CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUMENTS AND

THEIR REPRESENTATION
Objective
- To know the objectives of performing
experiments
- To identify the functional elements in
instruments

Objectives of performing experiments:Measurements of system parameters

information
Control of a certain process or operation
Simulation of system conditions
Experimental design studies
To perform various manipulation

Testing material, maintenance of standard and

specifications of product.
Verification of physical phenomenal/scientific
theories
Quality control in industry.

WHY WE PERFORMED EXPERIMENTS?

To validate and verify theoretical concepts

To develop new methods and products

To evaluate the performance and behavior of

existing products

TYPICAL APPLICATION AREAS OF INSTRUMENTS

SYSTEMS

BASIC AND AUXILIARY FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS

FUNCTIONAL ELEMENT OF THE INSTRUMENTS

Transducer element
Signal conditioning
element
Data presentation
element

TRANSDUCER ELEMENT

SIGNAL CONDITIONING ELEMENT

Amplification
Mechanical

Amplifying elements
Hydraulic/Pneumatic Amplifying elements
Optical Amplifying Elements
Electrical Amplifying Elements

Signal Filtration
Mechanical

filters
Pneumatic filters
Electrical Filters

DATA PRESENTATION ELEMENT

The output of the signal conditioning elements

are presented to be read or seen.
Fast
Little

drag
Small inertia, friction

CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Deflection and Null Types
Manually Operated and Automatic Types
Analog and Digital Types
Self Generating and Power Operated Types
Contacting and Non Contacting Types
Dumb and Intelligent Types

Deflection type

Null type

Manual type

Block diagram

Automatic type

Analog signal to Digital Value

Self generating type

Non contacting type

STANDARDS AND CALIBRATION

Measurement the act of quantitative
comparison between a predefined standard
and the unknown magnitude of a physical
quantity
Standard the physical representation of the
unit of measurement

STANDARD OF MEASUREMENTS
International Standards
Primary Standards
Secondary Standards
Working standard

CALIBRATION

The act or result of quantitative comparison

between a known standard and the output of
the measuring system measuring the same
quantity

CALIBRATION PROCEDURE

Measurement is an act of a quantitative

comparison between a predefine standard and
unknown magnitude of a physical quantity

Unknown magnitude

Predefined standard

STANDARD OF MEASUREMENTS
International Standards
Primary Standards
Secondary Standards
Working Standards

CALIBRATION

Calibration is the act or result of quantitative

comparison between a known standard and the output
of the measuring the same quantity
Calibration Procedures
Primary calibration-calibrated against primary standards
Secondary calibration-calibrated against primary calibration
device

Direct calibration with known input source

Indirect calibration
Routine calibration

THE ENGINEER SHOULD KNOW WHAT

to

look for before beginning the experiments.

to measure skillfully certain physical variables
to specify the degree of accuracy
the limitation of the apparatus
the expected error and deviations from true
measurements

Experiment is not mainly to measure physical

variables but also to control its.

The accuracy of control is dependent on the

accuracy of measurement.

Statistical techniques - to analyze measured

data to determine expected error and deviation
from true measurements.

CHAPTER 2
STATIC PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC
OF INSTRUMENT
Objective
Be able to quantify the positive and the
negative points of various commercially
available instruments
Be able to select the optimum type of
instrument for a given application

INSTRUMENT PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC

1. Static the desired input to the

instrument is constant or varying slowly with
respect to time
2. Dynamic the desired input is not
constant but varies rapidly with the time

ERRORS AND UNCERTAINTIES IN

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

Type of errors and uncertainties associated

with measurement system
Systematic

or cumulative errors
Instrument error
Environmental errors
Loading errors

Accidential or random error

Inconsistencies associated with accurate
measurement of small quantities
Presence of certain system defects
Effect of unrestrained and randomly varying
parameter

Miscellaneous Type of Gross Errors

Personal

or human errors
Error due to faulty components/adjustment
Improper application of the instrument.

TYPES OF UNCERTAINTIES

External estimate of uncertainty, UE

The

resolution of the instrument which is the

smallest confidently measurable input

Internal estimate uncertainty, UI

Is

inherent in the data itself

PROPAGATION OF UNCERTAINTIES IN
COMPOUND QUANTITIES

To compute the overall uncertainty due to the

combined effect of the uncertainties of
different variables.

STATIC PERFORMANCE PARAMETER

Static performance parameters of the
instruments are: 1. Accuracy- the closeness of the instrument
output to the true value of the measured
quantity.
2. Precision- the ability of the instrument to
produce a certain set of reading within a given
accuracy.

ACCURACY VS PRECISION

RESOLUTION (DISCRIMINATION)

The smallest increment in the measured value

that can be detected with certainty by the
instrument.

THRESHOLD

The minimum value of input below which no

output can be detected.

STATIC SENSITIVITY

The ratio of the magnitude of response(output

signal) to the magnitude of the quantity being
measured (input signal).
Static sensitivity,

K=

0
=

Example,
The sensitivity of a typical linear spring, whose
extension is directly proportional to the applied
force can be defined as, 450N/mm

LINEARITY
The output is a linear function of the input
Never completely achieved
Linearity specification:i.
Independent of the input
ii. Proportional of input
iii. Combined independent and proportional to
the input

RANGE AND SPAN

The range of the instrument is specified by the

lower and upper limits in which it is designed to
operate for measuring.

HYSTERESIS

The magnitude of error caused in the output for given value of

input, when this value approached from opposite direction, i.e
from ascending order and then descending order.

Arithmetic mean ,

+ 0

DEAD BAND

The largest change of the measurand to which

the instrument does not response.

BACKLASH

The maximum distance or angle through which

any part of the mechanical system may be
moved in one direction without causing motion
of the next part.

DRIFT

The variation of output for a given input caused

due to change in the sensitivity of the
instrument due to certain interfering inputs like
temperature change, component instabilities,
etc.

Dynamic Characteristics
of Instruments
Chapter 3

Introduction

To understand the dynamic response characteristic of the

instrument being used for measurement.
Dynamic or time- varying quantities
To find the dynamic response characteristic of the instrument being used for
measurement.

 Dynamic input to an instrument

Periodic input
Transient input
Random input
.

Mathematical Model
Represent each instrument by its mathematical model
The governor the relation between its input and output

Dynamic Characteristic of an Instrument

To formulate its governing equations, relating dynamic input and output
signal

To obtain the dynamic output response

If not satisfactory, include compensation condition.

Formulation of system Equation

First-Order System
Second -Order System
Higher-Order System

First-Order System

+
where

= :Sensitivity
=

: time constant

= : time derivative operator

Zeroth Order System

D=0
=

K: Static Sensitivity

First Order System- Periodic Input

Amplitude of output,

First Order system

Phase,

cos

Second Order System-Periodic Input

Amplitude of output, =

Second Order
System

+
+

where,

Phase,

Frequency ratio,

First Order System- Transient Input

First Order system

Second Order System- Transient Input

Second Order
System

+
+

>1:over damped (3.64)

=1:critical damping(3.65)
<1: under damping (3.66)

CHAPTER 4
Transducer Elements

Introduction
Transducer elements convert the input physical variable

to usable form, usually electrical signal.

Analogue transducers include:
1. Electromechanical types, comprising potentiometric
resistance type, inductance, capacitive, piezoelectric,
resistance strain gauge, ionisation and mechanoelectronic types.
2. Opto-electronic
transducers,
comprising
photoemissive, photo-conductive and photo-voltaic types.
Digital transducers are:
1. Frequency generating types.
2. Digital encoder types.

4.1 Analog Transducers

4.1.1 Electromechanical Types
An electrical output is produced due to an input of
mechanical displacement or strain.
Fig. 4.1 shows the scheme for measurement using
electromechanical transducer.

4.1 Analog Transducers (cont.)

The following factors are considered when selecting a
motion transducer for a given application:
1. Magnitude of motion
2. Type of input-output relation
3. Static and dynamic characteristics
4. Attachment or proximity type
5. Self-generating or external power source type
6. Type of associated circuit

1. Potentiometric Resistance-Type
Transducer
A wire-wound potentiometer may be

used as a transducer for converting

mechanical
displacement
to
an
electrical output.
Fig. 4.3 shows the motion of the object
changes the effective resistance and
hence, the voltage output eo between
points b and c.
Thus, the output voltage is directly
proportional
to
the
dynamic
displacement of the moving object.
Fig. 4.3 Potentiometer resistance transducer

2. Inductive-Type Transducers
The magnetic characteristics of an electric circuit change

due to the motion of the object.

These are classified into two types:
1) Self-generating types voltage signal is generated in
the transducer, because of relative motion of a conductor
and a magnetic field. Eg. Electrodynamic, electromagnetic
and eddy circuit types of transducers.
2) Non-self-generating types an external source is
needed to energize a coil, the inductance of which would
change due to the motion of the object. Eg. Attachment
type inductance transducer, air gap type, Linear Variable
Differential Transducer (LVDT) and magneto-strictive type
of transducers.

Linear Variable Differential

Transducer (LVDT)

Rotary
Variable
Differential
Transformer
(RVDT)

3. Capacitive Type Transducers

Displacement-sensitive transducer.
There is change in capacitance between two plates due

to motion.
=

.
where C = capacitance, pF
A = area of plates, cm2
d = distance between plates, cm
= dielectric constant of the medium
between the plates (=1 for air)

Capacitive Type Transducers

Problem 4.1
A capacitive transducer consists of two plates of diameter 2
cm each, separated by an air gap of 0.25 mm. Find the
displacement sensitivity.

=
=
2

2=
Putting A =
2 , = (for air)
4
= .

The negative sign indicates decrease of capacitance, with

increase of air gap.

4. Piezo-Electric Transducers
Operates on the principle that when a crystalline material

(quartz/barium titanate) is distorted, an electrical charge.

C being capacitance of the crystal and K the voltage

sensitivity constant = K1/C

Piezo-Electric Transducers (cont.)

Problem 4.2
A quartz crystal has charge sensitivity of 2 pC/N. Its

dielectric constant is 4.5 and Youngs Modulus is 9 x 1010

Pa. Find the voltage sensitivity constant.

5. Resistance Strain Gauges

Based on the principle that if a conductor is stretched or

compressed, its resistance will change because of

change in its length, area and resistivity.
The resistance R of a conductor of cross-sectional area,
A, length, L, made of a material with resistivity, is:

Gauge factor F of the conductor is defined as:

/
/
=
=
/

where R = change in resistance R due to axial strain, a;

which is L/L

Resistance Strain Gauges (cont.)

Strain gauge transducers are of two types:

Unbonded strain gauge measure very small motions, or

order 50 m and very small forces. Used to measure
force, pressure, acceleration.
2. Bonded strain gauge used for measurement of several
physical variables like strain, force, torque, pressure,
vibrations. Very sensitive when used with electronic
equipment, strain as low as 10-7 may be measured.
Resistance strain gauge is made a part of a Wheatstone
bridge so that the change in its resistance due to strain can
either be measured or made to give an output which can be
displayed.
There are two types of bridge arrangements:
1. Balanced bridge
2. Unbalanced bridge
1.

Resistance Strain Gauges (cont.)

Type of Strain Gauges

Resistance Strain Gauges (cont.)

In

the balanced bridge arrangement, strain gauge

resistance R1, shown as a rectangle in Fig. 4.31, forms
one arm of the Wheatstone bridge while the remaining
arms have resistance R2, R3 and R4 as part of the bridge.
The bridge is excited by a DC source, with voltage E.
RG is the resistance of the galvanometer.
The bridge is balanced when there is no
current through the galvanometer.
Used for measuring static strain.

Resistance Strain Gauges (cont.)

In

the
unbalanced
bridge
arrangement shown in Fig. 4.32, the
current through the galvanometer or
the voltage drop across it, is used to
indicate the strain in the strain
gauge.
Used to measure dynamic and static
strains.

Temperature Compensation
Temperature change would also change the resistance of

a resistance strain gauge.

It is inconvenient to calculate and apply temperature
correction, therefore temperature compensation is made in
the experimental set-up by:
1. Using a dummy gauge.

Fig. 4.36 Temperature compensation with a dummy gauge

Temperature compensation (cont.)

2. Using more than one active gauge

with proper arrangement of the

gauges.
Temperature compensation is
necessary when static strains are to
be measured.
Strain gauge arrangement on elastic
members for measuring various
physical variables:
1. High sensitivity
2. Temperature compensation

6. Strain Gauge Rosettes

If more than one strain gauge is mounted in an area, with

a view to finding principal strains, the arrangement is

called strain gauge rosettes.

Fig. 4.42 Types of rosettes

Balancing of Bridges
The bridges need to be balanced since all four arm

resistances may not be equal to the desired values. The

methods include:
1. Series balancing using an apex resistance (Fig. 4.46).
Due to movement of apex resistance contact point, if R2
increases, R3 decreases by the same amount.
2. Parallel balancing motion of contact point P can
balance the bridge, if desired. (Fig. 4.47)

Calibration Electrical method

For an unbalanced bridge arrangement, it is necessary to

relate the bridge output with the strain in the strain gauge.
One of the method using electrical, in which a change in
arm resistance may be simulated using an apex resistor.
The second electrical method of calibration is using a
shunt resistor. For parallel connection:

Calibration Mechanical method

For static calibration, dead weights can be used directly

and strain can be calculated and related to the output.

For dynamic calibration, two methods are used; i.e. using
a rotating eccentric and an electrodynamic vibrator.

Fig. 4.49 Dynamic calibration of strain gauges

using an eccentric

Fig. 4.50 Dynamic calibration of strain gauges

using an electrodynamic vibrator

7. Ionization Transducer
Works on the principle of development of voltage across 2

electrodes placed in an ionised gas, the magnitude of

which depends on the electrode spacing and state of
balance, which can change due to the motion to be
measured.

8. Mechano-Electronic Transducer
Displacement transducer type, based on the principle that

the plate current depends on the spacing between an

anode and a cathode in a diode/triode.
Used to measure displacement, pressure, and force.
A mechanoelectronic
transducer is a system in
which a voltage is
developed by the motion
of one or more of the
elements in a diode,
triode or other
multielement electron
tube

4.1.2 Opto-Electrical Transducer

These transducers convert a light beam into an electrocal

signal.
There are 3 types of photoelectric transducers.
1. Photo-Emissive Transducer
Light beam strokes a photo emissive cathode, which
releases electron, attracted towards the anode,
producing a current I, in the circuit, which is proportional
to the intensity of incident radiation, the sensitivity
depending on the
wavelength of the
radiation.

4.1.2 Opto-Electrical Transducer (cont.)

2. Photo-Conductive Transducer
Material changes its resistance due to a change in the

intensity of incident light.

4.1.2 Opto-Electrical Transducer (cont.)

2. Photo-Voltaic Transducer
Has a sandwich construction, consisting of a metal base

plate 3, a semiconductor material layer 2 (selenium)

and a thin transparent metal layer 1.
A voltage output is generated due to incident light and
can be measured.

4.2 Digital Transducers

4.2.1 Introduction
The output is discrete and may give frequency type output or
a digitally coded output of binary or other types.
Main advantage of digital transducers are:
i.
Use of digital computers along with transducers for data
manipulation, is made easier.
ii. Digital signals pulse count frequency or sequences of
digitally codes outputs are not dependent on signal
amplitudes, thus easy to transmit without distortion.
iii. Increased accuracy in pulse count.
iv. Ergonomic advantages in presenting digital data.
Digital transducers range from frequency domain or
frequency generating types of transducers to digital
encoders.

4.2.2 Frequency Domain Transducers

The output is in the form of pulses or sinusoidal wave

forms, the frequency of which is a measure of magnitude

of the physical variable.
Three types of frequency domain transducers:
1. Electromagnetic Frequency Domain Transducer
Used for speed measurement.
Device consists of a permanent magnet/solenoid. A gear
made from ferromagnetic material is attached to the
rotating shaft.

4.2 Digital Transducers (cont.)

As each gear tooth passes in front of the magnet, the

gap length changes. This change the flux density and a

voltage pulse is induced in the coil.
Pulse frequency equals speed N times the number of
teeth T. The pulse frequency is a measure of speed of
rotation.

2. Opto-Electrical Frequency Domain

Transducer
Measurement of speed of rotation of shaft.
The shaft has half dark and half whiting/shining portions.

Each time the latter portion is in front of the light source, it

gives an electrical pulse output.
The frequency of the pulses is a measure of the speed of
rotation.

2. Opto-Electrical Frequency Domain

Transducer (cont.)

For linear motion, the moving object is attached to the

transparent scale.
Light from a source passes through the scale and a slit
and then falls on a photo-electric transducer.
The motion equals to the pitch of the grating that
produces one complete cycle of light and darkness, thus a
pulse output is obtained.
From the number of output pulses, the change in motion
of the scale and object attached can be determined.

3. Vibrating String Transducer

Used

to measure the force

applied to a metal string, which
is kept vibrating, the frequency
of which is dependent on the
force applied.
One end of the string is fixed
and the other can be moved.

Fig. 4.65 Vibrating string transducer

An electromagnetic transducer picks up the vibrations,

and frequency changes, which is a measure of the force

applied on the string.
Can be used for force and displacement measurements.

CHAPTER 5
Intermediate
Elements

Introduction
The output signal of any transducer needs to be modified

by elements known as intermediate elements, so that it

can be displayed or recorded with convenience. These
include:
1. Amplifiers for amplifying the transducer output.
2. Compensating devices. (not covered)
3. Differentiating/integrating elements.(not covered)
4. Filters for filtering out unwanted signal.
5. A-D/D-A converters.
6. Data transmission elements.

5.1 Amplifiers
Amplifiers increase the magnitude of the signal from a

transducer so that it can be conveniently

displayed/recorded.
These may be of mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic,
optical or electrical/electronic types, depending on the
type of transducer.
Attenuators are used in cases where reduction in the
magnitude of the signal from the transducers is needed.

5.1.1 Mechanical Amplifying Element

Simple in operation, rugged type and inexpensive.
Eg.

Huggenburger extensometer, Bourdon pressure

gauge.
Disadvantage: friction and stiction effects, backlash
errors, environmental temperature changes, and inertial
effects due to relatively higher mass.

Fig. 5.1 A typical mechanical amplifier (a lever type device)

5.1.2 Hydraulic Amplifying Element

Wide range of applications in the form of hydraulic

actuators in the control elements used in the automobile

hydraulic brakes and hydraulic steering systems.
Advantage: compactness of a specified force.
Disadvantage: possible leakages and problems in dusty
environments.

5.1.3 Pneumatic Amplifying Element

Pneumatic transducer (flapper nozzle type) was described

in Chap.4, for converting mechanical displacement Xi to

pressure P2.
Used in industrial environment where compressed air is
easily available.

Fig. 5.3 Pneumatic relay as amplifier

5.1.4 Optical Amplifying Element

Common application is in the taut suspension type of the

optical type galvanometer which is highly sensitive.

Cannot be used in dynamic measurements due inertia
effects of the mirror mass.

Fig. 5.4 A typical lamp and scale arrangement

5.1.5 Electrical Amplifying Element

Commonly transistor based or employ suitable integrated

circuits or both.
The following are characteristics of an ideal amplifier:
1. Infinite input impedance
2. Zero output impedance
3. Large gain
4. Zero output for zero input
Fig. 5.5 A typical electrical amplifying element

5. Ability to filter spurious inputs

6. Excellent frequency response

5.4 Filters
Filters is used to remove unwanted signals from the

desired transducer signal.

5.4.1 Classification of Filters
Filters may be classified according to Fig. 5.24, where the
amplitude ratio of output of the filter to the input is plotted
against frequency.

Fig. 5.24 Various types of filters

5.5 A-D and D-A Converters

5.5.1 A-D Converters
Simplest type is of potentiometric type, which employs
comparison elements that are in the form of
semiconductor relays/magnetic cores.

Fig. 5.30 Potentiometric type A-D Converter

5.5.1 A-D Converters (cont.)

Based on a similar principle, a successive approximation

type A-D converter, employing a D-A converter is

commonly used.

Fig. 5.31 Successive approximation type A-D converter

5.5.1 A-D Converters (cont.)

Another type of A-D converter, based on different principle

is counting type A-D converter, shown in Fig. 5.32 and

dual slope integrating type converter is shown in Fig.
5.34(a)

Fig. 5.32 Counting type A-D converter

Fig. 5.34(a) Dual slope integrating type A-D converter

5.5.2 D-A Converters

Whenever digital signals have

to be converted to analog, the

switching defining the digital
signal value has to be
changed to an equivalent
voltage.

5.7 Data Transmission Elements

When the measured variables have to be transmitted over

long distances from the measuring points to a location for

display/recording of data, data transmission elements are
employed. Two categories are:
1. Land-line/cable type transmitted by wires/pipes.
Applied in process plants, power generating stations.
Includes electrical, pneumatic and position type
elements.
2. Radio-frequency (RF) type transmitted by radio
waves. Used in aerospace systems.

5.7.1 Electrical-Type Data Transmission

Elements
The input measured variable (motion signal) is made to

change an electrical quantity, the effect of which is

transmitted by wires to the receiving ends, for record/display.

Fig. 5.36 Data transmission by change of electric quantity

5.7.2 Pneumatic-Type Data Transmission

Elements
Land-line type, uses the flapper-nozzle arrangement.
Examples include pneumatic flow transmitter and force-

balance type pneumatic transmitter.

5.7.3 Position-Type Data Transmission

Elements
Motion signal (rotation of a pointer) is transmitted over

long distances, by use of synchros.

5.7.4 Radio-Frequency Transmission

Elements
Uses radio-frequency waves for data transmission and no

wires/cables required.
In large systems, a number of input signals may be
transmitted by such units.

Fig. 5.41 RF telemetry for data transmission

CHAPTER 6
Indicating,
Recording & Display
Elements

Introduction
The final stage in a measurement system comprises an

indicating and/or recording element.

Digital voltmeters (DVMs) are commonly used as these
are convenient.
Cathode ray oscilloscopes (CROs) are also widely used.
In large-scale systems, data loggers incorporating data
acquisition systems (DAQ) are extensively used for data
recording.

6.1 Digital Voltmeters (DVMs)

Convert analog signals into digital presentations which

may give an electrical digital signal.

Measures DC voltage signals, but other variables can
also be measured with appropriate elements.
Classified into two types:
1. Non-integrating

2. Integrating
A voltage-to-frequency converter, which converts DC

signal to a periodic signal of frequency proportional to the

magnitude of the signal.

Fig. 6.2 Voltage to frequency integrating DCM

6.2 Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes (CROs)

High input impedance voltage measuring device, capable

of indicating voltage signals from the intermediate

elements as a function of time.
Electrons are released from the cathode, accelerated
towards the screen by the positively charged anode.
The position of the spot on the phosphorescent screen is
controlled by voltages applied to the vertical and
horizontal plates.
The impingement of the electron beam on the screen
results in emission of light, thus the signal is visible.
Essential components in a CRO: Tube, Vertical amplifier,
Horizontal amplifier, Time base, Trigger, Power supply.

6.2 Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes (cont.)

Digital CRO can store, analyse and display a signal.
It uses digital acquisition system including an analog to digital

converter (ADC), digital memory, digital to analog converter

(DAC) and a display system.
The frequency response is limited by the sampling frequency.

Fig. 6.3 Block diagram of a CRO

6.7 Data Acquisition Systems (DAQ)

Used for large-scale data recording, eg. Power plant,

where input signals like temperatures, pressures, flow

rates from a number of locations, need to be recorded
continuously.
Fig. 6.15 shows sensors being of analog types.
After signal conditioning, including amplification, a
multiplexer is used to enable each input to be sampled in
turn.
A sample and hold (S and H) device is used where A-D
converter is employed.
Computer controls the addressing and data input and
processes signals for display, printing and storage.

6.7 DAQ (cont.)

6.8 Data Display & Storage

The data may be analog or digital form. The display

device may be any of the following types:

1. Analog indicators motion of needle on metre scale
2. Pen trace/light trace
3. Screen display CRO, TV
4. Digital counter counter wheel
5. Digital printer data in printed form
6. Punches punched cards/tapes
7. Electronic displays LED, LCD, etc
8. Storage may be on cards, magnetic tapes, disks.
9. Permanent record of data from a computer

CHAPTER 21
Basic Statistical Concepts
-

Statistics refers to the science and art of collecting,

summarizing, and analyzing data that are subject to
random variation
- A technique to collect, organize, analyze and interpret
measured engineering data from an experiment or
process

Type of Measured Quantities

- Discrete

Quantities

Made up of elementary events that have distinct values

- Continuously

Distributed Quantities

In which the events may have any value between the given limits

Discrete Quantities

Continuously Distributed Quantities

21.2 Central Tendency of Data

1.

MODE
The value of the variate that occurs with greatest frequency.

Central Tendency of Data

2.

MEDIAN

3.

ARITHMETIC MEAN

Mean of the population,

WEIGHTED ARITHMETIC MEAN

21.3 BEST EXTIMATE OF TRUE VALUE OF

DATA
Skew to the right
Skew to the left
Symmetrical Curves

= Arithmetic mean

Measures of Dispersion
a)

Range: The difference between the maximum and the minimum values of the given dta

b)

Average or Mean Deviation

c)

Variance

a)

1
=

Standard Deviation

a)

Coefficient of Variation=

Adjusted Standard Deviation

The unbiased or the best estimate of precision

Standard Deviation of the Samples

Means
I.

Best Estimate of Uncertainty

Normal Distribution
Chapter 22

Introduction

The normal (or Gaussian) distribution (Bell Curve) is a very commonly

occurring continuous probability distributiona function that tells the
probability that any real observation will fall between any two real limits or
real numbers, as the curve approaches zero on either side.

Normal distributions are extremely important in statistics and are often used
in the engineering analysis to quantify the measurement error/accuracy in
experimental data and dimension measurement.

Properties of Gaussian Distribution

Maxima x= ,i.e at the mean value

Points of inflexion of the curve are at =

Symmetrical about the ordinate at =

Median = mean; normal distribution mean=

mode=median

X-axis , asymptote of the curve

Area ubder the normal distribution curve is unity,

i.e.

2
2

=1

For the same mean value, the distribution has a sharp

peak for smaller values of and is flatter for higher
values of

The probability that the mean value takes the value

between x1 and x2 is the area of the normal distribution
curve between x1 and x2 as shown in Fig 22.3

22.2 Area under the normal distribution

curve

Intergral Gaussian probability (area under the curve =1)

22.4 Standardised Normal Distribution

Example 3.12

A certain power supply is stated to provide a constant output

of 10.0V within 0.1 V. The output is assumed to have a
normal distribution. Calculate the probability that a single
measurement of voltage will lie between 10.1 and 10.2