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Cite this: RSC Advances, 2012, 2, 93259358
REVIEW
www.rsc.org/advances
Introduction
According to the classic definition, nanomaterials are those
materials whose key physical characteristics are dictated by the
a
b
Boris I. Kharisov
H. V. Rasika Dias
Oxana V. Kharissova
Composition
Fe
Description
The preparation of nanoparticles consisting of pure iron is a complicated task, because they always contain oxides,
carbides and other impurities.
BCC-Fe (a-Fe)
a-Fe nanoparticles with a body-centered cubic (BCC) lattice can be prepared by (a) grinding a high-purity (99.999%) Fe
powder, (b) evaporation of the metal in an Ar or He atmosphere followed by deposition on a substrate, (c) laser
vaporization of pure iron.
FCC-Fe (c-Fe)
In the phase diagram of a bulk Fe sample, this phase exists at the ambient pressure in the temperature range of 1183
1663 K, i.e., above the Curie point (1096 K). In some special alloys, this phase, which exhibits antiferromagnetic properties
(the Neel temperature is in the 4067 K range), was observed at room temperature. These nanoparticles, in several syntheses,
can contain substantial amounts of carbon (up to 14 mass%). c-Fe nanoparticles, synthesized by treatment of Fe(CO)5 with a
CO2 laser radiation, may contain, for example, c-Fe (30 atom%), a-Fe (25 atom%) and iron oxides (45 atom%).
Amorphous
Synthesis by: (a) the ultrasonic treatment of Fe(CO)5 in the gas phase or of a solution of Fe(CO)5 in decane under an inert
Fe (metallic glass) atmosphere; (b) thermal decomposition of Fe(CO)5 in decalin (460 K) in the presence of surfactants.
Among several crystalline modifications of Fe2O3, there are two magnetic phases, namely, rhombohedral a-Fe2O3 (hematite)
Fe2O3
and cubic c-Fe2O3 (maghemite) phases. The a-Fe2O3 and FeOOH (goethite) nanoparticles are obtained by controlled
hydrolysis of Fe3+ salts. The c-Fe2O3 nanoparticles are obtained by (a) mild oxidation (on treatment with Me3NO) of
pre-formed metallic nanoparticles, (b) by direct introduction of Fe(CO)5 into a heated solution of Me3NO, (c) thermal
decomposition of Fe3+ salts in various media, (d) vaporization of iron(III) oxide in a solar furnace with subsequent
condensation, (e) mechanochemical synthesis milling iron powder in a planetary mill with water.
Fe3O4 (magnetite) The cubic spinel Fe3O4 is ferrimagnetic at temperatures below 858 K. The route to these particles most often involves
treatment of a solution of a mixture of iron salts (Fe2+ and Fe3+) with a base under an inert atmosphere.
In some cases, thermal decomposition of compounds containing Fe3+ ions under oxygen-deficient conditions is
accompanied by partial reduction of Fe3+ to Fe2+. Fe3O4 nanoparticles can be also prepared by thermal decomposition
of Fe2(C2O4)3?5H2O or by the controlled reduction of ultradispersed a-Fe2O3 in a hydrogen stream.
FeO (wustite)
Cubic Fe2+ oxide is antiferromagnetic (Tc = 185 K) in the bulk state. Synthesis technique: joint milling of Fe and Fe2O3
powders taken in a definite ratio gives nanoparticles consisting of FeO and Fe. On heating of these particles at temperatures
of 250-400 uC, the metastable FeO phase disproportionates to Fe3O4 and Fe, while above 550 uC it is again converted into
nanocrystalline FeO.
a-FeOOH
The orthorhombic a-FeOOH (goethite) is antiferromagnetic in the bulk state and has Tc = 393 K, b-FeOOH (akagenite) is
paramagnetic at 300 K, c-FeOOH (lipidocrokite) is paramagnetic at 300 K and d-FeOOH (ferroxyhite) is ferrimagnetic. As a
(goethite)
rule, a-FeOOH is present in iron nanoparticles as an admixture phase.
Iron carbide is often present in Fe-containing nanoparticles. It is formed either upon decomposition of organic ligands present
FexCy
in the starting MCC or upon the reaction of Fe with the organic medium. Thermal decomposition of Fe(CO)5 on a carbon
support forms Fe78C22 nanoparticles.
Ferrofluids
Ferrofluids or so-called magnetic liquids are suspensions of colloid magnetic particles stabilized by surfactants in liquid media.
The magnetic phase in ferrofluids can be represented by magnetite, ferrites (group of nonmetallic, ceramic like, usually
ferromagnetic compounds of ferric oxide with other oxides) and FexCy particles resulting from the thermal decomposition
of Fe(CO)5.
FeCo alloys
The saturation magnetization of FeCo alloys reaches a maximum at a Co content of 35 atom%. Fe, Co and FeCo (20, 40,
60, 80 atom%) nanoparticles with a structure similar to the corresponding bulk phases can be prepared in a stream of hydrogen
plasma.
FeNi
Bulk samples of ironnickel alloys are either nonmagnetic or are magnetically soft ferromagnets (for example, permalloys
containing .30% of Ni and various doping additives).
FePt
FePt nanoparticles can be prepared by joint thermolysis of Fe(CO)5 and Pt(acac)2 in the presence of oleic acid and oleylamine.
The reaction of FePt nanoparticles with Fe3O4 followed by heating of the samples at 650 uC in an Ar + 5% H2 stream resulted
in a FePtFe3Pt nanocomposite with unusual magnetic characteristics.
(1)
(2)
The above equations are the classical electrochemical/corrosion reactions by which iron is oxidized from exposure to oxygen
and water. The corrosion reactions can be accelerated or
inhibited by manipulating the solution chemistry and/or solid
(metal) composition.
NZVI particles range from 10 to 100 nm in diameter.13 They
exhibit a typical coreshell structure. The core consists primarily
of zerovalent or metallic iron whereas the mixed valent [i.e.,
Fe(II) and Fe(III)] oxide shell is formed as a result of oxidation of
the metallic iron (Fig. 1). The presence of excess stabilizers was
shown to stabilize the core/shell nanoparticles from further
oxidation.14 Various organic molecules can be used for
functionalization of NZVI to improve the stability of their
aqueous dispersions (strong inhibition of the agglomeration of
the iron nanoparticles), for instance PEG, methoxyethoxyethoxyacetic acid (MEEA), polyacrylic acid and 1,4-butanediphosphonic acid (Fig. 2) have been used for this purpose.15
This journal is The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012
Among iron oxides (SPIONs), magnetite (Fe3O4) and maghemite (c-Fe2O3) are of a particular interest. Magnetite is an
inverse spinel ferrite. The oxygen ions form a close-packed cubic
lattice with the iron ions located at two different interstices
between them, tetrahedral (A) sites and octahedral (B) sites.
Chemically, magnetite/maghemite can be represented by the
formula: Fe3+ [Fe2+12yFe3+12yFe3+1.67y%0.33y]O4, where y = 0
for pure magnetite and y = 1 for pure maghemite (fully oxidized
magnetite). In the temperature range from room to Curie
temperature (Tc = 860 K) the A sites are populated by Fe3+ ions
and the B sites are populated equally by Fe3+ and Fe2+ ions.
That way, twice as many sites are populated with Fe3+ than with
Fe2+ ions. Although a simple dehydration of lepidocrocite
(c-FeOOH) topotactically transforms into c-Fe2O3, commercial
manufacturing of maghemite follows the multistep process (3):
(a and/or c)-FeOOH (oxidation) A a-Fe2O3 (reduction) A
Fe3O4 (controlled oxidation) A c-Fe2O3
(3)
SPIONs typically consist of two components, an iron oxide
core of one or more magnetic crystallites embedded in a coating.
The SPIONs core can be composed of magnetite (Fe3O4) and/or
maghemite (c-Fe2O3). The size of SPIONs makes important
contribution to their fate in organism. Categories of SPIONs,
based on their overall diameter (including iron oxide core and
hydrated coating), are noted in the literature as oral or micronsized SPIONs between 300 nm and 3.5 mm; standard or small
SPIONs (SSPIONs) at approximately 60150 nm; ultrasmall
SPIONs (USPIONs) of approximately 1050 nm; and monocrystalline iron oxide nanoparticles (MIONa subset of
USPIONs) of approximately 1030 nm. MION are so named
to underline the single crystal nature of their core. This is in
contrast to SPIONs greater than 50 nm that are comprised of
multiple iron oxide crystals.16 SPIONs have much larger
magnetic susceptibilities (compared with strictly paramagnetic
materials) as the entire crystal aligns with the applied field due to
its single crystal nature. Hence SPIONs are useful as contrast
agents or for hyperthermic treatment of malignant tumors.17
Magnetic nanoparticles offer advantages over non-magnetic
nanoparticles because they can easily be separated from water
9328 | RSC Adv., 2012, 2, 93259358
Fig. 3 Reaction strategy showing the successive steps for gold covering
process onto 4 : 1 amino : mercapto functionalized cobalt ferrite Nps.
Reproduced with permission from Elsevier Science.
Table 2 Physical, chemical and biological methods for preparation of iron-containing nanoparticles148150
Method
Physical methods
Condensation methods
Nanodispersion of
a compact material
Description
Examples of products
Heterometallic nanoparticles
(y30 nm) with the composition
FeM (M = Ni, Mn, Pt, Cr).
Aerosol/vapor methods
Combustion synthesis
Chemical precipitation
Coprecipitation
Precipitation by
anhydrous solution
Biomimetic
mineralization
Synthesis in
reverse micelles
c-Fe2O3 nanoparticles.
(continued)
Microemulsion
technique
Surfactant mediated/
template synthesis
Synthesis of magnetic
nanoparticles at a
gasliquid interface
UV-irradiation
Hydrothermal
technique
Flow injection
Electrochemical
methods
Biosynthesis
The key method for the preparation of powders of magnetic hexagonal ferrites
with a grain size of more than 1 mm includes heating of a mixture of the
starting compounds at temperature above 1000 uC (so-called ceramic method).
(1) Decomposition of metalloorganic compounds, in particular by ultrasound
in magnetic fields.
(2) The standard way of synthesis of nanothreads and nanowires composed
of anisotropic Fe and Co nanoparticles includes the electrolysis of solutions
of the metal salts at an aluminium cathode, which is pre-coated by an Al2O3
layer containing channels with a diameter of 1835 nm and a depth of up to
500 nm. During the electrolysis, these channels are filled by the reduced metal.
After completion of the process, the matrix is dissolved in a mixture of acids
to separate the nanoparticles.
3) Electric arc decomposition of Fe(CO)5 resulted in thread-like (10 to 100 nm
in diameter) compounds also consisting of a-Fe and Fe3C nanoparticles.
Examples of products
Heterometallic nanoparticles, Fe48Pt52 and
Fe70Pt30, from Pt(acac)2 and Fe(CO)5.
FeCo nanoparticles from cobalt ferrite
CoFe2O4 nanoparticles or (g5-C5H5)
CoFe2(CO)9.
MnFe2O4 (40 nm), MgFe2O4 (618 nm),
Co0.2Zn0.8Fe2O4 (245 nm), BaFe1222xSnx
ZnxO19 (45 nm), SrFe12O19 (3080 nm).
Fe nanoparticles from Fe(CO)5 as a
precursor.
Chemisorption of
small molecules
on a nanoparticle
surface
nanoparticles.
Fe(CO)5 A Fe + 5CO
(6)
nH2C=C(H)Ph + Fe A Fe(CH2CH(Ph))n
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(CH3)2?CHOH + H? A (CH3)2?COH + H2
(12)
(13)
Fig. 7 General protocol used to prepare in situ iron oxide coated gold nanorods. Reproduced with permission from ACS (Journal of Electron
Microscopy; jmicro.oxfordjournals.org).
(15)
System
NZVI
Ion/substance to
be eliminated
Cr(VI)
NZVI (size
30400 nm)
NZVI
Heavy metals
(Cd, Cr, Hg)
Cd(II)
NZVI
Chlorinated organic
contaminants (e.g.,
solvents, pesticides)
and inorganic anions
or metals.
Orange 6
NZVI (10 mm
particles)
NZVI
NZVI
Pyrene
NZVI
Lindane (classified by
the United States
Environment Protection
Agency as a potent
carcinogen and teratogen).
Malodorous sulfides
NZVI
Xanthan
Arsenite [As(III)]
NZVI
Chlorinated ethenes
NZVI
Hexahydro-1,3,
5-trinitro-1,3,
5-triazine (RDX)
NZVI
NZVI, Fe/Ni
or Fe3O4
Uranium ions.
NZVI
Description
Ref.
0.10 g L21 NZVI completely reduces Cr(VI) within 120 min following pseudo-first order
kinetics. NZVI showed significant Cr(VI) reduction at field also, indicating it an effective
tool for managing sites contaminated with Cr(VI).
Reduction of heavy metals in the heavy metal-polluted soil into lower valent fixed heavy
metals.
The adsorption of Cd2+ on NZVI increased significantly with increasing pH. Zn2+, Co2+
and Mg2+ are potential inhibitors to Cd2+ adsorption by NZVI.
Use of NZVI for remediation of a series of substances.
219
222
223
NZVI particles were found to be more efficient in removing pyrene than commercially
available microscale ZVI (MZVI, ,10 mm) particles.
Lindane (10 m/g) completely disappeared from spiked soil within 24 h at nZVI
concentration of 1.6 g L21, indicating its possible use in environmental cleanup.
224
NZVI has high capacity for the removal and sequestration of malodorous sulfides
such as hydrogen sulfide and dimethyl disulfide. The coreshell structure of iron
nanoparticles plays a key role during the reactions. Both iron in the core and
FeOOH in the shell provide rich surface sites for the sorption of sulfides, while
the surface associated sulfide can further react with hydrogen sulfide and evolve
to iron polysulfide.
The rheological properties of NZVI-xanthan suspensions were extensively tested
under two different flow conditions (simple shear flow and flow through a porous
medium), showing a shear thinning behavior that is dependent on iron concentration.
NZVI demonstrated very rapid adsorption and large capacity for the removal of
As(III). The maximum As(III) adsorption capacity in batch experiments calculated
by Langmuir adsorption isotherm was 76.3 mg L21 of As(III)/g of NZVI.
The concentration of chlorinated ethenes decreased by 3050%. The oxidizing iron
reduces chlorinated hydrocarbons and forms non-chlorinated hydrocarbons. Organic
matter in water is thus reduced and treated water is safe for living organisms without
health danger.
RDX is a common contaminant of soil and water at military facilities. Its degradation
with NZVI nanoparticles in water in the presence or absence of a stabilizer additive
such as CM-cellulose (CMC) or poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) was studied, showing that
the degraded RDX to the corresponding nitroso derivatives prior to completed
decomposition.
More than 95% of 1.8 mM TCE was removed within 20 h with a NZVI dosage of
25 g L21 (k = 0.15 h21). TCE degradation reactions were not substantially affected by
the presence of each anion with concentrations as high as 100 times the average field
concentrations. However, when four anions (NO32, Cl2, SO422, HCO32) were present
simultaneously, the degradation reactivity was decreased by 60% (k = 0.069 h21).
The Fe nanoparticles removed 98% of the total uranium from solution, resulting in a
final U-concentration of ,4 mg L21. In all the systems, uranium was reduced to U(IV)
and retained on the surfaces of the nanoparticulate solids for up to 48 h; the U-stability
was not affected by annealing the Fe or the FeNi nanoparticles before use.
The degradation efficiency of vinyl chloride (VC) detected at most of monitoring
wells was 5099%.
226
220
221
225
227
228
229
230
231
232, 233
234
Cu(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) to nanohematite in single- and binaryadsorbate systems were investigated.174 It was indicated that the
presence of a secondary metal can affect the sorption process
depending upon the molar ratios, such as increased or reduced
adsorption. Also, Pb and Cu adsorption to nanohematite is an
endothermic, and a physical adsorption process; however, it is
only spontaneous at higher temperatures.
Remediation of inorganic anions
The elimination of nitrates175 and arsenic-containing anions is
the main application of the NZVI in respect to inorganic matter;
a host of reports are dedicated to this area. Thus, the NZVI in
RSC Adv., 2012, 2, 93259358 | 9339
System
Ion/substance to be eliminated
Fe0/M nanoparticles and their composites with supports
Pd/Fe and Fe (NZVI
Water disinfection byproducts;
and MZVI
trihalomethanes (THMs) including
(microscale ZVI))
chloroform, bromoform,
dichlorobromomethane,
dibromomethane and
dibromochloromethane
Pd/Fe
Pentachlorophenol (PCP)
FePd nanoparticle
suspensions in water
the presence of various
stabilizers (i.e., CMcellulose (CMC),
polyvinylpyrrolidone
(PVP) and guar gum).
NZVI, bimetallic
nanoparticles (NZVI/Pd),
and NZVI/Pd impregnated
activated carbon
(NZVI/Pd-AC)
composite particles
Trichloroethylene
c-HCH
(c-hexachlorocyclohexane)
FexNi12x nanostructures
(0 , x , 1.0)
1,1,1,2-Tetrachloroethane
Na CM-cellulose
(CMC)-stabilized
Pd/Fe nanoparticles
2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic
acid (2,4-D),
2-chlorophenoxyacetic
acid (2-CPA)
Fecarbon composites
FeC nanocomposites,
in particular Fe NPs
on the external surface
of carbon microspheres
(synthesis see Fig. 10)
Polybrominated
di-Ph ethers
(PBDEs) and/or
polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs).
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
Description
Ref.
235
236
238
237
239
240
241
242244
Table 5
(continued)
Carbon-coated Fe
nanoparticles
Cr(VI)
Poly(acrylic acid)/poly
(vinyl alcohol)/multiwalled
carbon nanotube
(MWCNT) composite
NZVI/CTMABent composite
(CTMA-Bent =
organobentonite)
Atrazine
NZVI supported
on montmorillonite
(Mont) and hexadecyl
trimethylammonium
modified
montmorillonite
(HDTMA-Mont)
Cr(VI)
NZVI-kaolinite
composite (K-NZVI)
Pb2+
ZVI/TiO2 nanocomposite
(+UV light)
Fe0silica composites
Fe0 nanoparticles
(20110 nm diameter)
supported on silica
fume (SFFe0)
Nanoscale zerovalent
iron entrapped in
porous silica particles.
Cr(VI)
Trichloroethylene
(TCE).
245
247
246
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
Ion/substance to
be eliminated
Description
Ref.
Disinfection byproduct
precursors (in particular,
ozonation byproducts:
aldehydes, ketones and
ketoacids)
255, 256
258
Nitrates
259
FeOOH
Iron (oxyhydr)oxide
nanocrystallines
As(III) and
heavy metals
260
a-FeOOH
Fluorides
Arsenic (arsenate
and arsenite) and
metals (V, Cr, Co,
Mn, Se, Mo, Cd,
Pb, Sb, Tl, Th, U)
Tc(VII) and Cr(VI)
257
261
Fig. 9 (a) TEM images of iron nanoparticles, (b) HR-XPS survey on the Ni 2p3/2 of iron nanoparticles and (c) a conceptual model for nickel
deposition on iron nanoparticles.170
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
Fig. 12 (a) SEM images of cyanobacteria before treatment, (b) unused NZVI particles, (c) highly deformed cells after brief exposure to NZVI, and (d)
completely destroyed cells surrounded by ferric oxide aggregates. Reproduced with permission.
and Ag+ ion. For instance, silver (10 nm) nanoparticles inlaid
Fe3O4-SiO2 magnetic composite (Fe3O4SiO2Ag) was synthesized and its potential application as an antibacterial material in
water disinfection was investigated.275 The minimum inhibitory
concentrations of Fe3O4SiO2Ag magnetic composite to E-coli
and Staphylococcus aureus were 15.625 and 31.25 mg L21,
respectively, and the minimum bactericidal concentrations were
250 and 500 mg L21, respectively. This disinfectant in normal
saline solution could kill 99.9% of the tested bacteria within
60 min. In addition, the effects of silver(I) and iron(III) doping
contents on photocatalytic performance of the titania thin film
were studied.276 Ag and Fe doping and co-doping contents on
nanotitania photocatalytic bactericidal films were prepared by
solgel method, thus combining three active antibacterial species
(Ag, Fe and TiO2). The photocatalytic activity of titania films
was evaluated by the sterilizing rate of the E. coli. For
fluorescent light irradiation, optimal doping amounts for
silver(I)/titania and iron(III)/titania are 0.05, 0.1%, respectively.
More complex FeAg containing systems (a nano-Nd/Fe/B pipe
containing ZnO and Ag2O) are also known.277
Metal oxides, zeolites and such classic objects of nanotechnology as carbon nanotubes have been applied as supports for iron
oxides. Among metal oxide nanoparticles, zinc oxide demonstrates significant bacterial growth inhibition on a broad
spectrum of bacteria, mainly by catalysis of reactive oxygen
species formation from water and oxygen. Zinc oxide was
combined278 with iron oxide to produce magnetic composite
nanoparticles with improved colloidal aqueous stability, together
with adequate antibacterial activity. The Zn/Fe oxide composite
nanoparticles (containing iron oxide, zinc oxide and zinc ferrite
phases) were synthesized by basic hydrolysis of Fe2+ and Zn2+
ions in aqueous continuous phase containing gelatin. Their
Fig. 13 Schematic of reactive nanostructured stacked membrane system. (A) Setup of stacked membrane system consisting of two membranes of
different functionality operated via convective flow. (B) Pore of top membrane with layer-by-layer polycation/polyanion assembly containing
electrostatically immobilized GOx for the conversion of reactants A + B A C. (C) Pore of bottom membrane consisting of pH-responsive PAA gel with
immobilized iron species in collapsed state. (D) Pore of bottom membrane after exposure to increased pH causing gel to swell; reactive iron species
catalyzes conversion of C A D. Reproduced with permission.
contaminant, such as trichlorophenol, with glucose in oxygensaturated water through the membrane stack, significant
contaminant degradation was realized. According to the authors,
other applications including disinfection and/or virus inactivation are possible.
(b) the cells are able to degrade the wires and to transform them
into smaller aggregates, even in short time periods (days). The in
vitro cytotoxicity of 100 nm iron oxide particles (Fe2O3) was
evaluated in the human embryonic kidney cell line HEK293.311
Cell viability assays demonstrated that 100 mg mL21 Fe2O3
exhibited 20% reduction in HEK293 cell viability in 24 h.
Comparing the results with those for other targets, at both the
cellular and molecular levels, the toxicity was observed in the
following order: ZnO . Fe2O3-NPs . MCM-41.
Combination of microinjection techniques and Raman spectroscopy was used to investigate the effects of Ag and Fe3O4
nanoparticles on Hela cells.312 The nanoparticles were microinjected inside the cells and these latter ones were probed by
means of Raman spectroscopy after a short incubation time, in
order to highlight the first and impulsive mechanisms developed
by the cells to counteract the presence of the nanoparticles. A
different behavior of the cells treated with nanoparticles in
comparison with the control cells was observed. These differences were supposed to be generated by an emerging oxidative
stress due to the nanoparticles. c-Fe2O3 can cause cell death
within 24 h of exposure, most likely through oxidative stress.313
In vivo exploration suggested that although c-Fe2O3 nanoparticles are rapidly cleared through the urine, they can lead to
toxicity in the liver, kidneys and lungs, while the brain and heart
remain unaffected. c-Fe2O3 could exhibit harmful properties and
therefore surface coating, cellular targeting, and local exposure
should be considered before developing clinical applications.
Acute toxicity tests were selected according to their extensive use
in toxicological studies of iron oxide nanoparticles and included
phytotoxicity using several seeds, Daphnia magna and a
bioluminescent test (Microtox), revealing low toxicity.314 The
toxic effects of inhalation exposure to Fe2O3 nanoparticles
(together with ZnO) in rats were investigated.315 Iron content in
liver and lung tissues was significantly increased at 36 h. The
levels of serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate
aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), total
protein (TP), creatine kinase (CK), and lactate dehydrogenase
(LDH) were significantly decreased compared to the unexposed
controls. It was shown that both types of nanoparticles caused
severe damage in liver and lung tissues.
Zeta potential measurements, common in nanotoxicology,
were applied to Fe2O3, among other oxides in respect of to
acquaint the effects of pH and time on nanoparticle zeta
potential, agglomerate size and cellular viability.316 Fe2O3
increased in zeta potential and agglomerate size over time.
Cytotoxicity studies revealed that Fe2O3 caused decreasing
cellular viability over 48 h. It was indicated that alterations in
the pH have a large effect on zeta potential and agglomerate size
which may be used as a predictive measure of nanotoxicity.
Cytotoxicity of SPIONs (bare and poly(ethylene glycol)-cofumarate (PEGF)-coated SPION with narrow size distributions)
and their ability to change cell medium components was
investigated317 in respect with Dulbeccos modified Eagles
medium (DMEM) and primary mouse fibroblast (L929) cell
lines. The potential toxic effects of iron(II,III) oxide nanoparticles
were studied.318 While in vitro MTT assay showed a moderate
cytotoxic effect, the Fe(II,III) nanoparticles proved to be devoid
of mutagenic effect in the bacterial systems tested. In addition,
This journal is The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012
Conclusions
Currently, the use of the NZVI, iron oxides and other Fecontained nanomaterials for remediation of both organic and
inorganic pollutants from groundwater and contaminated soils
could be considered as a relatively hot topic in the nanotechnology. During the last decade, a series of distinct methods
have been offered to synthesize these nanostructures as by
traditional wet chemistry routes and more sophisticated
modern techniques as well as greener methods using plant
extracts. Due to relatively low toxicity of iron-containing
nanoparticles, it has been allowed to apply them in free and
supported forms to reach a considerable decontamination of
the environment.
Evaluation of toxicity of the Fe-containing nanomaterials
remains an object of permanent research and polemics. Since real
long-time effects of the presence of iron-containing nanoparticles
in rivers, groundwater, lakes and oceans are still unknown, the
idea to introduce iron-containing nanoparticles into oceans,322 in
order to stimulate growth of phytoplankton and better adsorption of CO2, was further rejected.
The research field, dedicated to coreshell iron (iron oxide)/
gold nanoparticles, is of a special interest due to possibility to be
controlled by magnetic fields (iron core) and functionalization
(gold shell). These air-stable Nps are protected from the
oxidation and retain most of the favorable magnetic properties,
which possess the potential for applications in drug delivery,
high density memory devices by forming self-assembling
nanoarrays, and a series of other applications.
Acknowledgements
BIK is grateful to the Paicyt-UANL-2012 project for financial
support.
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