GIS

Introduction

Most of the time man is Interested to know what is happening in his environment.
For example:
i. Urban planner, might want to find out about the urban fringe growth in her/his
city and quantify the population growth that some suburbs are witnessing.
ii. A biologist might be interested in the impact of slash and burn prcatices on
the population of amphibian species in rural areas
iii. A geological engineer might want to identify the best localities for constructing
the building in an area with regular earthquakes by looking at rock formations.
iv. A geoinformatics Engineer hired by a tele-communication company may want
to determine the best sites for the company transmission stations.

All the above professional will work with data that relates to space ,
typically involving positional data.
Positional data determines where things are or perhaps where they
were or will be.
More precisely these professionals deal with questions related
to geographical space.

An introduction to GIS
What is GIS ? Can be
The common ground between information processing and the many
fields using spatial analysis techniques. (Tomlinson, 1972)
A powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving, transforming,
and displaying spatial data from the real world. (Burroughs, 1986)
A computerised database management system for the capture, storage,
retrieval, analysis and display of spatial (locationally defined) data.
(NCGIA, 1987)
A decision support system involving the integration of spatially
referenced data in a problem solving environment. (Cowen, 1988)

An introduction to GIS
What is GIS ? Common definition
A Geographic Information System is a computer-based information system
that enables capture, storage, retrieval at will, sharing, manipulation,
transforming and presentation of spatially referenced data from the real
world for a particular set of purposes.

keywords of this definition ?

Collecting GIS data:
Classical field survey, GPS; scanning analogue maps, aerial and satellite imagery;
manually digitizing analogue maps; using digital data sources like CAD data

GIS data storage:

Concerned with the way in which data about the location, linkages and
attributes of the features represented are organized in the computer
Transforming GIS data:
Involves removing errors from the data, updating the data and
performing analysis of the data
Displaying/Presentation:
Concerned with ways in which data is displayed and how the results of the
analysis are reported to users. This could be done through maps, tables,
graphs, charts, webmaps etc.
Collecting GIS
data

GIS data
storage

GIS data
transformation

Presenting GIS
data

 GIS makes it possible to integrate different kinds of geographic

information, such as digital maps, aerial photographs, satellite images and
global positioning system data (GPS), along with associated tabular
database information (e.g., attributes' or characteristics about
geographic features).
Using GIS, you can incorporate all of this information into a single system
and execute common database operations. For example, GIS allows you
to perform statistical analysis or spatial queries, to explore what-if'
scenarios, and to create predictive models. For example, GIS can help
answer questions such as:

What exists at a given location?

Where does something occur?
What has changed since a specific point in time?
What spatial patterns exist?
What happens if?

Geographic Information Technologies;

Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
a system of earth-orbiting satellites which can provide precise
(100 meter to sub-cm.) location on the earths surface (in
lat/long coordinates or equiv.)
Remote Sensing (RS)
use of satellites or aircraft to capture information about
the earths surface
Digital ortho images a key product (map accurate digital photos)
Geographic Information Systems (GISy)
Software systems with capability for input, storage,
manipulation/analysis and output/display of geographic (spatial)
information

How GIS differs from Related Systems

DBMS--typical data base contains implicit but not explicit locational information
city, county, zip code, etc. but no geographical coordinates
is 100 N. High around the corner or across town from 200 E Main?
automated mapping (AM) --primarily two-dimensional display devices
thematic mapping (choropleth,etc such as SAS/GRAPH, DIDS, business mapping
software) unable to relate different geographical layers (e.g zip codes and
counties)
automated cartography--graphical design oriented; limited database ability
facility management (FM) systems- lack spatial analysis tools

CAD/CAM (computer aided design/drafting)--primarily 3-D graphic creation

(engineering design) & display systems

dont reference via geographic location

CAD sees the world as a 3-D cube, GIS as a 3-D sphere

limited (if any) database ability (especially for non-spatial data)

scientific visualization systems--sophisticated multi-dimensional graphics, but:
lack database support
lack two-dimensional spatial analysis tools

Why study GIS ?

80% of local government activities estimated to be geographically based

a significant portion of state government has a geographical component

businesses use GIS for a very wide array of applications

plats, zoning, public works (streets, water supply, sewers), garbage collection, land
ownership and valuation, public safety (fire and police)

natural resource management

highways and transportation

retail site selection & customer analysis

logistics: vehicle tracking & routing
natural resource exploration (petroleum, etc.)
precision agriculture
civil engineering and construction

Military and defense

scientific research employs GIS

Battlefield management
Satellite imagery interpretation

geography, geology, botany

anthropology, sociology, economics, political science
Epidemiology, criminology

The major areas of GIS application?

Local Government
Public works/infrastructure management (roads, water, sewer)
Planning and environmental management
property records and appraisal

Real Estate and Marketing

Retail site selection, site evaluation

Public safety and defense

Crime analysis, fire prevention, emergency management, military/defense

Natural resource exploration/extraction

Petroleum, minerals, quarrying

Transportation
Airline route planning, transportation planning/modeling

Public health and epidemiology

The Geospatial Industry
Data development, application development, programming

Examples of Applied GIS?

Urban Planning, Management & Policy

Zoning, subdivision planning

Land acquisition
Economic development
Code enforcement
Housing renovation programs
Emergency response
Crime analysis
Tax assessment

Environmental Sciences
Monitoring environmental risk
Modeling stormwater runoff
Management of watersheds, floodplains,
wetlands, forests, aquifers
Environmental Impact Analysis
Hazardous or toxic facility siting
Groundwater modeling and
contamination tracking

Political Science
Redistricting
Analysis of election results
Predictive modeling

Civil Engineering/Utility
Locating underground facilities
Designing alignment for freeways, transit
Coordination of infrastructure maintenance

Business
Demographic Analysis
Market Penetration/ Share Analysis
Site Selection

Education Administration
Attendance Area Maintenance
Enrollment Projections
School Bus Routing

Real Estate
Neighborhood land prices
Traffic Impact Analysis
Determination of Highest and Best Use

Health Care
Epidemiology
Needs Analysis
Service Inventory

COMPONENTS OF A GIS?

An operational GIS also has a series of components

that combine to make the system work.
These components are critical to a successful GIS.

COMPONENTS OF A GIS?
1. Hardware and peripherals

Hardware is the computer system on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS software runs on a wide
range of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in
stand-alone or networked configurations.
These are the devices that the user interacts with directly in carrying out GIS operations, by typing,
pointing, clicking and which returns information by displaying it on the devices screen or
generating meaningful sounds.
They are inclusive of an office desktop, laptops, personal digital assistants (PDAs), in-vehicle
devices and even cellular (mobile) phones.
Other peripheral devices that are used in the input and output of the GIS query results
include scanners, digitizers, for input, and plotters and printers for the output.

2. Software
GIS softwares provides the functions and tools needed to input, storage, analysis, and
display geographic information.
Key software components are:
Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information
A database management system (DBMS)
Tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization
A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools.

COMPONENTS OF A GIS?
2. Software

GIS software available include simple to complex packages available from GIS
vendors, to free customizable ones that are freely available in the Internet.
A spectrum of products that may be described as GIS software includes (among others):
Highly specialized, sector specific packages: e.g. civil engineering design and
costing systems; satellite image processing systems; and utility infrastructure
management systems

Transportation and logistics management systems

Civil and military control room systems
Land registration systems
Census data management systems.

Some examples of available software are ArcGIS, from Environmental Systems

Research Institute (ESRI), GeoMedia from Intergraph, MapInfo from MapInfo among
many others.
Open source software include: GRASS, QGIS, UDIG etc
Current GIS software trends are focused on two aspects:
Internet mapping that allows integration of web GIS functions in any application.
Cloud computing -Users are now able to carry out GIS data query and analysis on remote geospatial
databases, using their web browser and software that is downloaded on demand using the cloud
computing aspect.

COMPONENTS OF A GIS?
2. Software

Classification of GIS softwares;

1. Professional GIS

Refers to fully featured software that has the capabilities of collection and editing GIS data,
database administration, advanced geoprocessing and analysis, and other specialist tools

Examples of professional GIS include ESRI ArcInfo and SmallworldGIS

Prices for professional GIS are typically in the range of US$8,000-US$20,000 per user (have discount
for multiple users)
2. Desktop GIS

Has limited editing database administration as compared to professional gis.

Have excellent tools for making maps, reports, and charts.

Most of the desktop GIS software have all adopted the Microsoft standards for interoperability and
user interface.

Examples include Autodesk World, ESRI ArcView, Intergraph GeoMedia, and MapInfo
Professional, Quantum GIS

Desk top GIS software prices range from $1000-$2000.

3. Hand-held GIS

Hand-held GIS are lightweight systems designed for mobile and field use

Have capabilities similar to hand held computers, supporting many display, query, and simple
analytical applications, even on displays of 320 X 240 pixels.

Examples: Autodesk OnSite, ESRI ArcPad, Smallworld Scout

Costs are around $500.

COMPONENTS OF A GIS?
2. Software

Classification of GIS softwares;

4. Component GIS

These are basically tool kits of GIS functions (components) that a reasonably knowledgeable programmer
can use to build a full GIS software system.

These type of components can be used to create highly customised and optimized applications that
can either be stand alone or can be embedded within other software systems.

Examples include ESRI MapObjects, MapInfo MapX, and Blue Mable Geographics GeoObjects.
5. Viewer GIS

Free GIS software that are able to display and query popular file formats.

The GIS viewers have limited functional capabilities, restricted to display query and simple mapping.

They do not support editing, sophisticated analysis, modelling or customization.

Examples include ESRIs ArcReader, ArcGIS Explorer, Intergraphs GeoMedia Viewer and Mapinfos
ProViewer.
6. Internet GIS

These products harness the unique characteristics of the World Wide Web (www) by integrating
GIS technology with web browsers and servers, and use the hypertext transmission protocol (http)
for communication.

Examples of Internet GIS products include Autodesk MapGuide, ESRI ArcIMS, Intergraph GeoMedia
Web Map and MapInfo MapXtreme.

Cost of the products vary from around $5000 to $25,000 for small to medium-sized systems, to large
multi function, multi-systems

COMPONENTS OF A GIS?
3. Data

Perhaps the most important component of a GIS

Data present in a GIS includes:
1. Spatial data
The spatial data forms the base of a GIS.
Describes the absolute and relative location of geographic features.
It relates all data to a coordinate system, defining the geometric primitives point,
line, area or raster cell.
The graphical description defines the representation of the geometry data on an
output device. This is done through;

Point: symbol, size, direction, colour

Line: weight, colour, pattern
Polygon: colour, fill pattern (with direction and interval)
Raster: gray value, colour

Graphic data in GIS = Geometry data + graphical description:

2. Attribute data
This gives descriptive information about the geometry data. All descriptive data
without a geometrical representation, like text, measuring values, statistic data
associated to a spatial entity etc. This data is normally stored in a relational database.
3. Other data types
Some GIS supports multimedia data like audio, video, sequences of pictures, or time.

COMPONENTS OF A GIS?
4. People

GIS technology is of limited value without the people who manage the system and
develop plans for applying it to real-world problems.

Users range from technical specialists, who design and maintain the system,
to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work.

GIS is useless without the people who design, program, and maintain it, supply it
with data, and interpret its results.

5. Methods/procedures

A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed implementation plan

and business rules, which are the models and operating practices unique to
each organization.

An organization must establish procedures, lines of reporting, control points and

other mechanisms for ensuring that its GIS activities should stay within budgets,
maintain high quality and generally meet the needs of the organization.

COMPONENTS OF A GIS?
6. Network

Network is the additional fundamental component of the GIS, without which no

rapid communication or sharing of digital information could occur.

GIS today relies heavily on the Internet and on the intranets of corporations
and agencies in delivering applications.

Users can access GIS, without the software installed in their computers, from
remote servers. Distributed users, through the network, can access a
centralized GIS. The network component has enabled many people to utilize GIS
capabilities even without the knowledge that they are using GIS services in their
problem solutions.

History of GIS?
Man has used maps for a long time

Wall drawing of Catal Hyk, in

Anatolia, Turkey,
showing a city plan and erupting volcano
visible from the city, (ca. 6200 B.C.)

History of GIS?
Man has used maps for a long time

Reconstruction of
Ptolemys Septima Asiae Tabula,
map of portion of
Asia east of the Caspian Sea
(ca. 90-168 A.D.) Roman Egypt

History of GIS?
Decade

Milestones for computer-based GIS

1960s

- Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS) developed:

national land inventory pioneered many aspects of GIS

- Harvard Lab for Computer Graphics and Spatial

Analysis: pioneered software for spatial data handling
- US Bureau of Census developed DIME data format
- ESRI founded
1970s

- CGIS fully operational (and still operational today)

- First Landsat satellite launched (USA)
- CARIS founded
- USGS begins Geographical Information Retrieval and Analysis
System (GIRAS) to manage and analyze large land resources
databases and Digital Line Graph (DLG) data format
- ERDAS founded
- ODYSSEY GIS launched (first vector GIS)

History of GIS?
Decade

Milestones for computer-based GIS

1980s

- ESRI launches ARC/INFO (vector GIS)

- GPS became operational
- US Army Corp of Engineers develop GRASS (raster GIS)
- MapInfo founded
- First SPOT satellite launched (Europe)
- IDRISI Project started (GIS program)
- SPANS GIS produced
- National Center for Geographic
Analysis (NCGIA) established in USA
- TIGER digital data

Information

and

History of GIS?
Decade

Milestones for computer-based GIS

1990s

- MapInfo for Windows, Intergraph, Autodesk, others

- ESRI produces ArcView and ARCGIS
- $7+ billion industry

Decade

Milestones for computer-based GIS

2000s

- Web mapping
- Cloud GIS
- google maps, openstreet maps

Assignment 1:
i. Discuss the history and development of GIS up to date.