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STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Prepared by
Dr. J. Raja Murugadoss
Professor and Head of Civil Engineering
KPR Institute of Engineering and Technology
Coimbatore 641 407
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CHAPTER 1
STRESSES AND STRAINS
1. Define stress?
When a body is subjected to any arbitrary loading, it undergoes deformation.
Consequently some amount of internal force will be set-up in the body to resist the
deformation produced by the external cause. The magnitude of internal resisting force
per unit area is defined as stress.
The unit of stress () is N/mm2.
2. Define strain?
When a solid bar is subjected to an axial load, it undergoes deformation both in
longitudinal and transverse directions. In the longitudinal direction, strain
(engineering strain) can be defined as the fractional change in length. Strain is a
dimensionless quantity and it is denoted by the symbol .
3. Define Hookes law?
Hookes states that, when a material is loaded within the elastic limit the stress is
linearly proportional to strain. Therefore
Stress Strain
Stress = E (Strain)
where, E = Youngs Modulus (N/mm2). E is also called as elastic constant.
4. What do you mean by limit of proportionality or elastic limit?
Limit of proportionality or elastic limit is a point in the stress-strain curve at which
the linear relation between them ceases. (i.e. the point at which the straight line
changes to a curve). Thereafter the stress is not directly proportional to strain and
therefore Hookes law is not valid after the elastic limit.
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Poissons Ratio
0.48
0.44
0.37
0.33
0.29
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Hence the internal work is defined as the product of force and the deformations. This
internal work is stored in an elastic body as the internal elastic energy of deformation
(or) simply elastic strain energy.
If the strain energy is within the elastic limit, the work done will be completely
transformed into potential energy and can be recovered during a gradual unloading of
the strained material.
or
The potential energy stored in a body by virtue of an elastic deformation, equal to the
work that must be done to produce both normal and shear strains.
The unit of strain energy is Joule or N-m. Strain energy is dependent on the length and
cross-sectional area of the material.
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100 kN
50 kN
100 kN
Sum of all the forces acting in left direction = Sum of all the forces acting in right
direction.
Therefore, 100 + P = 100 + 50
P = 50 kN.
27. How will you calculate the total elongation of a compound bar which is connected in
series?
The total elongation of a compound bar connected in series can be computed by the
relation
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= l1 + l2 + l3 ++ ln
P1 L1
PL
PL
2 2 ... n n
A1E1 A 2 E 2
AnEn
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CHAPTER 2
PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND STRAINS
1. What is meant by principal plane?
Principal plane is plane in which the stress vector will be wholly normal and there
will not be any tangential or shear stress in that particular plane. Such a plane is
called principal plane. The corresponding stress is called principal stress.
Since the resultant stress is along the normal, tangential or shear stress is always zero.
Therefore the principal plane is called shearless plane
2. What do you mean by state of stress?
The totality of all stress vectors acting on every possible plane passing through a
point is defined to be the state of stress at a point.
3. What is principal stress?
The normal stress which is acting on the principal plane is called principal stress.
4. What do you mean by octahedral plane?
A plane that is equally inclined to all the three principal axes, then that plane is called
octahedral plane. Also the octahedral plane is free from normal stress.
5. What is stress invariant?
A stress invariant is one whose value does not change when the frame of reference is
changed.
For example I1, I2, I3 are the first, second and third stress invariants of three
dimensional state of stress whose value does not change.
6. Give the necessary condition for a pure state of shear.
For a state of pure shear to be exist, the first stress invariant should be equal to zero or
in other words
I1 x y z 0
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In real world problems, such residual stresses may be large and should be carefully
investigated and then added to the calculated stresses for the initially stress-free
material.
9. What is meant by Spherical and deviatoric state of stress?
If a generate state of stress is decomposed into two components, it falls into
categories, i.e. Hydrostatic state of stress (or) Spherical state of stress and deviatoric
state of stress.
Let P = 1/3 I1, I1 is the first stress invariant.
x x y xz P 0 0 ( x p ) x y xz
yx y yz 0 P 0 yx ( y p ) yz
0 0 P ( p )
zx zy z
zx zy z
Here the first term represents the spherical state of stress and the other tangential or
shear stress will be completely zero.
The second term is called deviatoric state of stress or state of pure shear or simply
stress deviator. Deviatoric state of stress at a point is derived by subtracting the mean
of the normal stress components of the stress matrix (i.e. diagonal components) from
each diagonal term of the stress matrix.
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i.e. x, y, z, xy, xz, yz, yx, zx, zy, six components are independent
components. These are known as cross-shears.
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CHAPTER 3
THEORIES OF FAILURE
1. List out any five important theories of failure.
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e x y z
Note:
The shear strains cause no change in volume.
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CHAPTER 4
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
1. What is a beam?
A beam is a horizontal member which is always loaded in the transverse direction,
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam.
2. What are the different types of beams?
Simply supported beam (one end hinged and other being roller supported)
Cantilever beam (one end fixed and other end being free)
Fixed beam (both the ends are clamped or fixed)
Over-hanging beam (some loaded portion of the beam extends beyond the
support)
Simple support (it resist loads which are acting perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the beam)
Fixed support (it resists forces in all direction and also restrict the rotation of
the beam)
Hinged support (it can resist forces in two directions but allows rotation about
the axis of the pin, example, hinge)
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14. Write the bending equation or classic flexure formula and state its significance.
M f E
I y R
Here,
M is the bending moment, I is the moment of inertia, f is the maximum bending
stress, y is the distance of the fiber from the neutral axis, E is the elastic modulus and
R is the radius of curvature.
15. What is isotropic and orthotropic?
In isotropic, the material property will be same in all mutually perpendicular
directions.
In orthotropic, the material property will be different in all mutually perpendicular
directions
16. What is meant by homogeneous and heterogeneous?
Homogeneous means: the material property remains same in all discrete points.
Heterogeneous means: the material property will vary from one point to other point.
(i.e. the material property will not be same in all points)
17. What is meant by simple bending?
When a beam is subjected to a transverse load in such a way that it develops only
bending. Other actions will be absent. For example
When a beam is subjected to equal and opposite couples, the beam will be
subjected to bending alone.
When a beam is subjected to two point loading, the beam will be subjected to
bending alone.
18. What is meant by section modulus or modulus of section?
The term I/y is called section modulus or modulus of section. The strength or load
carrying capacity of beam depends on this section modulus. It is usually denoted by
the letter Z.
Z=
bd 2
(for rectangular sections)
6
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Z=
Z=
d 3
(for solid circular sections)
32
(D 4 - d 4 )
(for hollow circular sections)
32 D
Transverse section of the beam remain plane before and after bending
It obeys Hooks law.
The material is homogeneous and isotropic
The beam is initially straight and of constant cross-section
The radius of curvature of the beam is very large when it is compared to the
other dimensions of the beam.
The beam consists of infinite number of longitudinal fibres which is free to expand or
contract during bending
21. Comment on Load Carrying capacity of beams?
The strength of the section or the load carrying capacity of a beam does not depend
upon the sectional area provided but upon the disposition of that area in relation to its
neutral axis. In other words, the strength of beam directly depends on the sectionmodulus Z of the beam.
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23. How will you calculate the value of shear stress at a particular distance from the
neutral axis?
V.A'.y
I.Z
Here, V is the corresponding shear force at a particular distance from the neutral
axis, A is the partial area of the section, y is the moment arm of this partial area
with respect to neutral axis, I is the moment of inertia of the section and Z is the
corresponding width of the layer or fiber and is the shear stress at a particular
distance from the neutral axis.
24. Prove that the maximum shear stress in a rectangular beam is 1.5 times the average
shear stress. [university two mark question]
25. Draw the bending stress variation of a simply supported beam.
The value of bending stress (N/mm2) is zero at the level of neutral axis and maximum
at the extreme fiber of the cross-section of the beam. The bending stress is always
proportional to the distance of the fiber from the neutral axis. The value of bending
stress increases as the distance of the fiber increases.
Above the neutral axis, the beam experiences compressive stress and at the same time
it is subjected to tensile stress below the neutral axis. The bending stresses always
cause the member to bend in the transverse direction.
C
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CHAPTER 5
COLUMNS
1. Define Column.
Column is a vertical, long and slender member which is subjected to only
compressive load. Every discrete cross section of the column will be in a state of
axial compression.
2. What are the major classifications of a column?
Columns are classified into
Long columns and
Short Columns based on the slenderness ratio of the column.
3. What do you mean by slenderness ratio?
Slenderness ratio is defined as the ratio of effective length of the column to its
smallest radius of gyration. It usually denoted by the symbol
EffectiveLength (le )
radius of gyration (r)
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Pcr
2 EI
le
10. What are the assumptions involved in the derivation of Eulers critical load?
Column is perfectly straight and there is no crookedness or imperfections
in the member
Load is acting concentric at every cross section of the column.
It is valid only for long columns
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11. What is the influence of the assumptions of Euler on the load carrying capacity of
a real column?
Euler has assumed that the column is initially straight and there is no eccentricity
in the column. But in actual practice there is no such real columns which have
zero eccentricity and perfect geometry.
Therefore the Eulers critical load is always higher than the actual critical load of
a long column.
12. What do you mean by eccentricity?
Eccentricity is defined as the perpendicular distance between the point of
application of load to the longitudinal axis of the column. It is usually denoted by
the symbol e.
13. Draw the relation between slenderness ratio of the column against the critical
stress of the column.
14. How the slenderness ratio of the column, affect the strength of column?
The strength of column depends upon many parameters. But the length of column
plays a major role in determining the strength of column. If the slenderness ratio
of the column increases, the strength of the member generally decreases. Also the
critical stress of the column also decreases.
15. List out the effective length (s) of column for different boundary conditions.
16. Discuss the effect of initial imperfections and eccentricity in the column.
In the derivation of Euler Buckling load for long columns, the member is assumed
to be straight and loading is assumed to be concentric at every cross section.
However, in real world engineering practice, the members are not perfectly
straight and moreover the load is not concentric at every cross section.
Unlike the perfect column, which remains straight up to the Euler load, the
initially deformed member begins to bend as soon as the load is applied. The
deflection increases slowly at first and then rapidly increases. In eccentric loaded
columns, bending begins as soon as the load is applied. The deflection increases
slowly in the beginning and then rapidly increases.
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Columns with large eccentricities deflect considerably at loads well below the
Euler load, whereas the column with small eccentricities of loading do not bend
significantly until the load is fairly close to the Euler load.
Excessive bending of the column sometimes leads to complete collapse of the
member. Column with small eccentricities of loading can therefore be expected to
support loads only slightly less than the Euler loads.
The load carrying capacity of a real column is always less than that of Euler s
column due to the presence of initial imperfections and eccentricities.
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CHAPTER 6
TORSION OF CIRCULAR SHAFT & SPRINGS
1. What is power?
Power can be defined as the rate of transferring energy. It is calculated as
P = T x n
where, P is the power, T is the torque and n is the rotational speed.
2. What do you mean by Torsion?
Torsion refers to the loading of a circular or non-circular member that tends to
cause it to rotate or twist. Such a load is called torque, torsional moment,
rotational moment, twisting moment or simply couple.
3. What are the assumptions made in Torsion equation
The material of the shaft is homogeneous, perfectly elastic and obeys
Hookes law.
Twist is uniform along the length of the shaft
The stress does not exceed the limit of proportionality
The shaft circular in section remains circular after loading
Strain and deformations are small.
4. Write the governing equation for torsion of circular shaft?
T G
J R
L
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6. Define polar moment of inertia and establish the equations for a solid and hollow
circular shaft.
Polar moment of inertia can be defined as
D 4
J
(solid circular shaft)
32
(D 4 d 4 )
J
(hollow circular shaft)
32
7. Define polar modulus?
Polar modulus can be defined as
D3
Zp
(solid circular shaft)
16
(D 4 - d 4 )
Zp
(hollow circular shaft)
16D
8. Why the shear stress is maximum at the outer surface of the shaft than the inner
core?
When the circular shaft is subjected to torsional loading, the shear stress is
maximum at the extreme fiber of the shaft. This is due to the reason that, the
extreme fibers are much strained than the inner surface near centroidal axis of the
member. This is the reason why the shear stress is maximum at the extreme fiber
of the shaft. Also the materials inside the shaft are not that much utilized at the
time of torsional loading. Also it this is the reason why hollow circular shafts are
preferred rather than the solid one for practical use.
9. Why hollow circular shafts are preferred when compared to solid circular shafts?
The torque transmitted by the hollow shaft is greater than the solid shaft.
For same material, length and given torque, the weight of the hollow shaft
will be less compared to solid shaft.
10. What is torsional stiffness?
The measure of torsional stiffness is the angle of twist of one part of a shaft
relative to another part when a certain torque is applied.
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The spring wires are coiled very The wires are coiled such that
closely, each turn is nearly at right there is a gap between the two
angles to the axis of helix
consecutive turns.
Helix angle is less than 10o
22. What are the various stresses induced in the open coil helical spring?
Torsional shear stress
Direct shear stress
Stress arises due to curvature
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CHAPTER 7
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
1. Why deflection of beams is needed for engineering applications like mechanical
engineering?
The spindle of a lathe or drill press and the arbor of a milling machine carry
cutting tools for machining metals. Therefore the deflection of the spindle would
have an adverse effect on the accuracy of the machine output. The manner of
loading and support of these machine elements behave like that of a real beam.
This is the reason why deflection of beams is necessary for engineering
applications like mechanical engineering.
2. Name the various methods of determining slope and deflection of beams.
3. Describe the boundary conditions that can be used for finding out the values of
the constants of integration in case of common type of beams.
Support
Fixed end
Free end
Roller (i.e. pinned or hinged)
Deflection
Zero
Yes
Zero
Slope
Zero
Yes
Zero
Moment
Yes
Zero
Zero
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d2y
EI 2 M
dx
where M is the bending moment, EI is the flexural rigidity and y is the
deflection of the beam.
8. Explain the procedure of finding the slope and deflection of a beam using
Macaulays method?
Find the reaction at the supports
Take a section at a distance x from the left support such that it covers all the
loads in the beam.
Form the moment curvature expression that relates the bending moment
Integrate the moment curvature expression twice to obtain the expressions for
slope and deflection.
Apply the boundary conditions and the find the constants involved in the
moment curvature expression.
Find the slope and deflection at various points by substituting the value for
x.
9. List out the relationship exists between slope, deflection, bending moment and the
load.
Slope
dy
dx
Bending Moment EI
d2y
dx 2
d3y
dx 3
d4y
Load 4
dx
Shear Force
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11. State the principle involved in finding the slope and deflection of beams using
Moment-Area theorem.
Moment Area method uses the elastic curve equation or moment curvature
expression, but the integration is carried out by doing so, the kinematic boundary
conditions are not considered.
12. What is conjugate beam?
Conjugate beam is a fictitious beam which has the same length as the real beam,
but supported in such a manner that when it is loaded with M/EI diagram of the
real beam, the shear and bending moment at a section in the conjugate beam give
the slope and deflection at the corresponding section of a real beam.
13. Explain, how the load is applied in Conjugate beam method and its applicability
to different types of beam?
In conjugate beam method, the beam is loaded with elastic weight M/EI
corresponding to the actual load.
For cantilever beams, fixed beams and continuous beams, if this method is
applied, the fixed ends behave like that it is subjected to rotations and translations.
Hence for this type of beams some artificial restraints have to be applied to the
conjugate beam, so that it is supported in a manner consistent with the constraints
of the real beam.
14. Why deflection of beams is needed for engineering applications like mechanical
engineering?
The spindle of a lathe or drill press and the arbor of a milling machine carry
cutting tools for machining metals. Therefore the deflection of the spindle would
have an adverse effect on the accuracy of the machine output. The manner of
loading and support of these machine elements behave like that of a real beam.
This is the reason why deflection of beams is necessary for engineering
applications like mechanical engineering.
15. Give the conjugate beam for the cantilever shown below.
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CHAPTER 8
UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING
1. Define unsymmetrical bending?
Unsymmetrical bending is defined as the bending caused by the loads that are
inclined to the principal planes of bending.
Note:
For the analysis of unsymmetrical bending, the applied forces must be
resolved at the shear centre parallel to the principal axes of the crosssection.
In unsymmetrical sections, the neutral axis does not pass through the
geometrical centre of the section.
Example: purlin of a roof truss.
2. Define Shear Centre?
Shear centre is defined as the point of intersection of the bending axis and the
plane of the transverse section. (or)
Shear centre of a section can be defined as the point about which the applied
forces is balanced by the set of shear forces obtained by summing the shear
stresses over the section. (or)
Note:
Shear centre is also known as centre of twist.
In case of unsymmetrical section the shear centre does not coincide with
the centroid of the given section.
When the load passes through the shear centre then there will be only
bending and no twisting will be there.
3. What are the two reasons for unsymmetrical bending?
The section is symmetrical (rectangular, circular, I-section) but the load
line is inclined to both the principal axes.
The section itself is unsymmetrical (angle section, channel section) and
the load line is along the centriodal axis.
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For deeply curved beams, the N.A. and the centroidal axes do not coincide
and hence the simple bending formula is not applicable. Thats why the
Winkler-Bach formula is widely used.
8. What are the basic assumptions in the derivation of bending stress equation of
Winkler-Bach formula?
9. Define Fatigue?
A phenomenon loading to fracture under repeated (or) fluctuating cyclic stresses
below the tensile strength of the material is called Fatigue.
Note:
Fatigue fractures are progressive starting as minute crack developing under the
action of fluctuating stresses.
10. What is Fatigue life?
The number of cycles of stress that can be sustained prior to failure of a specified
nature for a stated stress condition.
11. What is Fatigue or Endurance Limit?
The maximum stress below which a material can presumably endure an infinite
number of stress cycles. If the stress is not completely reversed, the value of the
mean stress or the maximum stress or the stress ratio, should be mentioned.
12. What is Fatigue or endurance ration?
The ratio of the fatigue limit to the tensile strength is defined as endurance limit.
13. What is Fatigue Strength?
The limiting stress below which a material will withstand a specified number of
cycles of stress without fracture.
14. What is Overstressing?
The damage to fatigue properties of a material by cycling for a time at a stress
above the fatigue limit.
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Direct Stress
Plane bending
Rotating bending
Torsion
Combined Stress
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CHAPTER 9
PRESSURE VESSELS
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