LTE, Long Term Evolution, the successor to UMTS and HSPA is now being

deployed and is the way forwards for high speed cellular services.
High Speed Packet Access (HSPA) is an amalgamation of two mobile
protocols, High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) and High Speed
Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA), that extends and improves the performance of
existing 3G mobile telecommunication networks utilizing the WCDMA
protocols.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM) is a form of transmission
that uses a large number of close spaced carriers that are modulated with
low rate data. Normally these signals would be expected to interfere with
each other, but by making the signals orthogonal to each other there is no
mutual interference. The data to be transmitted is split across all the carriers
to give resilience against selective fading from multi-path effects.. OFDM was
chosen as the signal bearer format because it is very resilient to
interference. Also in recent years a considerable level of experience has
been gained in its use from the various forms of broadcasting that use it
along with Wi-Fi and WiMAX. OFDM is also a modulation format that is very
suitable for carrying high data rates - one of the key requirements for LTE.
Two major limitations in communications channels can be multipath
interference, and the data throughput limitations as a result of Shannon's
Law. MIMO provides a way of utilising the multiple signal paths that exist
between a transmitter and receiver to significantly improve the data
throughput available on a given channel with its defined bandwidth. By using
multiple antennas at the transmitter and receiver along with some complex
digital signal processing, MIMO technology enables the system to set up
multiple data streams on the same channel, thereby increasing the data
capacity of a channel.

LTE MIMO: Multiple Input Multiple Output Tutorial

- MIMO is used within LTE to provide better signal performance and / or
higher data rates by the use of the radio path reflections that exist.
In this section

LTE Introduction
OFDM, OFDMA, SC-FDMA

LTE MIMO

TDD & FDD

Frame & subframe

Physical logical & transport channels

Bands and spectrum

UE categories

SAE architecture

LTE SON

VoLTE

SRVCC

LTE-M

LTE-U / LAA

Security

See also

4G LTE Advanced

MIMO, Multiple Input Multiple Output is another of the LTE major technology
innovations used to improve the performance of the system. This technology
provides LTE with the ability to further improve its data throughput and
spectral efficiency above that obtained by the use of OFDM.
Although MIMO adds complexity to the system in terms of processing and the
number of antennas required, it enables far high data rates to be achieved
along with much improved spectral efficiency. As a result, MIMO has been
included as an integral part of LTE.
LTE MIMO basics
The basic concept of MIMO utilises the multipath signal propagation that is
present in all terrestrial communications. Rather than providing interference,
these paths can be used to advantage.

General Outline of MIMO system

The transmitter and receiver have more than one antenna and using the
processing power available at either end of the link, they are able to utilise
the different paths that exist between the two entities to provide
improvements in data rate of signal to noise.

Note on MIMO:
Two major limitations in communications channels can be multipath
interference, and the data throughput limitations as a result of Shannon's
Law. MIMO provides a way of utilising the multiple signal paths that exist
between a transmitter and receiver to significantly improve the data
throughput available on a given channel with its defined bandwidth. By using
multiple antennas at the transmitter and receiver along with some complex
digital signal processing, MIMO technology enables the system to set up
multiple data streams on the same channel, thereby increasing the data
capacity of a channel.
Click on the link for a MIMO tutorial
MIMO is being used increasingly in many high data rate technologies
including Wi-Fi and other wireless and cellular technologies to provide
improved levels of efficiency. Essentially MIMO employs multiple antennas on
the receiver and transmitter to utilise the multi-path effects that always exist
to transmit additional data, rather than causing interference.
LTE MIMO
The use of MIMO technology has been introduced successively over the
different releases of the LTE standards.
MIMO has been a cornerstone of the LTE standard, but initially, in releases 8
and 9 multiple transmit antennas on the UE was not supported because in

the interested of power reduction, only a single RF power amplifier was

assumed to be available.
It was in Rel. 10 that a number of new schemes were introduced. Closed loop
spatial multiplexing for SU-MIMO as well as multiple antennas on the UE.
LTE MIMO modes
There are several ways in which MIMO is implemented in LTE. These vary
according to the equipment used, the channel function and the equipment
involved in the link.

Single antenna: This is the form of wireless transmission used on

most basic wireless links. A single data stream is transmitted on one
antenna and received by one or more antennas. It may also be referred
to as SISO: Single In Single Out or SIMO Single In Multiple Out
dependent upon the antennas used. SIMO is also called receive
diversity.
Transmit diversity: This form of LTE MIMO scheme utilises the
transmission of the same information stream from multiple antennas.
LTE supports two or four for this technique.. The information is coded
differently using Space Frequency Block Codes. This mode provides an
improvement in signal quality at reception and does not improve the
data rate. Accordingly this form of LTE MIMO is used on the Common
Channels as well as the Control and Broadcast channels.

Open loop spatial multiplexing: This form of MIMO used within the LTE
system involves sending two information streams which can be
transmitted over two or more antennas. However there is no feedback
from the UE although a TRI, Transmit Rank Indicator transmitted from
the UE can be used by the base station to determine the number of
spatial layers.

Close loop spatial multiplexing : This form of LTE MIMO is similar to

the open loop version, but as the name indicates it has feedback
incorporated to close the loop. A PMI, Pre-coding Matrix Indicator is fed
back from the UE to the base station. This enables the transmitter to
pre-code the data to optimise the transmission and enable the receiver
to more easily separate the different data streams.

Closed loop with pre-coding: This is another form of LTE MIMO, but
where a single code word is transmitted over a single spatial layer. This
can be sued as a fall-back mode for closed loop spatial multiplexing
and it may also be associated with beamforming as well.

Multi-User MIMO, MU-MIMO: This form of LTE MIMO enables the

system to target different spatial streams to different users.

Beam-forming: This is the most complex of the MIMO modes and it is

likely to use linear arrays that will enable the antenna to focus on a
particular area. This will reduce interference, and increase capacity as
the particular UE will have a beam formed in their particular direction.
In this a single code word is transmitted over a single spatial layer. A
dedicated reference signal is used for an additional port. The terminal
estimates the channel quality from the common reference signals on
the antennas.

LTE SECURITY
It is very important to make sure of security so that the users are safe while
using the network and prevent them from getting attacked by hackers.
LTE should provide the same level of security services provided by 3G
services.
They shouldnt effect user convenience
The changes that are done to implement 4G security are

A new hierarchical key system has been introduced in which keys can
be changed for different purposes.
The LTE security functions for the Non-Access Stratum, NAS, and
Access Stratum, AS have been separated. The NAS functions are those
functions for which the processing is accomplished between the core
network and the mobile terminal or UE. The AS functions encompass
the communications between the network edge, i.e. the Evolved Node
B, eNB and the UE.

The concept of forward security has been introduced for LTE security.

LTE security functions have been introduced between the existing 3G

network and the LTE network.

LTE USIM
One of the key elements within the security of GSM, UMTS and now LTE was
the concept of the subscriber identity module, SIM. This card carried the
identity of the subscriber in an encrypted fashion and this could allow the
subscriber to keep their identity while transferring or upgrading phones.
With the transition form 2G - GSM to 3G - UMTS, the idea of the SIM was
upgraded and a USIM - UMTS Subscriber Identity Module, was used. This
gave more functionality, had a larger memory, etc.

For LTE, only the USIM may be used - the older SIM cards are not compatible
and may not be used.
LTE-M, LTE Machine to Machine, M2M
- with the Internet of Things, IoT, and Machine to Machine, M2M
communications becoming more widespread, there has been a growing need
for a version of LTE that meets the needs of low power, low data rate and
long battery life.
The Internet of Things, IoT and machine to machine, M2M communications
are growing rapidly.
LTE, the Long Term Evolution cellular system is well placed to carry a lot of
the traffic for machine to machine communications.
The issue is that LTE is a complex system capable of carrying high data rates.
To overcome this issue a "variant" of LTE, often referred to as LTE-M has been
developed for LTE M2M communications.
LTE-M key issues
There are several requirements for LTE M2M applications if the cellular
system is to be viable in these scenarios:

Wide spectrum of devices: Any LTE machine to machine system must

be able to support a wide variety of different types of devices. These
may range from smart meters to vending machines and automotive
fleet management to security and medical devices. These different
devices have many differing requirements, so any LTE-M system needs
to be able to be flexible.
Low cost of devices: Most M2M devices need to be small and fit into
equipment that is very cost sensitive. With many low cost M2M
systems already available, LTE-M needs to provide the benefits of a
cellular system, but at low cost.

Long battery life : Many M2M devices will need to be left unattended
for long periods of time in areas where there may be no power supply.
Maintaining batteries is a costly business and therefore any devices
should be able to have a time between battery changes of up to ten
years. This means that the LTE-M system must be capable of draining
very little battery power.

Enhanced coverage : LTE-M applications will need to operate within a

variety of locations - not just where reception is good. They will need to

operate within buildings, often in positions where there is little access

and where reception may be poor. Accordingly LTE-M must be able to
operate under all conditions.

Large volumes - low data rates: As it is anticipated that volumes of

remote devices will be enormous, the LTE-M must be structured so that
the networks are be able to accommodate vast numbers of connected
devices that may only require small amounts of data to be carried,
often in short peaks but with low data rates.

The Voice over LTE, VoLTE scheme was devised as a result of operators
seeking a standardised system for transferring traffic for voice over
LTE.Originally LTE was seen as a completely IP cellular system just for
carrying data, and operators would be able to carry voice either by
reverting to 2G / 3G systems or by using VoIP in one form or another.
Voice over LTE - VoLTE Tutorial
- operation of Voice over LTE VoLTE system for providing a unified format of
voice traffic on LTE, and other systems including CSFB, and SV-LTE.

4G LTE Advanced

The Voice over LTE, VoLTE scheme was devised as a result of operators
seeking a standardised system for transferring traffic for voice over LTE.
Originally LTE was seen as a completely IP cellular system just for carrying
data, and operators would be able to carry voice either by reverting to 2G /
3G systems or by using VoIP in one form or another.

From around 2014 Phones like this iPhone6 incorporated VoLTE as standard

However it was seen that this would lead to fragmentation and

incompatibility not allowing all phones to communicate with each other and
this would reduce voice traffic. Additionally SMS services are still widely
used, often proving a means of set-up for other applications.
Even though revenue from voice calls and SMS is falling, a format for voice
over LTE and messaging, it was as necessary to have a viable and
standardized scheme to provide the voice and SMS services to protect this
revenue.
Options for LTE Voice
When looking at the options for ways of carrying voice over the LTE system, a
number of possible solutions were investigated. A number of alliances were
set up to promote different ways of providing the service. A number of
systems were prosed as outlined below:

CSFB, Circuit Switched Fall Back: The circuit switched fall-back, CSFB
option for providing voice over LTE has been standardised under 3GPP
specification 23.272. Essentially LTE CSFB uses a variety of processes
and network elements to enable the circuit to fall back to the 2G or 3G
connection (GSM, UMTS, CDMA2000 1x) before a circuit switched call is
initiated.
The specification also allows for SMS to be carried as this is essential
for very many set-up procedures for cellular telecommunications. To
achieve this the handset uses an interface known as SGs which allows
messages to be sent over an LTE channel.
SV-LTE - Simultaneous Voice LTE: SV-LTE allows packet switched LTE
services to run simultaneously with a circuit switched voice service. SVLTE facility provides the facilities of CSFB at the same time as running a
packet switched data service. It has the disadvantage that it requires
two radios to run at the same time within the handset which has a
serious impact on battery life which is already a major issue.

VoLGA, Voice over LTE via GAN: The VoLGA standard was based on
the existing 3GPP Generic Access Network (GAN) standard, and the aim
was to enable LTE users to receive a consistent set of voice, SMS (and
other circuit-switched) services as they transition between GSM, UMTS
and LTE access networks. For mobile operators, the aim of VoLGA was
to provide a low-cost and low-risk approach for bringing their primary
revenue generating services (voice and SMS) onto the new LTE network
deployments.

One Voice / later called Voice over LTE, VoLTE: The Voice over LTE,
VoLTE scheme for providing voice over an LTE system utilises IMS

enabling it to become part of a rich media solution. It was the option

chosen by the GSMA for use on LTE and is the standardised method for
providing SMS and voice over LTE.
The IP Multimedia Subsystem or IP Multimedia Core Network
Subsystem, IMS is an architectural framework for delivering Internet
Protocol, IP multimedia services. It enables a variety of services to be
run seemlessly rather than having several disparate applications
operating concurrently.

there is also an evolution of the core network. Known as SAE - System

Architecture Evolution. This new architecture has been developed to
provide a considerably higher level of performance that is in line with
the requirements of LTE. The new SAE, System Architecture Evolution
has also been developed so that it is fully compatible with LTE
Advanced, the new 4G technology.
SAE System Architecture Evolution will offer a number of key advantages:
1. Improved data capacity: With 3G LTE offering data download rates of
100 Mbps, and the focus of the system being on mobile broadband, it
will be necessary for the network to be able to handle much greater
levels of data. To achieve this it is necessary to adopt a system
architecture that lends itself to much grater levels of data transfer.
2. All IP architecture: When 3G was first developed, voice was still
carried as circuit switched data. Since then there has been a relentless
move to IP data. Accordingly the new SAE, System Architecture
Evolution schemes have adopted an all IP network configuration.
3. Reduced latency: With increased levels of interaction being required
and much faster responses, the new SAE concepts have been evolved
to ensure that the levels of latency have been reduced to around 10
ms. This will ensure that applications using 3G LTE will be sufficiently
responsive.
4. Reduced OPEX and CAPEX: A key element for any operator is to
reduce costs. It is therefore essential that any new design reduces both
the capital expenditure (CAPEX)and the operational expenditure
(OPEX). The new flat architecture used for SAE System Architecture
Evolution means that only two node types are used. In addition to this
a high level of automatic configuration is introduced and this reduces
the set-up and commissioning time.

FDD spectrum requires pair bands, one of the uplink and one for the
downlink, and TDD requires a single band as uplink and downlink are on the
same frequency but time separated. As a result, there are different LTE band
allocations for TDD and FDD. In some cases these bands may overlap, and it
is therefore feasible, although unlikely that both TDD and FDD transmissions
could be present on a particular LTE frequency band.
The greater likelihood is that a single UE or mobile will need to detect
whether a TDD or FDD transmission should be made on a given band. UEs
that roam may encounter both types on the same band. They will therefore
need to detect what type of transmission is being made on that particular
LTE band in its current location. The different LTE frequency allocations or LTE
frequency bands are allocated numbers. Currently the LTE bands between 1
& 22 are for paired spectrum, i.e. FDD, and LTE bands between 33 & 41 are
for unpaired spectrum, i.e. TDD.

The FDD LTE frequency bands are paired to allow simultaneous transmission
on two frequencies. The bands also have a sufficient separation to enable the
transmitted signals not to unduly impair the receiver performance. If the
signals are too close then the receiver may be "blocked" and the sensitivity
impaired. The separation must be sufficient to enable the roll-off of the
antenna filtering to give sufficient attenuation of the transmitted signal
within the receive band.