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[ edit ]

KeshabChandraSenandthe"NewDispensation" [ edit ]
In1875,RamakrishnamettheinfluentialBrahmoSamajleaderKeshab
ChandraSen.[55][56]KeshabhadacceptedChristianity,andhadseparated
fromtheAdiBrahmoSamaj.Formerly,Keshabhadrejectedidolatry,but
undertheinfluenceofRamakrishnaheacceptedHindupolytheismand
establishedthe"NewDispensation"(NavaVidhan)religiousmovement,
basedonRamakrishna'sprinciples"WorshipofGodasMother","All
religionsastrue"and"AssimilationofHindupolytheisminto
Brahmoism".[57]KeshabalsopublicisedRamakrishna'steachingsinthe
journalsofNewDispensationoveraperiodofseveralyears,[58]whichwas
instrumentalinbringingRamakrishnatotheattentionofawideraudience,
especiallytheBhadralok(EnglisheducatedclassesofBengal)andthe
EuropeansresidinginIndia.[59][60]
FollowingKeshab,otherBrahmossuchasVijaykrishnaGoswamistarted
toadmireRamakrishna,propagatehisidealsandreorienttheirsocio
religiousoutlook.ManyprominentpeopleofCalcuttaPratapChandra
Mazumdar,ShivanathShastriandTrailokyanathSanyalbeganvisiting
himduringthistime(18711885).MazumdarwrotethefirstEnglish
biographyofRamakrishna,entitledTheHinduSaintintheTheistic
QuarterlyReview(1879),whichplayedavitalroleinintroducing

Ramakrishnainbhavasamadhiat
thehouseofKeshabChandraSen.He
isseensupportedbyhisnephew
Hridayandsurroundedbybrahmo
devotees.

RamakrishnatoWesternersliketheGermanindologistMax
Mller.[58]NewspapersreportedthatRamakrishnawasspreading"Love"and"Devotion"amongtheeducated
classesofCalcuttaandthathehadsucceededinreformingthecharacterofsomeyouthswhosemoralshadbeen
corrupt.[58]
RamakrishnaalsohadinteractionswithDebendranathTagore,thefatherofRabindranathTagore,andIshwar
ChandraVidyasagar,arenownedsocialworker.HehadalsometSwamiDayananda.[55]Ramakrishnais
consideredoneofthemaincontributorstotheBengaliRenaissance.
Vivekananda [ edit ]
AmongtheEuropeanswhowereinfluencedbyRamakrishnawasPrincipalDr.WilliamHastieoftheScottish
ChurchCollege,Calcutta.InthecourseofexplainingthewordtranceinthepoemTheExcursionbyWilliam
Wordsworth,Hastietoldhisstudentsthatiftheywantedtoknowits"realmeaning",theyshouldgoto
"RamakrishnaofDakshineswar."Thispromptedsomeofhisstudents,includingNarendranathDutta(laterSwami
Vivekananda),tovisitRamakrishna.
Despiteinitialreservations,VivekanandabecameRamakrishna'smostinfluentialfollower,popularizingamodern
interpretationofIndiantraditionswhichharmonisedTantra,YogaandAdvaitaVedanta.Vivekandaestablished
theRamakrishnaorder,whicheventuallyspreaditsmissionpoststhroughouttheworld.Monasticdisciples,who
renouncedtheirfamilyandbecametheearliestmonksoftheRamakrishnaorder,includedRakhalChandra
Ghosh(SwamiBrahmananda),KaliprasadChandra(SwamiAbhedananda),TaraknathGhoshal(Swami
Shivananda),SashibhushanChakravarty(SwamiRamakrishnananda),SaratchandraChakravarty(Swami
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Saradananda),TulasiCharanDutta(SwamiNirmalananda),GangadharGhatak(SwamiAkhandananda),Hari
Prasana(SwamiVijnanananda)andothers.
Otherdevoteesanddisciples [ edit ]
Mainarticles:DisciplesofRamakrishnaandSwamiVivekananda
Ashisnamespread,anevershiftingcrowdofallclassesandcastes
visitedRamakrishna.MostofRamakrishna'sprominentdisciplescame
between18791885.[28]Apartfromtheearlymemberswhojoinedthe
RamakrishnaOrder,hischiefdisciplesconsistedof:[44]
GrihasthasorThehouseholdersMahendranathGupta,Girish
ChandraGhosh,MahendraLalSarkar,AkshayKumarSenandothers.
AsmallgroupofwomendisciplesincludingGauriMaandYoginMa.A
fewofthemwereinitiatedintosanyasathroughmantradeeksha.
Amongthewomen,Ramakrishnaemphasisedservicetootherwomen
ratherthantapasya(practiceofausterities).[61]GauriMafoundedthe

SomeMonasticDisciples(LtoR):
Trigunatitananda,Shivananda,Vivekananda
BelowSadananda.

SaradesvariAshramaatBarrackpur,whichwasdedicatedtothe
educationandupliftofwomen.[62]
Inpreparationformonasticlife,Ramakrishnaorderedhismonastic
disciplestobegtheirfoodfromdoortodoorwithoutdistinctionofcaste.He
gavethemthesaffronrobe,thesignoftheSanyasi,andinitiatedthem
withMantraDeeksha.[63]

Lastdays

[ edit ]

Inthebeginningof1885Ramakrishnasufferedfromclergyman'sthroat,
whichgraduallydevelopedintothroatcancer.Hewasmoved
toShyampukurnearCalcutta,wheresomeofthebestphysiciansofthe
time,includingDr.MahendralalSarkar,wereengaged.Whenhiscondition
aggravatedhewasrelocatedtoalargegardenhouseatCossiporeon11
December1885.[64]
Duringhislastdays,hewaslookedafterbyhismonasticdisciplesand

MahendranathGupta,a
householderdevoteeandtheauthor
ofSriSriRamakrisnakathamrta.

SaradaDevi.Ramakrishnawasadvisedbythedoctorstokeepthe
strictestsilence,butignoringtheiradvice,heincessantlyconversedwith
visitors.[59]Accordingtotraditionalaccounts,beforehisdeath,
RamakrishnatransferredhisspiritualpowerstoVivekananda[64]and
reassuredVivekanandaofhisavataricstatus.[64][65]Ramakrishnaasked
Vivekanandatolookafterthewelfareofthedisciples,saying,"keepmy
boystogether"[66]andaskedhimto"teachthem".[66]Ramakrishnaalso
askedothermonasticdisciplestolookuponVivekanandaastheir
leader.[64]Ramakrishna'sconditiongraduallyworsened,andhediedinthe

Thedisciplesanddevoteesat
Ramakrishna'sfuneral

earlymorninghoursof16August1886attheCossiporegardenhouse.
Accordingtohisdisciples,thiswasmahasamadhi.[64]Afterthedeathof
theirmaster,themonasticdisciplesledbyVivekanandaformedafellowshipatahalfruinedhouse
atBaranagarneartheriverGanges,withthefinancialassistanceofthehouseholderdisciples.Thisbecamethe
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firstMathormonasteryofthediscipleswhoconstitutedthefirstRamakrishnaOrder.[28]

Teachings

[ edit ]

Mainarticle:TeachingsofRamakrishna

TheGospelofSriRamakrishna

[ edit ]

Mainarticle:BooksonRamakrishna
TheprincipalsourceforRamakrishna'steachingisMahendranathGupta'sSriSriRamakrishnaKathamrita,which
isregardedasaBengaliclassic.[67][68]Kripalcallsit"thecentraltextofthetradition".[69]Thetextwaspublishedin
fivevolumesfrom1902to1932.BasedonGupta'sdiarynotes,eachofthefivevolumespurportstodocument
Ramakrishna'slifefrom18821886.
ThemostpopulartranslationoftheKathamritaisTheGospelofSriRamakrishnabySwamiNikhilananda.
Nikhilananda'stranslationrearrangedthescenesinthefivevolumesoftheKathamritaintoalinear
sequence.[70]MalcolmMclean[71]andJeffreyKripalarguethatthetranslationisunreliable.[70]PhilosopherLex
HixonwritesthattheGospelis"spirituallyauthentic"anda"powerfulrenderingoftheKathamrita".[72]

Styleofteaching

[ edit ]

Ramakrishna'steachingswereimpartedinrusticBengali,usingstoriesandparables.[1]Theseteachingsmadea
powerfulimpactonCalcutta'sintellectuals,despitethefactthathispreachingswerefarremovedfromissuesof
modernismornationalindependence.[73]
Ramakrishna'sprimarybiographersdescribehimastalkative.Accordingtothebiographers,Ramakrishnawould
reminisceforhoursabouthisowneventfulspirituallife,telltales,explainVedanticdoctrineswithextremely
mundaneillustrations,raisequestionsandanswerthemhimself,crackjokes,singsongs,andmimicthewaysof
alltypesofworldlypeople,keepingthevisitorsenthralled.[63][74]
RamakrishnausedrusticcolloquialBengaliinhisconversations.Accordingtocontemporaryreports,
Ramakrishna'slinguisticstylewasunique,eventothosewhospokeBengali.Itcontainedobscurelocalwordsand
idiomsfromvillageBengali,interspersedwithphilosophicalSanskrittermsandreferencestotheVedas,Puranas,
andTantras.Forthatreason,accordingtophilosopherLexHixon,hisspeechescannotbeliterallytranslatedinto
Englishoranyotherlanguage.[75]ScholarAmiyaP.SenarguedthatcertaintermsthatRamakrishnamayhave
usedonlyinametaphysicalsensearebeingimproperlyinvestedwithnew,contemporaneousmeanings.[76]
Ramakrishnawasskilledwithwordsandhadanextraordinarystyleofpreachingandinstructing,whichmayhave
helpedconveyhisideastoeventhemostskepticaltemplevisitors.[28]Hisspeechesreportedlyrevealedasense
ofjoyandfun,buthewasnotatalosswhendebatingwithintellectualphilosophers.[77]PhilosopherArindam
ChakrabarticontrastedRamakrishna'stalkativenesswithBuddha'slegendaryreticence,andcomparedhis
teachingstyletothatofSocrates.[78]

Godrealization

[ edit ]

RamakrishnaemphasisedGodrealisationasthesupremegoalofalllivingbeings.Ramakrishnataught
thatkaminikanchanaisanobstacletoGodrealization.Kaminikanchanliterallytranslatesto"womanand
gold."ParthaChatterjeewrotethatthefigureofawomanstandsforconceptsorentitiesthathave"littletodowith
womeninactuality"and"thefigureofwomanandgoldsignifiedtheenemywithin:thatpartofone'sownself
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whichwassusceptibletothetemptationsofeverunreliableworldlysuccess."[79]CarlT.Jacksoninterpretskamini
kanchanatorefertotheideaofsexandtheideaofmoneyasdelusionswhichpreventpeoplefromrealising
God.[80]JeffreyKripaltranslatesthephraseas"loverandgold"andassociatesitwithRamakrishna'salleged
disgustforwomenaslovers.[81]SwamiTyagananda,consideredthistobea"linguistic
misconstruction."[82]Ramakrishnaalsocautionedhiswomendisciplesagainstpurusakanchana("manandgold")
andTyaganandawritesthatRamakrishnausedKaminiKanchanaas"cautionarywords"instructinghisdisciplesto
conquerthe"lustinsidethemind."[83]
Ramakrishnapractisedseveralreligions,includingIslamandChristianity,andtaughtthatinspiteofthe
differences,allreligionsarevalidandtrueandtheyleadtothesameultimategoalGod.[84]

Metaphysics

[ edit ]

ToadevoteeSriRamakrishnasaid:
IthasbeenrevealedtomethatthereexistsanOceanofConsciousnesswithoutlimit.FromItcome
allthingsoftherelativeplane,andinIttheymergeagain.ThesewavesarisingfromtheGreatOcean
mergeagainintheGreatOcean.Ihaveclearlyperceivedallthesethings.[85]
RamakrishnaregardedtheSupremeBeingtobebothPersonalandImpersonal,activeandinactive:
WhenIthinkoftheSupremeBeingasinactiveneithercreatingnorpreservingnordestroyingIcall
HimBrahmanorPurusha,theImpersonalGod.WhenIthinkofHimasactivecreating,preserving
anddestroyingIcallHimSaktiorMayaorPrakriti,thePersonalGod.Butthedistinctionbetween
themdoesnotmeanadifference.ThePersonalandImpersonalarethesamething,likemilkandits
whiteness,thediamondanditslustre,thesnakeanditswrigglingmotion.Itisimpossibletoconceive
oftheonewithouttheother.TheDivineMotherandBrahmanareone.[86]
Ramakrishnaregardedmayatobeoftwonatures,avidyamayaandvidyamaya.Heexplainedthatavidya
mayarepresentsdarkforcesofcreation(e.g.sensualdesire,selfishactions,evilpassions,greed,lustand
cruelty),whichkeeppeopleonlowerplanesofconsciousness.Theseforcesareresponsibleforhuman
entrapmentinthecycleofbirthanddeath,andtheymustbefoughtandvanquished.Vidyamaya,ontheother
hand,representshigherforcesofcreation(e.g.spiritualvirtues,selflessaction,enlighteningqualities,kindness,
purity,love,anddevotion),whichelevatehumanbeingstothehigherplanesofconsciousness.[87]

Society

[ edit ]

RamakrishnataughtthatjatrajivtatraShiv(whereverthereisalivingbeing,thereisShiva).Histeaching,"Jive
dayanoy,Shivgyanejivseba"(notkindnesstolivingbeings,butservingthelivingbeingasShivaHimself)is
consideredastheinspirationforthephilanthropicworkcarriedoutbyhischiefdiscipleVivekananda.[88]
IntheCalcuttasceneofthemidtolatenineteenthcentury,RamakrishnawasopinionatedonthesubjectofChakri.
Chakricanbedescribedasatypeoflowpayingservitudedonebyeducatedmentypicallygovernmentor
commercerelatedclericalpositions.Onabasiclevel,Ramakrishnasawthissystemasacorruptformof
Europeansocialorganisationthatforcededucatedmentobeservantsnotonlytotheirbossesattheofficebut
alsototheirwivesathome.WhatRamakrishnasawastheprimarydetrimentofChakri,however,wasthatit
forcedworkersintoarigid,impersonalclockbasedtimestructure.Hesawtheimpositionofstrictadherenceto
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eachsecondonthewatchasaroadblocktospirituality.Despitethis,however,Ramakrishnademonstratedthat
BhakticouldbepractisedasaninnerretreattoexperiencesolaceinthefaceofWesternstyledisciplineandoften
discriminationintheworkplace.[89]
Hisspiritualmovementindirectlyaidednationalism,asitrejectedcastedistinctionsandreligiousprejudices.[73]

Receptionandlegacy

[ edit ]

Mainarticles:Ramakrishna'sinfluenceandRamakrishnaMission
RamakrishnaisconsideredanimportantfigureintheBengaliRenaissance
of19th20thcentury.Severalorganisationshavebeenestablishedinhis
name.[90]TheRamakrishnaMathandMissionisthemainorganisation
foundedbySwamiVivekanandain1897.TheMissionconductsextensive
workinhealthcare,disasterrelief,ruralmanagement,tribalwelfare,
elementaryandhighereducation.Themovementisconsideredasoneof
therevitalisationmovementsofIndia.AmiyaSenwritesthatthat
Vivekananda's"socialservicegospel"stemmedfromdirectinspiration
fromRamakrishnaandrestssubstantiallyonthe"liminalquality"ofthe
Master'smessage.[91]
OtherorganisationsincludetheRamakrishnaVedantaSocietyfounded
bySwamiAbhedanandain1923,theRamakrishnaSaradaMathfounded
byarebelgroupin1929,theRamakrishnaVivekanandaMissionformed
ThemarblestatueofRamakrishna
atBelurMath,theheadquartersof
theRamakrishnaMission

bySwamiNityanandain1976,andtheSriSaradaMathandRamakrishna
SaradaMissionfoundedin1959asasisterorganisationbythe
RamakrishnaMathandMission.[90]
RabindranathTagorewroteapoemonRamakrishna,TotheRamakrishna

ParamahamsaRamakrishnaDeva:[92]
Diversecoursesofworshipfromvariedspringsoffulfillmenthavemingledinyourmeditation.
ThemanifoldrevelationofthejoyoftheInfinitehasgivenformtoashrineofunityinyourlife
wherefromfarandneararrivesalutationstowhichIjoinmyown.
Duringthe1937ParliamentofReligions,whichwasheldattheRamakrishnaMissioninCalcutta,Tagore
acknowledgedRamakrishnaasagreatsaintbecause
...thelargenessofhisspiritcouldcomprehendseeminglyantagonisticmodesofsadhana,and
becausethesimplicityofhissoulshamesforalltimethepompandpedantryofpontiffsand
pundits.[93]
MaxMller,MahatmaGandhi,JawaharlalNehru,SriAurobindo,andLeoTolstoyhaveacknowledged
Ramakrishna'scontributiontohumanity.Ramakrishna'sinfluenceisalsoseenintheworksofartistssuchasFranz
Dvorak(18621927)andPhilipGlass.

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Viewsandstudies

[ edit ]

Mainarticle:ViewsonRamakrishna

Darhana

[ edit ]

Ramakrishna'sdarhana,orreligiouspracticeandworldview,contained
elementsofbhakti,TantraandVedanta.
BhaktiandTantra [ edit ]
MaxMller[note3]portrayedRamakrishnaas
...aBhakta,aworshipperorloverofthedeity,muchmore
thanaGninoraknower.[95][96]
PostcolonialliterarytheoristGayatriChakravortySpivakwrotethat
Ramakrishnawasa"Bengalibhaktavisionary"andthatasabhakta,"he
turnedchieflytowardsKali."[97]
IndologistHeinrichZimmerwasthefirstWesternscholartointerpret
Ramakrishna'sworshipoftheDivineMotherascontaining
specificallyTantricelements.[98][99]Neevalalsoarguedthattantraplayeda

PhotographofRamakrishna,taken
on10December1881atthestudioof
"TheBengalPhotographers"in
Radhabazar,Calcutta(Kolkata).

mainroleinRamakrishna'sspiritualdevelopment.[98]JeffreyJ.
KripalarguedthatRamakrishnarejectedAdvaitaVedantainfavourofShaktiTantra.[100]
TransformationintoneoVedantin [ edit ]
Mainarticle:NeoVedanta
VivekanandaportrayedRamakrishnaasanAdvaitaVedantin.Vivekananda'sapproachcanbelocatedinthe
historicalbackgroundofRamakrishnaandCalcuttaduringthemid19thcentury.[101]Neevelnotesthattheimage
ofRamakrishnaunderwentseveraltransformationsinthewritingsofhisprominentadmirers,whochangedthe
'religiousmadman'intoacalmandwellbehavingproponentofAdvaitaVedanta.[31]NarasinghaSilhasargued
thatVivekanandarevisedandmythologisedRamakrishna'simageafterRamakrishna'sdeath.[102]McDanielnotes
thattheRamakrishnaMissionisbiasedtowardsAdvaitaVedanta,anddownplaystheimportanceofShajtismin
Ramakrishna'sspirirtuality.[103]MalcolmMcLeanarguedthattheRamakrishnaMovementpresents"aparticular
kindofexplanationofRamakrishna,thathewassomekindofneoVedantistwhotaughtthatallreligionsarethe
same."[104]
CarlOlsonarguedthatinhispresentationofhismaster,VivekanandahadhidmuchofRamakrishna's
embarrassingsexualodditiesfromthepublic,becausehefearedthatRamakrishnawouldbe
misunderstood.[105]TyaganandaandVrajapranaarguethatOslonmakeshis"astonishingclaim"basedonKripal's
speculationsinKali'sChild,whichtheyargueareunsupportedbyanyofthesourcetexts.[106]
SumitSarkararguedthathefoundintheKathamritatracesofabinaryoppositionbetweenunlearnedoralwisdom
andlearnedliterateknowledge.HearguesthatallofourinformationaboutRamakrishna,arusticnearilliterate
Brahmin,comesfromurbanbhadralokdevotees,"...whosetextssimultaneouslyilluminateandtransform."[107]
AmiyaProsadSencriticisesNeevel'sanalysis,[108]andwritesthat"itisreallydifficulttoseparatetheTantrik
RamakrishnafromtheVedantic",sinceVedantaandTantra"mayappeartobedifferentinsomerespects",but
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theyalso"sharesomeimportantpostulatesbetweenthem".[109]

Psychoanalysisandsexuality

[ edit ]

RomainRollandandthe"Oceanicfeeling" [ edit ]
ThedialogueonpsychoanalysisandRamakrishnabeganin1927whenSigmundFreud'sfriendRomain
Rollandwrotetohimthatheshouldconsiderspiritualexperiences,or"theoceanicfeeling,"inhispsychological
works.[110][111]RomainRollanddescribedthemysticalstatesachievedbyRamakrishnaandothermysticsasan
"'oceanic'sentiment",onewhichRollandhadalsoexperienced.[112]Rollandbelievedthattheuniversalhuman
religiousemotionresembledthis"oceanicsense."[113]Inhis1929bookLaviedeRamakrishna,Rolland
distinguishedbetweenthefeelingsofunityandeternitywhichRamakrishnaexperiencedinhismysticalstatesand
Ramakrishna'sinterpretationofthosefeelingsasthegoddessKali.[114]
Kali'sChild [ edit ]
NarasinghaSil,[115]JeffreyKripal,[116]andSudhirKakar,[117]analyseRamakrishna'smysticismandreligious
practicesusingpsychoanalysis,[118]arguingthathismysticalvisions,refusaltocomplywithritualcopulationin
Tantra,MadhuraBhava,andcriticismofKaminiKanchana(womenandgold)reflecthomosexuality.
In1995,JeffreyJ.Kripalarguedinhiscontroversial[119][120]Kali'sChild:TheMysticalandtheEroticintheLifeand
TeachingsofRamakrishna,apsychoanalyticstudyofRamakrishna'slife,thatRamakrishna'smysticalexperiences
weresymptomsofrepressedhomoeroticism.[121]KripalalsoarguedinKali'sChildthattheRamakrishna
MovementhadmanipulatedRamakrishna'sbiographicaldocuments,thattheMovementhadpublishedthemin
incompleteandbowdlerisededitions(claimingamongotherthings,hidingRamakrishna'shomoerotictendencies),
andthattheMovementhadsuppressedRamChandraDatta'sSrisriramakrsnaParamahamsadever
Jivanavrttanta.[116][pageneeded]
TheseviewsweredisputedbySwamiAtmajnanananda,whowrotethatJivanavrttantahadbeenreprintednine
timesinBengaliasof1995.[122]Otherscholarsandpsychoanalysts,includingRomainRolland,[63]Alan
Roland,[110][123]KellyAanRaab,[124]SomnathBhattacharyya,[125]J.S.Hawley[126]andGayatriChakravorty
Spivak[127]arguethatpsychoanalysisisunreliableandRamakrishna'sreligiouspracticeswereinlinewithBengali
tradition.[124]TheapplicationofpsychoanalysishasfurtherbeendisputedbyTyaganandaandVrajapranaas
beingunreliableinunderstandingTantraandinterpretingcrossculturalcontextsinInterpretingRamakrishna:Kali's
ChildRevisited(2010).[128]
Inhis1991bookTheAnalystandtheMystic,IndianpsychoanalystSudhirKakarsawinRamakrishna'svisionsa
spontaneouscapacityforcreativeexperiencing.[129]Kakaralsoarguedthatculturallyrelativeconceptsoferoticism
andgenderhavecontributedtotheWesterndifficultyincomprehendingRamakrishna.[130]Kakarsaw
Ramakrishna'sseeminglybizarreactsaspartofabhaktipathtoGod.[129]

Seealso

[ edit ]

DisciplesofRamakrishna
ListofHindugurusandsaints
RamakrishnaMission
DakshineswarKaliTemple

Notes

BibliographyofRamakrishna
TheGospelofSriRamakrishna
Ramakrishna'sinfluence

[ edit ]

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1.^AccordingtoAnilD.Desai,Ramakrishnasuffered
frompsychomotorepilepsy, [18]alsocalledtemporal
lobeepilepsy. [19]SeeDevinsky,J.Schachter,S.
(2009)."NormanGeschwind'scontributiontothe
understandingofbehavioralchangesintemporallobe
epilepsy:TheFebruary1974lecture".Epilepsy&
Behavior15(4):417
24.doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2009.06.006 .PMID19640791
.foradescriptionofcharacteristicsofTemporalLobe
Epilepsy,includingincreasedreligiosityas"avery
strikingfeature."SeealsoGeschwindsyndrome,for
descriptionsofbehavioralphenomenaevidentinsome
temporallobeepilepsypatients,andJessHillFinding
Godinaseizure:thelinkbetweentemporallobe
epilepsyandmysticism forsomefirsthand
descriptionsofepilepsyinduced"visionsandtrancelike
states."

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2.^

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