Science (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge"[1]) is a systematic enterprise

that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and
predictions about the universe.[2][3][4] In an older and closely related meaning,
"science" also refers to a body of knowledge itself, of the type that can be
rationally explained and reliably applied. A practitioner of science is known as a
scientist.

Physical science
Written by Stephen G. Brush
Physical science, the systematic study of the inorganic world, as distinct from the
study of the organic world, which is the province of biological science. Physical
science is ordinarily thought of as consisting of four broad areas: astronomy,
physics, chemistry, and the Earth sciences. Each of these is in turn divided into
fields and subfields. This article discusses the historical developmentwith due
attention to the scope, principal concerns, and methodsof the first three of
these areas. The Earth sciences are discussed in a separate article.
Physics, in its modern sense, was founded in the mid-19th century as a synthesis
of several older sciencesnamely, those of mechanics, optics, acoustics,
electricity, magnetism, heat, and the physical properties of matter. The synthesis
was based in large part on the recognition that the different forces of nature are
related and are, in fact, interconvertible because they are forms of energy.
The boundary between physics and chemistry is somewhat arbitrary. As it
developed in the 20th century, physics is concerned with the structure and
behaviour of individual atoms and their components, while chemistry deals with
the properties and reactions of molecules. These latter depend on energy,
especially heat, as well as on atoms; hence, there is a strong link between
physics and chemistry. Chemists tend to be more interested in the specific
properties of different elements and compounds, whereas physicists are
concerned with general properties shared by all matter.
Astronomy is the science of the entire universe beyond the Earth; it includes the
Earths gross physical properties, such as its mass and rotation, insofar as they
interact with other bodies in the solar system. Until the 18th century,
astronomers were concerned primarily with the Sun, Moon, planets, and comets.
During the following centuries, however, the study of stars, galaxies, nebulas,
and the interstellar medium became increasingly important. Celestial mechanics,
the science of the motion of planets and other solid objects within the solar
system, was the first testing ground for Newtons laws of motion and thereby
helped to establish the fundamental principles of classical (that is, pre-20th-

century) physics. Astrophysics, the study of the physical properties of celestial

bodies, arose during the 19th century and is closely connected with the
determination of the chemical composition of those bodies. In the 20th century
physics and astronomy became more intimately linked through cosmological
theories, especially those based on the theory of relativity.

Importance of Physical Science

Introduction to Importance of Physical Science:
Physics has great importance in our daily life. It relates to every science because
it is the basis of the universe.
Physics explains the measure of the different physical quantities that play a vital
role in our daily life, such as volume, weight, mass, distance, speed etc. By these
standard units of measurement we can organize our daily activities and this has
united human activities all over the world. Having problem with elastic collision
equation keep reading my upcoming posts, i will try to help you.
Physical Science in our World
Physics also explains the several forms of energy such as potential energy,
nuclear energy, kinetic energy, wind energy etc.
Physics help us understand the electrical signals, which carry the sensation in our
body, to our mind, by which we are able to see, hear or to feel the objects. The
metals that we use for different purposes are based on physics. We generally use
water to cool or as a heating liquid due to its high specific heat of water.
By understanding the laws of physics and studying them, man has been able to
harness the various elements of nature like water, fire, oceans, wind air etc. and
use them for our benefit, thus enhancing human life style over the generations. I
have recently faced lot of problem while learning Magnetic Dipole Moment
Equation, But thank to online resources of math which helped me to learn myself
easily on net.
The most important form of energy, electrical energy is due to the physics.

Water, wind and air are used to make electrical energy which keeps the modern
world running.
Inventions of Physical Science
Physics gave the world important inventions like cars, bulbs, satellites, bikes,
watches, LED's, cell phones, TV, computer, planes, VCD players, microwave
ovens, cooking gas stoves, phones.
Some of the miracles of physics are: electric motor alternating current,
hydroelectric power, radar, modern rocketry, radio, DNA structure, X-rays, lasers,
transistors, light-emitting diodes, magnetic resonance imaging, oscilloscopes,
television, the World Wide Web and holography.
Conclusion of the Importance of Physical Science
Science, with physics as its base, can solve many of the crises facing the world,
such as global warming, waning energy, overpopulation, natural disasters, and
the slow poisoning of our planet.

Steps of the Scientific Method

Sh
Key Info
The scientific method is a way to ask and answer scientific questions by making
observations and doing experiments.
The steps of the scientific method are to:
Ask a Question
Do Background Research
Construct a Hypothesis
Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment
Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion
Communicate Your Results

It is important for your experiment to be a fair test. A "fair test" occurs when you
change only one factor (variable) and keep all other conditions the same.
While scientists study how nature works, engineers create new things, such as
products, websites, environments, and experiences.
If your project involves creating or inventing something new, your project might
better fit the steps of The Engineering Design Process.
If you are not sure if your project is a scientific or engineering project, you should
read Comparing the Engineering Design Process and the Scientific Method.
Overview of the Scientific Method
The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore
observations and answer questions. Scientists use the scientific method to search
for cause and effect relationships in nature. In other words, they design an
experiment so that changes to one item cause something else to vary in a
predictable way.
Just as it does for a professional scientist, the scientific method will help you to
focus your science fair project question, construct a hypothesis, design, execute,
and evaluate your experiment.

Steps of the Scientific Method

Detailed Help for Each Step

Ask a Question: The scientific method starts when you ask a question about
something that you observe: How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?
And, in order for the scientific method to answer the question it must be about
something that you can measure, preferably with a number.
Your Question
Do Background Research: Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a
plan for answering your question, you want to be a savvy scientist using library
and Internet research to help you find the best way to do things and insure that
you don't repeat mistakes from the past.
Background Research Plan
Finding Information
Bibliography
Research Paper

Construct a Hypothesis: A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things

work:
"If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen."
You must state your hypothesis in a way that you can easily measure, and of
course, your hypothesis should be constructed in a way to help you answer your
original question.
Variables
Variables for Beginners
Hypothesis
Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment: Your experiment tests whether
your hypothesis is supported or not. It is important for your experiment to be a
fair test. You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one factor
at a time while keeping all other conditions the same.
You should also repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first
results weren't just an accident.
Experimental Procedure
Materials List
Conducting an Experiment
Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion: Once your experiment is complete,
you collect your measurements and analyze them to see if they support your
hypothesis or not.
Scientists often find that their hypothesis was not supported, and in such cases
they will construct a new hypothesis based on the information they learned
during their experiment. This starts the entire process of the scientific method
over again. Even if they find that their hypothesis was supported, they may want
to test it again in a new way.
Data Analysis & Graphs
Conclusions
Communicate Your Results: To complete your science fair project you will
communicate your results to others in a final report and/or a display board.

Professional scientists do almost exactly the same thing by publishing their final
report in a scientific journal or by presenting their results on a poster at a
scientific meeting. In a science fair, judges are interested in your findings
regardless of whether or not they support your original hypothesis.
Final Report
Abstract
Display Board
Science Fair Judging
Even though we show the scientific method as a series of steps, keep in mind
that new information or thinking might cause a scientist to back up and repeat
steps at any point during the process. A process like the scientific method that
involves such backing up and repeating is called an iterative process.
Throughout the process of doing your science fair project, you should keep a
journal containing all of your important ideas and information. This journal is
called a laboratory notebook.

what are the scientific attitudes?

2 Answers Other - Social Science
Best Answer (Chosen by Voter)
The scientific attitudes related to a scientist are :
Beliefs. A scientist believes that everything that happens in this world has a
cause or reason.
Curiosity. A scientist shows interest and pays particular attentions to objects or
events. He asks questions and seeks answers.
Objectivity. A scientist is objective if he does not allow his feelings and biases to
influence his recording of observations, interpretation of data, and formulation of
conclusions.
Critical-mindedness. A scientist bases suggestions and conclusions on evidences.

When in doubt, he questions the veracity of a statement in relation to the

evidences presented.
Open-mindedness. A scientist listens to and respects the ideas of others. He
accepts criticism and changes his mind if reliable evidence contrdicts his
believes.
Inventiveness. A scientist can generate new and original ideas.
Risk-taking. A scientist expresses his opinions and tries new ideas even at the
risk of failure or criticism.
Intellectual honesty. A scientist gives a truthful report of observations. He does
not withhold important information just to please himself or others.
Humility. A scientist is humble when he admits that he is not free from commiting
errors. He recognizes that there may be better ideas and realizes that there are
individuals whom he may have to consult to arrive at correct observations and
conclusions.
Responsibility. A scientist actively participates in a task and also dutifully
performs tasks assigned to him.
Being Unbiased. A scientist must be unbiased towards a given doctrine or
practice while finding a truth behind hit.
Analytical capacity. A scientist must possess and force a reader of his theory for
further analysis with full capacity.
Acceptance of failure. A scientist must be honest enough to accept failure of a
particular research and shoud not try to falsify with prejudice any such methods,
data, practice or doctrine, on which he does approach scientifically.
Accuracy. A scientifst must be accurate in his findings and reporting.

Ancient Greek Science

The Ancient Greeks were the first scientists. Greek philosophers tried to explain
what the world is made of and how it works. Empedocles (c. 494-434 BC) said
that the world is made of four elements, earth, fire, water and air. Aristotle (384322 BC) accepted the theory of the four elements. However he also believed that
the Sun, Moon and planets are made of a fifth element and are unchanging.
Aristotle also studied zoology and attempted to classify animals.
Aristotle also believed the body was made up of four humors or liquids
(corresponding to the four elements). They were phlegm, blood, yellow bile and
black bile. If a person had too much of one humor they fell ill.
Although some of their ideas were wrong the Greeks did make some scientific
discoveries. A man named Aristarchros believed the Earth revolved around the
Sun. Unfortunately his theory was not accepted. However Eratosthenes (c.276194 BC) calculated the circumference of the Earth.

The Scientific Revolution of the 16th Century and 17th Century

In the 2nd century AD a man called Ptolemy stated that the Earth is the center of
the universe. The sun and the other planets orbit the Earth. In the 16th century a
Pole called Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) realized this is untrue. The Earth and
the other planets orbit the Sun. However his theory was not published until just
before his death.
Another great astronomer of the 16th century was Tycho Brahe (1546-1601). He
made accurate observations of the positions of stars. However Brahe did not
accept the Copernican theory. Instead he believed that the Sun revolved around
the Earth and the other planets revolved around the Sun.
Moreover in 1572 Brahe saw a new star (a nova). The Greek philosopher Aristotle
said the heavens were unchanging. Change and decay, he said, only happened
on Earth. Obviously Aristotle was wrong.
Tycho Brahe was followed by Johannes Kepler (1571-1630). In the 16th century
people believed that the planets move in circles. Kepler showed they orbit the
Sun in ellipses and they move faster as they approach the Sun. Kepler published
two laws of planetary motion in 1609. He published a third in 1619. Furthermore
in 1604 Kepler published a book on Optics.

One of the most famous early scientists was Galileo. Aristotle said that if two
objects, a heavy one and light one both fall from a height the large one will reach
the ground first. According to legend Galileo tested the theory by dropping two
different weights from the leaning Tower of Pisa. Both hit the ground at the same
time.
However many people now believe this famous experiment is a myth. it never
actually took place. In any case other scholars had already reached the
conclusion that Aristotle was wrong.
Then in 1609 Galileo heard of a new invention from Holland. A man named Hans
Lippershey had invented the telescope. Galileo made his own telescope and soon
improved it.
Using a telescope Galileo was able to see several things invisible to the naked
eye. Firstly he could see many stars not visible without a telescope. Secondly the
ancient Greeks believed that the Moon was smooth. Looking through a telescope
Galileo could see the Moon's surface is actually rough, with mountains and
craters. He also discovered 4 small 'moons' orbiting the planet Jupiter. At the time
these were astonishing discoveries. Until then nobody knew that any of the other
planets, apart from Earth, had 'moons'.
In 1610 Galileo wrote a book called Siderius Nuncius or the Sidereal Messenger.
At that time astronomers were debating sunspots. A German named Christoph
Scheiner claimed that they were satellites of the sun. In 1613 Galileo argued that
sunspots are actually on the surface of the sun.
Copernicus also argued that the earth and the other planets orbit the sun. At first
the church did not have a problem with his theory. However opinion gradually
hardened and in 1616 the Copernican theory was declared heretical.
There is a passage in the Old Testament where a prophet named Joshua
commanded the sun to stand still in the sky (Joshua 10:12-13). Some scholars
said this meant the sun must move. Of course, Joshua knew nothing about
Astronomy. To him the sun appeared to move across the sky. Naturally he would
command the sun to stand still and to him it would have appeared to stand still.
The church's objection to the Copernican theory was based on a misinterpretation
of the Bible.
However Galileo was a resolute supporter of the Copernican theory. In 1632 he

published a book called Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. As a
result he was summoned to Rome to be examined by the inquisition. He arrived
in January 1633. Galileo was threatened with torture unless he renounced the
Copernican theory. Not surprisingly he agreed to do so. Nevertheless he was put
under house arrest for the rest of his life.
In 1634 Galileo published a book about mechanics called Dialogue Concerning
Two New Sciences. Then in 1637 he noticed that the moon moves slightly from
side to side.
At this time doctors made great progress in understanding how the human body
works. In 1628 William Harvey published his discovery of how blood circulates
around the body. The Roman writer Galen said that blood passes from one side of
the heart to the other through the septum. However by 1555 the great surgeon
Vesalius had reached the conclusion that no such holes exist and that blood
cannot pass from one side of the heart to the other in that way.
In 1559 a man named Realdo Colombo demonstrated that blood actually travels
from one side of the heart to the other through the lungs.
Eventually William Harvey realized that the heart is a pump. Each time it
contracts it pumps out blood. Harvey then estimated how much blood was being
pumped each time.
A Roman writer named Galen believed that the body constantly makes new blood
and uses up the old (rather like an engine using up petrol). However Harvey
realized this is not true. Instead the blood circulates around the body.
In the 17th century medicine was helped by the microscope (invented at the end
of the 16th century). In 1658 a man named Jan Swammerdan first observed red
blood corpuscles. In 1661 Marcello Malpighi discovered capilliaries. Then in 1665
Robert Hooke was the first person to describe cells in his book Micrographia.
Meanwhile Britain's oldest scientific society began in 1645 a when group of
philosophers and mathematicians began holding meetings to discuss science or
natural philosophy as it was called. Charles II was interested in science and in
1662 he granted them a charter and they became the Royal Society.
Isaac Newton is Britain's greatest scientist. In 1668, he invented a reflecting
telescope.

Newton published his masterpiece Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica

in 1687. It set out his theory of gravity and his laws of motion. Newton realized
that there is a universal force (gravity) that attracts all objects in the universe to
each other. His theory of gravity explained the movements of the planets. In
1704 Newton also published a book on light called Optics. Newton showed that
white light is made up of several colors.
Meanwhile in 1704 he published another great work about light.
Many other scientists worked in the late 17th century. Christiaan Huygens (16291695) discovered Titan, the moon of Saturn. In 1656 he made the first pendulum
clock, which made accurate measurement of time possible.
A man named Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) made his own microscopes
and through them he made many observations.
Meanwhile in 1661 Robert Boyle (1627-1691) published the Skeptical Chemist,
which laid the foundations of modern chemistry. Boyle rejected the Greek thinker
Aristotle's idea that the world is made up of four elements, water, earth, fire and
air. Boyle is also famous for Boyle's law (The volume of a gas kept at constant
temperature is inversely proportional to its pressure).

Science in the 18th Century

During the 18th century chemistry made great advances. In 1751 a man named
Axel Cronstedt discovered nickel. In 1766 Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) isolated
hydrogen and studied its properties. (He also calculated the density of the Earth).
In 1772 Daniel Rutherford (1749-1819) discovered Nitrogen. Two men, Joseph
Priestly (1733-1804) and Karl Scheele (1742-1786) discovered oxygen. In 1756
Joseph Black (1728-1799) discovered carbon dioxide.
Perhaps the greatest chemist of the 18th century was Antoine Lavoisier (17431794). He discovered that during combustion oxygen combines with substances.
He also discovered the role of oxygen in respiration and corrosion of metals.
Meanwhile during the 18th century people began to realized that the Earth is
very old. A landmark in geology came in 1785 when James Hutton (1726-1797)
published his book Theory of the Earth.

In 1781 the astronomer William Herschel (1738-1822) discovered the planet

Uranus. In 1784 John Goodricke (1764-1786) discovered variable stars. In 1786
Caroline Herschel (1750-1848) became the first woman to discover a comet.
Emilie du Chatelet (1706-1749) was a woman physicist.
Two great biologists of the 18th century were Georges Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
(1707-1788) and Karl Linnaeus (1707-1778). Linnaeus invented a method of
classifying living things.
Meanwhile people began to investigate electricity. In 1746 a man Petrus van
Musschenbroek (1692-1761) invented a way of storing electricity called a leiden
jar. In 1752 Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) proved that lighting is a form of
electricity.
Then in 1800 Allessandro Volta (1745-1827) invented the first chemical battery.
However during the 18th century medicine made slow progress. Doctors still did
not know what caused disease. Some continued to believe in the four humors
(although this theory declined during the 18th century). Other doctors thought
disease was caused by 'miasmas' (odorless gases in the air).

Science in the 19th Century

During the 19th century science made great progress.
In 1803 John Dalton (1766-1844) published his atomic theory. According to the
theory matter is made of tiny, indivisible particles. Dalton also said that atoms of
different elements had different weight. John Dalton also studied colour
blindness.
In 1827 the German chemist Friedrich Wohler (1800-1882) isolated aluminium. In
1828 he produced urea, an organic compound from inorganic chemicals.
A Russian, Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907) formulated the Periodic Table, which
arranged all the known elements according to their atomic weight.
Meanwhile people continued to master electricity. In 1819 a Dane, Hans Christian
Oersted discovered that electric current in a wire caused a nearby compass

needle to move. The Englishman Michael Faraday (1791-1867) invented the

dynamo.
In 1847 the German Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894) formulated the law of
the Conservation of Energy, which states that energy is never lost but just
changes from one form to another. In 1851 he invented the ophthalmoscope.
Meanwhile geology made huge strides. Charles Lyell (1797-1875) saw that rocks
were formed by processes we see today. In 1830 he published his book Principles
of Geology. In 1837 a Swiss, Louis Agassiz (1807-1873) realized that a vast sheet
of ice had once covered northern Europe. Furthermore scientists discovered more
and more fossils and the word Dinosaur was coined in 1842.
Charles Darwin
In 1831 Darwin sailed on the beagle. In February 1832 the Beagle reached Brazil.
Darwin spent three years in different parts of South America collecting
specimens. Then in September 1835 the Beagle sailed to the Galapagos Islands.
Darwin was surprised to learn the local people could tell by looking at a tortoise
which island it came from. Darwin also studied finches. Each island had a
different species of finch. Later Darwin came to the conclusion that all were
descended from a single species of finch. On each island the finches had
diverged and become slightly different.
By 1836 Darwin believed that species of animals could change. In October 1838
Darwin thought of a way in which one species could change into another. He
noticed that individual members of a species vary. Furthermore all animals are
competing with each other to survive. If the environment changed in some way,
say if a new, faster predator appeared then any herbivores that could run slightly
faster then other members of its species would be more likely to survive and
reproduce. Any herbivores that ran slightly slower than most would be more likely
to be eaten. Slowly a new, faster herbivore would evolve. This was later called
the survival of the fittest.
Darwin's monumental work The Origin of Species was published in 1859. It
proved to be a bestseller. However Darwin's book also caused controversy.
In 1866 an Austrian monk named Gregor Mendel discovered the laws of
hereditary by breeding peas.

Furthermore medicine and surgery made great advances in the 19th century.
During the 19th century there were several outbreaks of cholera in Britain. It
struck in 1832, 1848, 1854 and 1866. During the 1854 epidemic John Snow
(1813-1858) showed that cholera was transmitted by water. However doctors
were not certain how.
Later Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) proved that microscopic organisms caused
disease. In the early 19th century many scientists believed in spontaneous
generation i.e. that some living things spontaneously grew from non-living
matter. In a series of experiments between 1857 and 1863 Pasteur proved this
was not so. Once doctors what caused disease they made rapid headway in
finding cures or prevention.
In the late 19th century physics made great strides. In 1873 James Clerk Maxwell
(1831-1879) showed that light is an electromagnetic wave. He also predicted
there were other electromagnetic waves with longer and shorter wavelengths
than light.
Then in 1888 Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894) proved the electromagnetic waves
predicted by Maxwell exist.
In 1896 Henri Becquerel (1852-1908) discovered radioactivity. Then in 1898 Marie
Curie (1867-1934) and Pierre Curie (1859-1906) discovered radium.
Finally at the end of the century scientists began to investigate the atom. In 1897
Joseph Thomson discovered the electron.
In astronomy Giuseppe Piazzi discovered the first asteroid, Ceres in 1801. In 1838
Friedrich Bessel (1784-1846) measured the distance to a star (61 Cygni) for the
first time. The planet Neptune was discovered in 1846.

Science in the 20th Century

During the 20th century science continued to go forward at fantastic speed.
During the 20th century scientists came to understand the atom. In 1910 Ernest
Rutherford (1871-1937) discovered the atomic nucleus. He realized that almost

all the mass of an atom is in the nucleus with electrons orbiting it. In 1932 James
Chadwick (1891-1974) discovered the neutron.
Physics was revolutionized by two men, Max Planck (1858-1947) and Albert
Einstein (1879-1955). In 1900 Planck proposed quantum theory, which states that
energy is exchanged in discrete packets he called quanta. Einstein published his
theory of Special Relativity in 1905 and his General Theory of Relativity in 1915.
In 1927 Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976) published his uncertainty principle,
which states that is impossible to determine the position and speed of a
subatomic particle.
In 1915 Alfred Wegener proposed continental drift. He said that all continents
were once joined and they have drifted apart.
In 1926 Arthur Eddington (1882-1944) suggested that stars are powered by
nuclear fusion. Also in the 1920s Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) showed that our
galaxy is only one of many galaxies. He also proved that the universe is
expanding. In 1930 Clyde Tombaugh discovered Pluto. The first radio telescope
was built in 1937.
Meanwhile medicine was making great advances. In 1928 Alexander Fleming
(1881-1955) discovered penicillin.
Meanwhile genetics was making great strides. In 1953 Francis Crick and James
Watson discovered the double-helix structure of DNA. At the end of the 20th
century genetic engineering became possible.
In astronomy quasars were discovered in 1963 and pulsars were discovered in
1968. The Hubble Space Telescope was launched in 1990. At the end of the 20th
century the first extra solar planets were discovered. At the other end of the
scale scientists discovered many new sub-atomic particles. In 1964 Murray GellMann (1929-) suggested that quarks exist.
The most famous physicist of the late 20th century is Stephen Hawking (1942-).
Hawking is known for his research into black holes, relativity and cosmology.