MEI

Mathematics in Education and Industry

MEI Structured Mathematics

Module Summary Sheets
FP2, Further Methods for
Advanced Mathematics
(Version B: reference to new book)
Topic 1: Calculus
Topic 2: Polar Coordinates
Topic 3: Complex Numbers
Topic 4: Power Series
Topic 5: Matrices
Option 1: Hyperbolic Functions
Option 2: Investigation of curves
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Summary FP2 Topic 1:

References:
Chapter 1
Pages 1-11

Exercise 1B
Q. 2, 4, 6(ii),
7(ii)

Calculus

Inverse Trigonometrical Functions

y = arcsinx is the inverse function of y = sinx.
d ( arcsin x )
=
dx

1
1 x2

d ( arccos x )
1
=
dx
1 x2
d ( arctan x )
1
=
dx
1 + x2

d
( arcsin 2 x ) .
dx
du
u = 2x
=2
dx
d
d
du

( arcsin 2 x ) = ( arcsin u ) .
dx
du
dx
1
2
.2 =
=
1 u2
1 4x2
E.g. Find

1
2

References:
Chapter 1
Pages 11-14
Example 1.6
Page 12

Exercise 1C
Q. 1(i),(ii),
2(i),(ii)

Integration involving Inverse Functions

d ( arcsin x )
1
=
dx
1 x2
1

dx = arcsin x + c
1 x2
d ( arctan x )
1
=
dx
1 + x2
1

dx = arctan x + c
1 + x2
This can be seen by making the substitution
dx
= sec2
x = tan
d
and 1 + x 2 = 1 + tan 2 = sec2
1
sec2

dx = 2 d
2
1+ x
sec
= d = + c = arctan x + c
integral, either convert the limits to the values of
the function being used or turn your integrand
back into a function of x and then substitute the limits.

Example 1.9
Page 15

Harder integrals
If the function in the denominator is of the form
ax2 + bx + c then completing the square allows the
procedure above to be used.

dx.

d ( arctan x)
1
1
=

dx = arctan x + c
2
dx
1+ x
1+ x2
Substitute 2x = tan
dx
2 = sec2 and 1+ 4x2 = 1+ tan2 = sec2
d
When x = 0,tan = 0 = 0

1
When x = ,tan = 1 =
2
4
2
1

1
2
4 sec
1 4
1
2

dx =
d = d
20
1+ 4x2
sec2
0
0
Note first that

1 4
[ ] =
2 0 8

x( x 2)
dx
( x + 1)( x2 + 2)
x( x 2)
1
2

( x + 1)( x 2 + 2) x + 1 x 2 + 2
(This is found by partial fractions, covered in C4.)
x( x 2)
2
1
2
dx =
dx
2
( x + 1)( x + 1)
x +1 x + 2
x
1
1
1
dx 2 2
dx = ln x + 1 2.
arctan
=
+c
x +1
x +2
2
2

E.g. x 2 + 4 x + 7 ( x + 2 ) + 3
2

So I =

1
1
dx =
dx
2
x + 4x + 7
( x + 2) + 3
2

( x + 2) + 3 = 3tan + 3 = 3sec
2

and dx = 3 sec2 d
I =

( x + 2)

+3

dx =

E.g. Find

Substitute ( x + 2) = 3 tan
Exercise 1D
Q. 1(i), 4(i),(v),
6(i)

1+ 4x

E.g. Find

When making a substitution to complete a definite

References:
Chapter 1
Pages 15-17

E.g. Find

1 + 2 x x 2 2 ( x 1)
So let

d x.

1 + 2x x2

( x 1) =

2u

T hen 1 + 2 x x 2 ( x 1 ) = 2 2 u 2
2

3 sec d 1
=
3 + c
3sec2
3
2

1
x+2
=
arctan
+c
3
3

FP2; Further Methods for Advanced Mathematics

Version B: page 2
Competence statements c1, 2, 3
MEI

and d x =

2d u
1
2

W hen x = 1, u = 0 and x = 2, u =
1
2

1
1 + 2x x2

dx =

2
2(1 u 2 )

d u = [ arcsin u ]0

(1 u )
2

du

Polar Coordinates

Summary FP2 Topic 2:

References:
Chapter 2
Page 20

Exercise 2A
Q. 2

Cartesian coordinates identify a point by an

ordered pair (x, y) of distances from two, usually
perpendicular, axes which intersect at the origin,
O.
Polar coordinates identify a point by an ordered
pair, (r, ) where r is the distance from a fixed
point, O, called the pole, and is the angle
turned through in an anticlockwise direction
from a fixed line through O, called the initial
line.
The point is uniquely defined providing r and
are defined such that r 0 and 0 < 2.
(Angles are usually expressed in radians.)

E.g. The point with Cartesian coordinates (3, 4) has

polar coordinates (r,) where

= tan 1

4
= 0.927 radians
3

The point with cartesian coordinates (1, 1) has

polar coordinates ( 2 , ).
4

(1,1)

/4

.(x,y)
r

x
References:
Chapter 2
Page 21

Conversion between Polars and Cartesians

x = r cos , y = r sin
x2 + y2 = r 2 r =
tan =

References:
Chapter 2
Pages 23-26
Example 2.1
Page 23

x2 + y2

y
x

Polar Equations of Curves

The polar equation of a curve can be expressed
in the form r = f().
Curves may be sketched by plotting specific
points or by considering the value of r over a
range of values of .

Exercise 2B
Q. 1, 2

E.g. Sketch the curve r = 1 + 2sin.

As
increases
from /2 to
, sin
decreases
to 0 and so
r decreases
to 1

When = 0, r = 1.

As increases from
/2 to 2, sin
increases from 1 to
0 and so r increases
to 1, once again
through 0, when
.
= 11/6 .
3

Area =

As increases from 0 to

/2, sin increases to 1

and so r increases to 3

As increases from to3

/2 , sin decreases to 1 and

so r decreases to 1.
(Note that there is a point
here when r = 0.
This is when
sin = 1/2, i.e. = 7/6 .)

E.g. Find the area of the sector of the curve

r = 1 + 2sin from = 0 to /2.

Area of Sector
References:
Chapter 2
Pages 27-28

(3,4)

and r = 32 + 42 = 5

1
r 2 d
2 =

Area =
1
=
2

Exercise 2C
Q. 2

FP2; Further Methods for Advanced Mathematics

Version B: page 3
Competence statements p1, 2, 3
MEI

1
=
2
=

1
2

1
r 2 d
2 =

(1 + 2 sin )

(1 + 4 sin + 4 sin ) d
2

(1 + 4 sin + 2 (1 cos 2 ) ) d
0

1
= [3 4 cos sin 2 ]0 2
2
1 3
1
=
4 0 0 (0 4 0 )
2 2
2
3
=
+2
4

Summary FP2 Topic 3:

References:
Chapter 3
Pages 32-35

Complex Numbers 1

The Polar form of a complex number x + yj is

given as (r, ) where r is the modulus of the
complex number and is the anticlockwise angle
turned through from the positive x (or real) axis.
r

Exercise 3A
Q. 3, 15, 18

References:
Chapter 3
Page 36
Exercise 3B
Q. 2, 8, 10
References:
Chapter 3
Pages 37-38

tan =

y
x

E.g. The point (3 + 4j) with Cartesian coordinates

(3, 4) has Polar coordinates (r,) where

= tan 1

r = 32 + 4 2 = 5

The point 1 +j has polar coordinates 2, .

4

and z2 = (r2 ,2 ) =r2 ( cos2 + jsin 2 )

then z1 z2 = ( r1r2 ,1 + 2 )

and

r
z1 r1
= ,1 2 = 1 ( cos(1 2 ) + jsin(1 2 ) )
z2 r2
r2

de Moivres Theorem

If z = ( r , ) = r ( cos + jsin )
z n = ( r n , n ) =r n ( cos n + jsin n )
Multiple angles using de Moivres Theorem

If z = ( cos + jsin )
and n is any integer
z = ( cos + jsin ) = ( cos n + jsin n )
n

Exercise 3E
Q. 3,5(i)

E.g. If z = cos + jsin

4
4

and n is any integer

Example 3.2
Page 41

/4

E.g. z1 = 3, , z2 = 2,
4
3

7 z
z1 z2 = 6, , 1 = 1.5,
12
12 z2

If z1 = (r1 ,1 ) = r1 ( cos1 + jsin 1 )

and arg ( z1 z2 ) = arg ( z1 ) + arg ( z2 )

References:
Chapter 3
Pages 42-43

Multiplication and division in polar form.

then z1 z2 = z1 z2

Exercise 3D
Q. 1(i), 2(i), 3(i)

(1,1)

Note the comparison

between the polar form
of complex numbers
and polar coordinates
(Topic 2.)

Sets of points
The equation arg(z p) = k is a half line with
constant angle k from the point p. The other half
represents the equation arg(z p) = (k1).

It can also be seen that if z1 = (r1 ,1 ) and z2 = (r2 ,2 )

References:
Chapter 3
Pages 40-41

(3,4)

r = x2 + y 2

x
To enable this representation to be unique, we define
the range of to be < , where the
measurement is usually in radians.

= r1r2 ( cos(1 + 2 ) + jsin(1 + 2 ) )

Exercise 3C
Q. 4, 6, 14

4
= 0.927 radians
3

The powered bracket should be expanded using

the binomial theorem (and using j2 = 1) and
then equate real and imaginary parts.

FP2; Further Methods for Advanced Mathematics

Version B: page 4
Competence statements j1, 2, 3, 4
MEI

then z 8 = cos + jsin

4
4

= ( cos 2 + jsin 2 ) = 1
Note that the equivalent algebraic form of z is
8

z=

1
8
1
(1 + j) z 8 = (1 + j)
2
2

1
(1 + 8 j 28 56 j + 70 + 56 j 28 8 j + 1)
16
1
16
= (1 28 + 70 28 + 1) =
=1
16
16
=

E.g. If z = ( cos + jsin )

z3 = ( cos + jsin ) = ( cos3 + jsin3 )
3

= cos3 + 3jcos2 sin 3cos sin2 jsin3

So cos3 = cos3 3cos sin2
= cos3 3cos (1 cos2 )
= 4cos3 3cos
and sin3 = 3cos2 sin sin3
= 3(1 sin2 ) sin sin3
= 3sin 4sin3

Complex Numbers 2

Summary FP2 Topic 3:

References:
Chapter 3
Pages 45-47

Complex Exponents
e j = cos + jsin

This comes from the comparison of the infinite

series expansions for cos ,sin and e j

Example 3.6
Page 47

Exercise 3F
Q. 1(ii), 4, 6

i.e. cos + jsin

2 4
3 5

= 1 + ... + j + ...
3! 5!
2! 4!

= 1 + j

2
2!

= 1 + ( j ) +

3 4
3!

( j )
2!

4!

+j

( j )
3!

5
5!

References:
Chapter 3
Pages 51-56

Example 3.8
Page 53

Exercise 3I
Q. 2, 4

Exercise 3I
Q. 9
Exercise 3J
Q. 4

= 2j2 sin sin jcos = 2jsin jsin j2 cos

2 2
2
2
2
2

j
= 2jsin cos jsin = 2jsin e2
2 2
2
2
1

( j )
4!

+ ...

Summations using complex numbers

Series expansions involving cos or sin may
be done using complex numbers, de Moivres
theorem and equating real and imaginary
parts.
Complex roots
If z = r ( cos + jsin ) ,

+ 2k
+ 2k

n
+ jsin
z = n r cos

n
n

(For the range of the root to be [ 0, 2 ] ,

the range of the number must be [ 0, 2n ] ).
For k = 0,1, 2.....( n 1), these angles are
distinct, giving the n nth roots of z.

Since they all have the same modulus, they

all lie on the circle z = n r and so they

Exercise 3H
Q. 2, 6

1 ej = 2sin2 2jsin cos = 2sin sin jcos

2
2
2
2 2
2

In particular: e j = cos + jsin = 1

Exercise 3G
Q. 1, 4

cos = 1 2sin2 1 cos = 2sin2

2
2

+ ...

= e j

References:
Chapter 3
Page 49

E.g. Express 1 ej in the form a sin .ejk

2
ej = cos + jsin 1 ej = 1 cos jsin

form, on an Argand diagram, a regular n -gon.

The sum of all nth roots of a complex

number is 0.
Method 1.
Consider the complex number z1. The nth
roots are roots of the equation zn = z1.
The sum of roots of this equation is the
coefficient of the zn1 term which is zero.

Method 2.
If the n roots are , , ...then these roots
form the vertices of a regular n-gon. Adding
complex numbers on the Argand diagram is
done by drawing them tracking round a
polygon.
In this case the numbers being added track
round to the starting point. The resultant is
therefore zero.

FP2; Further Methods for Advanced Mathematics

Version B: page 5
Competence statements j5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
MEI

1
1
E.g. Find the sum of the series sin + sin 2 + sin3 + .....
2
4
1
1
Let S = sin + sin 2 + sin 3 + .....
2
4
1
1
and C = cos + cos 2 + cos3 + .....
2
4
1
C + jS = ( cos + jsin ) + ( cos 2 + jsin2 ) + .....
2
1
1
1
1

= e j + e2j + e3j + ..... = e j 1 + e j + e2j + .....

2
4
4
2

1
= e j 1 + e j
2

2
1

1
1
+ e j + ..... = e j 1 e j

2
2

1
e j 1 e j
e j
e j
2

2
=
=
=
1 j 1 j 1 j 1 1 e j + e j + 1
(
) 4
1 e 1 e 1 e
2
2 2 2

1
cos + jsin
4sin
2
=
S =
5

5
4cos
cos
4
E.g. Find all 3 cube roots of 8.
Write z 3 = 8 in polar form ( 8, 0 )
0 + 2k
0 + 2 k

+ jsin
8 cos

3
3

2 4
= ( 2, 0 ) , 2,
, 2,

3
3

1
3 1
3
= 2, 2 + j
, 2 j

2
2
2
2

Note that the sum is

8=

1
1
3
3
2 + 2 + j

+ 2 j
2
2
2
2
2 1+ j 3 1 j 3 = 0
Note also that the product
1
3 1
3
1 3
= 8 + j
j
= 8 + = 8
2 2
2
4 4
2

Summary FP2 Topic 4:

References:
Chapter 4
Pages 69-76

Example 4.1
Page 72

Power Series

Maclaurins Expansion

E.g. Find a series expansion for y =

2

x
x
f ''(0) + f '''(0) + .....
2!
3!
providing that f(x) and all its derivatives exist at
x=0
f ( x ) = f (0) + xf '(0) +

If the series with n terms tends to a limit as n tends

to infinity, then we say that the series converges as
n tends to infinity and it converges to f(x).

Exercise 4A
Q. 1(i), 9

References:
Chapter 4
Page 76

Series expansions for standard functions

x2 x3 x 4
xr
+
+
+ ..... +
+ .....
2! 3! 4!
r!
Valid for all values of x.

ex = 1+ x +

f (x) =(1 + x)2 ; f(0) = 1

f '(x) = 2(1 + x)3 ; f '(0) = 2
f ''(x) = 2 3(1 + x)4 ; f ''(0) = 6
x2
x3
2 3 4 + .....
2
3!
2
3
f ( x) = 1 2 x + 3x 4 x + .....
f ( x) = 1 2 x + 2 3

E.g. Find a series expansion for y = cos x

f(x) = cos x; f(0) = 1
f '(x ) = sin x; f '(0) = 0
f ''(x) = cos x; f ''(0) = 1
f '''(x) = sin x; f '''(0) = 0
f ''''(x) = cos x;

( 1) x r + .....
x 2 x3 x 4
+

+ ..... +
2
3
4
r
Valid for 1 < x 1.
r +1

( 1) x 2 r +1 + .....
x3 x5
sin x = x
+
..... +
3! 5!
( 2 r + 1) !
r

Valid for all x.

( 1) x 2 r + .....
x2 x4
+
..... +
2! 4!
( 2 r )!
r

cos x = 1

Valid for all x.

arctan x = x

Example 4.3
Page 78

and even powers have coefficients alternating

1 and 1.

( 1) x + .....
x
x
+
..... +
3
5
( 2 r + 1)
3

E.g. f ''( x) = af '( x) + bf ( x).

Then f ''(0) = af '(0) + bf (0)

E.g. Find a series expansion for y = arcsin x

up to the term in x 2 , and hence find an
0.2

2 r +1

An alternative approach
Using the function notation, f(x) and the first
derivative, f '(x) with the associated values f(0) and
f '(0), etc, then sometimes it is possible to obtain a
relationship between derivatives.

( 1) x 2 r
( 2r ) !

( r + 1) th term is

approximation to

Valid for x 1

References:
Chapter 4
Page 78

f ''''(0) = 1

x
x4
+ .....
2! 4!
It can be seen that odd powers have coefficient 0

f ( x) = 1
ln(1 + x ) = x

1
(1 + x)2

arcsin x d x.

0.1

f(x ) = arcsin x ; f(0) = 0

1
f '(x ) =
; f '(0) = 1
1 x2
x
f ''(x ) =
; f ''(0) = 0
3
(1 x 2 ) 2
f(x ) = x + .....
0.2

x2
d
x
x
=
2

0.1
0.1
0.1
= 0.02 0.005 = 0.015
0.2

0.2

arcsin x d x

and f '''( x) = af ''( x) + bf '( x), etc.

This relationship may be continued indefinitely.

Exercise 4B
Q. 1(i), 3

E.g. Find a series expansion for f ( x) = e x cos x.

f (0) = 1
f '( x) = e x cos x e x sin x; f '(0) = 1
f ''( x) = e x cos x e x sin x e x sin x e x cos x = 2e x sin x
f ''( x) = 2f '( x) 2f ( x)
f ''(0) = 2f '(0) 2f (0) = 2 2 = 0
f '''( x) = 2f ''( x) 2f '( x)
f '''(0) = 2f ''(0) 2f '(0) = 2

FP2; Further Methods for Advanced Mathematics

Version B: page 6
Competence statements s1, 2, 3
MEI

f ''''( x) = 2f '''( x) 2f ''( x) f ''''(0) = 4

f ( x) = e x cos x = 1 + x

2 x3 4 x 4

+ .....
3!
4!

Matrices 1

Summary FP2 Topic 5:

References:
Chapter 5
Pages 84-86

Example 5.1
Page 86

Determinants

E.g. Find the value of the determinant

a1

b1

c1

For the determinant = a2

a3

b2
b3

c2 the minor
c3

of the element a1 , A1 , is the 2 2 determinant

1 2 5
= 2 7 8 .
3 10 15
1 2 5
= 2 7 8 (Row 3 Row 2)
1 3 7

obtained by eliminating the row and column

containing a1.

1 2

Then = a1 A1 + a2 A2 + a3 A3
where A1 =

Exercise 5A
Q. 1(i),2(i), 5

b2
b3

c2
b
, A2 = 1
b3
c3

c1
b
, A3 = 1
c3
b2

c1
c2

Row 3 Row 1
= 0 3 2

and Row 2 2 Row 1

0 1 2
=

3 2
= 6 (2) = 8
1 2

E.g. Find the value of the determinant

References:
Chapter 5
Pages 87-91

Exercise 5B
Q. 1, 12

Rules for calculating determinants

(i) Interchanging two columns (or rows) changes
the sign of the determinant. However, cyclic
interchange leaves the sign unaltered.
(ii) The value of a determinant is unchanged by
subtracting one row from another row (or one
column from another column).
(iii) A determinant with a row or column of zeros
is zero. From (ii) above, the value of a determinant with identical rows (or columns) is zero.

= 2

7 .

3 11 13
1
= 2

2
6

= 52

Example 5.3
Page 94

Exercise 5C
Q. 1(i), 3, 5

Factor of 5
1
from Column
3 11 2

A3

B3
C3

Exercise 5D
Q. 3, 10, 16

From above, = a1 A1 + a2 A2 + a3 A3
Note that a1 B1 + a2 B2 + a3 B3 = 0
i.e. multiplying out the "wrong" column with a row

0
1

( Row 3

2 Row2 )

Simultaneous Equations
2 simultaneous equations in two unknowns or three
equations in three unknowns may be written in
matrix form, MX = A
Then the equations may be solved, since
X = M-1A.
This represents the solution provided M-1 exists. If
M-1 does not exist then the equations are either
inconsistent or the solution is not unique.

1 1

= 5 ( ( 1) ( 2) ) = 5

1 2 5

E.g. Find M where M = 2 7 8 .

3 10 15

From above, = 8.
-1

A1 =

C1 =

= 25, A2 =

10 15

gives 0.

FP2; Further Methods for Advanced Mathematics

Version B: page 7
Competence statements m1, m5
MEI

2
6

=5

B1 =

References:
Chapter 5
Pages 98-101

1 1 0

The inverse of a 3 3 matrix

a1 b1 c1
A1 A2
1

-1
Given M = a2 b2 c2 , M = B1 B2

a b c
3 3 3
C1 C2
where is the value of the determinant.

(Column 3 Column 1)

3 11 10

1
=5 2

References:
Chapter 5
Pages 93-96

0
5

= 6, B2 =

= 1, C2 =

3 15
7

3 10

M1 =

10 15
5

3 15
2

3 10

= 20, A3 =

2 5
7 8

= 0, B3 =

1 5

= 4, C3 =

1 2

2 8
2 7

= 19

=2
=3

25 20 19
1

6 0
2
8

1 4 3

Determine whether the following three equations are

consistent or inconsistent.

1 : 3x + 2 y + z 4 = 0
2 : x + y + 2z 6 = 0
3 : 3x + y 4 z 8 = 0
Det(M) = 0 so no unique solution.
21 3 2 3x + y 4 z + 10 = 0 3So inconsistent.

Summary FP2 Topic 5:

References:
Chapter 5
Pages 104-110

Example 5.5
Page 107

Exercise 5E
Q. 1(i),2(i), 6

References:
Chapter 5
Pages 113-114

Exercise 5F
Q. 1(i), 2

Matrices 2

Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues

If s is a non-zero vector such that Ms = s for a
scalar number, , then s is called an
Eigenvector of M. is called an Eigenvalue
of M.
If M is a 2 2 matrix then there are two
Eigenvectors; if M is a 3 3 matrix then there
are three.
To find the Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors,
solve Ms = s
i.e. ( )s = 0.
As s is non-zero, this means that
Det( ) = 0
The diagonal form and powers of M
If M is a 2 2 matrix with Eigenvectors s1 and
s2 with associated Eigenvalues 1 and 2 then
the matrix S = ( s1 , s2 ) and which is a matrix
where the elements of the leading diagonal are
the associated Eigenvalues with zeros
elsewhere are such that MS = S.
MS = S S-1MS =

S-1MS

= 2

S-1MS S-1MS =S-1MMS =S-1M 2S = 2

M 2 = S 2S-1
Similarly, M n = S nS-1

The similar property is true for a 3 3 matrix.

1 2
E.g. M =
.
8 1

M I = 0

1
2
=0
8
1

(1 ) 16 = 0 1 = 4 = 3, 5
2

2 x 0
x
1 5
Let s = . For = 5,
=
8
1
5 y 0
y

1
4 x + 2 y = 0 y = 2 x Eigenvector =
2
2 x 0
1 + 3
For = 3,
=
8
1
3 y 0
+

1
4 x + 2 y = 0 y = 2 x Eigenvector =
2

1 2
E.g.For M above, M =
.
8 1
1
1
s1 = , 1 = 5, s2 = , 2 = 3
2
2
1 1
5 0
S =
, =

2
2

0 3
1 2 1 1 5 3
Check: MS =

8 1 2 2 10 6
1 1 5 0 5 3
S =

2 2 0 3 10 6
3 2
1
E.g.For M =
,express M in the form SS
4 1
and hence find M3.
3
2
= 0 ( 3 )(1 ) 8 = 0
4 1
2 4 5 = 0 ( 5)( + 1) = 0 =5, 1

References:
Chapter 5
Pages 114-116

Exercise 5F
Q. 3(ii), 7

The Cayley Hamilton Theorem

It follows, for instance, by multiplying throughout by M, that M3 + aM2 + bM = 0.

3 5 2 x 0
1
For = 5,
= x = y s1 =
4 1 5 y 0
1
0
3
1
2
+
x
1

For = 1,
= 2 x + y = 0 s2 =
2
4 1 + 1 y 0
3
1 1
5 0 -1 1 2 1 3 5 0
S =

, =
, S =
, =
3 1 1
1 2
0 1
0 1
1 1 1 125 0 2 1
M3 =

3 1 2 0 1 1 1

This gives an alternative method to find powers

of M.

1 125 1 2 1 1 249 126 83 42

=

=
=

3 125 2 1 1 3 252 123 84 41

Every square matrix satisfies its own

characteristic equation.
For the 2 2 matrix M, if the characteristic
equation is 2 + a + b = 0
Then M2 + aM + bI = 0

E.g.For M above the characteristic equation is

2 4 5 = 0 M 2 4M 5I = 0

FP2; Further Methods for Advanced Mathematics

Version B: page 8
Competence statements m2, m3, m4, m6, m7
MEI

3 2 1 0 17 8
M 2 = 4M + 5I = 4
+ 5
=

4 1 0 1 16 9
and M 2 = 4M + 5I M 3 = 4M 2 + 5M
17 8 3 2 83 42
= 4
+ 5
=

16 9 4 1 84 41

Hyperbolic Functions

Summary FP2 Option 1:

References:
Chapter 6
Pages 123-128
Exercise 6A
Q. 1, 3(i),
7(ii), 9(ii)

References:
Chapter 6
Page 125

Hyperbolic Functions

1 x x
( e + e ) , sinh x = 12 ( ex e x )
2
sinh x e x e x e2 x 1
=
=
tanh x =
cosh x e x + e x e2 x + 1
d(cosh x)
d(sinh x)
= sinh x,
= cosh x
dx
dx
d
( tanh x ) = sech 2 x
dx

cosh x =

Osbornes Rule
Hyperbolic identities are identical to the
trigonometrical identities except that whenever
there is a product (or implied product) of two
sinhs the sign is reversed.
E.g. cos x + sin x = 1
2

Example 6.1
Page 126
Exercise 6B
Q. 2

E.g. cos2x = 1 2 sin 2 x

and cosh 2 x = 1 + 2 sinh 2 x

cosh ( x + y ) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y

and find an expression for tanh2x.

sinh ( x + y )
cosh ( x + y )

cosh ( x y ) = cosh x cosh y sinh x sinh y

tanh ( x + y ) =

sinh ( x + y ) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y

sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y

cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y
sinh x cosh y cosh x sinh y
+
cosh x cosh y cosh x cosh y
=
cosh x cosh y sinh x sinh y
+
cosh x cosh y cosh x cosh y
sinh x sinh y
+
tanh x + tanh y
cosh x cosh y
=
=
sinh x sinh y 1 + tanh x tanh y
1+
cosh x cosh y
2 tanh x
tanh 2 x =
1 + tanh 2 x

tanh x + tanh y
1 + tanh x tanh y
tanh x tanh y
tanh ( x y ) =
1 tanh x tanh y

Other hyperbolic functions

coth x =

1
1
1
, sechx =
, cosechx =
tanh x
cosh x
sinh x

E.g. Find

Inverse hyperbolic functions

artanh x =

Exercise 6C
Q. 4(i), 5(i),
6 (i),(ii), 7

E.g. Prove the compound angle formula for tanh(x + y)

Exercise 6B
Q. 2

References:
Chapter 6
Pages 130-134

Compound Angle formulae

tanh ( x + y ) =

Example 6.2
Page 133

e x e x e x + e x
2 sinh x cosh x = 2

2
2

1
= ( e 2 x e 2 x ) = sinh 2 x
2
2
1
1
cosh 2 x = ( e 2 x + e 2 x ) = ( e x + e x ) 2
2
2
1 x
x 2
= ( e + e ) 1 = 2 cosh 2 x 1
2

and cosh 2 x = 2 cosh 2 x 1

sinh ( x y ) = sinh x cosh y cosh x sinh y

References:
Chapter 6
Page 128

From definitions,

but cos2x = 2 cos 2 x 1

and cosh x sinh x = 1

2

E.g. Show that sinh2 x = 2 sinh x cosh x and

find an expression for cosh2 x.

(
ar sinh x = ln ( x +
arcosh x = ln x +

d
( a rc o sh x ) =
dx
d
( a rsin h x ) =
dx

1
x +a
1

x a

)
+ 1)

1
x + 2 x + 10
2

dx =

( x + 1)

+9

dx

x + 1
= arsinh
= arsinh1 arsinh
3
3 1

x2 1
1

= ln 1 +

x2 +1

d x = a rc o s h

d x = a rsin h

dx

x 2 + 2 x + 10 = ( x + 1) +9

x 1
x2

x + 2 x + 10
2

1 1+ x
ln
,
2 1 x
2

x
+c
a
x
+c
a

3 1+ 2
2
13

=
2 ln +
ln

3
9
+
2
13

FP2; Further Methods for Advanced

Mathematics
Version B: page 9
Competence statements a4, 5, 6, 7, 8

Summary FP2 Option 2:

References:
Chapter 7
Pages 138-142

References:
Chapter 7
Pages 142-145

Exercise 7A
Q. 1(i), 2, 8

References:
Chapter 7
Pages 148-155

Investigation of Curves 1

The locus of a point is the path traced out by

the point as it moves according to a given rule.
There are three ways to describe the locus :
Cartesian equation
A relationship between the x and y coordinates
of the point. f(x,y) = 0
Parametric equation
The coordinates, x and y are related via a
parameter. x = f(t), y = g(t).
Polar equation
Each point in the plane is described in terms of
the distance from an origin (called the Pole)
and the angle turned through anticlockwise
from a fixed line through the pole. r = f().
Conversion between forms
Polar - Cartesian and Cartesian - Polar

Use r2 = x2 + y2; x = r cos, y = r sin

x
y
or cos = , sin =
r
r
Parametric - Cartesian
Eliminate the parameter from the equations
giving the relationship between x and y.
ParametricPolar
First convert to Cartesian.

The curve with

equation
4x2 + y2 = 9 is an
ellipse.
The parametric
equations are:
3
x = cos T , y = 3sin T
2

giving the polar equation r =

3
3cos2 + 1

E.g. Convert the polar equation r =

3
3cos2 +1

to cartesian form.
x
9
r = x2 + y2 and cos = x2 + y2 =
2
3x
r
+1
x2 + y 2
x2 + y 2 =

9( x2 + y2 )
9
1 = 2 2
2
2
2
3x + x + y
4x + y

4x2 + y 2 = 9

E.g. r = 1 + 2sin contains a loop.

Loops and cusps

A loop is a part of the curve that traces out one
area by passing through a given point twice.
A cusp is a point on a curve where two arcs of
the curve meet with coincident tangents.

Example 7.2
Page 156
r = 1 + sin has a cusp.
References:
Chapter 7
Pages 155-157

References:
Chapter 7
Pages 158-159
Example 7.3
Page 158

Symmetry and nodes

A point where a curve crosses itself is called a
Node.
If two values of the parameter of a parametric
equation give the same point, then that point is
a node.
Asymptotes
Horizontal and vertical asymptotes were
introduced in FP1. Some curves also have
oblique asymptotes.
If the equation of a curve can be rewritten in
the form y = ax + b + f(x) where f(x) tends to
zero as x tends to infinity then the line
y = ax + b is an oblique asymptote.

Exercise 7A
Q. 3(i), (ii)

FP2; Further Methods for Advanced Mathematics

Version B: page 10
Competence statements C1, 2, 3, 4, 5
MEI

E.g. Find the equations of the asymptotes of the

curve y = 1 +

x2 + 3x 4
and draw the graph.
x2

The curve can be rewritten

6
6
= x+6+
y = 1+ x + 5 +
x2
x2
vertical asymptote is
x=2

and oblique asymptote is

y = x+6

Summary FP2 Option 2:

References:
Chapter 7
Pages 160-162

Investigation of Curves 2

Families of curves
Curves with a common property are called a family of
curves.
E.g. y = x2 4x + 1 is a
curve known as a parabola.

E.g. Investigate the family of curves with polar

equation r = 1 + asin for different values of a.

For different values of a,

y = x2 4x + a is a family
of curves.
a=2

The curves shown are for a = 0.5, 1.5, 2.5 and

3.5.

Two curves are shown on the previous page

with a = 1 and a = 2.
a = 0 gives a circle.

a = 1.5
a = 0.5

Exercise 7B
Q. 2

a=1
a = 1

References:
Chapter 7
Pages 172-177

Exercise 7C
Q. 6

References:
Chapter 7
Pages 184-195

Using Calculus
Calculus can be used when the curve is given in any of
the three forms :
To find equations of tangents and normals
To determine maximum and minimum points
To find maximum and minimum distances from the
origin.
Conics
If S is a fixed point and d a fixed line, then the locus of
a point P which moves so that the ratio of the distance
to the point and to the line is constant is a conic.
The value of the ratio, e, is called the
eccentricity.
P
M
PS = e PM
e = 1 gives a parabola
0 < e < 1 gives an ellipse
e > 1 gives a hyperbola

Example 7.5
Page 191

In their simplest forms the cartesian equations of the

conics are:
Parabola: y 2 = 4ax
x2 y 2
Ellipse: 2 + 2 = 1
a
b
When a = b the ellipse becomes a circle: x 2 + y 2 = a 2

Exercise 7D
Q. 3, 6, 7

x2 y 2
Hyperbola: 2 2 = 1
a
b
When a = b the hyperbola is rectangular: x 2 y 2 = a 2
this can be rewritten XY = c 2
In their simplest forms the parametric equations of the
conics are:
Parabola: x = at2, y = 2at
Ellipse: x = a cost, y = bsint
When a = b the ellipse becomes a circle: x = a cost, y = asint

Exercise 7E
Q. 6

Hyperbola: x = asect, y = b tan t

When a = b the hyperbola is rectangular and can be transformed to
c
x = ct, y =
t

a = 2.5

a = 3.5

E.g. The tangent at the point P (ap2, 2ap) on the

parabola x = at2, y = 2at meets the x-axis at T
and the normal at P meets the x-axis at N. Find
the area of the triangle PNT.
dx
dy
dy 1
= 2at ,
= 2a
=
dt
dt
dx t
1
At P the gradient of the tangent is
p
1
Tangent has equation y 2ap = ( x ap 2 )
p
At any point,

py = x + ap 2

When y = 0, x = ap 2
T ( ap 2 , 0)
Normal at P has equation
y 2ap = p ( x ap 2 )

y + px = 2ap + ap 3

When y = 0, x = 2a + ap 2
N (2a + ap 2 , 0)
In triangle TPN, length of base = TN
= 2a + 2ap 2
Height = y coordinate of P = 2ap
1
Area =
2a + 2ap 2 2ap = 2a 2 p 1 + p 2
2

FP2; Further Methods for Advanced

Mathematics
Version B: page 11
Competence statements C6, 7, 8
MEI