Asian Jr. of Microbiol. Biotech. Env. Sc. Vol. 14, No.

(2) : 2012 : 167-174

Global Science Publications
ISSN-0972-3005

FORMULATION OF WATER-BASED DRILLING FLUID USING

LOCAL MATERIALS
FRANCIS D. UDOH* AND ANIETIE N. OKON
Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, University of Uyo,
Uyo Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria
(Received 30 December 2011; Accepted 20 January 2012)
Key words : Ewet-Offot clay, Beneficiation, Bentonite, Rheological properties, Nigeria
Abstract - In a quest to provide a substitute for foreign bentonite as a drilling fluid in the oil and gas
industry in Nigeria, local clay was obtained from Ewet-Offot, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Water-based
mud was formulated from the clay after its properties were determined and compared with those of
bentonite, the clay of choice for drilling operations. The results obtained show that there was a
significant difference in the formulated drilling fluids rheological properties and the pH values when
compared to those of bentonite. This is as a result of low concentration of sodium cations (Na++) which
hinders its swelling tendency as well as clay -water attraction. When beneficiated with soda ash
(Na2CO3 ) and sweet potato starch at a concentration of 5.0g and 50g respectively to 350mL of the local
mud, the muds pH value increased by 70% from an initial value of 5.65 to 9.60 while the apparent
viscosity, yield point and plastic viscosity increased by 229%, 200% and 250% respectively. With the
addition of barite (BaSO4 ) content of 10g to 350mL of the formulated drilling fluid, the clay density
improved by 7% from an initial value of 8.60lb/gal to 9.20lb/gal. Therefore, at considerable
concentration, the Ewet-Offot clay exhibits good rheological properties that would compare favourably
with those of bentonite when beneficiated with soda ash (Na2 CO3) and sweet potato starch. Meaning,
a possible drilling fluid could be formulated from Ewet-Offot clay.

INTRODUCTION
The exploration for hydrocarbon in the Niger Delta
region dates back to the early 1950s when the first
oil (hydrocarbon) reserve was discovered at
Oloibiri in the present day Bayelsa State in 1956
(Etu-Efeotor, 1997). Drilling is the process of
creating a passage for the discovered hydrocarbon
to be produced at the surface. It involves the
penetration of the earths crust to several thousand
feet where the hydrocarbons are accumulated in
the reservoir using rotary drilling process. So far,
from the era of cable tool rig to the use of rotary
drilling rigs, a lot of technological advancement
has been put forth on how best drilling operations
can be carried out in the best economical and
environmental way possible. Drilling fluids are
heterogeneous mixture of chemical, water or oil
and clay materials that aid drilling operations.
They are vital in successful well drilling as they

have common properties that facilitate safe and

satisfactory completion of the well such as bottomhole cleaning, controlling high pressure zones and
removal of cuttings to the surface. The importance
of drilling fluid, otherwise known as drilling mud
cannot be over emphasized as the knowledge of
drilling fluid is a requisite in the rotary drilling
operation in the petroleum industry.
Odumugbo (2005) maintains that drilling
companies operating on the shores of the Niger
Delta import bulk drilling fluid materials to carry
out their respective operations. This has been a
great burden and major concern to the industry
since some of these drilling fluid materials cannot
be recycled (Oyeneyin, 1998). Secondly, the foreign
exchange involved and the high cost of drilling fluid
materials also constitute a problem for the
petroleum industry. The effectiveness of the drilling
fluid to perform its primary functions is based on
its properties, which are formulated continuously

*Corresponding author - Francis Udoh, E-mail : fdudoh@yahoo.com

UDOH AND OKON

168

to meet the formation conditions encountered

during drilling operations. Failure of the drilling
fluid to meet its designed function can prove
extremely costly in terms of materials and time,
may jeopardize the successful completion of the
well and even result in major problems such as
stuck pipe, kicks or blowouts (Rabia, 2000). In other
words, since drilling fluid is an integral part of the
drilling process, many of the problems encountered
during the drilling of a well can be directly or
indirectly attributed to the drilling fluids.
Therefore, these fluids must be carefully selected
and/or formulated to fulfill their role in the drilling
process. It is a well-known fact that clay material
and other additives are added to water or oil
(mostly diesel oil) to make them suitable as a
drilling fluid. The present consumption of bentonite
in the drilling operations in Nigeria is put at over
50 thousand tons a year and all of it is imported
from USA (Odumugbo, 2005). This trend is expected
to continue as drilling activity increases in the
shores of Niger Delta. To this end, the establishment
of Nigerian Local Content Initiative in the Oil and
Gas Sector by the Federal Government of Nigeria
has necessitated the need for local substitutes to
foreign drilling fluid materials. Thus, it is
imperative to source for locally available drilling
fluid materials and evaluate their various
characteristics, then formulate fluids that can be
used in drilling process. The purpose of this paper
is to formulate drilling fluid with local clay
obtained from a deposit at Ewet-Offot in Akwa
Ibom State, Nigeria.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sample Preparation
The clay obtained from Ewet Offot deposit was
dried and crushed into very small size after which
it was dissolved in water to form slurry. The slurry
was sieved to obtain fine particles of the clay which
passed through as filtrate while sand and organic
matters were deposited as residue. The filtrate was
allowed to settle for about 3-5hours, and then
decanted to obtain a clay mud. The clay mud was
dried for about 4days under sun light to obtain
clay cakes, which were disaggregated and sieved to
125 microns to obtain fine clay powder.
Sweet potato was peeled, washed and ground
into small size. The ground sweet potato was
washed with water and filtered. The filtrate was

allowed to settle for about 6 - 8hours. This was

decanted and a sweet potato starch was obtained.
The starch was dried under sun light for about
5days and crushed into powdery form where it
was sieved to 45 and 63microns. Starch in its raw
form is not water soluble. Thus, the sweet potato
starch powder was heated (pregelatination) to a
temperature between 70 oC 80 oC to break the
polysaccharide (i.e., amylope and amylopectin)
which hinders its solubility in water.
Mud Preparation
The American Petroleum Institute (API) standard
of 25g of non-treated bentonite per 350ml of water
was used in the preparation of bentonite and EwetOffot mud samples. The prepared mud samples
were kept for 24hours to age and its properties
such as density, rheological properties, pH value
and sand content were determined and the result
is presented in Table 1.
Measurement Procedure
Density: The mud balance was standardized using
distill water. The balance cup was cleaned, dried
and filled to the brim with the mud sample to be
measured. The lid was placed on the cup as some
mud flowed out of the hole on the lid to ensure that
there was no trapped air in the cup. The cup and lid
were wiped to dry off any mud on the surface in
order to obtain accurate measurement as the knife
edge was placed on the fulcrum and the rider
adjusted until the cup content and the rider were at
equilibrium (balance). Later, the density of the mud
sample was read on the calibrated arm of the mud
balance.
pH Value: The pH meter was standardized using
deionized water and the mud sample to be
measured was poured into a glass beaker. The pH
Table 1. Properties of Bentonite and Ewet-Offot Mud
Properties

Bentonite

Clay

Density, lb/gal
Specific gravity
pH value
Sand content, %
Apparent viscosity, cP
Plastic viscosity, cP
Yield Point, lb/100ft2
Gel Strength (10sec), lb/100ft2
Gel Strength (10min), lb/100ft2

8.80
1.06
10.60
0.30
12.00
7.00
10.00
4.00
8.00

8.60
1.03
5.65
0.45
3.50
2.00
3.00
1.00
2.00

169

Formulation of Water-based Drilling Fluid Using Local Materials

meter probe was immersed in the mud sample and
at steady pH value indicated on the meter. This
was recorded as the pH value of the mud sample.
Rheological Properties: The rotational viscometer
provides a more meaningful measurement of the
rheological characteristics of the drilling mud
compared to marsh funnel (Bourgoyne, et al., 1986).
The mud sample was poured into the viscometer
cup to the scribed mark and placed on the stand of
the viscometer as it was lifted to immerse the
rotating sleeve. With rotor speed at 600, 300, 200,
100, 6 and 3 revolutions per minute (rpm), their
respective dial readings were obtained at steady
values and recorded. The dial readings obtained as
well as rotor speed values were respectively
converted to shear stress and shear rate values
using the equations below:
Shear stress () = 1.06*0.4788*()
(1)
Where:
()= Dial reading
1.06 = Geometry factor of the viscometer
0.4788 = Conversion factor from lb/100ft2 to Pascal
Shear rate () = 1.703*(RPM)

(2)

Where:
RPM = Viscometer (Rotor) speed

1.703 = Factor derived from the sleeve and

bob geometry of the viscometer
Sand Content: The sand content in the mud
samples were estimated by wet screen analysis
using 200-mesh (74microns) screen. The glass
measure tube was filled with mud sample to be
measured to the mud line as water was added to
the next scribed mark. The thumb was placed over
the tube mouth and shaken vigorously. The
mixture was poured on a clean screen and more
water was added to the tube and shaken. Again,
the mixture was poured on screen. The liquid that
passed through the screen was discarded. Slowly
the screen assembly was inverted and the tip of the
funnel inserted in the glass tube. The sand on the
screen was washed back into the tube with wash
water. Sand was allowed to settle in the tube and
the volume was taken and recorded as volume
percent sand content of the mud sample.
Clay Mud Beneficiation
Beneficiation is a process where chemicals are
added to low-quality clay to improve its
performance. The Ewet-Offot mud was beneficiated
with barite (BaSO4), sweet potato starch as well as
soda ash (Na 2CO3) to improve the mud density,
rheological properties and pH values respectively.
Five samples of the mud were prepared with 25g of

Table 2. Effect of Barite Content on Ewet-Offot Mud

Clay mud

Sample A

Sample B

Sample C

Sample D

Sample E

Barite content (g)

Density (lb/gal)

2.00
8.70

4.00
8.80

6.00
8.95

8.00
9.10

10.00
9.20

Table 3. Effect of Potato Starch on Ewet-Offot Mud

Clay mud

Sample A

Sample B

Sample C

Sample D

Sample E

Starch content (g)

Apparent viscosity (cP)
Plastic viscosity (cP)
Yield point (lb/100ft2)

10.00
4.50
3.00
3.00

20.00
5.50
3.00
4.00

30.00
7.00
4.00
5.00

40.00
8.50
5.00
7.00

50.00
10.50
6.00
9.00

Table 4. Effect of Soda ash (Na2CO3) and Potato Starch on Ewet-Offot Mud
Clay mud

Sample A

Sample B

Sample C

Sample D

Sample E

Soda ash, Na2 CO3 (g)

Starch content (g)
pH Value
Apparent viscosity (cP)
Plastic viscosity (cP)
Yield point (lb/100ft2)

2.00
10.00
7.30
5.50
3.00
5.00

3.00
20.00
8.07
6.50
3.00
7.00

4.00
30.00
8.82
8.00
5.00
7.00

4.50
40.00
9.20
9.50
6.00
7.00

5.00
50.00
9.60
11.50
7.00
9.00

UDOH AND OKON

170

clay per 350mL of distilled water. About 10g, 20g,

30g, 40g and 50g of sweet potato starch were added
to the five samples labeled A through E
respectively. The rheological properties of the
samples were determined and recorded (Table 3).
About 2g, 4g, 6g, 8g and 10g of barite were also
added to the mud samples. The density of the
various samples was measured and the result is
presented in Table 2. Finally, soda ash with
concentrations of 2g, 3g, 4g, 4.5g and 5g were added
to the respective mud samples and the pH values
and rheological properties of the samples were
determined and recorded (Table 4).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A comparison of Ewet-Offot clay properties
otherwise referred to as local clay in this paper
with bentonite is presented in Table 1. The
significant differences in their rheological
properties such as plastic viscosity, yield point and
apparent viscosity as well as pH value necessitate
the beneficiation of the local clay. Figure 1 explicitly
presents the difference in their rheological
properties using shear rate versus shear stress plot.
The relationship between shear rate and shear
stress for a fluid defines how that fluid flows
(Skalle, 2010). The disparity in the shear stress
versus shear rate plot between the local clay and
bentonite is greatly attributed to the relative
concentration of sodium cations (Na ++ ), as it
absence hinders the swelling tendency of the clay.
For this reason, the swelling tendency of the
bentonite is far higher than that of the local clay
which explains its low shear stress compared to
bentonite. The shear stress is a direct function of the
muds rheological property which increases as the
swelling tendency of the clay increases. Shear stress
is the force required to sustain the shear rate as
shear rate is the rate at which one layer of a fluid is
moving past the next layer.
In order too improve the performance of the
local clay rheology, sweet potato starch was added
as a viscosifier. The result presented in Table 3
shows that the formulated drilling fluids
rheological properties increased significantly with
increase in the starch content. Thus, the apparent
viscosity, yield point and plastic viscosity
increased from 4.5cP, 3.0lb/100ft 2 and 3.0cP to
10.5cP, 9.0lb/100ft 2 and 6.0cP (about 200%)
respectively. A comparison of the local clay
rheological properties with those of bentonite

(Table 1) indicates that the local clay improved

favourably with the addition of sweet potato
starch. This significant improvement in local clay
rheology with sweet potato starch can be explored
commercially as the availability of sweet potato is
abundant in Nigeria.
One of the factors affecting the tendency of ion
exchange in clay is the relative concentration of
sodium cations (Al-Homadhi, 2007). The
introduction of soda ash (Na2CO3) improved the
properties of the local clay as some of the sodium
cations (Na ++ ) occupied the surface area and
increased the swelling tendency of the clay. Thus,
the higher sodium ion concentration increased the
attraction of clay and water (Falode et al., 2006). The
addition of soda ash (Na2CO3) to the local clay mud
increased the formulated drilling fluids pH value as
well as the rheological properties (Table 4). As
shown in Table 4, the local clay mud pH value
increased from an initial value of 5.56 to 9.60 (70%)
at a concentration of 5.0g of soda ash (Na2CO 3) to
350mL of the local clay mud. This increase in pH
value created an alkaline medium in the local clay
mud that enhanced the solubility of the potato
starch (viscosifier) which resulted in increase in the
rheological properties of the local clay mud. A
comparison of the effect of soda ash (Na2CO3) and
sweet potato starch (Table 4) and sweet potato
starch (Table 3) on the local clay mud indicates
that the apparent viscosity and plastic viscosity of
the clay mud increased by 10% and 17%
respectively. From Table 4, it is evidenced that the
apparent viscosity, yield point and plastic
viscosity of the local clay mud increased
drastically by about 229%, 200% and 250%
respectively at a concentration of 5.0g soda ash
(Na2CO3) and 50g sweet potato starch (Sample E).
Figures 2 and 3 present the effect of soda ash
(Na2CO3) on the local clay muds pH value and the
apparent viscosity respectively. Apparently, these
figures indicate that an increase in the soda ash
(Na2CO3) content resulted in an increase in the pH
value as well as the apparent viscosity of the local
clay mud. The increase in the local clay mud pH
value and apparent viscosity is as a result of
increase in the sodium cations (Na++) content of the
clay following the addition of soda ash (Na2CO3), as
the clay attraction by water and swelling tendency
increased significantly. Figure 4 depicts the effect of
addition of soda ash (Na2CO3) and sweet potato
starch on the local clay mud. From the shear stress
versus shear rate (rheological model) of the local

Formulation of Water-based Drilling Fluid Using Local Materials

171

Fig. 1 Comparison of Bentonites Shear Stress/Shear Rate with Ewet-Offot Mud

Fig. 2 Effect of Soda Ash (Na2 CO3) on Ewet-Offot Mud pH-values

clay mud at different concentrations of soda ash

(Na2CO3) and sweet potato starch (Figure 4), it can
be seen that the formulated drilling fluid would
compare favourably with bentonite, the clay of
choice in drilling operations. This improved
rheological model (Sample E) of the formulated mud
is attributed to the alkaline medium created by the
soda ash (Na2CO3) as the ions exchange capacity of
the local clay is increased significantly. The charged
surface of the local clay attracts more water
molecules (dipoles) onto its layers as the viscosifier
(sweet potato starch) becomes soluble in the clay
mud sample. This increases the flocculation of

particles in the local clay which results in high

viscosity as well as swelling tendency of the clay
mud. These further explain the rheological models
of local clay (Samples A through D). Apparently,
their disparity is due to the fact that the relative
concentration of sodium cations (Na++) in the clay
mud is less and depends on the soda ash (Na2CO3)
content. Therefore, the clay only attracts a
substantial amount of water molecules onto its
charged surface which results in low swelling
tendency. Thus, as the soda ash (Na2CO3) and sweet
potato starch contents increase in the local clay,
their ion exchange capacity and swelling tendency

172

UDOH AND OKON

Fig. 3 Effect of Soda Ash (Na2CO3) on Ewet-Offot Mud Apparent Viscosity

Fig. 4 Comparison of Bentonites Shear Stress/Shear Rate with Ewet-Offot Mud Samples

Fig. 5 Effect of Barite (BaSO4) on Ewet-Offot Mud Density

Formulation of Water-based Drilling Fluid Using Local Materials

as well as attraction with water increases in
proportion to this content. This effect is presented
in the rheological model (Figure 4) of the local clay
mud samples as the regime improves to match
bentonites rheological model. Worthy of mention is
the fact that controlling the formation pressure
during drilling operation with drilling fluid is a
direct function of the mud density. Table 2 and
Figure 5 present the effect of addition of barite
(BaSO 4) on the local clay density. The results
obtained show that the local clay density was
increased from an initial value of 8.60lb/gal to
9.20lb/gal at barite (BaSO4) content of 10g to 350mL
of the local clay mud. This development implies
that barite (BaSO 4 ) can be used as weighting
material in the formulation of drilling fluid using
the Ewet-Offot local clay.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The Ewet-Offot clay at its natural concentration
lacks the required rheological properties to be used
as oil well drilling fluid. However, when
beneficiated with soda ash (Na2CO3), sweet potato
starch and barite (BaSO4) there was a significant
improvement in the drilling mud which was
formulated from the Ewet-Offot clay. From the
results obtained, it was observed that the EwetOffot clays rheological properties when
beneficiated with sweet potato starch increased
drastically as the apparent viscosity, yield point
and plastic viscosity of the clay mud increased by
more than 200%. Also, the addition of a 5.0g soda
ash (Na2CO3) content and 50g sweet potato starch
to 350mL of the formulated drilling fluid resulted in
a dramatic increase in the apparent viscosity, pH
value and plastic viscosity of the formulated fluid
by about 229%, 70% and 250% respectively. With
the addition of 10g barite (BaSO4) content to 350mL
local clay mud, the formulated muds density
increased by about 7%. In this connection, it can be
concluded that, at considerable concentration, the
Ewet-Offot clay exhibits good rheological
properties that would compare favourably with
those of bentonite when beneficiated with soda ash
(Na2CO3) and sweet potato starch.
It is recommended that further research be
carried out on the Ewet-Offot clay to determine its
filtrate loss at different thermodynamic conditions
as well as evaluate local additives for filtration
control to improve the performance of this clay in
order to make it competitive. Additionally, it is a

173

well known fact that particle size plays a very

important role in formulating high performance
drilling fluid and needs to be closely matched to
geological formation for optimal well performance.
Therefore, careful determination of the optimum
particle size of the mud during fluid formulation is
essential as very small particles may themselves
penetrate the surrounding rock formation, thereby
blocking pores and causing irreversible damage to
the production zone. It is in this connection that
further research is needed in order to better
understand how to tailor the particle size of mud
constituents to achieve the required performance of
a specific rock formation.
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