 for y^, 5 for
3 for
stitute
If
we
obtain
PQ -
\/{- 3 - 5)24.(2
= 4
the same
result.
/ 5,
+ 27
9,
we
sub-
2 for y^,
THE DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

12.
what
The
particular cases in
known
is
in analytical
as
10 and 11 illustrate
continuity
the
diagram used are

same form for all points.
in the
To
the
of
formulae
Here continuity means, that
geometry.
when
general results which are obtained
13.
the coordinates
positive hold true in the
all
of the middle point
find the coordinates
of the distance between two given points P
and Q
(x^, 2/2)-
jr
__.JS
Fig.
Let R
(x,
a:
9.
y) be the middle point of PQ.
Draw PM, QN, RL

From
_L
Ox
QS
_l
RL; RT
As PRT, RQS,
QS RT and RS = PT.
NL = LM,
the equality of
/.
-^"4"
00-]
=
RS =
^
*.
y
.
"
y
U
0C{)
PT,
y2
:=
yiJh
=
2
Vi
y-
_l
PM.
{x^,
y^)
10
Thus the coordinates
14.
To
of R are
find the coordinates of the point dividing
the distance between P

ratio of m to n.
{x^
2/1)
('^2 2/2)
in
the
Q
0
-'^
.
Fig. 10.
Let R
{x,
y) be
the
dividing
point
PQ
such
PR
m
RQ ~ n
Draw PM, QN, RL

From
the similar
Oa;;
As
QS
RT - PT ~ PR
RQ
QS
RS
--
x^
RL; RT
RQS
PRT,
RT QS
n
_L
>
mx mx
PM.
that
ll
EXERCISES
m+
PT _
~m
RS
n
Vi
"
- y ^
- y
my
'
^.
^"
-i
my.y
---
m
Thus the coordinates
m
If the point
15.
PR
RQ =
(x^, 2/1), (.^2, 2/2) it
that in
tlie
'
+ n
ny^
ny.
of R are
'
+ n
R be taken in PQ produced such that

and tlie coordinates of P, Q be
may be shown by a proof similar to
n,
previous article that the coordinates of R are
mx2 - nxi
- n
my2 - nyi
'
- n
and also those 0/ 13 and

same for oblique and rectangular axes
These results
the
IJ^.
are
16. Exercises
1.
and
Find the distance between, the points (6, 5) and (1, your result by measurement on squared paper.
7)
test
Find the distance between the points (2, - 3) and

(-1, 1) and test your result by measurement on squared
2.
paper.
3.
Find the coordinates
of the
middle points of the
joining the pairs of points in exercises
and
test the results
and
st.
lines
2 respectively
by measurements on the diagrams.
ELEiMENTARY ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
12
Find,
4.
(-3,
The
5.
two decimal
to
and
7)
The
0.
(a)
vertices of a
Find the lengths of
Find
the
places,
between
distance
-4).
(4,
are (-2,
(-8, -4) and
4),
(7, 4).
its sides.
vertices of a
are (-1,
the lengths of the sides
(-4, -2),
5),
(5,
?>).
the lengths of the
(6)
medians.
The
7.
(
3,
vertices
4),
(6,
a quadrilateral are
of
Find the lengths
2).
(4,
- 5, 2),
and also
3),
of its sides,
of its diagonals.
Find the coordinates of the middle point

- 2) and ( - 3, 2).
8.
the
of
st.
line joining (3,
Find the points
9.
(1,
and
3)
The
10.
divided at R
= 11.
the
of
line joining
st.
(x,
y) so that
PR
4,
-3) and Q
RQ =5:2.
(6,
Show
1)
that
2y.
Find the length
of the
st.
line joining the origin to
h).
The
st.
divided at
R,
12.
trisection
joining
line
St.
is
{a,
of
1).
(6,
line
joining
that
so
the
origin
P (-4,
to
OR RQ QP =
:
2.
7)
is
Find
the distance RQ.

13.
The length
one end are

is
7,
14.
of a st
-5, 8).
line is 17
and the coordinates of

the other end
If the ordinate of
find its abscissa.
Find
in its simplest
the fact that

15.
(.r,
y)
is
form the equation which expresses
equidistant from
(5, 2)
Find the centre and radius of the

2), (3, 7) and ( - 2, 4).
through
(."1,
and
circle
(3, 7).
which passes
EXERCISES
13
Find the points which are distant 15 from (-2, - 10)

and 13 from (2, 14).
16.
Suggestion
the sides
Take
A ABC
Take
Suggestion
19.
at
nates of
he
If
BC
20.
21.
to
The
iii:
n,
2 (AD2
DC as axis of x and the

DC = a, and the coordi-
as origin,
Let
y.
Take
(ui
n)
as origin,
Let
us axis of y.
of
AD^
vertices of a
line joining
st.
so that
22.
The
produced to
nat3s of C.
BC
('2,
line
so
A ABC
BD^
such
+ m DC^
DC as axis of x and the

BD = - ma, DC = 7ia, and
joining
that
{x-^,
(x^,
y^),
1) to
(3,
AC BC =
:
y^),
its centroid.
9) is
produced
+w
are the points
AC BC =7:2.
St.
of
he (x^, y^.
Find the coordinates of
The
DC^),
-[-
show that
at
2/3).
+ m AC
the coordinates
(x^,
a point in the base
is
Suggestion:
to
and
y^.
(x-^,
n AB'
_L
of the rt. Z for origin

Z for axes.
prove that
as axis of
BD DC =
that
are equidistant
hypotenuse.
the middle point of BC.
is
BC
the rt.
+ AC^
AB2
wliere
tlie
the vertex
which contain
In any
18.
J_ to
Prove that the vertices of a rt.-Zd
17.
from the middle point of
2)
3:2.
of C.
B ( - 4, - 6) is
Find the coordi-
to
14
The Area of a Triangle

17.
To
the
find
vertices are
area
B
(.x-^
the
of
(.t^,
of which
and C
y^)
{x^,
the
y^).
Fig. 11.
Draw
the ordiiiates AL, BM, CN.
From
the diagram,
A ABC
The area
are
||
ALNC -
il
- 1
ALMB
- i
+ 2/2)
ALMB.
quadrilateral
sum
of
the
of
which two sides

X tlie distance
sides
||
sides.
+ CN) X LN = {y^ + V^)

(CN + BM) X NM = 1 (2/3 + 2/2) (^2 (AL + BM) X LM = H^/i + 2/2) (^2 "
- î) + (2/3 + 2/2) (^2 (Vi + 2/3)
J (AL
CNMB
A ABC =
(2/1
of
half the
between the
/.
+ CNMB
= ALNC
|-
-;
^3).
î)a^3)
(^2 - î)}-
Simplifying,
A ABC
= i {xi
(y, - y,)
X2 (Ys
Yi)
X3 (y^ - y,)}-
THE AREA OF A TRIANGLE

Note.
the
in the 0])posite direction
a clock
hands
roill
The points have been
rotate
must
taken in circular order about

in which the hands of
to that
if they are taken in the same direction as the
rotate,
appear
15
the
formida
but,
same
result o^dy
it
of course, the area of a
I\
will give the
be negative
to
be positive.
18.
(3, 2),
To find the area of the

(-4, 3), (-.2, -4.1
of
which the
vertices are
~1
1
-i
F
\
-
-L-
-4-
\
-<
y
Fig. 12.
Draw
the
ordiiiates
meet AL,
diagram
on
A ABC
produced at
= BRSA
BRSA =
J (BR
inch.)
squared
paper.
Draw
Through C draw RCS
AL, BM, CN.
BM
(Unit
||
OiC to
S, R.
A BRC
+ AS)
RS =1
ACS.
(7
6) < 7
the
16
= J BR
A BRC
X RC
X2
14
=
2i
...
A ASC
= \ AS
AABC
X SC =
we
>:
91-14-30 ^47
2
If
30
and C
substitute the coordinates of A, B
formula of
AABC
we
17,
= \ {3(3 + 4)
+ (-4)(-4
- 2)
+ (-
2) (2 - 3)}
47
= 1(21
in the
obtain
+ 2)=-^;
24
the same result as before.
This
the continuity of
illustrates
symmetrical
tlie
result found in 17 for tlie area of a A.

19.
1.
Find, from a
the vertices are
diagram,
(o, o),
using the formula of

2.
Draw
their areas;
Exercises
the area
of
the
Check your
(c, d).
(f/,
of
which
result
by-
7.
As on
the following
squared paper and
find
checking your results by using the formula of
17:(1, 4),
()
3.
(4,
(c)
(0, 0),
Find the
4.
Find
the
(5,-1);
2),
-2), (-5, -1), (-2, -6);
(6)
area
vertices are (3, 6),
(-2,
(3, 4-5,),
of
(-2,
area
of
(-2-5,
the
4),
(2,
the
vertices are (0, 0^, (4, 0), (3, 6)
4).
quadrilateral
-2) and
of
which
the
which
the
(7, 3).
quadrilateral
and (-3,
3).
of
THE AREA OF A TRIANGLE

F are respectively the middle points of
D, E,
5.
BC, CA;
AB
of
(3,
(-2, 4);
5),
points are in a
st.
7. Find the area

and hhow that the
8.
to
and
BC
A ABC
as axis of x, that
17,
= 4
A of which the vertices are

and the.ice show that if these
5// - x = 22.
Find the area of the
6.
{x, y),
sides
tlie
Prove by the formula of
A.
taking B as origin and
DEF.
17
man
C,
the
4,
8),
starts
to
line
from
4,
3),
A ( - 3, 2), B (7,
A to BC = BC.
O and
from
D,
coordinates
(
of the
goes to
to
O.
of
A, B, C,
find
If
A,
2),
from
(3,
10);
to B,
be taken as the origin
are
-3),
(0,
3),
(8,
the distance he has travelled, the
unit being one mile.
Show from the formula for

B (I'J, 10) and C (7,
(3, -2),
9.
Find the ratio of
line.
10.
Show
that
AC
to
y^,
{--î (y-2
11.
in
its
- yd
In the
BO
Show
area
so
that
that
st.
CB.
(x^,
y^),
(x.^,
{x.^,
y.^),
y.^
and
is
+ ^2
(y-,
2/1)
+ ^8 {y^ -
OAB, P is taken in OA, Q

OP PA - AQ QB = BR
PQR A OAB = 7 16.
that
of
are in the same
1)
the coordinates of the vertices taken in
if
order of a quadrilateral are

{x^,
area
the
^4 Cî
AB
RO =
in
:
2/J-
and R
3
1.

18
Loci
The
20.
definition
Geometry, page 77)
of
locus
(see
Ontario H.
S.
is:
When
a figure consisting of a line or lines contains all the points that satisfy a given condition,
and no others, this figure is called the locus of
these points.
The condition
whicli
may
points satisfy
tlie
be
expressed in the form of an equation involving the
For example, take the locus
coordinates of the points.

of the
This
2/
condition,
number
etc.
points of
[i.e.:
Ox
the ordinate
wliich
which
y
expressed
is
is
S],
equal
is
by the
by an
satisfied
to
3.
equation
infinite
(-4, 3),
Ox and 3
of points, as (0, 3), (1, 3), (2, 3), (7, 3),
All such points are on a
st.
lino
AB
il
to
f
Fig. 13.
units above
it
and
this
st.
line contains
do not satisfy the condition.

represents the line AB.
no points which
Thus the equation y =
19
LOCI
Similarly the equation y
= S
represents a
st.
line
Ox and three units below it x = 3 represents a st.

line
Oy and three units to the right of the origin,
Oy and 5 units to the left
and X - o a st. line
;
II
li
||
of the origin.
For another example
let
us take the condition to be
that the abscissa and ordinate of each point are equal.
The points
(0,
(1,
0),
J),
(2,
2),
(4,
4),
(-1,-1),
5,
5), etc., satisfy this condition. It is expressed

by the equation y = x. If we draw a diagram on
(
H
-2
-1
V
)-
Fig. 14.
squared paper,
join
mark some
them we get a
st.
(Unit
inch.)
of
line
these points on
AB
bisecting the
it
and
xOy
and x'Oy' every point on which satisfies the given conBetween O and (1, 1) there are an infinite
dition.
number of points, (J, J), (J, i), (^V tVX (tV. to)> etc.,
which satisfy the condition, and so on continuously
throughout the line. Thus the equation y = x represents
the line AB.
20
Again,
that
is
its
we may
consider the point which
distance from the origin
plainly
the
always
is
circumference of a
moves
circle.
so
Its locus
5.
Particular
(0.5
J
-1
4
f
S20)
t-
Fig. 15.
points on this locus are

(
3,
+
4),
2/^
etc.,
and
its
(Unit
(5,
5,0
inch.)
0),
equation
(4,
is
3),
Jx^
(8,
4),
2/^
(0,
5),
5,
or
25.
In the equation of a locus the numbers that

same for all points on the locus are called
constants
while those that change in value continuously from point to point are called variables.
21.
are the
Thus, in the equation

variables
and 25
is
a constant.
25,
x and y are
EXERCISES
21
22. Exercises
Find four or
1.
squared paper in each case
(a)
(d)
3x
-4:;
0;
{b)
(e)
=^
point moves so that
is
times
equation of
3.
(b)
What
= O't
4.
and draw the
locus
y
y
its
0;
i
(c)
X -
(/) x^
= 0;
y'^ = 1G9.
2i/
distance from the axis of
from the axis of
y.
Find the
its locus.
locus
point
and
origin
distance
2.
its
by
on
points on the lOcus represented
five
each of the following equations
is
represented by the equation (a) y
moves so that it is equidistant from the

Find the equation of its locus.
frojn (8, 0).
point moves so that it is equidistant from the

and from (3, - 5).
Find the equation of its locus,
and draw the locus on squared paper.
5.
origin
6.
A point is equidistant from (1, -2) and (-3, -4),
Find the equation and draw the locus on squared pa[)er.
7.
point moves
that
so
its
distance from
Find the equation and show that

passes through the origin.
always
5.
Tlie coordinates of
8.
the ends of the base of a
is
3)
(4,
the
locus
re
(-2, -3) and (4, -1), and the length of the median
drawn to the base is 6. Find the equation of the locus of
its vertex.
9.
(0,
The coordinates of the ends

and (5, 0), and its area
0)
equation of the locus of

10.
The coordinates
(-1, -2) and
(5,
1)
its
vertex
of
the base of a
is
10.
is
2/
Show
of the locus of its vertex.
its
area
is
9.
are
the
4.
of the ends of the base of
and
that
are
Find the equation

22
An
23.
equation connecting two variables x and y

For example, in
has an infinite number of solutions.

the equation
2/
a)
any value
7, if
may
the corresponding value of y
is
given to
x,
then be determined.
when
Thus,
=
(b)x =
(c) X =
(d) X =
(e) X =
(f)^ =
(a)
0,
=
7,
= 10,
= 13,
= 4,
= -2,
=
8,
2/
1,2/
2,2/
-1,2/
-3,2/
2/
etc.
The, in general, continuous line which passes through

the points (a),
all
the locus represented
(b), (c), etc., is
by
this equation.
Another equation as
number
of solutions,
solved together, the
x=
and
=8
has also an infinite
these
two equations are
Sy
4fX
if
common
solution obtained, in this
y = 4f, gives the coordinates of the point

intersection of the loci represented by the equations.
case
of
Sets
4x
Sy
I,
which
solutions
of
are given
X
1
(9)
2
5
4
0
the
equation
following table:
2/
(d)(h)
satisfy
in the
23
EXERCISES
If
we
these
plot
two
r
1
on squared
results
of
sets
k
-a.
-y
-J-
r
T
-1
0
(Unit
Fig. 16.
paper,
we
see
that
the
._
loci
inch.)
appear
whicli intersect at the point (d)
to
be
st.
lines
(1,
24. Exercises
1.
Plot the following loci on squared paper and find the
coordinates of their points of intersection
(a)
2.
+
+
{h)
a:
(c)
2>x
(^rl)
3.r
4-
(e)
3:c
=
=
2y
8y = 42/ =
y
5?/
and
and dx
18 and
0 and
4 i5 = 0
and
:c
4?;
x'^
- 2y = - 12;
= 11
3y = - 1
100;
2/- =
=
igg.
2/2
- 2y
+
+
Find the points where the locus ox - 5y
4-
45
cuts the axes.

3.
Find the points where the locus x-
the axis of
x.
4-
?/-
cuts

24
4.
Find the locus
{a,
distance from
distance from
5.
(-7,
the square of
0)
(1,
its
its
a point such that the square of
its
than the square of
its
o)
by
Find the equation
the square of
6.
o)
of
is
greater
2 a^.
of
the
locus
distance from (-2,

distance from
and B
(9,
('>,
.''>)
0) are
two
PB =
3 PA.
variable point such that
of
a point such that
-1)
hy
is
greater than
11.
and P is a
Find the equation of
fixed points
the locus of P.
7.
Plot
concurrent
the
following
loci
and
show
ix
they
that
3a; -f
4y
10,
bx ~ 2y
8,
9.
are
CHAPTER
II
The Straight Line

25. To find the equation of a st. line in terms of
the intercepts that it makes on the axes.
Fig. 17.
Let the
OB =
st.
Fig. 18.
line cut the
axes at A, B so that
OA =
a,
6.
Take P
{x^
y)
any point on
tlie line,
and draw PM
ii
Oy
and terminated in Ox at M.
From
the similar
As APM, ABO,
AM
PM
BO ~ Au
y
ax
or
Note.
and
the
It is seen
form of
the
from
the
diagrams that both
the
proof
equation are the same for oblique
rectangular axes.
25
and
26
26.
To
find the equation
through A
and B
(xp
of the
{x^,
st.
Take any point P
K,
L,
in
PM
From
{x,
BL PM
and AN, BR
AK,
;
at
passing
FiQ. 20.
FiQ. 19.
Draw
line
y^.
||
|i
y) on the
st.
line.
Oy and terminated in Ox at
Ox and respectively terminated
N and AK at
R.
As PNA, ARB,
the similar
PN
AN
BR ~ AR'
OM
OK
BR = LK = OK
OL
AN = KM
the
x^,
NM
= PM
AK = y
AR = AK
RK = AK
BL
It is seen
form of
Xi
rectangular axes.
from
2/2
y
Yi-
- X2
Note.
PN = PM
and
^ X
the
the equation
Y2
diagrams that both
the
proof
are the same for oblique
and
EXERCISES
27
27. Exercises
1.
(-2,
The equation of the st. line passing through

7) is by the formula of 26
or,
To
lety
X -
4:
2cc
find the intercepts
0 and
81
the equation of the line
'//
2.
clearly the
3.
2;
(5)
-4,
same
-6;
written
'-=1.
5|
as 2x
(c)
Find the equations of the
ing pairs of points
17.
Write down the equations
5,
may now be
the following intercepts on Ox,

()
and
which this line makes on the axes,

By 25
let x = 0 and /. y = 5f
8i
is
32/
- +
^
This
(4, 3)
3y/
of the
Oy
3,
st.
st.
17.
lines
respectively
which make
:
-8.
lines
through the follow-
{h) (-1, 2), (-3, -7);

(c) (4, -6),
Find the intercepts these st. lines make on the
() (6, 2), (3, 1);
(-7,
2).
axes.
Find the point where the st. line which makes inter- 3 and 5 on
and Oy respectively is cut by the
line c = - 5.
4.
cepts
St.
5. Find the point where the st. line making intercepts 7

and 2 on Ox and Oy respectively meets the st. line through
- 3).
( - 2, 7) and (5,
6. Find the point where the st. line through (3, 5) and
(-7, - I) meets the st. line through (-8, 2) and (6, 5).
28
Prove that
7.
and
the
(i9, 10)
first
(11, 4) lies
and
on the
st.
line joining (3,
find the ratio of the segments into
-2)
which
point divides the join of the other two.
Find the equations of the sides of the A of which

Find
(4, -2), (-5, -1), and (-2, -6).
equations
of the medians of the A and the coordialso the
8.
the vertices are
nates of
9.
(2,
Find
its centroid.
The vertices
2) and (7, 3).
also
the
of
a quadrilateral are
Find the equations
equations
of
three
the
(3,
of
6),
2,
4),
the four sides.
diagonals
of the
complete quadrilateral, and sl)ow that the middle points of

the diagonals are collinear.
line passing
10.
Find the equation of the
st.
through the middle points of the diagonals.
Find the vertices of the A the sides of which are

= - 45, 5x - 11?/ = 47 and 3x -\= 7.
Ux -3y
11.
(iCj,
is
any point and
A,
respectivaly.
Show
'^-f
cuts Ox,
Oy
at
that the area of the
A PAB
THE STRAIGHT LINE

28.
As explained
of a term,
Avitli
in
29
elementary algebra, the degree
respect to certain letters,
is
the
number
of such letters that occur as factors in the term.

Sx,
5y,
ax, by are terms of
the
first
degree with
respect to x and y.
6x^, Sy^,
^xy, ax^ are terms
with respect to x and

29.
be of
term,
y.
Degree of an equation. An equation is said to

the first degree in x a, id y when it contains a
or terms, of the first degree in x and y, but no
term of a liigher de^^ree than the
The general equation of the

y
the second degree
of
first.
first
degree in x and
is
Aj; -f Bt/
An
equation
x and y when
+C
0.
to be of the second degree in

contains a term, or terms, of the
said
is
it
second degree in x and y, but no term of a higher

desfree than the second.
The general equation of the second degree in x

and y is
Ax2
or, in
^xy
+ C2/'^ 4-
D^^3
4- E2/
0,
a more convenient form,

ax"
"Ihxy
hf^
Igx
Ify
0.
30
30. To prove that an equation of the

always represents a st. line.
Let
(x^,
(x^,
2/1),
(x^,
y.2),
Then,
and y
(3)
+
Ax, +
AX3 +
(1)
and
From
A
Dividing the
(2/1
2/2)
2/3
(^2
0.
0.
0.
terms
three
the
satisfy
(2),
of
aî)
aî
by
respectively
(3)
by any one
these equal fractions and 0

^3
Bt/^
degree
three sets of
which
+C
+C
B2/3 + C
(1) Ax^
(2)
any
t)e
2/3)
simultaneous values of x
equation Ax -f Bt/ + C = 0.
first
2/2
them,
of
^2
2/1
0.
2/2)
Rearranging the terms, we get

(4)
(2/2
From
17
{x^, 2/1), (a?2,
(2/2
.'.
from
^2
(2/3
2/1)
the area of the
^3
(2/1
0.
formed by joining
(^3> 2/3) is
2/2)>
i {^1
and
^3)
2/3)
+
in
(4),
^^2
(2/3
this
case,
2/1)
^3
(2/1
2/2)}
the area of the
is
zero.
This can only be so

st.
line,
and
.*.
as
when
the three points are in a
any three points the coordinates
of
which satisfy
Ax
are in a
st.
st, line.
line,
By
+ C =
this equation
must always represent
THE STRAIGHT LINE
The equation Ax
31.
to the
-[-
_ C
_ C
may
be changed
this witli the equation of 25,
I-
C =
By
y
-
which tlie st. line

intercepts
makes on the axes of x and y are
the
that
see
-\-
form
and by comparing
we
Ax
C =
By
31
respectively
- C
and
The same results are obtained by alternately

y = 0 and X = 0 in Ax + By -\- C = 0.
32.
To obtain the
equation of the
Let
(iCp
(1)
C =
+ C
+ C =
By
+
+
Ax
(3) Ax^ 4-
and
(2)
(3),
...
(4)
Vi
,
from
(2/1
(1)
and
2/2)
This equation
st.
line
0,
0.
- =
^2
2/2
0,
^1
^1^/2
^22/1
(4),
2/
is
^
^1
when the
26 from the general
^6 fixed points on the
2/2)
(2) Ax^
.-.
by the general equation, and we have
represented
From
of
degree.
first
(^2^
result
letting
(^2
^1)
î2/2
^22/i
0.
seen to be the same as
^1
^2
2/
2/1
"~
2/1
2/2
latter is cleared of fractions
and
simplified.
32
33.
To
find the equation of a
the axis of
line in
st.
and
inclination to the axis of x
its
terms of
its
intercept on
respectively,
y.
V
N
1
Pig. 21.
Let the
L BAx =
st.
a,
cut
line
and
OB =
Take any point P

Ox,
0:5^5,
(x,
Oy
at A,
b.
y) in the line, and
draw PM
PN X Oy.
rp
r^r...
BPN
Tan
=
But, tan
BN
BO
PM
owr~
BPN = tan PAM
- tan
^ -
"IT'
a.
h_-_y^
- tan a =
'X
and
If
we
let
tan a =
z=
X tan a
rriy
y =
6.
the equation becomes
mx
b.
j.
THE STRAIGHT LINE

In
tliis
equation
the slope of the
called
is
83
line,
always measured by a
rotation in the positive direction from the positive
and the Z
a,
or tan-hn,
direction of Ox,
starting
vector
i.e.,
the
from
is
by a radius
Ax and rotating
traced out
is
the
position
about A in the positive direction to the position AB.

Note.
from
34.
For
oblique axes the proof
those given above
The equation
2/
and
for rectangular
Aaj -f B^/
= -
+C
A
B ^
= 0
result are different
axes.
may
be changed to
B'
from which by comparison with
y =
it is
jg
mx +
h,
seen that the slope of the
_ %
and
its
st.
line
Ax -{- By
intercept on the axis of
is
C=0
^-
To find the equation of a st. line in terms of

on it from the origin and the z made by a
35.
the
positive rotation from
Ox
to this .
FiQ. 22.
Let
Z
the
xOM =
OM
_l
from
the
to
line
Draw PN
i.
OXy
(x,
y) in the
st.
NR x OM, MH Oy
and
||
Kne.
to
meet NR at
OR + RM = ^.
OR = ON cos RON = x cosa.
RM = MH cos RMH = PN cos MOy = y
:. X cos a 4- y sin a = p.
from
p,
a.
Take any point P
Note.
For
oblique axes the proof
those giveii above
and
for rectangular
To reduce the equation

the form x cos a + y sin a =
36.
Acc
p,
result are different
B^/
where
The equations
cos a
AX
y sin a
By -j- C
p =
=
sin a
will be identical if
cos a
sina.
axes.
positive quantity.
H.
0
0
+ C =
is
0 to
always a
THE STRAIGHT LINE
If
p _
C
COS a
a positive quantity,
is
If
A^
'â
zzz^r
l/A^
-
s%n
]/
sin a
cos a
-
35
s%n a =
B^
and p
=-
4- B^
C+
l^'
A'
B2
a negative quantity, these results should be
is
written
=:
+
cos a
s^n a
A^
A^ 4- B2
Thus the equation
/a^
B^
is
By
AX ^_
82
i/A-' +
V A-^ 4-
^/A^
B*''
'
taken when C represents a

positive quantity and the lower signs when c repre-
the
upper
being
signs
sents a negative quantity.

37.
Ex.
1.
Reduce the equation
the form x cos a
Here
-\-
4^
y sin a
/25"
3^c
-{-
47/
12
= 0
to
p.
5.
Dividing the given equation by 5

4
cos a
3
-,
sm
and
12
.*.
tan
~^ /4\
(
while the
from the origin on the
line is
12
Ex.
2.
Reduce the equation x
form X cos a
-\-
y sin a
p.
y-\-7
= 0to
the
36
Here
V +
1-^
Dividing the given equation by
or,
i.e.,
line is
135,
V2
V2
V2
cos 135
and
tlie
i/
j/2"
sin 135
from the origin on the
_L
st.
1/2
38. To find the equation of a st. line in terms of
the coordinates of a fixed point on the line and
the z which the line makes with Ox,
^^^^
|r
1
1
1
1.
N
Fig.
Let
(^Cj,
2/1)
A_
QR = PQ
{x,
y) on the hne and let
Ox and QR
cos
QR = NM =
^'
cos 0
.13.
be the fixed point and Q the
Take any point P
Draw PM, QN
_L
PM.
PQR.
cci,
and Z PQR
Z.
QP =
r.
THE STRAIGHT LINE
37
= PQ sm PQR.
PM RM = PM QN =
PR
PR
r::.
-Vi =
2/
Vr
r.
sin 0
X -
Xi
^ y -
Yi
sin ^
cos 0
r.
This form will frequently be found useful in problems that involve the distance between two points on
a
st. line.
If cos 6
and sin Q
m, the equation becomes
X - X ^ y ,
are
and
line, and P -\I
89.
Yi
called the direction
cosines of the
st.
1,
For convenience of reference the different forms
of the equation of the
line are here collected
st.
By
(1)
Ax
(2)
^ + ^=1.
a
0
(3)
^
Xi
-\-
(4)
y =
(5)
X2
mx
-\-
If the
st.
line passes
the convenient form

(7)
y sin a
=
=
p.
r.
through the origin (4) takes
0.
-f b.
(6)
C =
_ y ~ y\
~ 2/2
2/1
^1
cos a
-i-
mx.
38
the
If
2/1)'
(î*
the
line joins
st.
te^^'
^1
m, the equation
to
y2
point
fixed
0 in (3):
Vi
line passes
st.
^ =
(8)
If the
origin
letting
through
easily seen
is
(x^,
and
y^)
from
its slope is
(4) to be
40. Exercises
Name
1.
the constants and variables in each of the nine
equations of
Which
Explain the meaning of each constant.
39.
of these equations are of the
same form
for rectangular
and oblique axes ?
Draw
2.
(a)
(d)
the following
3y
2x
2y
8;
(b)
3x - 7y
13;
(e)
Sy
Find the equation
3.
lines
st.
on squared paper
= -
(c)
= -
+|
|-
1;
4x.
of the
st.
line.
(a)
through the origin and making an Z of 30 with Ox;
(b)
through the origin and making an Z of
(c)
through
(0, 5)
(d)
through
(0,
(e)
through
4.
In the
(a) find
(6)
of
3,
and making the Z tan

3)
and making the Z

4)
12i
"i
with Ox*;
f with
cos
Ox
f with
0.x'
and making the Z 45 with Ox.
which the vertices are
2,
5),
(3,
7),
the slope of each side
show that the medians are concurrent and
find the
centroid.
5.
of
(0,
0),
(6,
a quadrilateral.
B
Show
0),
(4, -6),
that the
(2,
st.
8) are the vertices

lines
joining
the
THE STRAIGHT LINE
CO
middle points of OA, BC, of AB,
and
concurrent, and find the coordinates of

6.
Find the equation
to the
line
st.
39
AC
OB,
of
common
tlieir
through
are
point.
4, 3)
that
cuts off equal intercepts from the axes.
Find the length
7.
Sx-{-7y ^
8.
What
is
which
this _L
the condition that the
may
makes with Ox.
line
st.
Ax
C=
y =
mx -f-
y =
mx -f-
By
-\-
((()
pass through the origin;
(b)
be \\Ox;
(c)
be
II
03/
(d) cut off equal intercepts
make
(e)
9.
from the origin to the line
of the _L
10; find the Z
What
2, 5)
2,
3)
Find the values
the line
if
771
'?
Find the values of
passes through
11.
from the axes
must be the value of
passes through
10.
Ox
Z 45 with
m and
and (7,
of a
the
if
6,
st.
line
2).
and
if
b,
the
st.
line -
-j-
a
passes through
12.
in a
13.
Show
st.
2,
5)
and
that the points
(4,
(4ci,
14.
2).
-3b), {2a,
0),
36) are
(0,
line.
Show that the intercept made on the

Ax
By -{- C = 0 and Ax -\- By
the lines
same
line
C'
x = k by
0
is
the
for all values of k.
cuts Oa^,
{x^,
Oy
is
at N,
any point and the lines Ax -f By/ -f C = 0

R respectively.
Show that ^ PNR =
2^
(Aaî
B./J
C).
40
The Angle Between Two Straight Lines

41. To find the Z between two
equations are given,
(i)
lines
st.
Let the given equations he y = m^x
= m^x +
whose
and
62-
FlQ. 24.
Let AB
y = m^x
= m^x
be the line y
-f 62
when
B,
AC
and
be the line
are on the axis of
Let
x.
L BAG = a
=
=
Then
Z 0
tan h^x,
ABx -
tan 0
1
tan
(ii)
tan ACx
tan ABX tan ACx
.
2/
m
ni^m^
By
C =
0.
These equations
inim2
Let the given equations be Ax

B,y 4-
m,
1
'
-1
A,x
IkCx,
Z ACx.
tan ABx
.*.
tan
may
O
be changed to
C,
and
2/
- Ai
b^-bV
0 and
THE ANGLE BETWEEN TWO STRAIGHT LINES

w^'itino^
result, the /
m. and
for
between the
_A
41
above
in the
for
lines
Ai
AjB - ABj
Bi
a^+bb;
^^^^'TTaaT^^^^
BBj
Condition of Parallelism. If two

make equal Zs with the axis of
42.
l|,
they
Knes are
st.
x,
i.e.,
their
slopes are the same.

.-.
if
m^x
h^y
the condition
their
If
Aâ)
y = m^x
their equations are
B^y
equations
Cj
and y
is
Ax
are
Bt/
the condition
0,
+ C =
and
is
_ - = _
B
or,
This
may
inlinite
43.
-\-
number
values to k\ as:
y ^
b/
AiB
also be written
the equation ax
an
ABi
hy
of
ax
=
||
0.
^ =
h^,
y =
see that
k can be made to represent
-\-
by giving
lines
st.
hy
k-^,
ax
Condition of Perpendicularity.
TYi-^x -\-
we
63
are
j_.
hy
ditferent
If the
/jg,
st.
etc.
lines
42
This will be true

required condition
+ m^mg =
if
0,
and
the-
.-.
is
1.
C = 0 and
mim2 =
Similarly,
Ax
ii
By
-j-
A^x
J_
to
=0
B^^/
are .
AAi
The
st.
Ax
-f
Bi/
Bx Ay
satisfy
BBj
0.
lines
the
+ C =
0
0
-i-
above condition and
are
..
each
other.
44. Exercises
1.
Find the L between the
(b)
3x + 5y = 12 and (17v/3 + 30)
(c)
5(/
= 3x +
+ 7y =
12
and x +
5 y
13 and 3x
-y =

and passing through ( - 2, - 5).
Solution:
The
required equation
6X^
II
4^/
Solution:
J.
to Qx
The
+ 33y = 19;
6.
line
+ 5)
[|
to 6x - 7y
IS
st.
0;
23.
line
through
3,
5)
2,
18.
-5) and
5.
st.
- 7(y
6x - ly =
Find the equation of a

to dx
is
+ 2)
i.e.,
3.
1\
and 5x + 3y = 17;
2.
4.
2x - 3y
(d) 4:x
and
lines
st.
(a)
-1y =
required equation
7 (x
i.e.,
7x
st.
drawn through
is
+
+ 6y + 44
2)
line
13.
6 (y
et.
5)
=:
0.
line
drawn through
(4, 2)
EXERCISES
Find the equation
to the st.
5) and
6.
(-3,
||
Find the equation
7.
and
JL
the
st.
line
passing
through
and
-1).
line joining (2, 6)
of the
line joining
st.
the
of
43
st.
3,
line passing
5)
and
(7,
(7,
through
Find the equations of st. lines drawn through

45*^ and 135 with Ox.
8.
(2, 6)
1).
(5,
7)
which make ^s
Find the equations of st. lines drawn through

which make Zs 30" and 150 with Ox.
9.
10.
(
5,
5,
3)
Show that the _Ls from the vertices of the A (1, - 3),
2), (4, 7) to the opposite sides are concurrent and
;
find the coordinates of the orthocentre.

11.
Show
that the J_s from the vertices of the

the opposite sides are concurrent
0), (6, c) to
(a,
0),
(0,
and
find
the orthocentre.
12.
the
Find the ratio into which the _L from the origin on

line joining (2, 6) and (5, 1) divides the distance
st.
between these points.

13.
{h,
k)
Find the equations of the st. lines which pass through

and form with y = rnx + 6 an isosceles A of which
the vertex is at the given point
and each base Z
a.
\
h
80-
Fig. 25.
Solution
Let
where the value
y - k
of
=
is
W[
{x - h)
to be found.
represent one
side
of
the
44
^-"^
+ m M
Tana
1
1^
tan
tan a
the equation of this side
:.
- m
+
''''
7.
y - Ic^
{x
is
h).
tan a
If for a we substitute 108 - a, the equation of the other side

found to be
- tan a ,
7.
tan a
Find the equations of the st.

and making an I of 30 with
14o
(2,
8)
Find the equations
15.
of
(-1, -2) and making an Z
Show
16.
the
Show
17.
0),
(a,
st.
lines
3ic
passing through
122/
7.
lines passing
of 45 with _ _^ |
through
line
through (a,
y sin a = p
h)
-\-
is
that the right bisectors of the sides of the
that the equation of the
and making an Z of 60 with x

y - h = {x - a) tan (a it 30).
(0,
is
0),
{h,
c)
st.
cos a
are concurrent; and find their point of
intersection.
18.
0,
Find the equation of a st. line J_ to

and at a distance p from the origin.
fi<x -\-
By
45
PERPENDICULARS
Perpendiculars
45.
Ajf
To
Bf/
find the length of the
+C
from P
(x^y yi)
to
0.
-""^
O
Fig. 26.
Draw PM
the given
the points where the given
PRN =
Join P to N, R
st.
line.
st.
Hne cuts Ox, Oy.
PM
RN.
c
ON = - ^ and OR = - g,
\&^+
By
A^^
- AB \
the formula of 17,
A PRN = 4{î(-i) - ^(2/1 + 1)}
^(Aî +
2aB
4'
.
B2/i
PM =
of the
C).
:ab
(KX^
Bî
i/A^
The length
is
/.
+ BYi + C
i/A2 + B2
AXi
+C
B2

46
AB
In the diagram
equation
4ic
5^/
the line represented
is
20
Fig. 27.
by the
0.
(Unit
j'^
inch.)
4>x
5y 20 we substitute
the coordinates of points O, P, Q, R, S which are not
in the line, the following results are obtained.
If
the expression
in
For o
Q (-8,
(5,
5),
6),
(10, 3),
In these results
is
4x
-h
5y
4>x
(5,
-5), 4x
5y
0),
4x
+
+
+
4x
(0,
it
-\-
52/
5y
5y
20
20
20
20
20
=
=
=
=
=
30.
35.
20.
25.
27.
will be observed that:
For the origin the sign of the value of the expression

the same as the sign of the absolute term.
For other points that

given
St.
lie
on the same
side of the
line as the origin the signs of the values of
the expression are the same as the sign of the result

while, for points on the side remote
from the origin the signs of the values of the expression
for the origin
are different from the sign of the result for the origin.
PERPENDICULARS
47
formal proof of these properties
next
is
given in the
article.
To prove that the sign of the expression Ajf

By -\- c is different for points on opposite sides
By
c = 0.
of the line ax
46.
-\-
y
S
-Q
>-
Fig. 28.
of A^c
By
points on opposite sides
0^2' V-i)
+C=
Draw PM, QR
0.
O^c
and
let
them cut the given
line
at N, S.
= PM = PN + NM 2/2 = QR = SR - SQ.
AiC, + B2/1 + C = Ax^ 4- B.PN + B.NM + C,
AiTa + By.i + C = kx.,^ + B.SR B-SQ + C.
2/^
/.
and
But,
V N and S are both on the given

A^Cj
and Ax^
/.
and
since PN,
.*. ,
ties,
AXy
signs.
B2/1
A^Ci
ALC2
line,
+ B.NM + C 0,
C = 0,
+ B.SR
+ B2/1 + C = B.PN,
+ B2/2 + C = B.SQ.
-f-
SQ are both taken as positive quantif C and Aaô + By. + C have opposite
2,
48
When X
becomes C,
tuted
Ax
in
.'.
0 and y = 0 the expression Ax -\- By -{- C

a point whose coordinates when substi-\-
By
+ C
gives
on the same side of the
is
st.
as C
C
+ = 0
the same
sign
line A^c 4-
as the origin.
47.
Sign of the Perpendicular.

preceding
the
article
always taken for
tliat,
+
Ax^ +
if
It
the
B2
the same as the sign of C, the point
and when the sign of this

different from that of C, the point {x^,
origin are on opposite sides ol Ax
By
48.
To
is
+C
By^
(x-^,
the origin are on the same side of the line
+ C =
sign
wlien the sign of
j/A'^
/A2
is
from
follows
positive
y^)
Ax
fraction
y^)
and
By
is
and the
C =
0.
find the equations of the bisectors of the
//
\
\
/
Fig. 29.
between the
B,y
0.
lines Aa^
Bf/ -f
c =
and A^x
-f
PERPENDICULARS
The
_Ls to the
st.
lines
49
from any point P
(x,
y) on
either bisector are equal to each other,

/.
the required equations are
Ax
By
^ AjX +
B^y
4-
C and
have
on the bisector of the L that
contains the origin, the J_s from P have the same
sign as the s from the origin on the lines, and the
If the equations are so written tliat
the same sign and P
is
equation of the bisector

Aa3
-f-
vÂ^'
If
is
BT/
is
+C
A^x
B-^
on the bisector
/Ai"^
of
the
B^y
Cj
Bi2
l which
does
not
contain the origin, the J_s from P have opposite signs
and the equation of the bisector

P.X 4-
l/A2
By
+ C
B2
fK^x
is
/Ai^
B^y
+
Bi2
50
To find
49.
the distance from
in the direction
whose
The equation
of the
st.
in the given direction
is,
Ax + Bf/ f c = 0
y
^
m
y
Ir,
-\-
(a, b)
mr.
Ax
-\-
By
0,
Aa
Air
r
50.
C =
may
Bb
0.
of tlie
if
+ Bmr + 0 =
Aa + Bb + c
=
Al + Bm
+
from (a, b) to Ax -\- By

be deduced from the result of 49.
The length
For,
and Ax
m.
r.
Substituting these values for x and y in
C =
/,
hne passing through

by 38,
L
.*.
to
(a, b)
direction cosines are
Bt/
+ C =
to each other,
A _ B
since
A^
I
'"'''^^
+ Bm
+
A^
Bm,
1-
Also each of these fractions
+
=
VP + m'^
Al + Bm =
VA^
and the length
of the
VA^
B\
Va'^
B2,
_L
is
b6
+ C
Va^
Act
b2
0 are

PERPENDICULARS
51
51. To find the equation of a line passing through

the intersection of two loci.
The equation
h (ax
being of the
If
Bij
first
(x-^,
B,y
C,)
^^^^
point of intersection of
AX
+
+
By
4-
c =
B-^y
0,
substituted
x^,
equation
satisfy
(A^x
and
(1),
.*.
and
From
theorem
Kne.
st.
(2)
,
for
x,
the
st.
will
line
(3)
plainly
(1)
pass through the point of intersection of the

(2)
(1)
0,
degree in x and y represents a
and A^x
the values
C)
st.
must
lines
(3).
the same reasoning the following more general

is
seen to be true
two equations are multiplied by any numbers

and the results either added or subtracted, the reIf
equation represents a locus that passes

through the point (or points) of intersection of the
loci represented by the first two.
sulting
Find the equation of the st. line passing tlirough

52. Example
= 9, 3x + I9y = 34 and _L to llx the intersections of \1x -
4i/=13.
llx - 7y - 9
is
st.
{Sx
19y - 34)
line passing through the intersection of the
This equation
{31
If this line is
may
+
17)
be written
{m
X +
_L to llx -
11 {31
5,
and the required equation
is
y - 341 - 0
7)
found to be
32x +
13,
17) - 4 (19/
:.
4y
8S.y
179.
7)
-0
0.
first
two
lines.
52
To
53.
find the condition that the three
a^x
-\-
h.,
-\-
C2
a,x
h,y
c.,
a.,
may
h^y
=
=
=
lines
st.
(1)
(2)
(3)
be concurrent.
If the three
st.
common
of the
For that
from
point,
^
^1
Dividing
(1)
<^2
lines are concurrent, the coordinates
point satisfy the three equations.
^2 ^1
the
and
(2),
y
^1
^2
terms
of
^2
(3)
^1 ^2 "~
^2
W
by
respectively
these
equal fractions,
^3 (hi
c.y
This
ho
is
the relationship that must hold
h.^
a.2
constants in order that the lines
{di
may
h.2
h^)
among
= 0.
the
be concurrent.
EXERCISES
Exercises
54.
Find the length of the
1.
(a)
from
(ft)
from (-4, -3) to
(c)
from
(d)
from
4x 3.
0,
4.
J_
from the origin to the
st.
line
between the
(7,
0)
and
||
lines
4cc
lines
ax
- 3y =
9,
22/
and
X
line
||
by
Cj
u
-f
= -
-j-
such that
its
line joining (2, 7), (5, 3) is 8.
st.
Find the equation
(See 51
joining
2.
Find the point in the
3a;
and
-5).
Find the distance between the

ax
= 0.
by -\-
tion of
6.
-7);
distance from the

5.
line joining (5, 3)
2,
Find the distance

32/
+|
y ^ 7x
2) to
2^/
st.
(0,
2.
7) to the
(-3,
(e)
(3,
J_
7) to S^c
4,
53
of the
12, 5.t
st.
42/
through the intersecII

X
to
9 and
^ = ^
3
line
||
52).
Find the equation

X
the intersection of
f-
of the
11
st.
line joining the origin to
X
and 0
11
-f -
1.
Find the distance from the point of intersection of

7.
Ix - by = V^, ix -\- ^y ~ 43 to the line \2x = by.
8.
intersection
of
= mx
-|- c,
st.
line passing
through the
= m^x
and
-f
_1_
to
54
Show
9.
4-
3ic
that
'^j
2/
the
st.
^ ^'^^
lines
by
-\-
-\-
0,
g-ic -\-
fy
Find the equation
11.
intersection oi y
= mx
-\-
of the
-j- c,
2;//
1x
5,
~y ~ ^
Find the condition that the
10.
hx
2/
3;y
8,
concurrent.
ax
lines
hy
-\-
-\-
0,
0 are concurrent.
through the
line passing
st.
in^x
and
through
also
(a, h).
12.
the
to
î^
point
Bi2/
Ci
0),
(8,
0),
C =
By
-\-
orthocentre
the
5) to the st.
B(3,
Plot the lines
14.
Aa?
0 and
0.
Find the distance from
13.
0(0,
joining the origin
line
st.
intersection of
of
- 3^ =
2a:
1,
line
3x
of
the
AB.
y
on squared
paper and find the intercepts that the bisectors of the Ls
between them make on the axis of
y.
Find the equations of the bisectors of the ^s between

= 1'' and
+ 15// - 31.
15.
5x -
122/
8.'^;
Show
16.
that
between y
the
mx +
bisectors
a-nd
<^
of
the
supplementary Zs
are J_ to each
= m^x
other.
17.
the
Find the equations

lines joining
st.
(4,
between
of the bisectors of the

5)
and
5,
2)
respectively
to
-7).
(3,
18.
and
Show
9ic
19.
-f- 2/
The
24a; -{-1y
that the
st.
sides of a
lines
a;
30.
Plot
are
3.r
tlie lines
15, 2a;
5?/ -f-
4v/
lo,
12.r
5?/
on squared paper and
the point where the bisectors of

intersect.
6?/
29 are concurrent.
tlie
interior
17,
find
of the
EXERCISES
55
st. line passing through the

2x - 3y = 6 and 3x + iij = 18,
and also through the middle point of the st. line joining
- 1, 2) and (3, 4).
(
Fin<l the equation of the
20.
intersection
of the
lines
Find the distance from
21.
which the slope
is
(5,
Find the distance from (-4,
22.
which the slope
Draw
is
to the line
in
3)
to the line 7x
tlie
11?/
6) in
K.
the diagram on squared paper.
2y =
point
is
in
13.
the direction of
The sum of the distances from a point

Show that the
7, 5x - '2y = 11 is 7.
23.
direction
st.
line
to the lines
locus of the
which makes equal Zs with the given
st.
lines.
Find the distance between the

y
,
24.
25.
(2, 5)
26.
(4,
7)
28.
Find
(3,
Find
through
^
^
Find the equations of the st. lines passing through

and making an Z of 45 with Zx - \0 y =
-12?/
29
lines
Find the equation of the st. line passing through P

and cutting Ox at A, Oy at B so that AP:PB =7:3.
27. Find the equations of the st

(-4, -7) and forming an equilateral
5aj
||
(4,
1).
these lines.
the
equations
of
the
lines
A
st.
9 and at a distance 5 from
passing through
with Zx
lines
-1y =
drawn
||
7.
to
it.
st. lines which pass

and are equally distant from A (7, 3),
Find also the distances from A and B to
tlie
7)
equations of the two
56
30.
3i/=
Find the point in Ax
distant from
(2,
7)
and
(4,
12
which
equall}'
is
1).
Having given the length of the base and the difference

two sides of a A, prove that the
31.
of the squares of the other
locus of its vertex
is
st.
line -L the base.
Find the equations of the st. lines which are at a

2 from the origin and which pass through the
intersection of a; - ly -\- 11 = 0 and 3a7 -}- 17 = 0.
32.
distance
33.
C =
0 and at a distance
The equations
35.
15
0,
that the
2a;
- y
s from
from the
j)
Find the equation

and _L to Aa^ + By
34.
{h, k)
st.
of
the
+ C
st.
line
0,
3^c
Ax
-f B?/
line
through
passing
0.
7?/
are bx
- 21 =
0.
-f-
3y -
{a)
Show
the vertices to the opposite sides are
concurrent and find the coordinates of the orthocentre.
Show
and
-j-
origin.
of the sides of a
to
||
{h)
that the right bisectors of the sides are concurrent
find
the coordinates of
that the centroid
is
the
circumcentre.
(c)
at a point of trisection of the
joining the orthocentre to the circumcentre.
Show
st.
line
CHAPTER
III
The Straight Line Continued.
Transformation
OF Coordinates
55.
two
An
st.
may
equation of the second degree
represent
lines.
For example, 2x^ ^5xy + Sy^ = 0 is the same, as

y) (2x 32/) = 0, and will be true for all values
of X and y wliich make either of the factors x y or
2x 3^/ equal to zero, and
all points on the st.
lines X y = 0,2x 3y = 0 are on the locus represented
by 2^c2 -Bxy +^32/^ = 0(x
.'.
Similarly,
an equation of the third degree

st. lines, one of the fourth degree
represent three
represent four
may
may
lines, etc.
st.
56.
The general equation ax^ + 2hxy -\- by^ = 0
represents two st. lines passing- through the origin.
Solving as a quadratic in x
X
from which
= -
it
is
Vh'^
Vh' -
ah
seen
given
the
that
equation
is
equivalent to
{ax
and
.*.
hy
-\-
ab}
represents the
ax
ax
{ax
two
hy
-\-
hy
st.
y VlC^ ab) =
hy
-\-
lines
y Vh^
y Vh^
ab
a6
=
=
both of which pass through the origin.

57
0
0,
0,
58
>
ah, the lines are
If
ah, the lines are coincident.
If A-
<
ab,
If
h'^
real.
we have
through the real pomL
the lines are imaginary, and
two imaginary
(0,
both
st.
lines passing
0).
z between the two

57. To find the
represented by ax^ + 2hxy + by^ = 0.
lines
st.
The given equation may be written
if
li
xy
+ ^
x"^
0.
m^x
expression
and y m^x are the factors of the

on the left hand side of this equation,
,\
(m^
7?i2
m.
mo
m-^m2
Vh''
m^m^ =
(/.^
2 v/r-
2
^
a_
^
b
ab)
,
a6
st.
ab
Z between the
If then 0 is the
m:,y
and
tan 0
2h
m2 =
lines,
ab
by
41,
-\-
THE STRAIGHT LINE CONTINUED
Condition of perpendicularity.
tan 0
To
58.
ax^
90,
if
0.
st. Hues which

Hues represented by
zs between the
+ by-
st.
0.
Let the given equation represent the
the equation of the
find
2 hxy
If ^
This will be the case
CO.
bisect the
59
m^x =
0,
7712
m^x =
= ~
0,
st.
so that
a
m^mg
2h
-7-'
The equations
of the
lines
of
bisectors
the Zs between
these lines are
y
^
on,x
'
-\-
y
^
m.->x
~
These equations
(y
1
may
y
.
0 and ^
7712)
y"
- m^xf _
+ m^^
- moxf
^
(y
1
(x^
2 (m-^m.^
y^)
'ô^c
-
^0.
I)
"^^-Z
m.^
xy
Substituting and multiplying by
be combined into
Simplifying and dividing by

(771 J
"î^
'
m^,
{m-^
xy =
0.
h.
- (a - b)
7712) x'^
0,
60
To
59.
find the
must connect
that
relationship
the constants in the equation
2 hxy
by'^
2 gx
may
in order that this equation
=0
2fy
represent two
st.
lines.
m^x
two
given equation represents
the
must be equivalent
\ =
two
to
equations
m^x
form
the
from either of
y
y
which y can be expressed in terms of the
0,
lines, it
st.
of
0,
first
degree
of X.
Solving the given equation for
{hx
/)
V{hx
fy -
-h
we
y,
h (ax^
obtain
gx
-\-
c)
In order that these values of y may be in terms of

first degree of x, the expression under the radical
the
sign
must be a perfect square
(h^
is
ahyx'
2 {hf
a perfect square for
all
i.e.,
hg)
x+f-
values of
he
x.
:.(hf-bgf = (h^~ab){f--bc).
Simplifying, we get the condition in the form
2
fgh
af^
hg^
ch^
ahc
0.
60. Exercises
1.
lines
Show
and
(a)
(c)
(e)
that
the following equations
represent two
find the separate equations of the lines
xy
-\-
(a-i- b)
3.^2/
hx
X = - ah
;
^ ay
(h)
{d) 8x2 -f ^y'^

-f
- 7y - 20 =
ah
0.
(/)
x"-
Zx^
if
st.
]Oxy;
- lOxy
3//^
- llx
EXERCISES
2.
sents
Show
two
that
st.
2x'^
lines
Ixij
and
61
2x by -
-f- 63/^
Interpret the locus represented by xy
4.
Find the Zs between the
5.
Find the condition that axy
6.
\Qxy
7.
lines
st.
0 repre-
st.
lines in
-\-
hx
0.
1. (d),
-\-
cy
-\-
(e)
and
(/).
d = 0 may
lines.
Find the value of B for which the equation Sic^ 21 will represent two st. lines.
4" By^ - '2x - 2^/
Find the
single equation
passing through
with the axis of

8.
find tlie slope of each.
3.
represent two
i:
Prove that
(5,
3)
which represents the two

and making an equilateral
st.
x.
y'^
- 2xy
sec a
x^
0 represents two
st.
lines
through the origin and inclined to each other at an
L =
a.
Show
also that
one of these lines makes the same
Z with the axis of x that the other makes with the axis
of
62
Transformation of Coordinates
61. It
is
often necessary
to
change the coordinates
involved in a problem into a different set wliich are
drawn
referred to axes
from a new
(a)
origin, or
(h) in directions different
from the original axes.
To change from a pair of axes to another

which are to the former, but have a different
62.
pair
11
origin.
>'
Q
0
Fig. 30.
the
(h, k) is
Let P
and
X,
to the
(x,
y) be
origin.
any point
Y the coordinates of
new axes QX and QY.
Draw PNM
at
new
j_
to
referred to Oo;
Ox and QX, and
let
R.
a;
2/
and Oy
the same point referred
= OM = OR + QN =
= PM = QR + PN =
/c
+
+
X.
Y.
YQ
cut
Ox
TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES
Thus,
h
point
if
in
(A,
63
for x, y respectively we substitute h + X,

any equation the origin is changed to the
A;).
To return
would hQ X
the
to
=^
the
origin
original
li,
Y = y
substitutions
h.
63. To change the direction of the axes, without

changing the origin, the axes being rectangular.
->
1
1
1
MR
Fig. 31.
(x, y) be any point referred to Ox, Oy

and
the coordinates of the same point referred to
Let P
X,
axes OX,
OY
Draw PM
Z
NPS =
a.
Ox, PN
90
i.
OX, NR
J_
Ox,
NAP =
90
NS
J_
MAO =
PM.
a.
= OM = OR NS = X
cos a
sin
a.
= PM = NR + PS = X
sin a
-\-
cos
a.
Thus,
XOx =
such that Z
sin
if
a,
for x,
y we substitute respectively X
sin a
-h
cos
a,
cos a
the axes are rotated in
the positive direction through an Z
a.
64
64.
sin a
By
an equation of the form x cos a + y

_L from the origin on the
the absolute term jp.
35,
line is
st.
in
the length of the
without changing the direction of the axes, the

{x^, 2/1)
equation becomes
If,
origin be transferred to
{x
i.e.,
x-^ cos a
cos a
(2/
y sin a
The new equation
is
2/1)
=p
2/1
sin
X-^
^,
cos a
the same
of
one except that the absolute term
^'^'^^
is
y-^
sin
a.
form as the old
now p
x^ cos a
a.
This absolute term is then the length of the J.

from the new origin to the st. line or, reverting to
the original origin, the length of the i. from (x^, 2/1)
to the line x cos a + y sm a = p is p Xj^ cos a y^
;
sin
a.
This
same
the
is
as
the
65.
1.
13?/
What
=
-f- 3
point
2.
to
II
3.
(1, 1)
be
45.
Exercises
does the equation.
0 become
would
that
result
obtained by using the formula of
when the
2a?2
Wxy
origin
is
I2i/^ -\- 7x changed to the
the directions of the axes being unchanged?
Transform the equation

(4, - 1).
xy - 7x -
4:y
12 = 0
axes through
Find the point that must be taken
directions of the axes being unchanged,
terms of the
equation
x'^
degree in x and y
+ bx - 9y + 17 = 0.
first
equation becomes.
as
origin,
the
in order that the
may
vanish from the

Find also what the
EXERCISES
Show
4.
will
2fy
that the terms of the
65
first
if
c,
ormm
the
degree in x and y
+ ^hxy +
vanish from the expression ax^
hy'^
be changed to
2^.x'
1^.
hg - af\
/A/ - hg
),
the directions of the axes being unchanged.
Transform the equation (kx

the axes through an L of 30.
5.
6.
the
Find what the equation

axes are turned through
-\-
+O =
By
- y'^ =
an L of
'^J
rotating
becomes when
x'^
45,
the
origin
remaining the same.
Show
7.
when
equation
that the
the axes
are turned
y^
x'^ -\-
a^
any ^
through
is
a,
not changed
the
origin
remaining the same.
Find what the equation 33x'^ - 34 VSxy - y^

8.
becomes when the axes are turned through an L of
.
60,
the origin remaining the same.

9. Find the smallest positive ^ through which the axes
must be turned in order that the coefficient of xy in the
equation 59x^ + 24 xy
Q6y- = 250 may vanish; and also
find what the equation becomes.
10.
ax^
-f~
Show
2
that the term involving xy in the expression
hxy
-f-
will
vanish,
^ tan'^
by'^
through the ^.
-.
if
the axes are turned
66
66. Review Exercises

Find
1.
points
the
(a)
(-2,
(h)
(2a
(c)
(a cos
7),
b,
-\-
(6,
-2);
a -
2b),
a sin
a,
Verify the result in
= -
and
= 5:3.
AQ QB
:
-1),
5,
AB
taken in
(a
a),
following
pairs
of
b,
3a
b)
b cos a,
sin
a).
(b),
on squared paper, when a
1,
(4,
6)
two given
is
in
AB
are
points,
AP PB =
produced such that
Find the coordinates of P and Q.

(2a, 3b) and (a, b).
3.
(3a,
the
2.
2.
between
distances
which the
of
are
vertices
2b),
Find
the
area
of
2x
4-
Uy
-f 43
9x
26
0.
the
_L
4.
Find
5.
2.
_ y ^
0,
the
contained
8y - 14
from
distance
=
-
by
the
lines
0 and 1x - 3y
to
3)
2,
the
line
Should the result be considered positive or negative and
why 1
Find the condition
6.
(^*2'
2/2)'
7.
('^3'
2/3)
Find the locus
distance from
from
8.
st.
9.
(5,
0)
by
that
3,
the
points
three
(x^,
y^),
^^^y
of a point such that
the square of
- 7) exceeds the square of
its
its
distance
43.
Prove that the equation Ax
-\-
By
-\-
C =
0 represents
line.
from the
||
lines
ax
by
c,
st.
ax
line
-\-
by
which
d.
is
equidistant
REVIEW EXERCISES
Find
10.
Show
11.
-f
tlie
Oy and
with
Ci
equation of a
cuts off an intercejDt h from Ox.
that the
0 are
which makes an / a
line
st.
67
||,
if
st.
Ax
Hnes
B?/
-f-
+ C = 0,
Ai^c 4"
îV
ABi = AjB.
Explain the meaning of the constants in the equations

X - h
y - k
12.
sin 0
cos B
Sliow that the line y ^ x tan a passes through the

a, a sin a), and find the equation of the _L to
13.
point (a cos
the line at that point.
Find the ^ between the st.

and the st. line joining (3, 7),
14.
(5,
1)
Find the values
15.
y = mx
-j-
Find
16.
through
of
(2,
equation
the direction inclined at

the line y
= mx
Find the equation
19.
Show that
Z.
the
0 are
Find which
=
^
3 -I
5
(-7, -17).
G,
such
that
and
(-4,
5),
3).
the line
1,
5).
st.
line
st.
drawn from
line
(h, k),
in
a to Ox, and terminated in
_L to
of the
st.
st.
lines
line
Ax
each other,
Write the equation of the

by = c, and cuts off an intercept
side of
2)
the
of
20.
21.
-f- b.
18.
Bj// -f
which passes
-2), and makes an L of 150 with Ox.
the
17.
and
-
b will pass through (3,
line joining
st.
if
through
By
AA^
Illustrate
(5, 3),
which
d from Oy.
(-2, -
line
8), (2,
k),
and
+ C = 0, A^x +
+ BB^ = 0.
of the following points are
1:-
(h,
is
ax -
on the origin
-2),(-G, -14),
by a diagram on squared paper.
68
Show
22.
that
tlie
points
+ ^=landg-|
3)
the lines
= -1.
Find the values of a for which the lines 2x - ay -\- \

- 1 = 0, 18.x - r/2/ - 7 = 0 are concurrent;
23.
0,
and
(-3,
7),
made by
by a diagram on squared paper.
Illustrate
(-4,
(1, 11),
(2, 6),
are in the four different angular spaces
(la?
the coordinates of the
also
find
points of
respective
intersection.
Show
24.
cx
dy
-\-
that the condition that the lines ax -{ hy
hx
\,
ky
are concurrent
the condition that the the points
(a,
h),
is
(c,
1,
the same as
d),
k) are
(h,
collinear.
Find the L contained by the
25.
3ic+
II2/
+6
Ax - 7y
lines
-\-
0,
0.
Find the equation of the st. line passing through the

a = 0 and 3x
of ix -7y
l\y
b = 0
and making an L of 45^ with the axis of x.
26.
intersection
Find the equation

X
y
intersection of--}- - =
27.
of the
line passing
st.
= mx
-f-
and
through the
through
also
(d, 0).
Show
28.
intersection of x cos a
to the origin
is
-\-
= x
y sin a
p,
st.
line joining
cos
jS
y sin
/3
the
= p
tan
2
29.
30.
and
II
to
V2y
_L
to
7c
2/
from
st.
(a, 5)
line
to -
through
=
f
0
-
1.
5, 1)
17.
31.
and
3.x
_L
4.
st.
line
through
(8,
2)
REVIEW EXERCISES
Find the coordinates of the four points each of which
32.
is
equally distant from
12
'
Find
33.
24
the
three
the
of
line joining
St.
foot
1,
^'
2)
the
of
and
Find the separate equations of the

lixy - 2y^ = 0.
34.
lines ~^
coordinates
the
(3, 5) to the
by
69
st.
(8,
A.
from
1).
lines represented
3x-2 4-
Find the product of the
35.
the
Show
36.
by
lines represented
st.
y = nx
-\-
0 IS tan
^ between
Find the tangent of the

hy 5x^ - 8xy -y^ =
Find the equations
6),
(3,
39.
that the
-j-
a,
of the
f-
the
st.
lines
st.
which pass through

X
1/
lines
of 45
5"
+y
line joining the point (1, 1) to the
st.
If
- -
ah
intersection of
= mx
0.
and are inclined at an L
Show
the lines y
2) to
0.
represented
38.
-f
(3,
2y'^
37.
I2xy
L between
m - n
that the
,
drawn from
_Ls
oa;^ -j-
=
ha
X
1
with
11
passes through
the origin.
40.
Show
the intersection of x cos a
and
{x
\\
-f-
41.
to
y) sin (a
^)
y sin a
st.
line passing
= p, x
cos
(3
through
y sin ^ =
q,
0.
is
-\-
(sin
^ -
cos ^)
-\-
q (cos a - sin a)

of 5x -7y = 16, 2x - 3y = 7 and to
intersection
6a;
-\-
43/
19.
70
42.
the vertices and
||
drawn through
lines
st.
to the opposite sides of the
the equations of the sides are 3x
lly
-\-
of
23, 4a)
2^
which
%=
11,
-2y = -31.
7x
Show
43.
that the lines 5x
4 are concurrent
common
and
the intersection oi ax
-\-
of
by
through the origin
{a) also
the
c
~\-
coordinates
3x
-\-
of
3y
their
0,
fx
-\-
-\-
{b) 1. to

Zs between the lines \2x - by =
st.
line
st.
gy
y =
lines
17, 8a;
through
passing
line
st.
45.
46.
2x
4,
the
point.
Find the equation
44.
-\-
find
Q,
and
k,
which bisect the
15^/
13.
which passes through

-\- y = A, 4x - 9y
the point of intersection of the lines bx
and
11,
is
Show
47.
_L
to the former.
that the points
(4,
2),
(6,
2),
(5,
V3)
are
the vertices of an equilateral A.

48.
sum
Find the locus of a point which moves so that the

from the axes is 10. Trace the locus
of its distances
on squared paper.
49.
Find the locus
which moves so that the
of a point
difference of its distances
from the axes
is
10.
Trace the
on squared paper.
locus
Find the equations of the st. lines each of which

through ( - 5, - 3) and is such that the part of
between the axes is divided at the given point in the
50.
passes
it
ratio 7
51.
(3,
3.

and is to 4ic
2),
st.
+ +
line
12

0.
Find the equation of the right bisector of the

joining (a, b) and (A, k).
52.
line
st.
REVIEW EXERCISES
Two
53.
the
lines
st.
Find the equation

5
{a
drawn through (0, - 3) such tliat

- 0, 6) are each of length 3.
are
them from
oil
_Ls
71
of the
st.
line ioining the feet of the _Ls.
Find the ^ of inclination of the lines ax-\-hy
i.
h)
-\-
X -
55.
-3y =
{n
st.
c,
- 4) and to 1x
is drawn through (2,
Find the equations of the bisectors of xne Z s
J_
and the given
line.
st.
56.
d.
line
11.
between the
h)
which bisect the
lines
st.
Z s between the lines represented by x^
2xy
sec 6
-\-
0.
Find the value of h for which the equation Sx'^ -f- hxy
-\- X -\- 29y -10 = 0 will represent two st. lines.
57.
- lOy^
Show
that, if the axes are rotated through an Z of

term containing xy vanishes from the equation
y'^ = 0;
and the separate equations of the
2xy sec 0
58.
the
45,
x'^
two
st.
lines
become x =
dt
y tan
2
59. Three vertices

60.
of a ||gm are (3, 4),
Prove that the two
points of the
(-3,
1),
-2).
(5,
of the fourth vertex.

st.
lines
which join the middle

mutually
opposite sides of any quadrilateral
bisect each other.

61.
-5
bx
2y
62.
What must
be
the value of m,
passes through the
12,
if
intersection of ^x
the line y
= mx
-\\y =
and
= -n.
Find the area of the A contained by the imes x

2x -y = U.x - 2y = - 12.
-f
CHAPTER
IV
The Circle
B'^
circle is the locus of the points that lie at a
from a fixed
fixed distance
The
is
fixed point
is
the radius of the
point.
the centre and the fixed distance

circle.
68. To find the equation of a circle having"

centre at the origin.
its
'
Fig. 32.
Let P
(Xy
the centre
Draw PM
any point on the

Let the radius = a.
y) be
is O.
J_
Ox.
*.'
Join PO.
OPM
is
a rt.-zd A,
OM2 + PM2 = OP\

72
circle
of
which
THE CIRCLE
being
This
coordinates of
radius
69.
is
to
relation which holds between the

any point on the circle and the given
the
the required equation.
To
being: at
73
find the equation
any fixed point
(/?,
of a circle, the centre

h)
and the radius
e^-jal
a.
y
^
[
Fig. 33.
C
the
{h, k) is
the centre
and P
(x,
y)
is
any point on
circle.
Draw PM, CN
PL
(X
is
CL
J_
PM.
NIVl
':
This
Ox,
Join CP.
= OM ON = - A;
= PM LM = PM Cn = y
CL =
.
_L
a;
CPL
is
a rt.-^d A,
CL^
PL''
h)^
(y
the reouired equation.
CP2.
k)^
k,
74
we expand
70. If
obtain
^2 _^ ^2
Comparing
^11 e
2hx
ax^
we
69,
2ky
k'^
0.
with the general equation of
2hxy
that
see
this result
second degree
we
the equation found in
hy^
2gx
conditions
the
2fy
that
the
0,
should
latter
represent a circle are that the coefficients of x^ and y^
should be equal and that the coefficient of xy should
be zero.
Thus the equation

ax"
may
ay^
-f
2gx
-\-
2fy
see that
^1
the point
^
it
<7
and
The general equation

commonly written
is
69,
'1
its
radius
t'^
ac
of the circle to rectangular
x2
When
centre
formula of
tlie
represents a circle having its centre at
/
/\
)
(,
71.
axes
be changed to
from which, by comparison with
we
is
y2 4-
2gx
2fy
the circle passes through
on the axis of
x,
the
or,
ay
-\-
y^
0.
the origin and
equation
becomes
(x
a\
2ax.
of
its
69
EXERCISES
76
72. Exercises
1. Write the equation
and radius = i/5.
of
the circle with centre
(0,
0)
2. Write the equation

and radius = 3.
of
the circle with centre
(6,
2)
Write the equation
3.
radius
Show
|/26.
of the circle with centre
5,
1)
and
that this circle passes through the origin.
Write the equation of the circle with centre - a, - h)

and radius = c. Find the condition that this circle passes
4.
through the origin.
Find the coordinates of the centre and the radii of
5.
the following circles

(a),
16
cc^
22/
14^
15
the
circles
(b),
x^
+ y^=
8x;
(c),
SoliUion.
7x
5y
of
x'^
of the circle
through the origin and cuts off intercepts
Ox and Oy
4^/^
which the
Find the centre and radius
7.
ix^
{b),
^2 _^ ^2 _^ 2 by
on squared paper,
equations are
(a),
(c),
Draw,
6.
_ 6^
_{_
\. <oy
7.
which passes
a and b from
respectively.
Since
the circle passes through the origin
its
equation
must be satisfied hy x Q, y = 0, and

the absolute term must be
zero.
Thus the equation may be written
.*.
x"^ + if + 2 gx + 2fy = 0.
Substituting in this equation the coordinates of the points
(0,
h)
the two equations

a"^
62
are obtained
.*.
from which g
^
- 2
the equation of the circle
(^-2)
.-.
+ 2 ga =
+ 2 /6 =
the centre
is
( ,
V2
A\
2/
0
0
f -
is
2)
and the radius
=
2
(a,
0),
76
8.
the origin and also through

and ( - 2, 6).
circle
3)
(4,
9. Find the equation of the circle which has its centrd

on the axis of x and which passes through the points
(5, 3) and (-3, 1).
.
Show from
10.
the general equation of 71
that three
conditions are necessary and sufficient to determine a
Find the condition that the

c = Q may have its centre
11.
2/2/ -\-
(h)
on the axis
12.
(3, 1)
13.
of y.
Find the equation of the circle having the

(7, - 5) and ( - 3, - 1) as a diameter.
14.
[a, 0) is
a fixed point and P
PO PA = p\q.
point such that
Show
a circle having
Find the equation

- 2,
(
vertices are (3, 4),

16.
Find the length
25 cut
17.
off
Show
5,
y =
inter-
whose
St.
x'^
y^
y'^
15.
that the locus of the centres of

(p,
q),
{r,
x"^ -\-
all circles
s)
is
which
the right
bi-
line joining the given points.
Through the given point P
cutting the circle
PA PB
.
OA
7).
of the chord of the circle

42 cut off by the line x - y =
sector of the
Prove that
a variable
q.
of the chord of the circle
by the line 3x
two given points
line.
is
of the circumcircle of the

3),
pass through
19.
y)
Find the length
Gcc -|- 14//
18.
{x,
line
st.
that the locus of P
centre on Ox, and dividing
its
nally and externally in the ratio

15.
\-
-\-
Find the equation of the circle which passes through

and (5, - 3) and has its centre on the line x - y =^ 4.
joining
is
(a)
circle.
2gx -f
on the axis of x
circle
+
is
2/^
^9^
(h, k)
+ Vv +
constant for
all
st.
line is
drawn
A and
B.
directions of the
st.
0 at
EXERCISES
Solution:
X - h
Take
?/
'~
ir
- k
zr
sin u
cos u
77
t as the equation
of the
^
st. line.
Then
= h +
r cos
d,
h + r sin
6.
Substituting these values in the equation of the circle, and simplifying
r2
+
The value
of
+ /) sin O] r
+ 2gh + 2/^ + 0=0.
2 [[h + g) cos d + {k
PA
PB =
A2
Z;2
-t-
the product of the two values of r in
this equation
vv^hich
+ 2gh + 2fk +
/i2
an expression
c,
does not contain 0 and which
independent
is
of the direction of the line.
Find the equation
20.
l/^
2gx
+
(First
2/2/ -|- c
Solution:
As
the chord
two values of r got from

value but opposite in sign, and
this
rr
.-.
(A
Multiplying the
Ir^
cos d
sni
we
take
get
f) sin 0 } r
+ 2gh + 2fk +
k) the
{/i,
g) cos d
[k
+ f)
sin 6
terms of this equation
the required equation
g) {X
is
0.
0.
by the equal fractions
h)
+f)
{k
found to be
{y
k)
0.
Let the equation of the chord be

y - k = m {x - h).
(Second Method).
The centre of the circle is {from the centre to the chord i-
m
(h,
r,
'
k"^
if
19,
sin 6
[h
The
rr
cos o
bisected at
equation are equal in
we
x"^ -f-
(A, k).
the
Ex.
in
V - ^
2 {(A + g) cos 6 + {k
is
bisected at the point
is
for
a:
+
If
chord of the circle
that
of
0 which
Method).
equation of the chord

r2
- f), and the equation of the J_
+ f) + X + g =
iy
J_ from the centre
g,
bisects- the chord,
0.
and,
.-.
k).
(k
+ f) + h + g =
h + g
k
:.
(h
+f
g) {X
h)
Q.
{k
is
f) {y - k)
0.
passes through
78
21. Find the equation of tlie chord of tlie circle

H- y'^
6x - 8y = 24 which passes through (5, - 1) and is bisected
at that point.
22.
cut
From
the point
the circle
x'^
-\-
P (-3, -7) a st.

- ix - \0y =
PA
Find the area of the rectangle

23.
Find
the
equation
of
the
8ic
line is
1
at
drawn
A and
to
B.
PB.
common chord
of
the
of
the
circles
x"^
24.
2/2
39,
y"^
+ Qx + 8y =
56.
6y/
Find the condition that the common chord
circles
^.2
+
+
y2
+ 2gx +
2g'x
2///
0,
2f'y
c'
passes through the origin.

25.
the origin and also through
(A,

and (k, h).
circle
k)
TANGENTS
79
Tangents
73.
Let
APQ
be a secant cutting a curve at P and Q.
Fig. 34.
If the
secant
second point
about the point P until the

approaches indefinitely near to P, the
rotate
limiting position
PR
of the
chord
is
called a
tangent
to the curve at the point P.
The point P
tangent PR.
is
called the
point of contact of the
80
To
74.
circle
find the equation of the
x'^
y"^
tangent to the
on the
at the point P (Xy
circle.
X-
Fig. 35.
Let
(ajg,
another point on the
^2)
Then the equation
PQ
of
^
^1
is
^\
^2
2/1
V P and Q are both on the
+
+
^1^
and,
:.
subtracting,
(iri
x^'^
x^) (x^
0^2)
=
=
2/1^
2/2'^
x./
circle.
+
(2/1
yi
^-j.^
2/2
circle,
f^'^'
2/i^
2/2^
0.
2/2) (2/1
2/2)
Multiplying the terms of (2) by
tlie
(2)
equal fractions
in (1)
(x
If,
P, x^
x^) (x^
now, PQ
= x^ and
x^)
(y
2/1) (2/1
rotates about p until
2/2)
coincides
Thus equation
(3)
2(x-
x^)
or,
xx^
becomes
x^+2(y - y^) y, =
+ 2/2/1 = î. + yi'
0,
0.
(3)
with
TANGENTS
This
75.
+
+
But
a\
yyi
a2.
is
Method
Alternative
of finding
the tangent at the point P
the equation of
circle
{x^, t/i)
a\
if
Using the figure
of
74
and
.*.
7'
-\-
cos 0,
y^
Substituting these values of

the
4- 2 (x^ cos
Since P
is
on the
one value of r
r
If,
PQ
(1)
'
-\-
be
r sin
6.
in the equation of
-{-
x-^
x,
and expanding
circle,
.*.
the equation of
let
8%n 0
cos 0
P,
81
4- 2
(iCi
2/i
s'*^'^
circle,
x-^-
zero,
is
cos 0
0) r
-\-
y-^
y-^
now, PQ rotates about P until
(2)
a-.
and equation
y^ sin 0)
(2)
becomes
0.
coincides
(3)
with
the other value of r also becomes zero, and,

.*.
x^ cos 6
yi sin 0
0.
(4)
Multiplying the terms in (4) by the equal quantities

in (1),
^1 (x
+ Viiy - Vi) =
= x^^ +
= a\
î)
/.
xx^
.*.
yy^
yVi
is
0-
82
The equation
76.
OP
of
(Fig. 35) is -^1
^, and by
Vi
the condition of perpendicularity, the line represented
by
equation
this
is
the radius of a
.*.
contact of a tangent
line
drawn
circle
is
normal
called a
To
78.
jc^
y^)
(^1)
+ 2gx +
i/^
the
.-.
_L
to the tangent
2/f/
at
point
circle.
_ y~
Vi
PQ
be
sin 0
cos 0
and
the point of
of the tangent to the
Let the equation of a chord
to
to the curve at that point.
find the equation
circle
by
drawn through the
line
st.
point of contact of a tangent and

is
represented
to the tangent.
.L
In any curve, the
77.
the
to
J_
2/2/1
x-^
r cos
Q,
Substituting these values of
r sin
x,
y in
tlie
6.
equation of
the circle and simplifying,
r2
2 {
+
Since P
(^Ci
+
(x-^^,
+ (2/1 + /) sin 0
+ 2/2/1 + c = 0.
g) cos 0
2/1'
^9^1
^ point on the
2/1)
circle, this
equation
reduces to
r
If
2 { (x,
now
the
coincides with
and
g) cos 0
secant
P,
PQ
(y,
rotates
f) sin 6 }
about
0.
P until
the second value of r becomes zero,
.-.
(x,
g) cos 0
(2/j
+/)
sin 0
0.
(2)

TANGENTS
83
Multiplying the terms in (2) by the equal quantities

in (1),
(x
^{^1
But,
.*.
,
X,)
g)
x,^
g)
(y
(yi
+ /)
y,'
(2/1
2gx,
+ /) =
(2/1
0.
-î" -yi -gî -fyi
VVi
+c=
o.
0.
adding,
^ (^1,+ g)
XXi
79.
(x,
+g
yyi
xx^
yyi
x^
Xi)
fyi
o.
f (y 4- y^)
0.
gî
the equation of the tangent
g (x
with that of the
(X
By comparing
+ /) +
f (y +
x,)
y,)
circle
y'^
the following rule
+
is
gx
i- 2
In the equation of the

into
2x
"
(x-^,
2/1)
circle
xx-^,
0,
obtained for writing the equation
of the tangent at a point
x'^
fy
x^,
on the
circle
change
y^ into
yy-^,
2y
y^.
84
80.
circle
To
find
x"- -\- y'^
the equation of the tangent to the

in terms of m, the slope of the
tangent.
/(
1/
Fig. 36.
To
find the abscissae
y = mx-\- k cuts the

and
+
i.e.,
(1
of
circle,
the points where the line

eliminate y
O'iix 4-
x'^
mkx +
If the line is a tangent, the
by
substitution,
a^,
k'^
values of x
0.
from
this
equation are equal to each other, and
m^F =
=
/.
/c2
and k
z=
Thus the equation
y =
(1
a2 (1
:
+
+
m2),
a Vl
m^.
of the tangent
mx
it
a^),
i/l
is
m^-
The double sign corresponds to the two tangents

that have the same slope, as indicated in the diagram-
EXERCISES
85
81. Exercises
Find the equation of the tangent to the
1.
(a)
{h)
(e)
{d) x^
y^
34, at the point (3, 5)
\()x
122/
18a;
Uy =
2gx
2/v/
-\-
39 at (-1, 2);
39 at

2/2 = 35 and making an L
2.
Find the equations
3.
=
=
C
and are
7-2
2/2
(a)
\\
of
to,
0 at the origin.
of 4")
st.
touching the circle
lines
st.
the
(b)
12);
(3,
with the axis of
x^ +
Ax + By +
which touch
lines
to
the line
Prove that x
2y = 10 is a tangent to the
= 20 ; and find the point of contact
-\-
x.
4.
.x'2
'if
circle
circle
2/2
Prove that c - 2;y = 4 is a tangent to the circle

and find the point of
y^ - 8x - lOy + 21 = 0
5.
contact
a;2
2/2
Find
9,99
=
+
7.
ic^
2/
8.
9.
the
r2
(b)
condition
2/^
+ 2gx +
that
^
b
may touch
= 0.
2fy
may
touch
'
Find the condition that the axis of x may touch
(5,
C =
Find the condition that Ax + By +
G.
(a)
2/2
+ 2gx +
2/2/
0.
Find the equations of the circles

and touching the axes of x and y.
passing
through
2)
10.
Find the equations of the tangents

- 2x + 2y = 10 which make an
y'^
the axis of
x.
to
the
30
circle
with
86
11.
10
=
12.
Find the length of the part of the

0 intercepted by the circle
Show
- by =
(x'j - a) +
Solution.
that
{y
h)
= Y
= Xj
a:;i
The equation
on
y-^
Transform the origin to

6,
the
to
(a^j,
- h)
(2/1
circle
{x
63/
+
24.
this circle is
the point
2/1
Yi 4-
of the circle
becomes
4- ,
8ic
+
-
(,r
a)
r^.
The transforming
the direction of the axes.

Z/
tangent
the
at the point
7-2
{y
i/^
-f-
2x - by
line
(a, 6)
without changing
relations are
= X
-|-
6.
X2_|.Y2=:r2,
and, by 74, the tangent at (X^, Yj)
XXi
is
YYi =
r\
Transforming back to the original origin, the equation of the tangent

becomes
- a) (^1 - a) + (2/ - h)
- h) = r\
13
Show
+
ff =
that the point (g
the circle (x -
gf +
{y
r cos
r-
and
y+
r sin a)
find
tlie
is
on
equation
of the tangent at that point.

14.
Show
that the circles

x'^
-\-
ex
l(jy
- lOx +
42/
24
0,
20
Find the coordinates of the

and the equation of the common tangent
touch each other externally.

point of contact
at that point.
15.
Show
that,
if
{x
(x
the circles
- Kf +
-
raf
(y
- kf
{y -
r2
nf =
touch each other,

(/,
(7,
y,)2
-4-
sf.
EXERCISES
87
Find the equation of the common chord
16.
and the
eoordinates of the points of intersection of the circles

a;2
.^.2
Find
17.
yi
^
+
- hx +
18.
2)
37/
14,
5.
equation of the circle whose centre
tlie
the origin and which
(7,
=
=
2x - Gy
...
touches
the
line Aa;
Find the equation of the circle whose centre

and which touches Zx - by = 4.
Find the centres of similitude and
19.
common
the transverse and direct

c2
+
+
6a:
2/^
8cc
- lOy + 32
of
2?/
tlie
-f
=
=
common
the
is
at
=.0.
is
at
equations of
tangents of the circles
2/2
Find the equations
20.
+ By + C
0,
0.
tangents of the
circles
a;2
a;2
Find
+
+
2/2
4.x
2/2
10,x
- Sy -
62/
=
=
0,
0.
also the coordinates of the points of contact of the
tangents.
21.
^
22.
a;^
Find the equations

2/2
2â;
Ify
of
the
tangents
which are
|1
to
to
the
\-
Zy
circle
9.
Find the equations of the two tangents to the circle

= 25 which make an l of 30 with the axis of x.
2/^
elementary analytical geometry
88
Poles and Polars
To
82.
find the equation of the chord of contact
of tang"ents
circle
Jf^
^/^
drawn from an outside point

- a-.
to the
Fig. 37.
Let P
(Xi,
2/1)
be the given point; PA and
PB
the
tangents.
It is required to find the equation of AB.
Take
B
of A,
(x,
y")
y'),
The equation
of
AP
XX
and
to
represent the coordinates
respectively.
since
tlie
is,
by
74,
yy ^
coordinates
of
must
satisfy
this
equation,
Similarly,
î^'
ViV
x-^x"
y^y"
(1)
a^.
(2)
POLES AND POLAllS
From
since
.'.
it
is
of the first degree
it
represents a
by
(1),
is
a point on the line
by
(2),
is
a point on the line;
xxi
83.
2/2/1
equation of AB; for:
is tlie
.
seen that
tliese results it is
xx^
89
The equation
st.
line
is
yyi
al
of the chord of contact of tangents
same
the tangent at a point on the
draAvn from an outside point to a circle
form as the equation of
is
of the
circle.
This is in agreement with the fact that, if the point

P approacli the circle and ultimately fall on it, the
chord of contact becomes the tangent at P, or the
tangent at P is the final position of tlie chord of
contact
when P approaches
the
circle.
90
84. To find the equation of the polar of P

-\- y'^ = a\
with respect to the circle
FiQ. 38.
FiQ. 39.
Through P draw any
Draw
A, B.
line cutting the circle at
st.
BQ
tangents AQ,
intersecting at
It is required to find the locus of
By
82,
AB
the equation of
^cX 4- 2/Y
Xx-^
as X,
polar of
P,
Yt/i
of
Q.
satisfy this equation
(xl
The equation
any point on the
is
+ yyi = a^.
OP
is
xy^
yx^
0,
the condition for perpendicularity, this line
that represented
:.
rt.
by
the polar of
Z.S
xx-^
is
(X, Y).
(X-;
are the coordinates of
xxi
85.
-j-
is
and as the coordinates of P must
.*. ,
{x^, y^)
-\-
yy^
st.
and,
is
_L
by
to
a^.
line
which cuts OP at
POLES AND POLARS

If
86.
tlie
length of
polar xx^
yy.^
91
cuts
OP
at M,
the
OM =
.'.
OM OP =
.
a-.
87. The equation of the polar of the point P (x-^, t/i)

without the circle x^
y^ = ct? is the same as that of
the chord of contact of tangents drawn from P to the
This shows
circle.
the
or,
circle, its
polar
that tangents
the points where

88. Tlie
is
of
.that,
is
This
is
without
is
drawn from P touch the

it is
cut by the polar of
circle at
P.
equation of the polar of any point P
the same form as
at a point
wlien the point
the chord of contact produced,
on the
tlie
equation of
{x^, y^)
tangent
circle.
agreement with
in
tlie
the
fact
that,
if
the
point P approaches and ultimately coincides with the
OP becomes equal to a, and

by 86, OM
becomes equal to a, and the polar becomes the tangent
circle,
at the point
92
If
89.
the polar of P passes through Q, the polar
Q passes through
of
Let
(^Cj,
(^2>
P.
coordinates of
P,
along the polar of
P,
^^1^
2/2)
respectively.
The polar
of P with respect to
xx^
2/2/1
x'^ -\- y'^
is
Since this line passes through Q,
^'2^1
This proves
tliat
(^c^,
y-^)
XX.2
and
.*.
Cor.
is
the polar of
through
is
2/2/2
on the
Q moves
changes
but always passes
its position,
P.
if the pole moves along a

/.
turns about the pole of that line.
90. To find the pole of the st. line

+
=
with respect to the circle
(a?!,
line,
st.
Let
line
on the polar of Q.
the point
If
2/22/1
Ajc
Bf/.+
o}.
be the coordinates of the pole.
2/1)
The equation
of the polar of
xx^
2/2/1
t^"
(.t^,
y^
0.
This e(piation must be the same as

Acc
x,
B2/
+ C =
0.
= - ,y, = -
is
its
polar
c=
POLES AND POLARS

91.
To
polar of P
find the
to the circle x"
The equation
(x
y'^
4-
2gx
of tlie circle
+ gf +
with respect
(x^,
-\-
2fy
may
+ ff =
(y
93
0.
be written
-c.
9'
Transforming the origin to the point (g, f), the

relations are x = X g, y = Y /,
g, 2/i =
/, and the equation of the
=
circle becomes
transforming
+
The equation
to this circle
Y2
of the polar of P
by
is,
XX^+
f + /2
(Xj,
with respect
Yj)
84,
YY^
g^
Transforming back to the original
c.
origin, the equation
becomes
(x
g) (x,
XXi
Note.
residt
the
+g)-{- {y
yy^
As
directly
+g
(X
an exercise,
from the
method used in
84-
+ /)
Xi)
{y,
+ /)
f (y
the student
g'
Yi)
+f -
c.
0.
shonld obtain the above
dejinition of 2)oles
a,nd polars,
by
94
92. Exercises
Find the polar
1.
(a) (3,
(-2,
4)
{d)(-5, -1)
(e)
(h) (a, 0)
(c)
of the point
with respect to
5)
(0, 0)
.r2
Find the pole of the
2.
(a)
2C
(6)
(c)
4a;
73/
22/
=
+
=
=
=
r2;
- ix - Sy
2/'
ir
with respect to
x-^
a:2
y'^
Show
that
a;^
(b)
Show
that
(c)
Write the equation of the tangent
(d)
3. (a)
ix
+ 6y
= - 5.
II
II
2/^
3,
5;
+ 62/ = 15;
- kf = r2.
line
Avith respect to x^
12
\
30
- hf + (y
(x
st.
17
+
+
+
4) is
x^
II
25
is
= 17;
= 23;
- 2xiy =
+
+
y^
y^
the equation of a
on the
i;
- 8x - lOy
circle.
circle.
to the circle at
this point.
(d)
(e)
(/)
(g)
Show
that the point
Write the equation
(9,
13)
is
on
this tangent.
of the polar of (9, 13).
Find the equation of the st. line through (9, 13)

to the polar, commenting on the form of the result,
Find the equation
of the other tangent
from
(9, 13).
Draw the diagram on squared paper.

4.
Find the pole
5.
Find the pole of
circle
G.
2/2
x'^
y^
of
2gx
^
+
|-
Ix
2/y
with respect to x^
+ my =
+ c = 0.
coordinates of the point of contact.
y^
with respect to the
Prove that the polar of (-2, 5)

18 touches x'^ + y'^ - Gx + 2y
witli
=^
19;
respect to
and
find
x'^
the
TANGENTS FROM AN OUTSIDE POINT
95
Tangents from an Outside Point

93.
To
point P
find the length of the tangent
(a-j,
a given
i/i).to
PA from the
circle.
Fig. 40.
(1) Let the equation of the
be
circle
al
Join OA, OP.
AOP
AP2
AP =
(2)
a rt.-Zd A,
is
0P2
v^Xi^
Let the equation of the
This equation
may
{x
from which
2gx
AO-
circle
2/2/
g^
+ f-c,
Vg^
+p
AP
=
=
=
0P2
is
of Fig. 40,
AO^
+ {y,+ fy -ig'^ + P + 2/1^ + 2 (7^1 + 2/2/1 +

/Xi^ + y,^ + 2gXi + 2fyi + c.
{x,-^
{g, f)
c.
With the diagram and construction

AP2
0.
seen that the centre
is
it
be written
+ gf+{y+ff =
and the radius
be
gf
c)
96
To
94.
find
the equation of the tangents fro
to the circle
(Xi, ifj)
y^-
a^.
Fig. 41.
Let a secant
and
If
/kx
let
from P (x^, y^) cut the circle at

be
any point on the secant.
y)
difcj-wn
{x,
PA QA = k:l,
:
(^-^
X.
ky
-|
the coordinates of
...
y-.\
and
..,
since
is
(k
2/2/1
are
on the
circle
Y^,
or,
(kx
(x^
x,f
+ (% -
y,f
CL^)
k^
^ (xx^
x^
yi
ct^
a\
1)2
ci'^)k
0.
If, now, the secant turn about P until it coincides

with either of the tangents from P, the two values of
k found from this equation, and which correspond to
the two points where the secant cuts the circle, are
equal to each other.

(XX.
This
is
yyi
a2)2
(x^
a^) (x^^
y^^
a^).
EXERCISES
RADICAL
AXIS
97
95. Exercises
Find the length
1.
(a),
(7,
3) to
- 5) to
(6),
(3,
(c),
(,-2,
(c^),
(0,
0) to
(e),
(4,
2) to
-6)
22;
a.-2
to
+
+
3a;
2/2
_^
The length
2/2 - lOic -
^/
'Igx
2/2
6cc
of the point.
3.
4.
2/2
0.
4.
from P to x2 + v/2 = 9 is
Find the locus of P.
of the tangent
to (6, 0).
[XX^
2^2
(7,
1)
to
25.
Show, by the method of
(a;2
0;
from a point to
Find the locus
always
is
=
=
Find the equations of the tangents from
tangents from
(e).
- 39
the tangent drawn
35
Plot the diagram on squared paper.
The length
+-
5.
22/
of
twice the distance from
ic2
Ify
^2/
77/
12.X';
Explain the imaginary result in

2.
from
of the tangent
.^-2
(x^,
y-^ to
x'^
94,
+ '^Q^ + ^fv + ^ = ^
+ 2/i) + c}2
+/
{x^^ + y^^ + 2gx^ + 2/2/^ + c).
+ yy^ + g {X +
+ 2gx + 2fy + c)
2/^
X^)
Radical Axis
96.
To
find the radical axis of the circles
x2
x2
+ y2 +
+ y' +
2gx
2fy
2g'x
2fy
+
+
=0,
0'
0.
Since the tangents to the circles from any point on

their radical axis are equal to each other, if {x, y) is
any point on the

aj2
+
.'.
2/2
2gx
locus,
2/2/
by
c =
2 (g - g )
(f
93,
2/^
"^g'x
2fy
is
- f) y
c -
c'
0.
^8
97.
The
centres of
in the last article are
circles
tlie
{-9^ -f) and {-g\ -f).

the
:.
st.
or, (/
By
2 {g
/.
line joining the centres is
- /)
+g ^ y + f
g-g' /-/'
{x + g)-{g - g')
/)
the condition of perpendicularity this line
g')
- f)
^ if
the radical axis
is
1_
C'
0.
is _L
to
0.
to the line of centres.
98. Exercises
1.
Find the radical axis
+
+
Draw
2.
ix -
16a;
1%
Find the radical axis of the
Show
104
+
+
22^/
2/2
=9.
9^c
4.
z=
82/
circles
- 3
^2
^2
+
+
2/2
y2
y2
+ 2gx +
+ 2g^x +
+ 2g^x +
2/^2/
+
+
2/22/
C2
^fy
taken two and two are concurrent.

is
0,
0.
0,
that the radical axes of the circles
0,2
rence
the diagram on squared paper.
2x2
3.
of the circles
=0,
= 0,
= 0
(The point of concur-
the radical centre.)
Find the radical centre of the
^2
+
+
_,.
2/2
+
- 1x +
2/2
2/2
3:z;
6a;
circles
7y
5?/
- 31 =
0,
2^/
- 39
0.
35
0,
Show
5.
that the circles

5c2
^2
^2
+
+
+
+
+
+ 2x 47.x
2/2
axis.
which
is _L
st.
line
0,
- 11
0,
- 10
5y _
have a common radical

are in a
99
?/
32/
Show
0,
that their centres
also
common
to the
radical axis.
(a)

to 3x +
intersection of x - 2y = 6, x + 3y = 10 and
1.
||
4y
11.

+ y = 7, l\x + 2v/ = 28 and A. to the
2.
intersection of Sx
latter line.
Plot
3.
--
(7,
20
5.
k)
(h,
the
and
quadrilateral
and
(4,
(-5,
2),
6),
(-9,
-6),
find its area.
Plot the lines 2x
4.
4)
+ 5y
+ y =
by them.
12x
29,
find the area contained
Find the equation of the st.

and such that the portion of
29,
5x - 2y
passing through
between the axes is
line
it
bisected at the given point.

6.
k)
(A,
{^2^
\\
Show
0,
that, if the lines
+ ay + b ^
+ b + c = 0.
cx
then a
st.
line
passing through
line joining
(.Xj,
y^^),
ax + hy +
1) is
0,
bx
cy
0 are concurrent but not coincident,
Find the ratio in which the
8.
(6,
st.
2/2)-
7.

to, (5) _L to the
and {a)
divided by
a;
11^/
st.
line joining
0.
5,
3),
100
9. Find the centre of the inscribed circle

by the lines 4x - 3y r= 18,
+ 12?/ = 9,
10.
and X +
2^/
Show
11.
Ax*
~
12.
Find
13.
contained by y
tlie
+ C =
B?/
2 (A
formed
+ 7y = 30.
= 3x, y = 5x
+ m^B)
('',
0)
is
contained hy y
=z
m^x,
+ m.p)
(A
such that the square of

times the squaie of its
locus of a point
distance from
distance from
24a;
77.
y = m.^ and
its
of the
three
0).
(2,
One vertex
of a |!gm
adjacent vertices are at
(a,
the origin and the two
at
is
5),
Find the fourth
d).
(c,
vertex.
14.
Show
that, if the
two
circles
+
+
Igx
touch each other,

15.
- Ifx - 2gy +
then {g - /)2 = 2c.
=,0
2/2/
0,
Give the geometrical interpretation of the equation

= 0.
+ âx cos a + 2ay sin a +
2/2
16. Find the locus of the interse^^tion of the st. lines

which pass through (6, 0) and (0, 3) respectively and cut
each other at
17.
rt.
^s.

= 2^03 which are to 3ic
4. 2/2
18.
by
=
19.
||
tangents
y =
Find the orthocentre of the A whose

16, ic - 33/ = 10 and x + 2y =
Prove that the radical axis of the
032
bisects the
st.
+
+
7/2
2/2
- 2a
{x cos a
+ y
sides are
circles
sin a)
line joining their centres.
the
to
circle
0.
8x
101
Chords of the circle

pass through the
^/^ =
Find the locus of their middle points.
fixed point (A, o).
20.
-f-
Find the equation
21.
the
and
origin
of the circle
makes
intercepts

and h on Ox^ Oy
respectively.
22.
on the
described
circle
st,
line joining the origin to {g,f) as diameter.
23.
joining
Z-s
rt.
by
2a?
line
st.
7.
1=0
to
is
3.
Find
25.
the
from
distances
having
direction
the
direction cosines
4)
(2,
in
the
o the
t.
is
_ ^xy +
3i2
the point
curve whose equation
- 32
52/2
0.
Find the equation of the locus of a point P such

1 where A {x^, y^), B (.Tg, y.^
are fixed
26.
that
of a point such that the
bisected at
is
Find the locus of the points from which tangents

to x'^ + 2/2=13 and x^ + y'^ ~ 1x + &y +
are
24.
drawn
as 5
-3)
to (4,
it
PA PB = ^
:
points.
Show
its
that the locus
centre to
27.
Find
(a)
divides the
ratio
A and
st.
is
a circle and find
the
coordinates
of
-2),
line joining
AC CB =
:
the relation of
B.
(3,
the
point
(19,
10)
which
in
the
3.
(h) Prove that D (11, 4) lies on the st. line AB given

above; and by computing the lengths of AD and BD, find
the ratio in which

28.
{(i)
divides
Find the area
angular points are
{x^,
of a
y{),
(x^,
AB.
the coordinates of whose
y^),
(x^,
y^).
102
From
(h)
the result of (a) deduce the equation of a
which
it passes.
Show
29.
that
tangent to the
= mx + a v^l +
a^.
+
circle
The equation
30.
^x'^
^y"^
containing terms
jecond degree only,
by transforming
What
properly chosen point.
always
is
m''^
I'lx
be reduced to one
point
x and y
in
to
^x
line
bx -
122/
Find the locus
33.
drawn
to the circle
are at
rt.
x'^
the coordinates of the
are
0.
Z.s to
?y2
+ 2gx
2/2/
^1^2
lines
Ify
{^1
(xj,
{x^,
y^),
0 are at
^2)
Find the equation
rt.
y.^)
iiLs
on the
to each
of
the
st.
2/0)
+/^ =
0.
line joining {ah^, 2a6)
2ac).
Show that the equation

at
37.
2/12/2
{ac^,
show that
other,
k)
each other.
+ 2gx +
y^
is (h,
from which tangents
the points
of
34. If the tangents at the points

circle x^
=
=
tlie
axes through a
||
32. Find the equation of the circle whose centre

and which passes through {a, h).
36.
0 can
of
Find the distance of the point of intersection of the

+ 2y + ^ = 0 and 2x + by + ^ = 0 from the
31.
35.
lines
and
st.
terms of the coordinates of two given points through
line in
the
point (a cos
a,
to
b sin a)
is
of the
x +
x -
sm
cos a
- b\
Find the pi-oduct of the
3^2 - 1 'Ixy + 1 2/^ = 0.
1
Xs
from (-7,
f!;!L^
h
4) to
y
y
the
Show
38.
lines ax^
103
that the product of the J_s from
hxy +
hy'^
+ 2hcd +
ac2
(c,
d) to the
is
V{a -
hd'^
b)-^
(^)
39.
which join the
lines
st.
origin to the points of intersection of
and
c2
ax
-\-
hy
2/2
2gx
(1)
2/^/
0.
(2)
Solution
Fig. 42.
Let the
cut the circle
line (1)
(2)
at A, B.
It is required to find the equation representing
From
(1)
k^x""
Equation
and
by
k"^
k {ax + hy)
y")
(8)
has
56,
+ 2k {ax +
{ax
OA
and OB.
hyf.
hy) {gx
+ fy) +
{ax
hy)""
0.
(3)
it
terms of the second degree in x and

y,
represents two st. hues passing through the
(3)
is
all
its
origin.
Again, equation
satisfy
.*.
both
(1)
and
satisfied
the lines represented by
equation
(3)
by the values
of
x and y which
(2)
represents
(3)
OA
pass through
and OB.
and B.
104
40.
Find the equation
41.
of
the
and
x-
2/2
5.
lines joining the origin
st.
2f/ = '2a and 5 (.r^ + y^)

x
and show that they arc to each
to the points of intersection oi
+ 5ax + lây =
lines joining the origin
st.
to the points of intersection of 2x'
I8a^,
-\-
other.
42.
Find the L between the
st.
which join
lines
origin to the points of intersection of
2
2/2
43.
2cc
6?/
A,
44.
on each
are
and
.x^
0.
the intersection of 3x
that the
^3 =
the
of
st.
points
on Ox, Ox
passing
lines
and x +
them from (I, 7)
2?/
=11
5?/
is
through
and such
e(jual to 5.
respectively
and
on
OB squares OACD, OBEF are described. EF produced

cuts AC at G.
Prove that OG, BC, ED are concurrent.
OA,
45.
J_
h
passes through a fixed point.
y
X + y
=
46.
from
Show
show that the variable
If -L
is
constant,
st.
line
{a,
b),
(c,
d)
is
that the
st.
line
moves
so
that the
equal to the
passes
sum
A.
to
of the
it
_Ls
from
line
to it
{g,
h).
through a fixed point and
find the coordinates of the point.

47.
from
Prove that the difference of the squares of the tangents

(.Tp 2/j)
to the circles
022
is
+
+
2/2
2g^^
2g,,x
+
+
2/i2/
2f^y
+
+
=
=
from
(a;j,
y^
circles
to their radical axis.
by the distance
and the length of the J.
equal to twice the rectangle contained
between the centres of the
0,

105
48. Three circles touch eacli other at a common point.

Prove that the polars of a fixed point (x^, y^) with respect
to these circles are concurrent.

49. Find the equations of the st. lines which divide the
Zs between the lines ix - Sij + 7 = 0, 5x
12?/ - 19 = 0
into parts whose sines are as 5 to 7.
Show
50.
is
cos (a
that
/?),
cos a
Show
51.
b sin (a
^
b
equation
the
/5
'
sin a
the
of
and
cos (a
joining
st.
line
ft),
b sin (a
-fy)j
cos p.
that the bisectors of the
Zs
interior
of a
are concurrent.
Take
NoTK.
of the
cos
cos
a.^
cos
a.^
chord
52. If the
tion
A, and
the origin withiî the
the equations
let
sides be
px + qy =
is
then a2
(jji
q'^)
+ 7/
+ y
+ y
of the
sin
a,,
sin
a.^
circle
x'^
p,^,
p.-^.
whose equa-
subtends an Z of 45 at the origin,
=
=
=
sin
V^.
st.
line
that the
st.
line passes, in either case,
moves so that the sura, or the difference,

the intercepts cut off from the axes varies as the area
Prove
the A contained by the st. line and the axes.
53.
of
of
54.
ax"
Show
Ihxy + by-
0 and
Ax +
7,2
A-b - 2
55.
OACB
is
OB; PS drawn
meets
AC
at R.
||gra,
|1
is
,-
through a fixed point.
contained by the lines
+ C =
B?/
is
ah
ABA + B\i
a point in OA,
OB
meets
Sliow
that
BC
at
PR, QS,
00
is
a point in
QR drawn
are
||
OA
concurrent.
106
56.
P is a point such that the sum of the J_s from p
on Ox and on x - by ^ 0 is constant.
Prove that the
locus of P is the base of an isosceles A of which O is the
vertex and y = 0, x - hi/ = 0 ave the sides.
57. Given the base

and the magnitude of
of its vertex
is
magnitude and position
in
prove that the locus
circle.
Prove that,
58.
of
its vertical
if
the diameter of a
(x-^,
circle,
y^, {x^, y^ are the extremities of

the equation of the circle may be
written
{x
{x
a^j)
x^)
{y
59. If {h, k) is a point in
the equation of the
and makes with the axes

X
1/
minimum
area
is
60.
Show
L
CI.
PM
is
P,
J-
is
are
to
in
quadrant, show that
that
quadrant
the
(Ji,
k)
of
two points and

to
0.
_|_
the polar of
_L
y.^)
to the circle
at the centre, then
QN
OP OQ.
and
(h, k)
first
chord of contact of tangents drawn

subtends a
x'^ + y'^ ^
that, if the
from the point

rt.
^ _
^ k ~
4.
{y
the
line
st.
^2
2r-.
is
the centre of a
with respect to
the polar of P.
Show
that
the
circle.
circle,
PM QN =
:
62.
Tangents PA,
to the circle x^
y"^
PB
=
are
r'^-
drawn from the point P

Prove that
+
Prove
that
polar
of
+ y'^ = c2 is a tangent to
{ah + hk - c'^f - (^2. + /j2^ ^2.
{x
63.
tlie
(A, k^
k^
{a,
h)
- hy +
with
(y
respect
k)^
r^,
to
if
ABC
64.
BC
to
AB
in
which a variable
D and AC
at
the intersection of BE,
locus of
is
cuts
to the middle point of

65.
Show
at
E.
CD
is
107
DE drawn
line
Show
the
|[
the
that
line joining
st.
BC.
that the equation of the system of circles which
pass through
and touch
(A, .k)
+ By + C
J\x
may
be
written
+ By +
C)"
+ {Bx - Ay +
/)2}
-(Ax + By + C) {(A^ + Bk +
C)^
+ {bK - Ak +
If},
(A/i
where
66.
The
67.
Show
b.
a'^
4/2 -
4c.
middle points of the chords of

which pass through the fixed point
of the
x'^
4g'^
k).
68.
that
Find the locus
the circle
(A,
x'^ +
+ 2gx + 2/y + c = 0 cuts off
chords of which the lengths are respectively
circle
Oy
from Ox,
a and
{(A.x-
an arbitrary constant.
is
+ C)
BA;
is
AQ
meets
having
69.
is
the centre of a fixed
any point on the

at
P.
Show
centre in
its
circle.
cuts
The
that the
is
a fixed point,
bisector
of
is
locus
of
ACQ
a circle
AO.
Find the equation
Ox and which
circle,
x^
of
the circle with

y'^
and
its
(x^
centre on
y-)
dx
orthogonally.
7 (x-
Show that the circles x^ +

+ y2) - 192x + 14 ly - 175
point
(3,
70.
+ 2x - 2y = 23 and
cut orthogonally at the
4).
71. If the
px + qy =
chord of the circle x^

subtends an
^/^
L of 45 at the
on the line
then
origin,
108
72.
rt.
sin a
7^2
=
=
subtended at the
is
p.
bj the chord
origin,
=
on
Kf + (y
Show that 2p^ 2p (h
the circle {x
sin a)
+
+
r^,
the line x cos a

cos a
+ h
r2.
Show that the condition that the circles

+ 2/2 + 2^c + 2y2/ + c = 0 touch each other
= 4r2 (^2 +
(^2 +
73.
c2
Find the
74.
intersection
The equal
75.
sides
is
between the tangents at a point of

circles
x'^ + y'^ - ix - Sy = b
and
- lOx - 6y =
2/^
produced to P,
PQ
z.
the
of
y"^
2.
OB
OA,
an
of
AP
such that
isosceles rt.-
BQ =
Show
OA^.
are
that
passes through a fixed point.
76.
from
Find the locus of a point such that a tangent drawn

to the circle
it
tangent drawn from

77.
the
y^
to x^
points
2a {x +
78.
x'^
it
of
intersection
y),
+
Jj^
Show
that,
if
the line
y2
^2 ^t
cc2
(A,
k) with respect to the circle at
is
a harmonic range.
What
79.
is
If
a?^
y =
2a.
sm
is
axy
If ax^
st.
r cuts the
of
the
point
then P, D,
F,
hx
cy
+ d =
0 represents two
lines intersect at the point
F,
lines,
+ 2hxy
-1-
%2 +
2gx
2/^
st.
lines,
(~^ ).
a
two
y'^
the general statement of this proposition?
show that the

80.
twice a
__
~.
E and the polar
circle
D,
cos a

y'^
line
IO2/
25.
circle
of
and touches the
d>x
y'^
0 represents
show that the squares of the coordinates of
the intersection of the lines are

h'^
- ab
and ^
hP"
- ah

109
y + mx = c cut the axes

Find the area of AA'B'B.
The St. lines y + mx

at A, B and A', B' respectively.
81.
Show that the polar of {h, h) with respect to the

which has its centre at {h k) and touches the line
+ my +\ = 0 is {r- mr) {h - k) (y - x + h - k) = {Ih + mk + I )2.
82.
circle
Ix
-{-
Prove that the locus of
83.
the middle
point of
the
chord of contact of tangents drawn from points on a given

st.
line to
a given
circle
a circle passing through the

and having its centre on the
is
centre of the given circle
from the centre of the given

Three concentric
84.
Show
G. P.
circles,
circle to the
the pole with respect to
that, if
on A, the polar will touch

C, the polar will touch A.
line is
Find the equation
85.
contained by the lines
Find the locus
86.
of
x'^
the
and
if
bisectors
+ kxy =
y^
of a point such
x + y = a
to the line
given
of
st.
the pole
is
on
of
the
angles
0.
that the
the geometrical
is
st. line.
A, B, C, have their radii in
from
it
mean between
the coordinates of the point.
Show
+ 2/^ +
that the
87.
C^
2/72/
circles
x"^
88.
gonally each of the circles
y^
+ 2gx +
2fy
0,
orthogonally.
circle
which cuts ortho-
+ 2/^ + 3a; + % = 7, x'^ + y^ + ix + iy = S,

Ox C, D in Qy such that
OA, OB, OC, OD are in H. P. Show that the locus of
the intersection of AD and BO is x = y.
90. Show that the lines x + 13?/ = 0, 3x = by, 5x = *ly,
+ 2/2 + + 2?/ = 3,
89. Points A, B
and 1x
8?/
The
91.
respectively.
CE,
DF
are given in
form a harmonic
circle
EF
cc^
is
5(32
pencil.
cuts
a chord such that
intersect at P.
^^^^
^/^
2/2
Show
2r?/
Ox,
l
Ox at C, D
EOF = 2a, and
that the locus of
tan a
r^.
is
the
110
ELEMENTAKY ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY

Find the equation of a
92.
intersections of the circles
- ix -
(1) X?
and through the centre
Show
93.
passing through the
circle
=^
28,
(2)
y'^
of (1).
that the points
(1,
7),
2,
8),
(3,
and
3)
6) are concyclic.
(2,
94. From any point A in the line x = y st. lines are

drawn making /_ s of 60 and 120 with Ox and cutting
y'Oy at B and
= OB.
off
CD =
that
OC
From
respectively.
Show
OD
a part
diagonal
the
of
cut
is
square
on OA.
E are respectively points in two given st. lines
OD + OE = cj and P is a point in DE
D,
95.
OY
OX,
such that
DP =
such that
{mx
-{-
96.
y)
m,
If
that
OY
OX,
the
are taken as axes
locus
of
point
P moves such
97.
the locus of P
Show
= 0
acc^
_j_
98.
that the
is
st. lines
are respectively
2hxi/
+ %2 ^
a fixed
to
line _L to the
st.
st.
line
circle.
represented by
to the
circle.
st.
bx"^
- 2hxy +
by
lines represented
0.
series of circles
touch the axis of x at the origin.
Show
that the tangents at the points where the line y

cuts the circles all touch the fixed circle x"^ + y^ = 5^.
99.
1)
P from a
that the distance of
the tangent from
joining the fixed point to the centre of. the
ay^
(m +
is
cm.
fixed point equals
Show that
EP.
show
coordinates,
of
circle of
given radius moves so that
its
radical
axis with reference to a fixed circle always passes through
a fixed point.
having
its
Show
that the locus of
its
centre
is
circle
centre at the fixed point.
Show that the quadrilateral enclosed by the lines

dx + 2y = 0, 2x - 3y + 1 = 0, 2x - 3y = 0, 3x + 2y = I
100.
is
a square.
101.
a;2
Show
_
divides
y'^
that the centre of the circle
2^cc
the
- 2gx -
102.
2/y/
2///
Z
= 0 and
2/2
the
joining
line
st.
in the ratio of
and
111
x"-
2Ar
- Ihy
centres
2/^
of
c^)
the
2% +
=0
1.
The sum
s from two fixed points (x^,

+ W2/ + n = 0 is equal
the
of
to a variable line Ix
(.X2, 2/.^)
the constant
Prove that the
a.
and
fixed circle,
circles
line is
to
always tangent to a
find the equation of the circle.
(Problems
1907.)
103.
a;2
2/2
Show
that the circles
lOcc
22/
22
x'^
y"^
+ 2x - ^y +
d>
0 touch each other.
0,
(Prob-
lems-1911.)
Through one angular point A of a square A BCD a

is drawn meeting the sides BC and DO produced
If ED and FB intersect in G,
at E and F respectively.
104.
st.
line
show that
105.
CG
is
ax +
(h
hx
{c
cx
-\-
(Problems 1913.)
EF.
Prove that the
(a
lines
+
+
+
=
=
y =
c)
a)
b)
are concurrent, and find the

point.
(Problems
Two
h~
-h
ho
c^,
ca
\-
a^^
ab
b^,
coordinates of their
common
1013.)
whose centres are C, C, touch each

A st. line OPP' is drawn cutting
Show that the locus of the
the circles at P and P'.
intersection of CP' and CP is a circle whose diameter is a
harmonic mean between the radii of the given circles; and
whose centre is at C" on the line OCC such that OC" is
the harmonic mean between OC and OC. (Problems
1913.)
106.
circles
other, internally at O.
107.
Prove that
circle of all circles
(Problems 1912.)
tlie
chords of intersection with a fixed
through two fixed points are concurrent.
112
108. Find the equation of two st. lines through the origin
and such that the s to them from the point {h, k) are
+ d and d.
109. If axes of reference are
and
if
this is folded
drawn on a sheet
about the line joining
find the coordinates of the point
which
of paper
(1, 3) to (2, 0),
fails
on
(x,
y).
Find also the equation of the circle which coincides with

_ 2^/ = 4. (Problems 1917.)
a;2 +
AT, BP and BQ are tangents from any two
and B to a fixed circle. C, D, E, F are the middle
points of AS, AT, BP, BQ respectively.
Prove that CD and
EF, produced if necessary, meet on the line that bisects
AB at rt. ^ s. (Problems 1907.)
110.
points
AS and
ANSWERS
(Page
6.
(2a, 0), (a, ap/S).
5.
5.)
(0, 0), (5, 0), (b, 6), (0, 6).
4.
(0, 0),
4.
13 04.
12.
5.
10, 17, 9.
13. 3 or
6.
(a) i/b8, i/82, 10
7.
3/57 H/306
1/827 2i/Io7 /857 i/29"
(Page 11.)
16.
(6) iv/234;'
7/2;
8.
(0,
9.
(f ,
11.
1/(35.
13.
14.
4x- 10?/ + 29 = 0.
15.
(W,
16.
(7,
2^-); 3-7 nearly.
2),(-W-,
1/I37.
0)-the origin.
I) and (V-, t).
21.
22.
(,
(-18, -14).
Va' + b'.
19.
(Page 16.)
3.
36-5.
8.
36 miles.
4.
25-5.
9.
2.
i/=5a;.
3.
(a)
The
axis of
axis of
cc
The
(6)
y.
4.
5c
5.
3x-5^/ = l7.
(2,
-3)
(-8,
2.
(0, 9)
C.
2x + y + 5=0.
cc'^
8.
x2
6)
and
(6)
(3,
(d) (8,
(e) (5,
- 15,
+ ^'-8x-6'j/ = 0.
+ i/-2x + 4i/ = 31.
c-2i/ + 3 = 0.
(Page 23.)
24.
(a) (2, 7)
3.
7.
10.
4.
(Page 21.)
522.
1.
/-).
20.
and
(c)
3.
(0, 0)
-6) and
12) and
4.
2x = a.
2)
0).
113
(6, 0).
+ 4^ = 20.
5.
7a;
6.
x^+y^=d.
ANSWERS
114
(Page
27.
2.
(a)^ + -=l;0.)
27.)
+ + 14 = 0 5; +
+ 28 = 0, 2x-3i/-14
Sides,
8.
^+^ =
3y
9'!/
= 0;
Medians,
3.
cc-3iy=:0;
(a)
13 = 0;
(c)
8x
-7, 3x-i/ = 0
Centroid ( - 1, - 3).
+ ll^/ + 34
= 0.
2i/
(a)
0;
0,
(-5, -31).
5.
dl
6.
(11, 4).
7.
Ratio of equality.
(b)
of diagonals, 2cc
(-6, -7),
10.
(Page
38.)
8.
(a)
(a) x=]/3y (5) y + x^/3 = 0;

(c) 5x-7'/ + 35 = 0; (d) 3?/
4x + 9 = 0 {e)x-y = l.
;
5.
(3, 3|).
(6) (f , 0).
+ ^ + l = 0.
(a) 45
(b) SO'
5.
9x + 4i/ + 47 = 0.
2x-\-3yÛ.
6.
7a3 + 5i7 = 4.
7.
5x-3y-\-8=^0.
8.
c-i/
3.
9.
+ 2 = 0 and
12 = 0.
x ]/'dy = 3\/3-b
^/3^y=
10.
(2f,
(c)
10.
11.
a = 8,
13.
Intercept:
A=0;
(b)
A-=B;
(e)
90
11.
(c) B
A+B
5=21-.
-4.
6=
12.
(/,
12
^^).
5_
14. (17i/3 -
1% +
4:7 y
344
+ 34^/3"; and (17 1/3'+ IG)

3"- 344.
-47,/ = 34/
=
0
and
x - Gj/
8
6a: +
+
= 11.
t^ +
'a
a;
and
i/
cc
4).
42.)
15.
n.
-3/3"-5.
-4|).
= 5.
= 0.
tan ~^5.
{d)
(iZ)
m = l.
m=-i
9.
(Page
44.
1.
x+
-2), (-3,
(5,
C=0;
= 0;
-1, -J^);
(a) 9,
8x-y lS,
Diagonals,
lif).
4.
6.
4:,
9y = 34, 87a; + 438y = 5948

Line through middle points'
40.
3.
+ 2j/
2x-^y= -2^, 3x +
= 2, x-y =
3x-\-4y
= 33
-!f
(c)
4.
cc
Sides,
9.
Intercepts:
x-hy = 14,
9x-2y +
(6)
18.
9/
c'^
(:2'
27
Bx- Ai/+2VA''+B"^ = 0.
ANSWERS
(Page 53.)
54.
38
(a);
12, /2
24
(6)-^;(c)
/29
|/1L)
35
(d)
(0
V23:
33x + 01i/ = 216.
21.
11
a6
25.
24, 55).
5.
8x + G|/ = 15.
6.
X - y = 0.
m) (ax -
+
+ a(ci - c) = 0.
ahc - ap - hg"" - cK' + ^fgJi = 0.
hy)
6(97110
Dix c) =
(6 - ma c) (j/ miX - Ci).
(ACi - AiC)x + (BCi - BiC)]/
11. (6
15X + 14.//-100.
mitt -
Cj)
28.
(iy
1/2.
29.
i/
14
1/37'
i/"2
32.
12x-5i/ = 26,
33.
Ax+B?/+_p
34.
Bx- A^ + Afc-
x + 21y-6 and 189x-9|/ =
(e)
(/)
3x-'f/==-4, x-3i/ = 5
(5)
(c)
(cZ)
= 2.
i/A'^+B'^ = 0.
B/(=0.
x-3y = 24.
x = aj x =
X - 1/ = 0, X + 1/ = 0
x = 0, x = 3i/
2x-y=0, 4x-3'i/=0
x = a, '1/= - 6
(a)
9/
35.
60.
i.
+ 13j/ =
cc
+ 2|/130-11
3x + i/ = 2 and
7a.'
30.
692.
17.
= 3 and
+ 13 1/ 3) + 23ij + 52 1/
+ 257 = 0 and (24 - 13 / 3 x
+ 23|/-52;/3 + 257 = 0.
5x - 12y + 56 = 0 and 5x 121/ -74 = 0.
6x + = 31, x-v + 3 = 0
= 0.
15.
d)
27. (24
(mi -
mci)
14.
26. 13a: - 7f/

119.
7.
13.
(c
24.
4.
12.
+ U)
22. I 1/2:
3.
10.
(7i/3
-1/74
I5.
C2-C1
8.
19.
20.
13
l/41
2.
115
?)
(Page
60.)
and
2.
-|
3.
The axes
4.
(c?)
5.
hc
0.
8.
7.
3x'^-i/2-30x + 6i/ + 66 = 0.
<a7i-i
of coordinates.
i\
(e)
90^
;
(/)
= ad.
ANSWERS
116
(Page
65.
2x''-llxy + 12y^=^0.
c^
6.
+ cc|/ = 0.
2(x^
(-|,J);
(Ai/34-B).x
+ i/) = 19.
64.)
2xy + a^ = 0.
8.
9sc2-25i/ = 0.
9.
tan-'^
3x^21/2=10.
+ (Bv/3-A)i/ +
2C = 0.
(Page 66.)
(>G
33.
(a) |/145
(6) i/5a^
34.
+ 16a6 + 136''^;
35.
2.
P(t, 3|);
3.
fa6.
4.
41i
5.
10|.
6.
^1 (y2
Q(17i
161).
37.
9.
10.
13.
Vi)
^2 (ys-yi)
8x + 7i/ = 5.
2ax + 2by = c + d.
x = y tan a + b.
X cos a-{-y sin a = a.
U. tan-^
15.
16.
17.
41.
+ 6i/ = 39 and Gcc - = 12.

2a; + 3y+ll-0.
165a; + G05i/ + 3114 = 0 332x
497a;
-747i/ + 3466 = 0
-142]/ -2178 = 0.
-j/
43. (1,1).
44. (a) (a/i c/)cc + {hh
L2^.
_7i,(rt
45.
x + yJS + 2(^rS-l)=^0.
mh -k + a
x
a
- liy = 6 and 154x + 55
55C
= ad.
51.
23.
49x-
a==6or -4; a,
52.
1), (|,
-i).
+ 150 = 0.
4i/ = ll.
2(a - h)x + 2(b - k)y =
X-
25. 45.
- 6oy + 14a + 36 = 0.
31.
32.
V'
+ 1/4- 15 = 0.
53. 2cc
+ c)x + {hd c(6 + adm

+ ac) - hd{am + c) = 0.
i/
30.
a""
-h'^-k'K
h{am
54. 45.
55.
10a;
+ 4i/ + 11 =
0,
and
4a;
10j/-33 = 0.
a6
29.
1/
48.
(-2, -8) and (-6, -14).
26. 652C
c(/+.(/)
+ 6) = 0.
2451/ =242.
x + y = 10.
49. c - 1/ = 10, or 1/ - cc = 10.
50. 7c + 5i/ + 50 = 0, and 9x + 35i/
46.
21.
27.
cg)y = 0
= 229.
m cos a
20. hx-\-ay
(a^-?>/) (x-i/)
(6)
m = |, hj=
sin a -
18.
v/2i
2
38.
42.
7.
2y-7xx ^55 = 0.
19
a + 6.
(c)
-tV)-
+ 4^ + l = 0.
c + 7i/ + 6 = 0.
5c
a;2.- 1/2
-13
59. (11,
sm); (-3^,
(26tY^, 4t^/,)
56.
57.
f?)
(0, 57).
61.
-f
62. 24.
= 0.
or 10
^.
1),(-1, -5), or (-5, 7).
ANSWERS
72.
+ = 5.
{x~6y+{y-2y = 9.
(x + by + {y + iy^26.
= c\
a' +
x^
y'^
b-'
(a)(3,
1),
1/330
5;
(c)
8
(0,
-|),
(7,
0),
(d)
9.
-6)i t/6^ + c^
x^ + y^ -3x^19.
(a)/=0; (6)^^0.
12. a32_^y2
75.)
+ y'-4x + 6y = lG.
- 181a; +
1996 = 0.
13.
x''
15.
47 (x'î/)
16.
17.
14 1/2:
21.
2x-5y = 15.
81.
23.
U(xi-y) = 17.
c-c'.
25.
(/i
+ fc)(cc2 + i/=^)-(/i2 + A;e)(cc +

1/) = 0.
(Page 85.)
16.
r?lVll?
x-3y=3;
^
'_V
96; (rf)^+/!/-^0.
i/70.
Ax + Bi/=r i/A2+B^;
-3y^ll9
Bx - Ay =
ri/A'+B\
(6)
(2, 4).
10
'
-^
10
i/==cc
(x' + y^) = C\
+ y') ~mx - 136i/ +
1753 = 0.
17.
(A'+B')
18.
34
19.
{I I); (17, -13).

transverse, 12{by - 7) = (
(6, 1).
(a)
lO.
24.
_ 4x + ^y = 2.
(a) 3x + 5i/ = 34; (6) 3x-4|/

+ 11 = 0 (c)12x + 5]/ =
(a)
341|/
22. 123.
8.
11.
(Page
117
{x'
- 21
5/15) (5x-l);
C' = r^{A'+B'); (h) (Ag

+ B/ - C)'^ - (A^ + BO
24(y + 13) = ( - 21
direct^
V'21)(x-17).
20. direct,
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
13.
14.
= g\
x' + y'-2(72i/'E)(x +
y) +
6928/5 = 0.
- v'3i/ + 3/3"-l = 0, and
X- i/'3y-5i/'3-l = 0.
4v/W.
(x - g) cos a + (y
-f) sin a = r.
transverse are imaginary.
and (-1, 0) on
-4a;-8i/-5 = 0;
9) and (|, -f) on
x'
(5,
rwHi/'^
-10a;-6y-2 = 0.
21.
(2, 9)
a;
4ic+3^+iô.
y = 9 and 3x + 4i/ + 3
= 0;
a'
3^
9'
+ 3/
i/i%M7^=o.
22. a:- v/3
i/10 = 0.
y''
ANSWERS
118
(Page 94.)
92.
1.
3x + 5y = 30 (6) ax^r'4x + l7 = 0; (d) lOx-
(a)
(t
/fl-g-lc-fgm
:-)
(c)
=7
-r\
2ij
2.
(c) (
3.
11)
3x-4i/ + 25
(c)
^)
(6)(
ffV>i-/-mc -/^^V
(d) (0, 0).
0;
+fm + gl J'
6.
(e) 9a;
(1, 4).
+ 131/ = 25; (/) 13x-9y

= 0; (^) 24c-7y = 125.
'
1.
(a) 6
x-+if-\Ox~4y = 7.
(6)
(c)
{d)
^/Z
98.
12a;
9x-8i/ + 15 = 0.
+ i/- 16a; + 51 = 0.
3.
cc^
4.
4x + 3]/ = 25 and
(Page
+ 81/ = 95.
1.
2.
4.
+ 4i/ = 25.
1.
3a;
2x-lli/ + 329 = 0.
16.
17.
+ 6x 3y=0.
3x-y = 3kk^~m.
113.
18.
29.
20.
^ + -^ = 2
21. x^
a;i-a;2
a,-2)
l/i
(2AS
13.
15.
The point {-a
10 or
Centre divides
a).
75y + 71
AB
nally in ratio
(/>)
k"^
exter:
1.
AD = DB.
30. (2, 1).
a;"
sin
25a;
26.
27. (a) (7, 1);
+ i/ = 12.
(a + c, h + d).
0.
25.
_141\
10. 77.
12.
(a^-/0 + (!/i-l/2)(l/-^0
4.
+ = hx.
+ i/ ax -hyÔ.
x'^ + y'^-gx-fy = 0.
a;^
23. (tI) 1 !)
24. 8 (a;2 + 1/)
^
I/2'
=--0.
8.
(Page 99.)
x"^
4.
22.
- 4i/ = 25.
(-13, -7).
3.
5.
3a;
98.)
Miscellaneous Exercises.
2.
(Page 97.)
95.
2.
'
l+fm + gl
-7)
- 35,
(a) (2,
hx-\-ky = h''+
(e)
cos
- a
31.
m-
32.
2/1,
{x - a)
= a2+62.
-2k{y- b)
ANSWERS
119
Continued.
33.
81.
35.
2x-{b + c)y + 2abc = 0,
86.
V13"
37.
40.
85.
4*
88.
19x2-60cci/ + 44i/-0.
92.
41.
2m
cc2 = 0.
+ i/-2a(cc + i/) + a^ = 0.
x'' + y''^2{x + y).
59 (x^/) - 44 (sc + 2y)
c^
--
740.
1
42. tan
8^243
102.
23
43.
15cc + 8^ = 31.
+ c- g, b + d- h).
163x + 9i/ + 54 = 0 and
-573ay + 1112 = 0.
c^ + 1/^ - (^5c + ky) = 0.
c2 + i/-10sc + 9 = 0.
y=^2 and
2/4
46. {a
49.
67.
69.
74. cos
2392c
-1 17
The
circle
10i/
(cc'
= 92.
77. 3 (x^ + y^)
'
d')y\^
20
76.
105.
108.
;;7:'
+ ca4-ct6
a+6+c
aH62 + c^ + 5c + ca + a6
a+6+c
( - d'')x' - 2hkxy + (h' 6c
- 2a
i/''^)
+ 8x +
5
(x + y) = 2a\
0.
109. 18 - 4x - 3y , 6 - 3x
jc2
+ 4y,
+ ]/2-6x-4i/ + 8 = 0.

Advancedgeometry00mcdo 1 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Advancedgeometry00mcdo 1 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

RINGED

Gopp, Glaxk Pitman Ltd,

PART I.SOLID GEOMETRY

Principal Ottawa Collegiate Institute

Copyright, Canada, 1923, by The Copp Clark Company, Limited,

candidates in the Geometry of the

to take the Analytical Part.

allowed between Synthetic and Solid Geometry.

of 1919, the Synthetic

Parts are given,

while the present edition contains the

and Analytical Parts.

the option without the pupils having to purchase the

of the propositions follows closely the

order given in the Regulations.

In compiling the part on Solid Geometry, the writer

Beatty of the University of Toronto.

and from Dr.

Lines and Planes in Space

Parallel Lines and Planes

Line Perpendicular to a Plane.

Parallel Lines and Planes

Common Perpendicular to Two Lines

Parallelepiped and Tetrahedron

Lines and Planes in Space

Plane Geometry and

Plane Geometry deals with figures in one plane and

in a single plane or not.

as a surface such that the straight

any two points

in the surface lies wholly in

of a straight line cannot lie in a plane

and another part without the plane.

two planes have two common

line joining the points lies

Since a plane extends indefinitely,

curved surface does not

also divides space into

sides of the surface passes

and the straight line joining two points

points, the straight

through the surface.

determined by a combination of points

points and lines.

5. Three points which do not

Let two planes, A and

the straight lines PQ, QR, RP.

these three lines

each of the planes.

Any st. line in plane- A must intersect

of a plane, th-e line

Hence every st.

line in either of the planes lies

the planes coincide.

Thus any three points not

6. A straight line and a point not on it determine

Then a plane that contains the

through the three points

LINES AND PLANES

Let the two

Take a point Q on one

a point R on the other.

Then a plane that contains