Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann: The social

construction of reality
Introduction: the problem of the sociology of knowledge
Realityandknowledge

Longhistoryofphilosophicalinquiry.Alsoinsociology>
Sociologyofknowledge:dealingwithhowknowledgeof
realitycomestobesociallyestablishedasreality.
Objectofstudy
Theanalysisofthesocialconstructionofreality.Differsfrom
thetraditionalsociologyofknowledge.
Previously
Explicateinwhatwayandwhy,BergerandLuckmann
deviate.
MaxScheler
Wissensoziologie.Germany1920s.Philosophy.Aimtoclear
awaytheproblemofrelativity.Seepoint1,2and3below.
Generalagreement
Concernedwiththerelationshipbetweenhumanthoughtand
thesocialcontextwithinwhichitarises.
Theproblemofthevertigoofrelativity.
1.Marx
Mansconsciousnessisdeterminedbyhissocialbeing.
Ideologyandfalseconsciousness.
Substructure/superstructure.
2.Nietzscheanideas
Antiidealism.Socialsignificanceofdeceptionandself
deception,andofillusionasanecessaryconditionoflife.The
artofmistrust:seingthroughthefacadesofsocialstructures.
3.Historicism
Esp.Dilthey.Therelativityofallperspectivesonhuman
events,theinevitablehistoricityofhumanthought.
KarlMannheim
Keyconcern:Ideology>nohumanthoughtimmunetothe
ideologizinginfluencesofitssocialcontext.
Relationism (asoppsoedtorelativism):Nocapitulationofthoughtbefore
thesociohistoricalrelativities,butrecognitionthat
knowledgemustalwaysbeknowledgefromacertain
position.
Espacingideology Noteradicatedcompletely,butmitigatedbythesystematic
analysisofasmanypositionsaspossible.Beliefinthe
intelligentsiafreeofclassinterests.
RobertMerton
Seekstointegratesociologyofknowledgewithstructural
functionaltheory.
Traditionalempiricalfocus
Thesphereofideas,oftheoreticalthought.
BergerandLuckmanns
Notconcernedwithsuchepistemologicalandmethodological
project
problems.Ratherthesociologyofknowledgehastoconcern
itselfwitheverythingthatpassesasknowledgeinsociety.
Hencenottheoreticalideas,Weltanshauungen.Whatpeople
knowasrealityintheireverydaylives.Inshortthesocial
constructionofreality.
Influences
Marx,AlfredGehlen,HelmuthPlessner.Durkheim(the
natureofsocialreality);Marxiandialecticaltheoryofsociety;
Weber(theconstitutionofrealitythroughsubjective
meanings),GeorgeHerbertMead(socialpsychological
presuppositions).

I. The foundations of knowledge in everyday life

1.THEREALITYOFEVERYDAYLIFE
Theobjectofsociology
Theempiricalworldasweinterpretandperceivethereality.
Intersubjective
Necessarytoclarifythefoundationsofknowledgein
commonsenseoftheworld
everydaylife.Aswecometoshareanintersubjective
understandingoftheeverydayreality.
>Phenomenologicalanalysis Asadescriptivemethod.Refrainsassuchfromcausaland
genetichypotheses.Uncovervariouslayersofexperiences
andstructuresofmeaning.
Spheresofreality
E.g.dreamworldvs.everydayreality:differentobjects
presentsthemselvestoconsciousness()
Therealityofeverydaylife
Realityparexcellence.Presentsitselfasanobjective,apriori
reality:imposesitselfuponconsciousnessinthemost
massive,urgentandintensemanner.Selfevidentand
compellingfacticity.
Closeness/remoteness
Experiencedaroundthehereofmybodyandthenowof
mypresent.Fromthisclosenesstospatiallyandtemporally
remoteness.Zonesofreality.
Intersubjectiveworld
Sharedwithothers.Sharplydifferentiatedfromotherrealities
(suchasmydreamworld).Ongingcommunicationprocesses
ofmeanings.>Commonsenseknowledge.
Sectorsofeverydaylife
Everydayroutinesandsectorsofinterruptions/problems.
Interruptionsofroutines>therealityofeverydaylifeseeksto
integratetheproblematicsectorintowhatisalready
unproblematic.
Excursionstootherrealities
Theater,dreamworld.Thereturntotheeverydaylifeappears
ascominghomefromexcursions.Backtotherealworld.
Endemicproducersoffiniteprovincesofmeaning
Attentionisturnedawayfromtherealityofeverydaylife.
Spatialstructuration
Hasasocialdimension<mymanipulationzoneintersects
withthatofothers.
Temporalstructuration
Anintrinsicpropertyoftheconsciousness.Temporally
coercive
orderedconsciousness.Temporaldimensionofthe
intersubjectivityofeverydaylife.Myownlifeandmyown
projectshavetobecorrelatedwiththistemporalstructureof
everydaylife.
2.SOCIALINTERACTIONINEVERYDAYLIFE
Facetofacesituations
definitelypriviligedassituationswherepeoplereallycan
learntoknoweachother.Theprototypeofsocial
interaction.Thissubchapterisclearlyofgreatinterestina
discussionofpersonalmediaandsocialinteraction.F2F
encounters>fullaccesstotheotherssymptoms:theother
isfullyreal.
Theotherasmorerealthan
WhatIamisnotsoavailable.Theneedfordeliberate
myself
contemplationuponmyself.MakesmethinkofFoucaults
notebookandobviouslypersonalmediaastoolsfortheself.
Typifactoryschemes
UsedalsoinF2Fencounters.Butmoreflexibleandaptfor
changethaninlessproximateencounters.
Socialstructure
Continuumoftypifications,progressivelymoreanonymousas
theyareremovedfromthehereandnowoftheF2F

situation.Socialstructureasthesumofthesetypifications.
3.LANGUAGEANDKNOWLEDGEINEVERYDAYLIFE
Objectivation
Humanexpressionsobjectified.Therealityofeverydaylifeis
dependentofobjectivations.
Signification
Humanproductionofsigns.Withexplicitintentiontoserveas
anindexofsubjectivemeanings.Availablebeyondthe
expressionofsubjectiveintentionshereandnow.
Detachability
fromimmediateexpressionsofsubjectivity.
Language
asobviouslythemostimportantsignsystem.Languageonly
asfarasvocalexpressionshavebecomecapableof
detachementfromtheimmediatehereandnowof
subjectivestates.Anunderstandingoflanguageisrequiredin
ordertounderstandtherealityofeverydaylife.
Languageasdetached
<1.astechnicallymediated
<2.itscapacitytocommunicatemeaningsthatarenotdirect
expressoinsofsubjectivityhereandnow.Accumulationsof
meaningandexperience.
Materialised
IhearmyselfasIspeak.Mysubjectivemeaningsbecome
speaking/writing
morerealtome.AgainclearlyparallelstoFoucaults
technologiesoftheself.Readymades>objectificationof
myexperiences.Transcendsthehereandnow.
Transcendental
Bridgesdifferentzoneswithintherealityofeveryday
life,integratesintoameaningfulwhole.
Transcendstherealityofeverydaylifealtogether:like
writingdownonesdreams.
Relevantknowledge
Oureverydaylifeconsistsofknowledgethatisrelevanttoour
ownlives,ourownsituations.Aslongaswedofinewiththis,
there,widerknowledgeisirrelevant,unnecessary.However,
leavestheworldbehindourimmediaterelevanceasopaque.
Weneednothavedetailedknowledgeaboutthisworld.
Relevancestructures
Myrelevancestructuresintersectswiththerelevance
structuresofothers>Wehaveinterestingthingstosayto
eachother.

II. Society as objective reality

1.INSTITUTIONALIZATION
Worldopennes:mansrelationsiptohisenvironment.Not
a)Organisnandactivity
predeterminedbybiologicalequipment.
Becominghuman
Acontinousprocess,notcompletedinthemothersbody.
Continuingsociallydeterminedinterference.
Humanbeingsconstructtheirownnature,produce
him/herself.Plasticityofhumannature/organism.Thusthe
selfhastobeunderstoodinrelationtotheencompassing
socialenvironment.
Socialenterprise
Homosapiensisalways,andinthesamemeasure,homo
socius.
Stabilityandsocialorder?
Howcantherebestabilityifthehumanbeingischaracterised
byworldopeneness?
1) Agivensocialorderprecedesanyindividual
organismicdevelopment.
Inwhatorderdoessocialorderitselfarise?

2) Socialorderisanongoinghumanproduction.Social
orderexistsonlyasaproductofhumanactivity.
b)Originsof
institutionalization
Institutionalizationsarise
Controlhumanconduct
AandBexample
Appearsasnatural
Humanlyproduced
objectivity
Dialecticalrelations

Requireslegitimization.
Knowledgeaboutsociety
Theconstructedreality
c)Sedimentationand
tradition
Detachedexperiences

Sedimentationand
institutions
d)Roles

Humanactivityissubjecttohabitualization:frequently
repetatedactions>patterns.Narrowschoices,freesenergyto
concentrateonotherdecisions.Habitualizationprecedes
institutionalization.
Wheneverthereisareciprocaltypificationofhabitalized
actionsbytypesofactors.Sharedtypifications.Institutions
implyhistoricityandcontrol.
Predefinedpatternsofconduct.Channelshumanaction.
Socialcontrolthroughinstitutionalization.
Illustrateshowhabitsevolve.Whenpassedfromgenerations:
instutionsinnucleo.
andobjective.Allinstitutionsappearsasgiven,unalterable
andselfevident.Instutionalworldsareexperiencedas
objectivereality.
Theobjectivityoftheinstitutionalworldishumanly
produced,constructedobjectivity.Objectivation:theprocess
bywhichtheexternalizeedproductsofhumanactivityattain
thecharacterofobjectivity.
Betweenman,theproducer,andthesocialworld,his/her
product.
Externalization
Objectivation
Internalization
Societyisahumanproduct.Societyisanobjectivereality.
Humanisasocialproduct.
Waysbywhichitcanbeexplainedandjustified<Historical
reality:thesamestorymustbetold.Consistentand
comprehensiveformulas.
Realizationinadoublesense:
1) apprehendingtheobjectivatedsocialreality
2) ongoinglyproducingthisreality
Itislearnedasobjectivetruthinthecourseofsocialization
andthusinteralizedassubjectivereality.Thisrealityinturn
haspowertoshapetheindividual.
Asmallpartofhumanexperiencesareretained,andsavedas
recognizableandmemorableentities.Individual
sedimentation.Intersubjectivesedimentation:whenthese
experiencesareshared>commonstockofknowledge.
Sedimentedexperiencesaredetachedfromtheiroriginal
context<Language/objectivelysignsystem.Experiencesare
transmittable.Objectivatesthesharedexperiences,makes
themavailabletoallwithinthelinguisticcommunity(40
yearslater,blogsseemtoberelevantinthisdiscussion).
Sedimentedinstitutionalmeanings.Formulacharacterto
ensuretheirmemorability:Conceivedandcommunicatedas
knowledge.Variousmnemotechnicaids.
Typificationofformsofaction,objectifiedlinguistically:
developedrolevocabularoy.Performersofobjective,
generallyknownactions.Roleswhentypificationoccursin

thecontextofanobjectifiedstockofknowledgecommontoa
collectivityofactors.
Originsofroles
Lieintheprocessofhabitualizationandobjectivation(asthe
originsofinstitutions).Allinstitutionalizedconductinvolves
roles.
Rolesrepresentinstitutional Takesplaceontwolevels:
order
1) Performanceoftherolerepresentsitself:e.g.the
judgingindividualisnotactingonhisownbutasa
judge.
2) Therolerepresentsanentireinstitutionalnexusof
conduct.
Rolesmakesinstitutionsarealpresenceinourexperiences.
Institutionsarefurtherrepresentedbyytheirlinguistic
objectifications.
Rolesandknowledge
Rolesasmediatorsofspecificsectorsofthecommonstockof
knowledge.Impliesasocialdistributionofknowledg:whatis
generallyrelevantandwhatisrelevantonlyforspecificroles.
Thescopeofinstitutionalizationdependsonthegeneralityof
e)Scopeandmodesof
therelevancestructures>Idealtypicalexttremesetoillustrate
institutionalization
variations.
Differentiation
<degreeofdivisionoflabourwithconcomintant
differentiationofinstitution.Specializedknowledge.
<Economicsurplus,makespossibleaspecializationand
segmentationinthecommonstockofknowledge.Theoretical
knowledge.
Relationshipsbetween
Indifferentiatedsocieties.Problemofintegratingmeanings
institutions?
withintheentiresociety>Propagandatoconvinceother.
Subuniversesofmeaning
Ininstitutionallysegmentedsocieties.Resultfrom
accentuationsofrolespecialization:rolespecificknowledge
becomesesotericagainstthecommonstockofknowledge.
Subuniversesmustbecarriedbyaparticularcollectivity.
>Compexity
Subuniversesofmeaning>varietyofperspectivesonthe
toltalsociety.DifferentWeltanschauungen.
Increasinglyinaccessibletooutsiders.
Reificationofsocialreality
Themannerinwhichtheinstitutionalorderisobjectified.The
apprehensionofhumanphenomenaasiftheywerenon
human.ThissortofbearresemblancetoFeenbergsargument
concerningtechnicalcodes.Howwedonotseethehuman
valuestherein.Reificationasanextremestepintheprocessof
objectivation:fixatedasanonhumaninertfacticity.
Typically,therealrelationshipbetweenmanandhisworldis
reversedinconsciousness.
Reificationofsocialroles
Rolesreifiedinthesamemannerasinstitions.Iamjust
doingmyjob.Narrowsthesubjectivedistancethatthe
individualmayestablishbetweenhim/herselfandhis/herrole
playing.
2.LEGITIMATION(derivedfromWeber)
Howwecometoliveinthesameworld?Symbolicuniverses
a)Originsofsymbolic
arelegitimatedandappearasthemostrealworld.
universes
Legitimation
secondorderobjectivationofmeaning.Producesnew
meanings,integratedwithdisparateinstitutionalprocesses.
Integrationontwolevels
(andcorrespondinglythequestionofsubjectiveplausibility):

1. Thetotalityoftheinstitutionalordershouldmake
sensetoparticipantsindifferentinstitutional
processes.
2. Thetotalityoftheindividualslifemustbemade
subjectivelymeaningful.Plausiblesubjective
biographies.
Theproblemoflegitimation

Legitimationswayof
explaining
Analyticallevelsof
legitimation(overlaps
empirically)

Crystallizatioofsymbolic
universes
Universesandbiographies
Nomic/orderingfunction
Nomicfunctionfor
individualexperience
Integration
Orderingbiography
Subjectiveidentity

Ariseswhentheobjectivationsofthe(nowhistoric)
institutiounalorderaretobetransmittedtoanewgeneration.
Whentheunityofhistoryandbiographyisbroken.
Legitimationinordertoexplainandjustify.
Explainstheinstitutionalorderbyascribingcognitivevalidity
toitsobjectivatedmeanings.
Cognitiveaswellasnormativeelement.Knowledgeprecedes
valuesinthislegitimatingprocess.
1. Incipientlegitimation:presentassoonasasystem
oflinguisticobjectificationsofhumanexperienceis
transmitted.
2. Theoreticalpropositionsinarudimentaryform:
ex.explanatoryschemesrelatingsetsofobjective
meanings.Pragmaticschemes,directlyrelatedto
actions.
3. Explicittheories:bywhichaninstitutionalsectoris
legitimatedintermsofdifferenitatedbodyof
knowledge.Framesofreferencefortherespective
sectorsofinstitutionalizedconduct.Begintomove
beyondmerepragmaticapplication>puretheory.
4. Symbolicuniverses:Bodiesoftheoreticaltradition
thatintegrateprovincesofmeaningandencompass
theinstitutionalorderinasymbolictotality.Symbolic
processes(ofsignification):refertorealitiesother
thanthoseofeverydayexperience.Allsectorsofthe
institutionalorderareintegratedinanallembracing
frameofreference.Encompassesallsocially
objectivatedandsubjectivelyrealmeanings.
followsprocessesofobjectivation,sedimentationand
accumulatinofknowledge.Socialproductswithahistory.
Howsymbolicuniversesoperatetolegitimateindividual
biograhyandinstitutionalorder.
providesorderforthesubjectiveapprehensionofhuman
experience.Allexperiencesareincorporatedintoawhole.
Theworldasmoreintelligible(andmeaningful?).
Putseverythinginitsrightplace,andallowsonetoreturnto
reality(whenbeinginmarginalsituations).
fordiscrepantmeaningsactualizedwithineverydaylife.
Symbolicuniverseordersandintegratesallmeanings,roles,
prioritiesbyplacingtheminageneralcontext.
Differentphases,periodization.Madeintelligeble.
Thelegitimatingfunctionofsymbolicuniverses>pertainto
correctnessofindividualidentities.Trueselfasan
ultimatelyrealentity.()legitimationagainintegratesall
conceivabletransformationsofidentitywiththeidentity

Socialsignificanceof
symbolicuniverses

Makescomprehensive
Threat
Humanexistenceas
externalization
b)Conceptualmachineries
ofuniversemaintenance
Legitimationtothesecond
degreesophisticated
Necessarywhen

Universestransmitted
Conceptualmachineries

Conspicuoustypes
1.Mythology
2.Theology

3.and4.Philosophyand
science
Therapy
Nihilation
c)Socialorganizationfor
UniverseMaintainance

whoserealityisgroundedineverydaylifeinsociety.A
hierarchyofselfapprehensionsofidentity.
Paralledtothatofindividualsignificance.
Providethedeliminationofsocialreality:whatis
relevantintermsofsocialinteraction.
Ordershistory
Comprehensiveintegrationofallinstitutionalprocesses.The
entiresocietymakessense.
Continuallythreatenedbythepresenceofrealitiesthatare
meaninglessinitsterms.
Asmanexternalizeshimself,heconstructstheworldinto
whichheexternalizeshimself.Intheprocessof
externalization,heprojectshisownmeaningsintoreality.
Thesymbolicuniverseistheoretical.Still,onelivestypically
naivelywithinasymbolicuniverse.Takenforgranted,not
reflectedupon.
Theorizingaboutthesymbolicuniverse.Suchlegitimizations
describedasmachineriesofuniversemaintainance.
Universemaintainancebecomesnecessarywhenthesymbolic
universehasbecomeaproblem(otherwisesleflegitimating)
<inevitabletensionsoftheprocessesofinstitutionalization.
Allsocialphenomenaaresocialconstructions.Thatis,
symbolicuniversesareincipientlyproblematic.
Fromonegenerationtoanother.But,socializationsarenever
completealwaysidiosyncracies.
Theneedforrepressionofdeviances/againstheretical
challenge.Conceptualmachineriesbothlegitimizesand
modifiessymbolicuniverses.
Hereticalchallengefromwithinsociety
Whenconfrontedwithanothersocietywithavery
differenthistory:demonstratesthatonesown
universeisnotinevitable.
Mythological,theological,philosophical,scientific
Representsthemostarchaicformofuniversemaintainance.
Closesttothenavelevelofsymbolicuniverseandnottoofar
removedfromthelevelofwhatisgenerallyknown.
morecanonicalmythologies.Distinguishedfrommythology
intermsofgreaterdegreeoftheoereticalsystematization.
Furtherremovedfromthenavelevel.Thebodyof
theologicalknowledgeishencefordifficulttoacquire.
Specialistelite(asalsoforphilosophyandscience).
Removedfromthenavelevel.Specialists.Secularizationand
sophisticateduniversemaintainance.
Toensurethatactualorpotentialdeviantsstaywithinthe
institutionalizeddefinitionsofreality.Appropriatespecialists.
Internalizationofaconceptualmachinery.
Deniestherealityofphenomenaandinterpretationsthatdo
notfitwiththeconcurrentsymbolicuniverse.Assigningan
inferiorontologicalstatustodeviantdefinitions.
Sociallyconstructeduniverseschange<productofhuman
activity.Definitionsarealwaysembodied:individuals/groups
serveasdefinersofreality.Thequestionissayswho?

Specializationofknowledge

<thedivisionoflabour.Morecomplexformsofknowledge
emerge+economicsurplus:expertssociety
Consequences
1. theemergenceofpuretheory
2. strenghteningoftraditionalismintheinstitutionalized
actions thus legitimated. > Inertia: resistance to
change.Limitingtheflexibilityofhumanactions.
Occassionsforsocial
between experts and practitioners: may lead to
conflict
emergence of rival definitos of reality, and the
appearanceofnewexperts.
Between rival groups of experts. Problematic when
theoriesdonothavepragmaticapplications.Cannot
reallybetested.
Power
Includesthepowertodeterminethepowertoproducereality:
determine decisive socialization. Highly abstracted
symbolizationsarevalidatedbysocialratherthanempirical
support.Itispossibletosaythatinthismannerapseudo
pragmatismisreintroduced.
Competition
between rival definitions of reality are constant. Often
connected to different spheres/social groups. Theory is
demostratedtobepragmaticallysuperiorbyitsapplicability
tothesocialinterestsinthegroupthatisitscarrier.Pseudo
pragmatism.
Universalexperts
Withaneffectivemonopolyoverallultimatedefinitionsof
society.Singlesymbolictradtion.Primitvesocieties.Unified
powerstructure.Liquidatingstrategiestodealwithdeviances:
physicallydestroyed;integratedwithinthetraditionitself;or
segregated within the society and made harmless. Ex.
MedievalChristendom.
Monopolisticsituations
Presuppose a high degree of socialstructural stability.
Moreoverfunctionsstructurallystabilizing.
Ideology
Whenaparticulardefinitionofrealitybecomesattachedtoa
concretepowerinterest.Mustbemodifiedtosuitthespecific
interests and values it must now legitimiate. A process of
selectionandaddition.Ex.Constantinesinvolvementinthe
Christologialcontroversies.
Mostsocietiesarepluralistic Shared core universe and different partial universes
coexisting.
Presupposes an urban society, highly develoed division of labour,
differentiation of social structure, high economic surplus.
Thuscomplexsocieties.
Pluralismandchange
Pluralismaccelerateschange.Helpstounderminethechange
resistant efficacy of traditional definitions of reality.
Encouragesbothscepticismandinnovation.
Subsystem
Intellectuals.Deviants.Lackoftheoreticalintegrationwithin
thesocialuniverseofsociety.Counterexpert.Subuniverses,
subsocieties.Counterdefinitionscountersocieties.
Dialecticalprocesses
Betweentheories/ideasandtheirsustainingsocialprocesses.

III. Society as subjective reality

1.INTERNALIZATIONOFREALITY
Thedialecticsofsociety
ongoing dialectic process: moments of externalization,

Inductedintoparticipation
Socialization
a)Primarysocialization
Significantother

Learningandemotion
Dialecticprocess

Generalizedother

Objective/subjective

Language
Firstworld

Endofprimarysocialization
b)Secondarysocialization
Divisionoflabour
Rolespecific

Legitimatingapparatus
Primaryaandsecondary
socialization

objectivation, internalization. but not in a temporal

sequence. () to be in society is to participate in its
dialectic.
Beginningpoint:internalization.Takingovertheworldin
whichothersalreadylive.
Thecomprehensiveandconsistentinductionofanindividual
intotheobjectiveworldofasocietyorasectorofit.Primary
andsecondarysocialization.
Firstchildhoodsocialization.Becomingamemberofsociety.
Every individual is born into an objective social structure.
Encountering the significant others, in charge of the
socialization>constitutesthespecificobjectivesocialworld.
Significantothersmediatesaworld,butalsomodifiesit.
Identification with significant others in emotional ways.
internalizationoccurs onlyas idenitificationoccurs. Take
onrolesandattitudesofsignificantothers.
between identification by others and selfindentification.
Between objectively assigned and subjectively appropriated
identity. Subjective appropriation of identity/subjective
appropriation of social world two aspects of the same
process of internalizing, mediated by the same significant
others.
Abstraction of roles and attitudes identification with a
generalityofothers,i.e.withasociety.
Selfidentificationattainstabilityandcontinuity,andidentity
ingeneral.
Symmetrical relationship between objective and subjective
reality, but not a complete relationship. Never a total
internalizationoftheobjectivesocialworld, andsubjective
biographyneverfullysocial.
various motivational and interpretative schemes are
interalizedasinstitutionallydefined.
Constructed with primary socialization. Stabil world < the
inevitability of the individuals relationship to his/her first
significant others. Objective social world appears as
massivelyandindubitablyreal.
When the concept of the generalized other has been
establihsedinconsciousness.
The internalization of institutional or institutionbased
subworlds.
>extentofsecondarysocialization.Increaseswithincreasing
complexity.
Knowledge
Requirerolespecificvocabularies:internalizationoff
semanticfieldsstructuringroutineinterpretations.
Required.
> subjective identification with the role and appropriate
norms.
Secondarysocializationalwayspresupposesprimarys.Must
deal with already formed self and internalizaed world.
Problemofconsistency>presupposesconceptualprocedures
tointegratedifferentbodiesofknowledge.

Biologicallimitations
Instututionalcontext

c)Maintencanceand
transformationof
subjectivereality
Twotypesofmaintenance
1.Routinemaintainance
Significantothersandless
importantothers
Identity

Dialecticalrelation
Conversation

Language
(Personalmedia)

Plausibilitystructures

2.Crisissituation
Subjectrealitytransformed
Alternations:extremecases
oftransformations
Notexnihilo
Plausibilitystructure
Conversationalapparatus

Thefoundationalstructureofspecificknowledge.Theorder
oflearningthings.
Usuallyapprehendedwithinsecondarysocialization.School
systemwithteachersperforminginstitutionalfunctionariesof
transmittingknowledge.Possibletodetachpartoftheselfand
itsrealityasrelevantonlyforthespecificrolesituations.
>tosafeguardameasureofsymmetrybetweenobjectiveand
subjective reality. Threats to the takenforgranted reality.
E.g.marginalsituationsthatdonotfitwiththisworld(dreams
again).Challengingdefinitionsofreality.
Routinemaintanance
Crisismaintainance
The reality of everyday life continuosly reaffirmed in the
individualsinteractionwithothers.
Bothentailimportantpartsoftheindividualseverydaylife.
Maintained thorugh interaction with both types. The New
YorkTimesexamplereassuresusweliveintherealworld.
Ongoingconfimationfromespeciallyoursignificantothers.
Butalsothemoregenerealothers.
(Personalmedia,perhapsespeciallyhotornotsitescomesto
mind,thesepopularityofthesemediacanclearlyinpartbe
explainedwithaBergerandLuckmannperspective).
Between significant others and the less important others.
Involvethetotalittyoftheindividualssocialsituation.
The most important vehicle of realitymaintainance. The
conversationalapparatusbothmaintainsandmodifiesreality.
Forinstancewithdoubtsconcerningreality:onethentalks
onesefl into these doubts; they are objectified as reality
withinonesownconsciousness.
Thusrealizesaworld:linguisticobjectification
(clearly occupies in part these functions. Berger and
Luckmann also mentions the use of correspondence as
possible vehicles to continue especially important
conversations.)
Requiredforthemaintainanceofsubjectivereality:specific
socialbaseandsocialprocesses.Hotornotastechniqueof
realitymaintainance? Modern conversation technologies.
Berger and Luckmann claim technically mediated
conversationsaregreatlyinferiortof2fconversations.
Procedurs essentially as with routine maintainance. But
realityconfirmations have to be explicit and intensive.
Frequentlyalsoritualtechniques.
Ongoing process of modification of subjective reality.
Differentdegreesofmodifications.
Appeartotal.
Processofresocialization.
The realitybase is the present: everything will have to be
explainedfromthebeliefsinthepresent.
Mustcopewiththeprecedingnomicstructureofsubjective
reality.Hastoincludebotsocialandconceptualconditions.
Mustbeinternalised,displacingallotherworlds.
arealsoreorganized.

10

Legitimatingapparatus

Most important conceptual requirement. For the whole

sequenceoftransformation.Notonlythenewreality,butthe
stagesbywhichitisappropriatedandmaintained.
Reinterpretations
The past and persons of the past need to be reinterpreted.
Cannotdissapearbutmustbecomprehendedinanewway.
Intermediatetypes
F.ex.socialmobilityandoccupationaltraining.
Face the problem of maintaing consistency between the
earlierandlaterelementsofsubjectivereality.
Tinkeringthepast
Butinalessradicalmanner.Usuallyacontinuingassociation
withpersonsandgroupsofthepast.
2.INTERNALIZATIONANDSOCIALSTRUCTURE
Macrosociologicalcontext
Always the background for microsociological analysis of
internalizationprocesses.
Sociostructuralaspects
Ofsuccessfulandunsuccessfulsocialization.
Successfulsocialization
Highsymmetrybetweenobjectiveandsubjectivereality(and
identity). Graduations on a continuum. Extreme poles are
unavailable. Maximal success likely in societies with very
simple division of labour and minimal distribution of
knowledge.
Counterrealities
Based on unsuccessful socialization. Counterdefinitions of
reality and identity < as soon as unsuccessfuly socialized
individuals congregate in socially duarble groups. Counter
realityobjectivatedinthemarginalgroupofunsuccessfully
socialized.Theleperexample.Unsuccessfulsocializationinto
oneworld,butsuccessfulsocializationintoanotherworld.
1.Heterogenityinthe
> unsuccessful socialization. More complex distribution of
socializingpersonnel
knowledge: different significant others mediating different
objectiverealities.Verydubiousexampleofhowpeoplemay
besocializedgays.
>Therapeuticmechanisms.
2.Mediationofdiscrepant
During primary socialization > unsuccessful socialization.
worldsbysignificantothers
Complex distribution of knowledge. A little hard to
differentiatefromtheexampleabove.Butdifferenceseemsto
bethatthisisactuallydiscrepantworlds(notjustsomewhat
differentobjectiverealitiesversionsofthesameworld).The
childparents/nurseexample.>thepossibilityofahidden
identity:assymetrybetweenpublicandprivateidentity.
Possibilityofindividualism
Individualchoicebetweendiscrepantrealitiesandidentities:
directlylinkedtothepossibilityofunsuccessfulsocialization.
the potential to migrate between a number of available
worldsandwhohasdeliberatelyandawarelyconstructeeda
selfoutofthematerialprovidedbyanumberofidentities.
(171).
3.Discrepanciesbetween
In secondary socialization, alternative realities and identies
primaryandsecondary
appearassubjectiveoptions.Subjectivelychosenidentityasa
socialization
fantasy identity, objectified within the individuals
consciousnessashis/herrealself
Differentwaysofidentifying In sec. soc. internalization need not be accompanied by
affectively charged identificaton with significant others.
Internalizingrealitieswithoutidentification.
Realityandidentity
Butmustbeunderstoodrelatedtosociostructuralcontext<
pluralism
necessary relationship between social division of labour

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(concequencesforsocialstructure)andthesocialdistribution
of knowledge (consequences for the social objectivation of
reality).
3.THEORIESABOUTIDENTITY
Identity/society
Dialectic relationship. Identity formed by social processes,
that again are in part formed by social structures. Identity
maintained,modified,changedbysocialrelations.
Dialecticprocess
I.e.Identitysocialrelationsgobothways.
Identitytypes
Basedonspecifichistoricalsocialstructures.Recognizablein
individualcases.Socialproductstoutcourt,stableelementsof
objectivesocialreality.
Psychologies
Theoriesaboutidentityassocialphenomenon.Necessaryto
recognizetherealitydefinitionsthataretakenforgrantedin
thesocialsituationoftheindividual.
Psychology/subjective
Anotherdialecticrelationshipbetweenpsychologicaltheory
reality
and those elements of subjective reality that it purports to
define and explain. Psychologically defined cases may be
internalizedasrealitiesthroughsocializatinbytheindividual.
Constituents of both objective and subjective reality in
relevant contexts. Internatlization/identification: psychology
pertains to identity. the imprint of societal identity types
upontheindividualsubjectiverealtiyofordinarypeoplewith
commonsense.
Changesinpsychological
Whenidentityappearsasaproblem.Forinstancecausedby
theorie
radical changes in the social structurs. > Changes in the
psychologicalreality.
4.ORGANISMANDIDENTITY
Humansanimality
Transformedinsocialization,butneverabolished.Dialectic
betweennatureandsociety.
Dialectic
Externally:betweenindividualanimalandsocialworld
Internally:betweentheindividualsbiologicalsubstratumand
hissociallyproducedidentity.
Inthedialecticbetweennatureandthesociallyconstructed
world,thehumanorganismitselfistransformed.Inthissame
dialecticmanproducesrealityandtherebyproduceshimself
(183).

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