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Psychometrictestsforstudyingemotion

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Ekman'sfamoustestofemotionrecognitionwasthePicturesofFacialAffect(POFA)stimulussetpublishedin
1976.Consistingof110blackandwhiteimagesofCaucasianactorsportrayingthesixuniversalemotionsplus
neutralexpressions,thePOFAhasbeenusedtostudyemotionrecognitionratesinnormalandpsychiatric
populationsaroundtheworld.Ekmanusedthesestimuliinhisoriginalcrossculturalresearch.Manyresearchers
favorthePOFAbecausethesephotographshavebeenratedbylargenormativegroupsindifferentcultures.In
responsetocritics,however,Ekmaneventuallyreleasedamoreculturallydiversesetofstimulicalledthe
JapaneseandCaucasianFacialExpressionsofEmotion(JACFEE).[34]
By1978,EkmanandFriesenhadfinalizedanddevelopedtheFacialActionCodingSystem(FACS)[35]to
taxonomizeeveryhumanfacialexpression.FACSisananatomicallybasedsystemfordescribingallobservable
facialmovementforeveryemotion.EachobservablecomponentoffacialmovementiscalledanactionunitorAU
andallfacialexpressionscanbedecomposedintotheirconstituentcoreAUs.[36]Anupdateofthistoolcamein
theearly2000s.
Othertoolshavebeendeveloped,includingtheMicroExpressionsTrainingTool(METT),whichcanhelp
individualsidentifymoresubtleemotionalexpressionsthatoccurwhenpeopletrytosuppresstheiremotions.
ApplicationofthistoolincludeshelpingpeoplewithAsperger'sorautismtorecognizeemotionalexpressionsin
theireverydayinteractions.TheSubtleExpressionTrainingTool(SETT)teachesrecognitionofverysmall,micro
signsofemotion.Theseareverytinyexpressions,sometimesregisteringinonlypartoftheface,orwhenthe
expressionisshownacrosstheentireface,butisverysmall.Subtleexpressionsoccurformanyreasons,for
example,theemotionexperiencedmaybeveryslightortheemotionmaybejustbeginning.METTandSETT
havebeenshowntoincreaseaccuracyinevaluatingtruthfulness.

Detectingdeception

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Ekmanhascontributedtothestudyofsocialaspectsoflying,whywelie,[37]andwhyweareoftenunconcerned
withdetectinglies.[38]InaresearchprojectalongwithMaureenO'Sullivan,calledtheWizardsProject(previously
namedtheDiogenesProject),Ekmanreportedonfacial"microexpressions"whichcouldbeusedtoassistinlie
detection.Aftertestingatotalof20,000people[39]fromallwalksoflife,hefoundonly50peoplewhohadthe
abilitytospotdeceptionwithoutanyformaltraining.Thesenaturalsarealsoknownas"TruthWizards",orwizards
ofdeceptiondetectionfromdemeanor.[40]
Hisresearchondeceptioninspiredthetelevisionseries,LietoMe,inwhichheservedasaconsultantthiswasan
excellentopportunityforEkmantospreadhisworkonmicroexpressions,whilenotdirectlyaccreditedforhiswork,
hisworkdideventuallybecomepartofpopculturetosomeextentasaresultoftheshow.InoneissueofGreater
GoodMagazineEkmanandhisdaughterEvewereinterviewedonparentchildtrust.Themaintopicofthe
interviewfocusesonthebenefitsoftrustingyourchildren,howtoencouragetrustworthybehavior,andwhatit
takestobuildtrustbetweenparentsandchildren.OnFebruary27,2009,hewasaguestpresenterattheScience
ofaMeaningfulLifeseminar"BuildingCompassion,CreatingWellbeing",alongwithUniversityofCalifornia,
BerkeleyandGreaterGoodScienceCenterExecutiveDirectorDacherKeltner.Togethertheycoveredstrategies
forbuildingresilience,reducingstress,andstrengtheningrelationshipswithcolleagues,clients,family,andfriends.
Inhisprofession,healsousesoralsignsoflying.WheninterviewedabouttheMonicaLewinskyscandal,he
mentionedthathecoulddetectthatformerPresidentBillClintonwaslyingbecauseheuseddistancing
language.[41]
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Contributionstoourunderstandingofemotion

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Inhis1993seminalpaperinthepsychologyjournalAmericanPsychologist,Ekmandescribesninedirect
contributionsthathisresearchonfacialexpressionhasmadetoourunderstandingofemotion.[42]Highlights
include:
Considerationofbothnatureandnurture:Emotionisnowviewedasaphysiologicalphenomenon
influencedbyourculturalandlearningexperiences.
Emotionspecificphysiology:Ekmanledthewaybytryingtofinddiscretepsychophysiologicaldifferences
acrossemotions.Anumberofresearcherscontinuetosearchforemotionspecificautonomicandcentral
nervoussystemactivations.Withtheadventofneuroimagingtechniques,atopicofintenseinterestrevolves
aroundhowspecificemotionsrelatetophysiologicalactivationsincertainbrainareas.Ekmanlaidthe
groundworkforthefuturefieldofaffectiveneuroscience.
Anexaminationofeventsthatprecedeemotions:Ekman'sfindingthatvoluntarilymakingoneofthe
universalfacialexpressionscangeneratethephysiologyandsomeofthesubjectiveexperienceofemotion
providedsomedifficultyforsomeoftheearliertheoreticalconceptualizationsofexperiencingemotions.
Consideringemotionsasfamilies:Ekman&Friesen(1978)foundnotoneexpressionforeachemotion,but
avarietyofrelatedbutvisuallydifferentexpressions.Forexample,theauthorsreported60variationsofthe
angerexpressionwhichsharecoreconfigurationalpropertiesanddistinguishthemselvesclearlyfromthe
familiesoffearfulexpressions,disgustexpressions,andsoon.Variationswithinafamilylikelyreflectthe
intensityoftheemotion,howtheemotioniscontrolled,whetheritissimulatedorspontaneous,andthe
specificsoftheeventthatprovokedtheemotion.

Criticisms

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Mostcredibilityassessmentresearchersagreethatpeopleareunabletovisuallydetectlies.[43]Theapplicationof
partofEkman'sworktoairportsecurityviatheTransportationSecurityAdministration's"ScreeningPassengersby
ObservationTechniques"(SPOT)programhasbeencriticizedfornothavingbeenputthroughcontrolledscientific
tests.[43]A2007reportonSPOTstatedthat"simplyput,people(includingprofessionalliecatcherswithextensive
experienceofassessingveracity)wouldachievesimilarhitratesiftheyflippedacoin".[44]Sincecontrolled
scientificteststypicallyinvolvepeopleplayingthepartofterrorists,Ekmansaysthosepeopleareunlikelytohave
thesameemotionsasactualterrorists.[43]ThemethodologyusedbyEkmanandO'Sullivanintheirrecentwork
onTruthwizardshasalsoreceivedcriticismonthebasisofvalidation.[45]
OthercriticismsofEkman'sworkarebasedonexperimentalandnaturalisticstudiesbyseveralotheremotion
psychologiststhatdidnotfindevidenceinsupportofEkman'sproposedtaxonomyofdiscreteemotionsand
discretefacialexpression.[46]
EkmanreceivedhostilityfromsomeanthropologistsatmeetingsoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationand
theAmericanAnthropologicalAssociationfrom1967to1969.Herecountedthat,ashewasreportinghisfindings
onuniversalityofexpression,oneanthropologisttriedtostophimfromfinishingbyshoutingthathisideaswere
fascist.Hecomparesthistoanotherincidentwhenhewasaccusedofbeingracistbyanactivistforclaimingthat
BlackexpressionsarenotdifferentfromWhiteexpressions.In1975,MargaretMead,ananthropologist,wrote
againstEkmanfordoing"improperanthropology",andfordisagreeingwithRayBirdwhistell'sclaimopposing
universality.Ekmanwrotethat,whilemanypeopleagreedwithBirdwhistellthen,mostcametoaccepthisown
findingsoverthenextdecade.[14]However,someanthropologistscontinuedtosuggestthatemotionsarenot
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universal.[47]Ekmanarguedthattherehasbeennoquantitativedatatosupporttheclaimthatemotionsareculture
specific.Inhis1993discussionofthetopic,Ekmanstatesthatthereisnoinstanceinwhich70%ormoreofone
culturalgroupselectoneofthesixuniversalemotionswhileanotherculturegrouplabelsthesameexpressionas
anotheruniversalemotion.[42]

Publications

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EmotionalAwareness:OvercomingtheObstaclestoPsychologicalBalanceandCompassion(TimesBooks,
2008)ISBN0805087125
UnmaskingtheFaceISBN1883536367
EmotionsRevealed:RecognizingFacesandFeelingstoImproveCommunicationandEmotionalLife(Times
Books,2003)ISBN080507516X
TellingLies:CluestoDeceitintheMarketplace,Politics,andMarriage(W.W.Norton&Company,1985)ISBN
0393321886
WhattheFaceReveals(withRosenberg,E.L.,OxfordUniversityPress,1998)ISBN0195104463
TheNatureofEmotion:FundamentalQuestions(withR.Davidson,OxfordUniversityPress,1994)ISBN019
5089448
DarwinandFacialExpression:ACenturyofResearchinReviewISBN0122367502
FacialActionCodingSystem/Investigator'sISBN9993626619
WhyKidsLie:HowParentsCanEncourageTruthfulness(Penguin,1991)ISBN014014322X
HandbookofMethodsinNonverbalBehaviorResearchISBN0521280729
FaceofManISBN0824071301
EmotionintheHumanFaceISBN0080166431
HandbookofCognitionandEmotion(Sussex,UKJohnWiley&Sons,Ltd.,1999)

Seealso

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Animalcommunication
Bodylanguage
EmotionsandCulture
Emotionclassification
FacialActionCodingSystem
Microexpression
Nonverbalcommunication
Originoflanguage
Originofspeech
LietoMe(TVseries)
WizardsProject

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