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TREATISE
THE
THEORY
MATHEMATICAL
STEAM
RULES
WITH
ENGINE;/
USE
THE
FOR
T.
BY
AUTHOB
OF
"STATICS
"ELEMENTS
AND
LENGTH,
AT
PRACTICAL
MECHANISM,"
"LAND
WORKED
OUT
MEN.
C.E.,
BAKER,
DYNAMICS,"
AND
OF
OF
EXAMPLES
AND
"MINING
8UBVEYING,'
ENGINEEKING
8UBVEYING,"
ETC.
LONDON:
VIRTUE
BROTHERS
"
LANE,
PATERNOSTER
1862.
ROW*
v..*
-Uo"[?, U.i"
iuj:^
"
JUN
20
TRANCT:.
.
wrXAflU
.Y
1917
iti'"i--D\\,
COLU-GS
Cn..i"A"r
PREFACE.
of
work
this
kind,
Stationary, Marine,
desideratum;
and
large
the
use
not
time
referred
taken
great
be
full
competence
the
the
in
The
author
new
and
in
as
well
both
the
various
rules
who
application
thus
words
at
have
not
yet
of
this
kind
arrive
at
practical parts
prepared
complexities
to
in
they
and
be
it
adapt
of
length
tific
scien-
mathematical
of
studies
in
theoretical
and
work
has
of
to
as
students
at
large
chain
the
giving
until
have
to
stand
under-
Tredgold's
large
work.
has,
and
given
moreover,
important
slide-valves,
steam
link
progress
subjects,
the
ease
complete
the
to
their
important
with
for
the
for
"Introduction"
this
by
men,
facilitated,
greatly
these
this
also
use;
which
by
will
and
practical
their
of
also
either
purchasing
required,
themselves
formula?,
of
much
so
accustomed
author
but
who
students,
of
supply
to
of
means
The
pains
of
for
length
the
or
to.
research
wants
class
Tredgold's
to
subject,
same
the
been
long
has
introduction
the
on
of
Theory
Engines,
an
as
work
numerous
read
to
just
the
only
important
of
Locomotive
and
not
Mathematical
the
on
method
corresponding
exhausting
of
to
ports, by
in
this
showing
the
"Introduction"
the
various
geometrical
positions
of
openings
of
construction,
VI
PREFACE.
has been
which
given by calculation,
usually
presentedto him by the eminent engineer,
0. E.
firm of
Amos, Esq.,M.I.O.E.,of the well-known
Eastern,
Amos, and Sons. It is given in as clear a manner
the subjectseems
to admit
as
of, since any intelligent
with rule and compasses, draw the figure
workman
may,
to any convenient scale,and as respectslocomotive engines,
he may draw
The work
with
an
Appendix,on
the
strength,
are
Tables
of
added
Tables
which
Friction,
precedingparts of
of
are
Engine ; to
HyperbolicLogarithms,and
the work.
T. BAKER
THE
THEORY
MATHEMATICAL
07
THE
ENGINE.
STEAM
"
it ia made
Thus
to
positions
pressure
the
of
in
space
the
the
in
pressure
the
occupy.
let ABGDbe
cylinder, EPand
piston ; then
position E.P
the position G
0 D
is
to
the
any
two
the
A
is to
H
as
space
0 D.
GH
so
sufficiently
showing
the
for
the
purpose
great advantages
of
that
be
in
detail.
MATHEMATICAL
THE
OP
THEORY
OP
UNIT
WORK.
to estimate
applyingthis principle
different kinds of work
performednnder
and
In
it becomes
to have
necessary
the
compare
different circumstances,
distinct
measure
or
of work,by
pound througha
which
space
of one foot.
measured
are
by
pounds,and
the
the
raised;also
or
pressures
direction they are
by
unit of time.
will be
one
that
minute
Hence,
be
referred to
in this
representedas
It is assumed
high in
Taken
here described.
minute, as
one
pointof
of
horse-powersconsumed
only be requiredto divide the
Given
the
distance moved
and
done
on
the pistonin
the pressure
the
at
which
the
steam
done
the
of
the
steam
of minutes
one
stroke.
the
piston(?),
is cut off (j),
is admitted
upon
each
to
the
square inch
pistonis,
jj"(l+logi)"
*
The logarithms
here used are the hyperbolic
j the
and the other formula will be hereaftergiven.
of this
investigation
THE
But
men
is
as
STEAM
ENGINE.
given :
"
by
"
and
the
and
off,
add 1,
multiplythe
sum
by the productof the pressure of the
distance
and
the
steam
moved
by the pistonbefore the steam
is cut off,
and the result is the whole work
done on each
square inch of the piston.
findthe load.
To
The
the
load is
defined
generally
be the
to
mean
of
pressure
steam.
H.1).
,_Y(l+.
Or, in words
Rule
one
we
length,
Divide
2.
"
stroke
at
by
the
have
the work
of
length,
the
done
the
:
following
upon
"
one
square
inch in
be the load.
To
findthe
+ logi)
*(l
:
following
of
the
stroke by
Rule
3. Divide
the whole
length
of feet described
the number
by the pistonbefore the
is cut off; to the hyperbolic
steam
logarithmof this quotient
and multiplythe sum
of
add unity,
by the number
feet moved
by the pistonbefore the steam is cut off,for a
divisor ; and for a dividend multiply
the lengthof the stroke
by the load. The quotientis the pressure in pounds per
Or, in
words
at
length,there
results the
"
"
square
inch at which
To
Let
number
area
the steam
is admitted.
findthe horse-powers.
in square inches,
and
piston,
minute ; then,
of the
of strokes per
MATHEMATICAL
THE
OF
THEORY
")
AN?1"(l+log
Howe-power
Or, in words
^fiOO
"
"
"
log
i|-=
log 6
1-79175
.\
2 X
60
2-79175
pistonin
-7854
2-791*5,
335*01
1-79175,and
whole
335-01
on
one
stroke.
one
1963*5
of the
area
1963-5
20
-
QQQ,,fi,
398*66
33,000
done
pistonin
inches,and by Rule 4,
square
By
work
the formula
33501
pistonin
one
(l
qp
whole
work
log
done
on
horse -powers.
")=2x60
one
square
(1+1-79175)
inch
of the
stroke.
Also,
+ logy)_1963-5x20x2x
ANgj"(l
60 (1+1-79175)
_
-~
33,000
33,000
398*66
horse-powers.
as
thingsgiven being the same
find
of
is
the
load
the
it
to
required
engine.
Example 1,
Example
Here
2.
"
the work
The
done
on
one
square
inch in
one
in
stroke of
THE
ENGINE.
8TEAM
QQ/v.A1
is 335-01
piston,
the
load in lbs. on
one
unite ; whence
"
inch of the
square
27*9175
r^"
Bale
piston,
by
2.
Example
Kequired
"
2
44
-f-
5 feet.
log 2-5
1 +
1+
1-9163
3*8326
Example 4.
the
9163
1-9163,
3-8326,and
inch
nearly.
The
the pistonis
pressure of steam
upon
60 lbs. per square inch ; the resistance from imperfectcondensation
4 lbs. per square inch ; the lengthof the stroke is
"
feet,and the
12
of units of work
the number
the
is cut off at
steam
Required,
stroke.
the number
and
piston,
^ of'the
done
expansively,
Example 1, 335*01 units of work
inch of the pistonin one
stroke.
the steam
Here,
one
as
square
in
are
done
on
is 4 lbs.
But, as the resistance from uncondensed
vapour
48 lbs. for the resistance
per square inch,it will be 12 x 4 =
for the whole
length of
will be 335*01
work
"
the
square inch.
Now, to find the
expansively
; we
12
square
60
720
units of
work
done
upon
each
inch.
But, as in this
case
the steam
is not
cut
of
"
the
stroke,there is
the
same
used ; hence
for
quantitythere results,
720
^ftrt"
-"
120
While
335-01
has
by working expansivelythere
335*01
"
been
120=
obtained
215*01 lbs.
'
MATHEMATICAL
THE
Also,
"
times
2*79
"
"
OP
THEORY
much
as
done
work
by
the
120
quantityof
same
stroke,there is
distance moved
the
by
expansively.
is cut off at
When
of the
worked
when
steam
j-,
", i, "fcc,
necessityfor dividingthe
pistonby the distance it moves
no
whole
before
need only
be the fractional part ; we
tion,
find the hyperbolic
logarithmof the denominator of the fracand add unit to it ; then multiplythe sum
by the product
expansion,whatever
may
feet,and the
of the stroke be 12
the
steam
be cut off at
"
of the
pistonbeing 60
inch.
Here
the denominator
upon
To
Rule.
find'ike work
"
inch of the
each square
Divide
done
that
unity,and
=
503664:
pistonin
shall have
we
whole
one
without
by expansion
logarithms.
work
stroke.
the
use
of
any
even
number
of
equalparts,
and
of
pressures, and twice the sum
the
of
all these by onesum
the odd
pressures ; multiply
the positions
of the
distance between
third of the common
work
done upon
each
piston,and the result will be the
times the
of the
sum
even
singlestroke
is
equalto
the
expansion.
Example 1. The pressure
and
of the works
done
before
after
"
is 80
sum
inch, the
steam
of the steam
THE
STEAM
requiredto
ENGINE.
of work
amount
done
upon
each
inch of the
piston.
pistonmoves
" of the stroke,which is 2 feet,with the
full pressure of the steam; let the remaining part of the
stroke,which is 8 feet,be divided into four equalparts,each
of which will be 2 feet ; let these pressures be represented
by P, Pp P8,"c. ; then,by Mariotte's law,
square
The
80
: :
80
Pt
6:2::80:P,
"
?LjL" 40
"
: :
80
P8
10
: :
80
P4
Then, by
lbs. pressure.
^f-=-=26-661bs.
"
8"
8
"
"
"
20 lbs.
-'^J-?
-
16 lbs.
justgiven,
the rule
80
16
least extreme
96
sum
of extreme
sum
of the
greatest extreme
pressure.
pressure.
pressures.
40
20
60
even
pressures.
4
240
26*66'
4 times the
sum
of the
even
pressures.
beingonlyone.
53-33'
96
sum
240
"=
The
the
above
common
4 times
twice
sum.
6"3*33'
389-33'
of extreme
pressures.
of
even
sum
pressures.
the odd pressure.
389*33 beingmultiplied
by i of 2 feet,
i.e.t
gives
distance,
sum,
THE
389*33
0?
THEORY
MATHEMATICAL
25955
the number
of units of work
done
upon
number
of units of work
expansionbegins.
done
upon
each square
inch before
Hence
259-55
160
41955
number
a
of units of work
singlestroke
of the
done upon
piston.
of steam
the pistonis
upon
the
resistance
from imperfect
60 lbs. per square inch,
arising
4
the
lbs.
condensation,
length of the stroke
per square inch,
The
Example 2.
"
is 12
feet,and the
requiredto
pressure
steam
determine
is cut
off at
the number
of
of the stroke ; it is
units of work done
the number
of units of
piston,
the load per square
gained by working expansively,
is
inch,and the positionof the pistonwhen the velocity
upon
work
each square
inch of the
greatest.
Let
feet be
e.
12
"
and
similarly
Pt
j"
30,
P,_51iJ_,7."3,
7
60x2x
8~
"
10
ENGINE.
STEAM
THB
*2-*l
P7
p"
13-333,
60x2
-io"=12'
^eo^
60 +
10
70
of extreme
sum
pressures.
40-000
24-000
17-142
13 333
10-909
105*384
"=
the
of the
sum
even
pressures.
4
421*536
4 times the
of the
sum
even
pressures.
30-000
20 000
15000
12-000
="
the
154 000
twice the
421*536
4 times the
77000
-sum
70000
sum
sum
of the extreme
sum
pressures.
3)645-536
215178
120
335*178
60
whole
woik
work
done
done before
upon
expansion.
10
THE
By
the
OF
THEORY
^(l+ logy)=2x
60(l+log-)
which
MATHEMATICAL
120
120
is very
(1 + log 6)
2-79175
nearlythe
120
(1 + 1-79175)
3350106,
same
that deduced
as
by
the rule.
this from
subtracting
by
will remain
inch,there
square
335*178,the whole
335*178
48
"
work
=
done per
287*178 for
To
When
720
the steam
works
work done upon
is cut off at
"
without expansion,
then 12 x 60
each square inch ; but as the steam
of the-stroke in working it expansively,
there
720
is only J of the
=120
.
quantityof
or
"
i.
this
case
or
move
the work
this
effect
to produce
;
/.
L, and
12 L
or, L
oox-
nearly2*8
quantityof
done
stroke is 12
"
by the same
expansively.
The
work requiredto
lbs.
times
steam, when
much
as
worked
=335178
27*9315
"
"
=-5
lbs.per square
inch.
when
be the distance moved
over
by the piston,
then by Mariotte's law,
attains its greatestvelocity,
If
r*
335*178
gainedm
work
inch,and 335*178"120=215-178
steam
'
: :
60
whence
60
27-9315,
=43'
27*315
it
THE
STEAK
KNQINK.
'
/-'
formula,-,"'..
the
By
I
.
11
"
"
"
"
"
"
12
'
12
~"
l+l0g"=l+ l0g6
the
nearly,
2-79175
above.
Example 3. To find the pressure per square inch at
which the steam must
be admitted when the load is 22 lbs.
and the steam
per square inch,the lengthof the stroke 5 feet,
is cut off at 2 feet ; the resistance from uncondensed
vapour
as
same
"
|:2::*:P"
rx"
..
and
similar manner,
the successive
a
of
the
"ett
for every k
romwwing 3 mehes, there
by proceedingin
pressures
will
P
-"
-"
2
x
fe^
1**'t
result,
--
-x
the
of the. greatestand
sum
"
least
ex-
inch.;
treme
2288
%
.
4 times the
"
31
sum
of the
pressures;
ft
and
/2
2 I
-j
after
a;
twice
"
Ix
the
=the
T
"315"
expansion. This sum,
the
expansion;
the
odd
"
"
8Um
by """of
multiplied
af
ineh
", gives
./'''
intervening
space, i. e. by | of
1732a?
=
work
after expansion, and
Q,,
""
of
sum
3464*
Ix
,
+ X
"""-315"
pressures
aj\
a;
"
pressures ;
2288a?
before
.7
-x
o
even
andP
-"
is
the work
done
12
THE
"""*"
MATHEMATICAL
^SiT
22
THBOBT
OF
110, or
29 lbs. per
4/ttO
square inch
nearly.
to condensing
In the examplesjustgiven,
no
referring
engines,
and other
clearance of the piston,
has been taken of the friction,
minutie ; bnt after the mathematical theoryhas been given,exampleswill
both to
be added,in which all these resistanceswill be included,
referring
The
engines.
condensingand non-condensing
objectof givingthe preceding
examplesis to enable the student to obtain an idea of the method of
the horseto finding
powers
at somethinglike an approximation
speedily
arriving
Note.
"
account
of any
engine.
proposedcondensing
From
and
the
as
these
others,
follow
"
produces
ance
resist-
useful load,for
overcomingthe
engine.
if-of
the load
74;
"
X
-
"
7
=
="
64Jlbs.
per
square
inch
on
the
piston.
th"
Hence
Resistances are
followingRule.
"
60 lbs.per square
By the rule,
(60-16)
7
=
For
engines,instead
condensingor low-pressure
of the
THE
MATHEMATICAL
THBOKY
OF
STEAM
THE
Example
Given
1.
"
Table.
of the foregoing
the Use
Exampleson
15
ENGINE.
the
of the
area
By
rule,page 12,
the
(60
-^16)
x
3g"5 lbfl
useful bad
volume in the
pressure of 60 lbs. the corresponding
table is 467, which being multiplied
by the evaporating
of the boiler gives 467 x J=
233J = number of
power
To
cubic feet
The
to the
evaporatedper
minute.
of cubic feet dischargedper stroke is equal
of the piston
in feet,multiplied
by the lengthof
number
area
4"X"
i_.^.
the stroke
in
feet
1600
4
"77
",
11*.
"
"
144
144
whole
volume
Hence
the number
of strokes
______l=21
But the useful work
S8-5
done in
x
400
stroke is
one
61600;
per minute
21
___
is
1293600;
1293600
~
33000
Example
2." In
at
-^
condensingengine the
area
of the
16
THEORY
MATHEMATICAL
THE
OF
is 1440
cylinder
the
steam
vapour
of the boiler is " of a cubic foot per minute,and the resistances
usual : required,
the useful load and the powers.
horseas
Tate's Mechanics.
before the
The space through which the pistonmoves
and
whole
is cut off is
1
the
steam
J
f,
lengthof
the stroke is
4 J.
5
\
Then
1-8453, and 1-8453 +
log (4J+ f ) log 6*33
2-845,3.
1
"
"
"
Hence
done in
30
one
"
2*8453-=
6401925
stroke.
64-01925
M
Mean
By
pressure
the
"
"
13 '48 lbs.
.(13-48-5)x.7==742
By
the
Table,one
i
The
volume
882
of steam
==
in
discharged
stroke is
one
1440
x
77T
10 cubic feet.
144
Hence
the number
is
176-4
17-64.
10
togetherthe
of the
of the
area
per minute
the
piston,
Horse
Horse
useful
by multiplying
load,the length
144"" * 742
Dowers
powers
is found
4j
17-61
^^
27-13.
THE
INVESTIGATION
THEORETICAL
OF
Let
THE
OF
PEOPEETTES
STEAM.
of feet described
number
17
ENGINE.
8TEAM
at
pressure when
is cut off,
of feet described before the steam
number
q
Mariotte's
feet
: by
law,
and I =* lengthof the stroke in
piston
; p'
of the
p':p::q:*f
whence
variable
the
Hence
taken between
q p
"=
Put \
; then
"
"
done
"
by expansion,
is
limits,
proper
I i"-J
work
p'
(logJ_
log q)
the work
done
log
qp
mm
"
"
by expansionwill
qp
must
log \
qp
qp
sion
expanbefore
Let L
upon
qp
be
Ll=qp(l+log\),
.-.
From
"
"".(1
+
'""gfl +
To
determine
*
The
the
logX)-
of
velocity
here
logarithms
results
evidently
(Me
the
used
are
3, page 3.)
pistonwhen
the
any
hyperbolic.
part of
18
MATHEMATICAL
THE
OF
THEORY
of
principle
throughany
the
="
space ; then U
same
in the
body ;
U'
"
if V
now,
of the
velocity
lated
accumu-
body, and
W
accelerative force of
the
gravity,
vis viva is
.V2;
"
work
is
i.
.v2
"
u-u'.
9
with the
or
Assuming that the whole mass
body moves
the work done upon each square
as the .piston,
same
velocity
stroke have been
inch by the steam, when
* feet of the
is
described,
(l-Mogi);
qp
ffjp(l+log^)-L";
or,
i( r
which
radius of the
and
piston,
is the accumulated
work
on
ir
then
3*14:16,
the whole
piston;
...^^Ml+logi)-L'},
=
-dV"=2-^{*i,(l+logi)*
multiplied
bythe
square of itsvelocity.
STEAM
THE
19
ENGINE.
log X),there
(1 -f-
results
/
V"=^{^(l+logf)^(l+logX)}
2*gqpta
|l logi_i(l+logX)}
+
W
find when
To
the
maximum,
formula
the
within
the
pistonis a maximum,
the
vinculum
must
be
is,
of
velocity
+ log
(1 + logX) must
j-
be
maximum;
or, 1 -f
which
put
Jog *
logf
"
; then
whence
"
maximum
maximum,
log X
is indicated
(1 + logX)
by differentiation,
1 +
The
-z
by
-j" 2-,
beingevidently
tive
nega-
for the
velocity,
gives
W^i1""
l.gX)}
g(l
'"" ""
gr"'"t
"
maximum
velocity.
the Steam
be obtained
without
ential
the aid of the Differ-
Engine ;"
see
also his
"
edition of
Theory
"
Tredgold
of the Steam
20
PAMBOUB
THEORY
THE
OF
the
theory
on
OF
THEORY
MATHEMATICAL
THE
ENGINE.
STEAM
this
on
grounds
subject,
following principles:
two
"
there is
the
piston,that is
p-R
R
being the
whole
(1)
resistance
againstthe piston.
between
an
Secondly,that there is necessarily
equality
productionof steam and its expenditure.
Let P
v
piston,
volume
of
of
pressure
iu the
steam
boiler,A
of the
area
the
unit of time, S
unit of time,m
==
Mariotte's
volume
S of
each
supplied
steam
unit of time
same,
by the
the
boiler
P
when
transmitted to the
will become
cylinder,
ro
"
; and
A
be
can
beingthe expenditureof steam, the second principle
follows
as
expressed
At;
"
mS."
(2)
P
But
by equation(1)p
.\At;
mS
R,
.-?-
(3)
it
one
minute,and N
number
of
the
steam
is cut
off;then
NJ,orN=^;
expenditureof
steam
per minute is
22
TBS
hence
MATHEMATICAL
{p(f
relation there
2^
--
being the
have
steam
(i"f
)+ qp}RA*.
c) log
t^^fr **(?")}
7
"*"
The
will result
relation
between
the
and
pressure
is of such great importance that numerous
been
made, both in this country and
of the French
from
when
1 to
will
to
whence
in which
the
this
on
and
extensive
most
careful
importantsubject,
; these
government
experiments
of these eminent
represent temperature
the
to
inch of pressure, or
15 lbs. to 360 lbs. per square
24 atmospheres; and the following formula has
pressure, without
experiments
in
France,
the temperature is known, or
temperature of
is known.
pressure
important subjectswill be forthwith detailed.
at the expense
from
"
clearance.
Bl
*(")}
OF
THEORY
any
sensible error,
-0068031
(-26973+
146-96^
is the
temperature
as
philosophers,
compared with the
"
39-644;
whence
(7)
t)*
"y
20118y/p
"
inch,and
square
to 4
atmospheres
103.
steAh
THE
23
engine.
range is the
same
following,
/jgi+iy
m
(9)
f-ymwl
c
whence
An
196*56
{/jp
988.
"
important
propertyof
increase of *00202
producedan
of the volume
of the
fluid from
be the volume
other
at any
vx
This
if
we
-00202
(t
"
32).
volumes
v
Fahrenheit,wilL be
of
temperature t
1 +
'00202.
1 +
-00202
""
ux
Neither
32)
{tf 32)
-
with
the water
the two
laws
from which
of Mariotte
the steam
will
while
it is evaporated
; but
be obtained,by which
'
the law of
applyto the
in contact
(t
there is a
change
be assumed
p'
"
Again,assume
passes from
the temperature
24
1?to the
by
temperaturet without
the law of
OF
THEORY
MATHEMATICAL
THE
any
Gay-Lussac,there results,
*
-00202
(1 +
*
"
~~
(1 + -00202 (t
As
when
this formula
both
p' fl +
32)
U"
32)
(t
"
""
law
temperature and
time, there
of the relative
change
pressure
the
pf and t't
volumes,
the
at
must
32)
u'm
32)
"
(1 + -00202 (/
gives the
ft
'00202
same
formula
the
values of
that under
per square
the relative volume
which
pressure
it has been
of steam
is 14*7 lbs.
Fahrenheit,
is 1700
generated,
whence
14-7
-
nM
1700X
1 +
-00202
(*
32)
-00208
-82)-
T*l
"
relation between
the pressure
the
where
steam
Pole
and
volume, derived
of
principle
from
expansionis used
periment,
ex-
in the
engine.
givesthe following
formula,
24250
_
%
(a)
F=v^E
24250
whence
"
|~65.
"
The
accuracy
may
the range
from 65 lbs. to 5 lbs.
Pambour
engines,
givesfor condensing
10000
U
"
-4227 +
-00258 p
'
THE
and
for
25
ENGINE.
STEAM
condensingengines,
non-
10000
U
in which
""1421
-0023
p;
is the volume
W
in
pounds per
foot.
square
Navier
givesthe followingformula,
m
is the volume
expressedin
Let
can
formulae
to
corresponding
the
pressure
that
square metre.
volume
of water
E is converted
volume
p, and that M is the
be produced by it ; then, by givingthe
at
'
kilogrammes per
it be assumed
into steam
which
'
+ -0000484
"09
in which
w
K
u=
pressure
more
we
of steam
preceding
take
1
,^
(c)
u=w=z+wt
Now, if the
same
volume
My
Ji
be the
volume
corresponding
;
"
"
into steam
be converted
of water
whence, between
""""-5(i+")-i
and
/3are
By proceedingin
there
of steam,
the abso-
ppi
lute volumes
in which
at
weight
same
by
means
of
results,
M
to)
*-p?
for the ratio of the
volumes,where
c
24250
and
(Z
65*
26
TAB
Pambour
MATHEMATICAL
THEORY
OF
found,from
great number
of
ON
THE
WORK
PERFORMED
ON
ENGINE
Put
p'
IN
in contact
PISTON
THE
GIVEN
with the
OF
water
STEAM
TIME.
square feet,
in
the
boiler,
pressure
pressure at the arth foot of the stroke,
of the
area
pistonin
before
pressure in the cylinder
actual lengthof the stroke,
expansion,
is cut
number
per minute,
of singlestrokes per minute,
units of work of the steam per minute.
of cubic
feet of water
converted
off,
into
steam
and
number
ing
Since each cubic foot of water, converted into steam existin the cylinder
before expansion,
beginsunder a pressure
p\ it therefore occupiesa
relative space
by
formula
(e),
represented
by
which
is
evaporated
of
in the form
boiler,and passes into the cylinder
E
steam
at every
stroke of the
is represented
by -=^;
piston,
by
represented
In
the
same
manner
the space
occupiedat
the
stroke,when
expressedby
of tbe
27
ENGINE.
STEAM
THE
p, will be
p' becomes
pressure
e/_JL_V
\a
N
Bat
that space
Pp)
filled with
cylinder,
in the
steam
before
l"(7w)
and
whence
equation,
the former
from
n""
and from
A(i? + c);
the
^"=aoTR
latter,
E
A(2
E
c)(a + /JPy
,,
""p-AN'/J(*
But
the work
done
c)~7
by expansionper
by /
pistonis expressed
there
p d x, and
the
by substitutionfrom (Jc)
results,
f1dx
rl
,
which
__
by p\
represented
and
work
done
fa dx
by expansion; and,
expansionbegins,
before
piston,
that it
c
moves
q feet under
this
28
MATHEMATICAL
THE
THEORY
OF
therefore the
of these two
sum
each
upon
will
foot
work
before and
both
piston,
which,being multiplied
by A N,
done on the pistonper minute,or
each square
whole
give the
in,
done
after
work
IW(7$7)+rh}-7-"'-A"4
"aAK,(Ei) f{H(i") 7X.}.
+
which
results
*"("+*)-
7*7}.
HMj""+
whence
"
"
hog (
"*"C
)+
|- "...(")
"
friction of the
friction is
unloaded
augmented by
"X
the motion
each
engine=/,
the
P(l + S) +f+h.
p,
quantitythe
condensation
imperfect
h;
then
dt
30
ON
The
that
as
THE
duty of
an
enginefrom
bushel
or
DUTY
OF
THE
STEAM
engineis the
amount
the combustion
cwt. ; and
OF
THEORY
MATHEMATICAL
THE
of
ENGINE.
yieldedby
of coals,
given quantity
of work
a measure
is,therefore,
of cost with
respect to fuel.
Mr.
Pole,who
is the
in this country on
highestauthority
these subjects,
when speakingof the great duty of the Cornish
of the great.
cause
engines,
observes,"Another
duty is the
This is not only advantageous
use
steam.
of high-pressure
to
inasmuch as it enables the expansiveprinciple
indirectly,
be appliedwith greater effect,
distinct
but there is a totally
economical advantagein the use of high-pressure
steam per se,
which is often overlooked,and deserves special
mention.
Jt
is founded on -the principle,
that the pressure of the steam
increases in a greater ratio than its density
itfollows
; whence
that the higher.the pressure the steam
is raised to, the less
and therefore the
'proportionate
quantityof water it contains,
less fuel is consumed, since a given quantityof fuel will
evaporate the same
weight of water at all temperatures."
Mr. Pole gives,
the Cornish
at page 169 of his work
on
Engine,the following
example :
Cornish
A
engine,with a cylinder70 inches
Example.
in diameter,
and a 10-feet stroke,has the steam admitted at
"
"
by
expansion,
288600
(1 + log6)
Since the
the steam
Kule
area
of the
is admitted
both
piston,
1, is
288600
2-79176
is 3848
cylinder
during If
of "ei
stroke,the quantity
feet
consumed
805702
lbs.
and
square inches,
inches
20
of the
work
THE
31
ENGINE.
8TEAH
20 X 3848
76960 cubic inches ; and since the relative
densities of water and steam at 45 lbs. pressure are as 1 to
=
7fi960
this volume
(seetable,
p. 13),
608
of steam
will contain
"
1728
that
126
::
625:
455,
is,126
coal,which
is requiredfor each
805702
94
154"563"4451bB"
is
very
units of work
units of work per minute ; .then U t
=
sumed
by the enginewhile B bushels of coals are beingconyielded
U
; hence
-^-
by
that
yieldedby
each
engine; therefore,
"-""
To
findthe Point
at ufhichthe Steam
the greatest
of
quantity
formula (A)by
By multiplying
be cut
UsefulWork.
must
I there results
EZ
N'=A(f+
and,since N
v,
c)(a+ /?p')'
by substitution,
m
(J + c) (" + /}*"')'
offto
obtain
32
in
THE
MATHEMATICAL
THEORY
OF
usefuleffect,
E /
this formula
By differentiating
where the steam
a
maximum,
should be
or
cut
other
as
to
givethe
q+y3(A+/)
1^
a+)8'P
is,in
off so
useful effect
the greatestpossible,
there results
g
that
for q, the
words,
.
q
I
volume
at pressure
volume
at
pressure
pf
in which
24250, and 0
Example
1.
"
Let the
55.
lengthof the
stroke of the
pistonbe
By
the
steam
formula
preceding
51^
40
65
1- 00
THE
STEAM
33
ENGINE.
"
the condenser
2Jlbs.per
square
be cut
must
steam
is 4
produce the
off to
maximum
greatest
or
effect.
By
Pole's
formula,
-V 50
/
'=
''-24250"
P
"
qz=
550
"
inches,the
effective
evaporationE
feet,the
1-J-
the number
being as
other data
"
1 52'
8705-.7
the steam
pistonA
be '927
which
"
10-5
in
must
be
cut
be 1800 square
cubic feet per
steam
Example
is cut off q
2 ;
required
AN?
T4r=E\_50_+66j'
144
550
""N==
-927
1800
which
is the number
maximum,
or
1-5"-
of strokes of the
=27,
greatest effect.
THE
VALVE
SAFETY
OF
THE
In the
STATIONARY
ENGINE.
34
OF
THEORY
MATHEMATICAL
THE
the
meter
square of the diaof the narrowest
part of the aperture in inches.
The
of a lever,
safetyvalve is usuallyloaded by means
Bquare
with
weight to
find the
To
alongit to
move
JPressure
on
Weightis put
whole
suit the
upon
SquareInch,when
the
of the valve
by *7854,
number
of square
weight upon the
or
the
to each
quotientwill
square
"
valve,the
of
pounds
valve,
of pressure
Example.
the
the Valve.
Multiplythe
and
requiredpressure.
weight
of 112
of which
is 3
diameter
lbs. be
square inch.
7 square inches nearly; then
32 x -7854 =
the requiredpressure per square inch.
16 lbs.,
each
to
112
-4- 7
:In addition
"weightof
when
the
OF
LEVER
THE
ON
to
the
the lever is
THE
VALVE.
the
lever,the
also be taken
large,and
weight
SAFETY
-to
as
produce a
the valve.
pressure upon
The calculation for graduating the lever is
sensible
very
as
follows
:
"
the
be put
must
on
the end
Example.^ Given
the distance
diameter
on
at
between
of the valve
the end
per square
of the lever.
length of
the whole
the
fulcrum
2\ inches
of$ielever,so
;
as
and
the lever 32
valve
inches,
inches, the
requiredthe weight to
to have
be put
of 50 lbs.
pressure
inch 4tobn the valve ; also to divide the lever
so
as
.THE
STEAM
to have
35
ENGINE.
the
valve
with
the
same
weight.
32
"*- 4
(25)2 x
4*9
-7854
60
leverage,
4-9
245 lbs. =
of the
area
"
whole
valve,
the
weighton
valve,
245
weightwhich
30$vlbs.=
"r-
"
64
give 50
"
r~
be
must
then
6'4
at which
the
put
at
on
the
inch,
25*6 inches
weight must
be put
25* t"
more,
To
"
"fcc.
graduatethe
Let A.F
be
"a
graduatedlever,turningon
Weightof the
F
as
F,
fulcrum ;
is raised
the valve, which
when
the elastic force of the
steam
becomes too great for the
of the
pressure
being a portionof
Put
AF
of the valve,and P
boiler. Then wr2 =
=
Z,W
weightof
the lever A
="
radius
on
pressure
the boiler*
L, VF
A, a; =
weight at
weight W,
+ JL.X
irr2F
I, whence
irr^P-jLa,
(1)
be determined
of the lever may
from formula (1); after which the lengthL', corresponding
be found from the following
to any other pressure P',may
V for L, and P'
formula,which is derived by substituting
The
for
weight W
P, in
formula
at the end
which gives
(1),and transposing,
36
THE
THEORY
OF
"..^^tL.
(2)
Example
24,
"
of the
=
and
the
P
of the
=
inches,
pressure
40 lbs. per square inch.
3-1416 X (l")a
Here the area of the valve 7rrs =
7-07
=
which, by omittingthe small decimal,
square inches nearly,
may be taken as 7 square inches ; whence
V
MATHEMATICAL
1J
*"
That
at
We
requiredpressure.
from
"
the
A48Mtti-
a*-
"
"
the end
have
be put
give any
P'.
requiredpressure
Example 2. Let the pressure P; be 30 lbs. per square inch,
all the other dimensions and weightsbeingthe same
as in the
last example; requiredthe distance L'.
F,
at
weight must
to
on
other
"
By
L'
formula
(2),
moved
inch on
16"J
"
on
towards
the valve.
be found
weight W
from
"
and 24
for
must
"
7-|"inches,which
F
-.".'.
7x3x30-12x4.
"4rriiP-lL"
^
=
the
16||inches,
weight W
must
be
give a pressure of 30
the distance on
Similarly,
to
inches,or the
pressure of 20 lbs. to be 10"fbe suspendedat 24
10|f-= 13j" inches
inches
Jj,or 6fs|
further distance of
"
nearer
towards
F,
give a pressure of
of the lever may
10 lbs. per square inch : thus the graduation
valve ; for
be completedfor any givenpressure, on the safety
15 lbs.,
if the intermediate pressures of 25 lbs.,
instance,
"fcc,
distance
the
be require^,
6"" inches must everywhere be
2
divided into two equal parts*that is,6"$
3"" inches,
where the weight must
be suswhich will give the places
pended
a
6""
to
-r-
38
THE
MATHEMATICAL
THEORY
01
of the machine
there
machinerytaken together,
2Pr
2QirR,
or,
will result
"
"
"
the
0 S
angle R
Prcos0
and
0.; then
QR;
value of P in this
the
by substituting
will
there
equation,
after reduction,
result,
.%
and the
"
the
71"
R A S
arc
Corollary.For
26',
142" 52'.
find in
engine we
double-acting
similar manner,
.-. arc
To
R S
100" 54'.
findthe
Let the
weight of
rim
respectively R
and
number
axis
the wheel
of
*, the
feet,its
diameter
"
of its
of the whole
the radius of
Then
Baker's
"
Statics and
h
gyration
r2
.
Dynamics,"Weale's Series.)
(See
THE
STEAM
39
ENGINE.
s"
IfV
of axis
circumference
by
destroyed
work
rr^r
friction in
~~
revolution
one
^"W
~
12w
of revolutions made
number
27
"
12
Now, put
I!?yX
"
by
the wheel
by
destroyed
work
friction =
** ** W
xrfW
XT
12
"
N,
"
(R" + r2)
"/
XT
whence
+ r*)
12nx"a(R"
^=
=
"
weightof the
"
wheel.
Example. The
flywheel are 5
"
external and
By
the
v
N
precedingformula,the
12 X
10 X
31416
number
32
(g
of
10 ; how
or
revolutions,
+ S")
_
^T32i
many
1tyfto
1793'
The
and
radius,the horse-powers,
mean
the number
or the number
revolutions,
given,to
of
being
of horse-powersof the
Multiplythe number
engineby 2275, and againby the denominator of the fraction
Rule
1.
"
*";-
7*
/":"""'
//*/aA
c
5
~n
V48*+
.v.*,
..',**
ZiytxHn
.'
^
*A.Cl*\A
'***"
THE
*n
MATHEMATICAL
THEORY
OP
the
showingthe variation from the mean velocity.Multiply
radius by the cube of the number of revolutions
square of the mean
Divide
the former productby the latter,
per minute.
will be the weightof the flywheel in tons.
and the quotient
and Gener's "Treatise on the Steam Engine,"
See Hann
formula (21),
p. 136.
enginemakes 15 revolutions
Example. A double-acting
the horsepowers
per minute,the radius of the flywheel is 15 feet,
60 ; what must be the weightof the flywheel,
are
when the variationis ^ from the mean
?
velocity
the
rule,
By
"
2275
40
60 X
5460000
_
=
-
%;. .,
.wt
iuW
152 X
V*.
.759375
Multiplythe
^
,.
~~
158
/2.i7/A^luotient.
/r.
'
v.
Example.
"
per
section of the rim is1*3 square feet,
And the variation -^ from
the mean
the mean
radius of the flywheel.
velocity
; required
By the rule,
12-27,
A/^=^/l846-15=
12-27
12-17
",
and
"r
"
14-93 feet
mean
Rule 3. Multiply
1803 by the number of horse-powers,
and againby the denominator of the fraction showingthe
and divide this productby
variation from the mean
velocity,
of the cubes of the mean
radius and of the number
the product
will be the area
of revolutions per minute,and the quotient
of the section of the rim.
engineof 60 horse-powers
Example. A double-acting
makes 10 revolutions per minute,the mean
radius,of the
"
"
w'\ *
THE
41
ENGINE.
is 12
wheel
STEAM
J^ ; requiredthe
By the rule,
1803
60
20
is
velocity
mean
flywheel.
2163600
,
feet
otr"
1252
^
^msoo
i2"xio"
"
Wheel
of the
Single-acting
Engine.
The
number
of
and the
wheel.
1.
Rule
the number
of horse-powers
Multiply
by 94880,
and again by the denominator
of the fraction showing the
variation from the mean
and divide this productby
velocity,
the
"
productof
Example.
"
engine of
single-acting
20
horse-powers
makes
wheel
30 single
strokes per minute, the mean
radius of the
is 13 feet,and the variation is -^ from the mean
city
velothe weightof the flywheel.
; required
the
rule,
By
20
94880
25
47440000
^A
-
1*
Rule
2.
denominator
30"
104
**"
4663000
nearly'
Multiplythe
of horse-powers
number
by the
of the fraction showing the variation from the
divide the productby the area
of the section
velocity,
mean
of the
"
rim, and
extract
the cube
root
of the
tiply
quotient;mul-
wheel.
42
THE
By
the
42-2
and
MATHEMATICAL
THEORY
OP
rule,
144
7x
15-2 feet
40
nearly,the
radius of the
mean
wheel.
THE
GOVERNOR.
the supplyof
governor is an apparatusfor regulating
from the boiler to the cylinder
steam
so
as to givea constant
and steadyvelocity
to the engine.
The
bars moving
the
centre
on
0, and
freely
the
two weightsor
carrying
balls
two
two
are
P, Q;
rods
FD,
FE
connected
are
the
to
slidingfreelyup
down
This
the
shaft A
collar is united
B.
to
closes
lever,which
opens or
with steam.
cylinder
the throttle
valve,which
the
supplies
When
revolves
fast,the balls,
by their centrifugal
A B
too
the shaft
too
moves
the
slowly,
admits
consequently
descending,
the
a
more
regulating
engineto
almost completeuniformity.
the
The ball or weight P is acted upon by two forces,i.e.,
force in the direction P", and gravityin the
centrifugal
direction Po; to represent these two
forces,
completethe
shall have the triangles
then we
Pnmo;
parallelogram
if
P m o, A P 0 similar ; and,
/ represent the centrifugal
ball
the
of
the
and
W
force,
P, then,
weight
full
PO
w
00'
STEAM
THE
43
ENGINE.
and
Dynamics/'
V"
/~~$r.PO
'
and
the
by substituting
value
of/ in
the
equation,
preceding
angularvelocity
per second of the
unit's distance from the shaft A ", then V
by substitution,
or, if v
governor, at a
P 0
v, and
as
00
Now,
"
if
number
number
per
4.
of revolutions per
minute, then
second,
2tcn
whence
0 0
irn
in
"
"
30*
32|
feet,
x
~~
(31416)'""
12
inincheS'
35200
.
"
"
inches
nearly.
W""
100
"CD'
44
THE
MATHEMATICAL
OP
that,if p=-=r
and
OF
THEORY
(J JJ
is the usual
which
"%,
in
proportion
the
governor,
2L
JL
!*_
"
'
""
and, ifp
weight of
lbs.,then W
10
of the
one
There
which
31
the required
J lbs.nearly,
equalballs.
EXAMPLES
AND
RULES
PRACTICAL
200
100
63
~~
ON
THE
GOVERNOR.
two
are
are, to
to
when
(seelastfig.),
the governor
performsthe
requirednumber of revolutions ; and to find what should be
the radius of the circle described
the range of the balls,
or
by them, that the supplyof steam throughthe throttle valve
the collar I
may
To
Rule.
"
Divide
revolutions per
35200
of
the square of the number
will be the distance
the quotient
by
minute,and
required.
distance of the
in
plane,
which
^?00
30*
To
3_5200
900
in which the
First,find the distance of the plane,
balls revolve,
from their pointof suspension,
by the last rule.
Rule."
Secondly,from
length of
the
arm
subtract
4:6
THE
MATHEMATICAL
t/ sin
"J^^
("
"/r2 +
But, if
denote
the
OF
THEORY
l)
a
j?Bin2
force
moving
(2)
acting at 0
in the
(tanc
cos
sin
a);
also tan
sc%c+ o)
sec
em
y/r2
p2sin2 a
"
-?/
P
reduces to
Equation (2)hence
P"
that
F
v' -=y
and,therefore,
Ft/
power
The
(4)
at D.
course
revolution.
To
it will be necessary
variations,
to
have
of these
to the usual
recourse
the velocity
negative,
-r"
lerated.
If
leverageat
we
now
which
must
be retarded
multiplythe
it acts, the
force F
instead of
R
"
productp (F
"
by p, the
R) is its
Hence, if
moment
or
tendencyto generate angularmotion.
M designate
of the inertia to be overcome,
the moment
if we
acce-
and
variathe slight
as
neglect,
insignificant,
comparatively
THE
STEAM
and
suppose
this
by
beingmultiplied
47
ENGINE.
changesof velocity,
to the small
uniform,we
shall have
2 da
"
there results
j"
d t
^2
dad?
da
da
_*(rV-B,")
by integration,
Consequently,
m(^J=2(PcP*-Rp"),
y/i (Pc
*'""
+
;"
same
p"-
"5"
the
Now
The
if
and is
m-^
at
Also,the velocity
o
?r,
"
is obtained
by puttingx
=s
2 p,
and is
2P""-R"''r"
(^)"=V/Sf"Pc
+
(6)
48
THE
vided,in that
case, the
the retrograde
is accentuated for distinction,
at H
If .\ a x',being each
0; the velocity
x',which
and
OF
THEORY
MATHEMATICAL
distance B 0.
will be
a/?^
'(")"=
when
and
v,
x'
2 p, the
"
recurringvelocityat
will be
\/"(*"*Vf-*p')
("t)'"=
("*)
-=-
that this
R
-=-
-tt
are
2 P p
augment
in
would
progression
did not
it appears
Thus
so
go
on
as
to
if the
indefinitely
ance
resist-
ference
difdestroythe common
the same
to recur
velocity
that,so long as the small
R p w, and cause
at each period. It hence follows
R p x,
of R renders 2 P p
ness
"
R x, positive,
the enginewill be acquiringadditional speed; and when R
R x =
such that 2 P
becomes
0, the power will ju6t be
or
"
2 P
"
"
capableof maintainingunaltered
the
movement,
periodical
permanent speed we
must
2
R
This
result shows
"
(6)
that the
generaleffect of
the
moving
o
force
on
P, actingobliquely
0 D
at
D,
is the
same
as
if
P,
"
IT
7
or
very
the
same
nearlyjj P, were
at
always appliedperpendicularly
point.
into
the distance
THE
accordingto
STEAM
49
ENGINB.
that the
it appears
equation(6),
the
expenditure
on
(6)in (5),and
there
results,
D from
and for any position
EOD, this becomes
"
27~N
/2P,
H,
to
if
CO
/Jdenote
the
angle
(8)
^{c+p(l-co8
/3)_^/3+(r-vV-PW
"
=p(l
(r
+
+ cos/3)
"
deduct
we
x1
Therefore
(1
"
cos
p)
(r
vVjK^sin3^);
afroledistance A B
WV, viz.,
\/r2
p2sin2/3)
at
by equation(7)the velocity
"
(9)
D" is
be determined
velocities "' J! at D* D" will now
v
ftfor ftin equations(8)and (10); thus
substituting
The
2 p,
by
we
find
"'=V
^jc-p(l~C08i8)+^i8-(r^^
D
50
To
let
and
put these in
denote
("*)
THEORY
MATHEMATICAL
THE
comparison,
(a),
expressed
by equation
at E, as
velocity
the
for
convenient form
more
OF
assume
(13)
h
Then
the
-/r2
"
p2 sin2 0
"
angularvelocities
at
any
four
corresponding
""=\A,,)s-ir"A
*"
+
w=y/(u,)*-^(A-*)
(14)
which
here
are
in the
arrangedrespectively
at D"
magnitudes,that
and
being the least,
order
of their
greatest.
These
formula
may
be
put in
the higherpowers
by neglecting
we
stillmore
convenient form
of the very Bmall variations;
"
MM
(A + h)'
P
0)
("o)
M(o,)
(A
A),
M(w)
(A
A),
M(")
(A + A).
STEAM
THE
for h
But
we
substitute
now
may
51
ENGINE.
j"-sin2/J,and
there
.willresult
(15)
"'="
w"
in parts of p
of A
the values
in which
to be
M^)(A-"8h^)
M^)(Al7flinJ^
fi
0"
40"
0-0000
10
-0959
45
20
-1619
50
30
-1994
60
From
at E
occurs
and
+
+
+
+
H,
70" +
-1198
-2071
75
-0922
-1984
80
-0625
-1667
90
0-0000
the
velocity("u),
and that the
velocity,
the quadrantsof D" and
that the
conclude
we
-2080
is the
mean
in
D", at
(13)found
from
follows,
as
which
are
pointswhere
+
"
?/3
+
sin* ft or
If
value.
we
cos
/3 +
assume
g-sin* 0,
these
that
pointsto be
45",
/3
"
"
+
(""")
v
'
mean
-*
Ti
f\ (4~+
0207
\2r
(g")
and
the
deviation
from
value will be
M(")
("+0-207).
d
2
y
the
52
MATHEMATICAL
THE
THEORY
OF
found
to be
It hence
\v
accelerated f
a
In
/
.
i when
retarded
i
appears
Wr2"
(lesserJ
p2sin\i
we
precedinginvestigation
the action of
2
Vthan-.
(greater)
.A.
a(--7=====+l)is"r
sin
the
p cos
is
have
onlyconsidered
found to apply,
(5)will
become
3F~
v/if{Pc
s(Pa')~Rpa}'
in which
(P#)
Let
(o")denote
0, a
ss
the
0, and
includes
value
the
the
same
of this
formula,for
term
for each
crank.
when
angularvelocity,
any
other
will
position,
become
"
V/M,+s{*(P*)~Bpa}
"17"
it is evident
integration,
to any assignedposition
that this formula applies
generally
throughoutthe entire periodof each revolution of the shaft,
if we
signification,
give to the symbols x, a the following
By attendingto
the nature
of the
e., x
in which
Let
us
the
was
velocity
take the
(w).
practical
case,
in which
the revolution of
54:
THE
MATHEMATICAL
the annexed
In
Fig. E
wheel,which
the eccentric
flywheel of the
OF
THEORY
engine;
stationary
this
embraces
hoop BOD
wheel so as jnstto allow it
a
to turn
the
two
BFC
frame
the
the bent
on
axis
A,
the centre G.
the frame BFO
and
rightand left,
the
When
revolves
drawn
will be
the
extremityF of
which
lever FGH,
hoop with
turns
connects
its eccentric
on
to
alternately
the
will
procating
circle ; the reci-
revolution
of a
two
describe at every
arcs
thus
of
motion
F,
produced,transmits a like kind
of motion to the other end of the lever,to which the slidevalve of the engine is attached.
"
crank
The eccentric arm
or
rotation into
of converting
valuable property of beginningthe motion
and again gradually
retardingit so
gently,
mode
in each direction
as to avoid jerks.
worth
correct
it in
it is often
the law of
train.
By
velocity
trains of
link-work
complexlaws
very
"
To
Construct"an Eccentric
Wheel.
From
requirementsof mechanism
crank,and
by
as
the
is producedso simply,
that
reciprocation
but the
adaptedto
best
always the
not
to work
; and
from E
Example.
"
have
stroke
Suppose
of 16
an
eccentric
wheel
inches,the diameter
is
of the
requiredto
shaft being
"
and
8 +
jr
+ 2
wheel
required.
13
inches,the radius
of the
eccentric
THE
Let S
56
ENGINE.
STEAM
MOTION.
PARALLEL
to the
simpleand
pistonrod.
move
on
are
connected by
0 0
to
be made
Now, if CB
alternately
upwards and downwards, which will cause
and let M
move
O D
which
OB, OD,
to
be the middle
on
move
of B D.
its centre
0 in the
same
manner,
it will be
that the
time
at the same
of the rod B 0 is drawn a littleto the right,
extremityD of the rod 0 D is drawn a little to the left.
scends;
When
the extremityB descends,the extremityD also dethus the two extremities are again drawn, the one. a
and the other a little to the left. It will
littleto the right,
be readily
understood that while the ends of the rod or link
its
BD
made
thus alternately
to move
are
.rightand left,
middle
pointM
the
will not
Fig.
When
so
employedthe
beam
of the
most
universally
in the annexed
engine becomes
56
THE
MATHEMATICAL
OF
THEORY
B is half thisbeam,
one
links E
It has two
BF,
which
the
ED
BF
is termed
link, and
main
.
below
link;
back
the
and these
D
D,
it,of
jointedto
are
by
connected
third link
parallel
equalto B E.
F, called the
rod,and
radios
The
rod
bridle
rod
or
CD
is
the end D of
the back link ED, and
0 is fixed
its centre
to
jointed
at
vertical distance
below
or
equalto
BF.
length
The
E D
pointto
parallel
the parallel
motion,
partsconstituting
CD
DF
AE*
AE"
or
CD
"
DF
lengthof
will be obtained; so
motion
parallel
in one, and is
two
motions
parallel
the
commonly so employed in steam engines,
by suspending
from F, and the air-pump rod Qrf
great pistonrod PF
taken, an
The
of the pointd
position
formula,
following
ED.
_
AE
"
d^aeTed
If the
is found
of
position
the
pointd
be
given,the lengthof
the
TAB
G D
formula,which
radius rod
BTBAM
be found
may
67
ENGINE.
the preceding
by transposing
gives
0D,AB(BD.fDJ)
When
the
lengths of
(2)
given,the lengthof
formula
the
0 D
may
be found
by
(2).
PADDLE
WHKTETA
may be considered as a
series of levers coming into successive action upon the water.
Each arm
of the wheel to which a float is attached represents
The
floats of the
paddlewheel
to the motion
water
the
and
board
power
is producedby the reaction of the water on the paddle
(asthere can be no reaction if the surface of the paddle
the true fulcrum
does not move
through the water),
must
be at that
fulcrum
board
would
of the
to
to
Hence
statical
to
requisite
move
theory may
be
deduced
for the
paddlewheel.
power
58
ON
THE
KINDS
DIFFERENT
1. Field's Paddle
wheel,differsfrom the
of the
Lords
of the
took out
OF
PADDLE
WHEELS.
OF
THEORY
MATHEMATICAL
THE
exhibited
was
before
same
the
; but the
credit of it clearly
belongedto the first-named gentleman.
Journal
Mr. Field thus describes his wheel in the London
for
December, 1835
Each
"
"
into several
is divided
board
boards,and
arranged in,
parts,or
such
nearlyin,.
or
that
(to
narrower
curves
cycloidal
thus
succession,
pleasant
board, so unand wasteful
to the vessel,
passengers, injurious
the
simultaneously
cannot
board, and, consequently,
lop*up."
of these wheels :
Mr. Barlow givesthe following
description
"The
principleof this contrivance consists in dividing
the paddle into a number
of parts,which are placed upon
the wheel in "the curve
-of a cycloid,
that "theyenter the
so
water
escapes
"
"
water
at
the
spot and
-same
follow
one
another
so
rapidly
the water
readilyfrom them."
There is some
difference of opinionrespecting
"the advantages
and disadvantages
of these wheels.
Mr. Barlow says
the use of the cycloidal
that
wheel is very likely
to become
that of Morgan, from its superior
general,and supersede,
while it does away
with most of the
strengthand simplicity,
to escape
"
evils
to
which
the
common
wheel
is subject."
Mr.
it.
rather to underrate
Mornay, on the contrary,seems
His opinionis," that it remains to be decided by experiment,
whether
the disadvantages
of this wheel are
balanced
overthe
to possess."
advantagesit seems
This wheel has been improved since the time of its first
introduction,in the followingrather remarkable
manner.
At the time of the adoption
of this wheel,it was
with six or
by
seven
common
paddleboards.
THE
in her
used
the wheels
'{indeed
reduced
This number
59
ENGINE.
STEAM
have
Majesty'sservice
now
boards
only two
in
found1 to be more
as
advantageous.
set),
every reduction1 was
carried
be
these
on
farther,
However,
improvementscannot
in that
as
they
case
would
to
return
the
wheel
common
again.
Western
Great
The
simpleof
a
British
and
Queen
are
among
the
Wheels
Floats.
Oblique
patent in 1836.
S.
"
One
paddleboards
the
of the patent,however,
but the making one
half of them
of the most
he obtained
Hall,for which
to
enter
placed
are
The
subject
obliquefloats,
the water
in
one
Morgan'sPaddle
construction
is
wheel.
FeatheringFloats. The
follows. The
paddlesturn
with
Wheel
of this wheel
common
as
"
spindles,
having a bearingon the framework and on the
wheel,which is polygonal,
having as many sides as there are
inside
frame or polygonalone is attached to
paddles. The
the shaft of the engine,which does not continue beyond the
side of the vessel;and the outer one. has an independent
bearingon a centre attached to the jmddle box, so that it
derives its motion entirely
from the arms
or
angles of the
the spacebetween the two frames being leftentirely
polygon,
the
tree.
A
crank is fixed to the paddle box, on which
outer polygon revolves ; it projects
in an inclined direction
on
in the open
paddle has
and
arms
boss,which
of these
fixed centre; one
is fixed to the boss,and is calledihe dividing
arms
arm.
This wheel is quitefree from back-water,and from any
shock,as
both
revolves
the
upper
on
and
.lower
edges-of
the float
are
GO
MATHEMATICAL
THE
THEORY
OF
their
respective
cycloidsat the time of
These wheels have alwaysbeen praised
enteringthe water.
their strength,
and their durability,
for their beautiful action,
for the safety,
comfort,and economy with which
as well as
theyare attended. They have been adoptedin many govern
nearlytangents
to
ment
steamers, and
and mercantile
alwayswith
It
success.
advantage is
effective power =
'660 in the
in
arises
and
'666
This
from the
wheel,
Morgan's.
of the
power
common
engine1, the
to obtain the
velocity
required
the vessel,
being fully
equal to
recedingof
or
obliqueaction
in the
wheel
common
In
cases
ance
resistthat of
of
deep
immersion
In the Firebrand
and less float,
gave
We
been
To
found
to
possess
Centre
findthe
no
of
Pressure
in
Morgan's Paddle
Board, dec.
Put
and
and
rollingcircle
and d
the depth of the paddleboard ; then
respectively,
the depthof the centre of pressure from the upper edge of
is
the paddleboard,as deduced from Mr. Barlow's formula,
=
"/(R-r)
dy
"
Example.
"
steam
The
vessel is 9 J
6| feet,and
the diameter
the
radius
of the wheel
feet,the radius
of
depth,
of the centre
(R
the
Tj.
of fhe
of the
paddleboard
of pressure.
Messenger
rollingcircle is
2 feet ;
required
62
board is 10 feet
square
THEOEY
MATHEMATICAL
THE
long and
2 broad, its
area
OF
is 10
20
feet; hence,
(6-34yx62ix20
=
7871bfl"nearly
o4$
The
of
velocity
1238*6
the
centre
12386
787
Screw
have
now
objectsof
above, is
nearly.
PROPELLERS.
means
of steam
power,
they are
for
SOEEW
for navigation,
by
propellers
become
found
59 horse powers,
33-000
MAMNB
of pressure,
STEAM
THS
63
BHGINB.
gunshot. Screw
however
variouslythey may be modified,all
propellers,
derive their power of propelling
by beingplacedon an axis
which is parallel
to the keel,and by havingthreads or blades
from
the axis,which form segments of a helix,or
extending
the threads or
spiral
; so that by causing the axis to revolve,
in the same
their way through the water, much
blades worm
inserts itselfinto a pieceof wood,
as a carpenter's
screw
way
of the screw-propeller
of its
with the difference in the case
is not of recent
making the water recede. Screw propelling
in 1768,
invention : M. Duquet in 1727, and Mr. Pancton
both producedmachinery of this kind; other inventions followed
to
as
secure
until
Archimedes
the
When
in
Thames
date.
recent
1836,
was
screw
was
the
river
represented
as
in the
". e., a
iron,bent to
figure,
fitsixteen wrought-iron arms
fixed round the axis at equal
This screw, from
so
or
screw.
as to form
a helix,
distances,
thread of long pitch,
its having only one
viz.,45", caused a
in the water, and a great deal of vibration
that on reachingSheerness the
of the vessel,
so
great commotion
in the stern
vessel was
laid
off at
equalintervals ;
form
of the
screw
series
a
finally,
Admiralty,with
the adoptionof
notimproved. The
then
changed to a
experimentswas made
was
of
double
by
one
order
and,
of the
which
were
produced in
had
been
Mr.
Rennie's conoidal
speed which
had
time.
speed
The
ever
the
Dwarf
screw
been attained
attained
by
then
fastest steamers
screw
the Archimedes
the
by
as
first experiment,
was
Archimedes
up to that
about
was
of the
beat most
all round
voyage
Great
Oporto
The
Archimedes
in 69
hours, and
returned
from
Plymouth
thence,against
screw.
04:
THE
MATHEMATICAL
THEORY
"
of the marine
Its chief
produced.
one
probably
is
Screw Propeller.This
QrijjitKt
best modifications
OF
which
screw
in
consists
peculiarity
blades of the
of the
portion of the
the blades A, A, A terminating
the sphere instead of
upon
It has
upon the usual boss.
been found by experimentthat
the
central
portion of
blades of the
absorbs
the
screw
common
nearly20 per
cent, of
propelling
power,
out
with-
giving
useful
out
any
in consequence
effect,
off at
the
rightangles,thus disturbingthe
the
is
water
solid
more
effective
and
more
portionof
upon which the outer
of
the
is
about
The
fore,
to act.
use
screw
sphereis,therethe space otherwise occupiedby the central
to fillup
water
the
being
line with
that
shaft,so
of that
the blades
portionof
nearly in
thrown
the
by
the revolutions
lessened by this
considerably
consists
contrivance. Another feature in Griffith'spropeller
in the peculiar
form of the blades,
which, unlike the common
largertowards the sphere and smaller towards
screw, are
the extremities : the diameter
of the sphere being oneof the
common
screw
are
diameter
of the
screw,
the
breadth
of
of the blades.
at their ends
which
is to
The
objectin reducingthe
blades
with
compensate for the varyingvelocity
water.
There
is stillanother
of alteringthe
power
suitable arrangement of
sphere; or,
under
feature in this
pitch or
t.
propeller,
angle of
"., the
the blades
by
if it be wished
to
be feathered
sail
(asin Maudslay's
THE
screw),so
feathering
and thus
"
to
as
of resistance to the
cause
Maudday't FeatheringScrew.
on
the
65
ENGINE.
STEAM
"
The
following
page.
This
ship.
is sented
reprebe
to
tained
obsought
object
the vessel is put under
screw
should be placed iu a
not required,
and the screw
direction parallel
with the line of the keel,and so form, as it
of the dead wood, as they cause
considerable
were, a portion
canvas,
obstruction
they
if
thoughtheybe
or even
position,
and allowed
fitted with
to
a
allowed
be
fixed in their
from the engine
disconnected
auxiliarysailingvessels,not
aperture for the purpose of raising
In
revolve.
trunk
remain
to
or
valuable ; but
of the water, this is particularly
the
it will also be found useful in shipsof war, by lessening
the
screw
width
out
of the trunk
through which
it has
which
facility
for
or
placingthe vessel under canvas
for placingthe vessel under canvas
as
possibleto keep the enginesat work
other
by
The
causes.
means
of
blades
oatch and
if this be
rise,
emergencies,
to
it givesin
steam,
as
when
it may
not
for want
of fuel
are
well
under
or
position
passingthrough the
figure."
screw,
be
stern
screw
mean
The
is understood
the
When
"
This
the
area
by the
of the blades is
obliquesurface should
spoken
from
distinguished
especially
surface.
area
area
2 feet below
or
always be
the
of the resisting
planeprojection
latter measurement,
as
representing
of surface
directly
employed in the propulsion
is probablythe most important
of these
vessel,
Murray
on
the Marine
Engine,Weale's
Series.
66
THE
1st. In
2nd.
THEORY
MATHEMATICAL
position
for use
as
OF
propeller.
under
In position
for sailing
canvas
alone.
8TBAM
THE
Various
for
Hann
The
one
THEORY
authors
have
OF
given their
of the
power
"
Gener's
Treatise
and
surface of the
Let
at that
The
screw.
the Steam
on
it revolves
is
following
Engine."
line normal
to the extent
uniformly,
theoretical deductions
is generatedby
screw
axis,round which
revolution.
SCREW.
THE
determiningthe
from
the
THE
ENGINE.
with
point,
axis ;
to the
planesection perpendicular
a)
Then,
u==ku,=s2Zia
(2)
(3)
\
/
tan
"
"
2r*r
Effective
angularvelocity
rwtano-v
r
,.
_l^
to the
Velocityperpendicular
J sin
(rw tan
v) cos
"
Elementarysurface
at P
(u
=
.
cos
.*" the
v) cos
"
r ;
elementary
pressure
W
"V
a/
sin
o\
"
"""""
screw
(cos
r o"
(*"")-
dp
2wr
d
-"
(u
cos* a
t;)2
"
'
2 g
cos
W
as
)lWu
"
"
"" r
cos
(u
"
A. tut-f*
liriCfijA*^
^ W"fi*
v)8.
Dgitlzec
a.
of
screw
and let
*="
to
68
THE
THEORY
MATHEMATICAL
Let
"
"
("
OF
*)"
(4)
Cr*dr
and
dp
Or d
cos
"
from formula
"
vk%
r2
(3);
t*dr
C. "* (effective
power)=
A
Let,therefore,
r2
(dp cob a)
(5)
X")
X
"*
2*
,2
log
J AXC
J ifa
tf^
"2
(,ftv
'
6^0'and
Multi^by3^0
=
Mftke
""
But,
if S
4^)
the
t", and
A*0
u.
Sxoi.
r^
Again,hy (6)the
A*0
m
Ac("A c (u
(7)
v)2v,)
"
v)2u)
,ft*
*
effective propelling
pressure
?^
("-*)".
n-
2^
"
S v2 ;
70
ON
OP
THEORY
MATHEMATICAL
THE
BOILERS.
boiler for 20
6 feet wide ;
boiler of 14
a
60 feet of surface, or
horse -powers
allow
but engineersgenerally
4*3 feet to 1 horse -power;
5 feet of surface to 1 horse -power ; and Mr. Hicks,of Bolton,
zontal
his boilers at the rate of 5J square feet of horiproportions
Mr.
horse -power.
allows 25 cubic feet of space to each horse -power.
of water
surface
to
Watt
each
On
engines,the length of
locomotive
feet
12
and
the Bordeaux
On
Stephenson's
boiler is between
the
and
In
La
Teste
11
Bailway the
found
15 inches
then
be
may obviously
to
considerably.It is usual,however, in practice
its diameter
proportion
to
multiplyingthis diameter
in inches.
steam
dome
of the
be
cylinders
15 X
The
varied
1*43
the diameter
by
1*43
of the
for the
cylinder,
by
diameter
of the
15 inches ; then
21*45 inches
diameter
of the dome.
be considerably
Height of the Steam Dome
may
it appears that a uniform
; but judgingfrom practice,
heightof 2b
The
Dome
Area
feet would
of
the
answer
in all cases.
follows
in practice,
Fire-grate,
more
THE
71
ENGINE,
STEAM
to do ;
causes
be
not
the
nearlyas long as
furnace
of
rule
manageable. However, the practical
is
fire-grate to multiplythe diameter
inches by #77,and the productis the area
the
'77
let the
example,
STEAM
It is usual in
quite as
to find the
area
of
of the cylinder
in
of the fire-grate
diameter
area
resemble
of the
of the
cylinders
fire-grate.
PIPES.
have
valve
exhausting-valve passages
exhausting
Indeed,the largerthe
passages.
are, the
better.
The
method
onlyproper
of
the
proportioning
steam
sages
pas-
of the
by taking into consideration the velocity
Mr.
them.
steam
through
Tredgold says, the force of steam
in the boiler,
and the area
of the
multiplied
by the velocity
the
be
elasticforce
must
the
to
tiplied
on
equal
pistonmulpassage,
by its area and velocity.That is,
is
Where
is the
A V p.
area
AVo
a
./
AVo
or
*
=
fv
72
MATHEMATICAL
THE
THE
The
by
AIR-PUMP,
of
proportion
Mr.
Watt,
THB0R7
is
OF
"e.
CONDENSER,
the diameter
air-pump,as given
of the
of the diameter of
the lengthof the stroke of the air-bucket
about two-thirds
usually
the
when
cylinder,
is half the lengthof
air-pump;
have
the
flapor
The
same
larger.
THE
When
SLIDE-VALVE
the breadth
OF
THE
STEAM
ENGINE.
is
just
is the
When
lap,and
BO
the slide
or
D E
begins to
the breadth
from
of the steam
port.
extremityof its
F
D
arrives
and
at
the
when
it has passed
stroke,
point
;
which is its position
half its travel,
shown
the
as
over
m
that
the
F
is
evident
it
has
moved
the
point
over
figure,
the
breadth
is
to
which
of
the
F
steam
D,
equal
space
port
added to the lap; the slide next, moving throughthe other
half of its travel,will bringthe pointA to 0, a space which
is also equalto the breadth of the steam
port added to the
the
slide is equalto twice
lap; therefore the whole travel of
move
one
TBS
the
the
73
ENGINE.
STEAM
of the breadth
sum
of the steam
In this figurethe slide has
lap.
followingmethod
The
of
no
lengthof
lead.
of the
positions
openingsof the steam
showing
the
GEOMETRICAL
From
of the
scale of
divided
piston,
equalto
CONSTRUCTION.
the
lengthof
and
inches,
the stroke
with
radius
which
will
Also form
"
with
steam
the radius 0 p
equalto the
port describe the circle p q
the travel of the slide ; on
lapand
"
"
breadth
of
one
"
74
to
the
THEORY
MATHEMATICAL
THE
OF
crank
the
piston,
having arrived
atD.
ascertain the
"
"
to H
0, and from
through the
centre
angles town;
breadth
if the
O, and
then
of the steam
pistonhas
draw
e',which
from the
if
equalto the
that time.
Again,
to HO,
vw
parallel
travelled
at
draw
33" inches,
TEE-
and from
to m
be
draw
draw
y,
STEAM
75
ENGINE.
to
radiating
cutting
p O in k
tax
shall next
steam
Draw
the
length of
the
stroke
and
the crank
orbit
as
76
MATHEMATICAL
THE
radius,describe
THEORY
OF
the circle
and parallel
to the line
PoQ;
riy',respectively*
cuttingp q in P
Fp'
port b.
time at the
0, the pistonbeing at the same
its stroke,the slide will be opened the distance
crank arrives at
upper end of
I m ; and when
open
the crank
the distance
ports; when
the crank
arrives
at
arrives at
w, the lower
shown
position
Formula and
of the
and Lead
Slide.
stroke
$ =
stroke of the piston,
is cut off;
distance before the steam
lead,S
figure.
following
Examplesforthe Lap
lap,V
and
slide,
Let I
of the
in the
port is shut,and
then
a)
....
(2)
78
the
"
them
"
out
backward
THEORY
MATHEMATICAL
THE
"
engine ;
of the
motion
OF
but
of
only two
work
of
at one
at one
of the
driving
wheels.
parts by which
3rd. The
engine-man
the
are
three
off" the
to
steam
Blide-valves in
the
*'
water
cylinders,
backward"
or
the
rods,
valves,
rods,regulator
shut
on
or
"put
to the boiler,
put the
sets
eccentric
to the slide-valve,
and feed-pipe
cocks; by which he can
connected
controls
of Jevers
and
"
"forward"
,
"
at
position,
gear.
4th. The
are
concerned
parts essentially
two
in
motion
producing locotwo
steam-tight
in which work
cylinders,
pistonrods. On the exterior ends of the
which
fixed T pieces,
also called crossheads,
pistonswith their
pistonrods
are
slidebetween
to the
the
as
or
round
direction
in arightline in the same
pistoncan only move
the lengthsof the cylinders.Two
strong rods, called
of the
connecting rods,attach the crossheads to the arms
drivingwheels, or to a cranked axle, where there is one
Whether
the
wheels.
5th. The
parts which
forcing
pumps,
connected
supplywater
by
two
to 4he
feedingpumps
boiler
are
to the
two
boiler,
rapidcombustion of fuel
required in the locomotive engineare the chimney and the
contrived as to cover
the exhaustingpassages
so
blast-pipe,
6th. The
parts which
excite the
THE
STEAM
79
ENGINE.
in
and terminating
cylinders,
from
both
valves,which
causes
heard
when
The
the
"
beats
"
the locomotive
er
"
commences
of
and utility
generalproperties
more
two, four,or
suitable set
"
pulsationsso
tinctly
dis-
its motion.
the steam-blast
on.
fixed,and on which
machineryalreadydescribed is securely
also securely
bound.
the boiler and cylinders
are
8th. From
the co-operation
of the several parts already
described locomotion is produced in the following
manner.
until
it completely
The boiler is charged with water
surrounds
tubes and the internal fire-box,and
applied,in due time steam is produced from
all the
being
fire
the
working position
by the engine-man; the steam rushes
the boiler through the steam-pipeto the cylinders,
where its force moves
the pistons,
which, being attached to
the drivingwheels (as has been alreadyexplained),
cause
thus producinglocomotion.
The slide-valves
them to revole,
of the parts set in
and pumps,
being wrought by some
motion by the pistons,
regulatethe admission of steam to
and of water
the steam
to the boiler. When
the cylinder,
has moved *the pistonto the end of the cylinder,
a passage is
opened for its escape to the atmospherethrough the blast
velocityof this escapingsteam
pipe,and the intermitting
in the chimney,causinga rush or
creates
vacuum
a partial
from
"
blast
steam
to the
SO
THE
MATHEMATICAL
THEORY
OF
by
the second
and
of these simpleoperations
has amazed
repetition
the world by safelyconveying heavy passenger
gratified
trains at upwards of sixtymiles per hour, and merchandise
trains of six hundred tons weight at twenty -five miles per
would
idea of which, not many
hour I the mere
years since,
have been regardedas purelyfabulous.
Such
is the modern
locomotive
engine an illustrative
example of the genius of man ; but, like other important
itis the joint
of many minds, and many
inventions,
production
The
"
stilldirected
are
more
to
its further
Office show
improvement. The
that,from January,1840,
two
hundred
and
less
scene
more
at
the
time
same
lies the
brief review
be here
can
of both.
success
years
by
shown
of steam
and recorded
were
than two hundred
but it islittlemore
years
Marquis
of Worcester.
first usefully
employed by the
The firstidea of usingit for propelling
is generally
ascribed
carriages
1759, when
a
steam
had
no
it
was
suggestedto
him
to
Dr.
Eobinson,in
never
carried
THE
81
ENGINE.
STEAM
mind
comprehensive
would
have accomplished
what
speedily
in attaining.
From
successors
were
a longseries of years
1802 to 1805, Trevithick appliedsteam
carriagesto both
common
About
made
in 1811
and
suite
This
was
of Westphalia
convey their Majesties
the mineral railwayat a considerable speed.
employedto
was
over
probablythe
1805 to 1814
of the wheels
some
tried,
first royaltripon
invention
was
directed to
a
ensure
railway.From
the adhesion
the
and many
rails,
ingeniousplanswere
upon
of which succeeded well at slow speeds,
but were
at all calculated
broke
down
for
before the
distance
required
"E
was
completed.
82
THE
Rocket
The
embraced
locomotive
modern
the
OF
THEORY
MATHEMATICAL
the
tubes
former
of
blast-pipe
and
(twenty-five
in
the
number)
were
was
which
was
From
on
Mr.
Hack worth's
183Q, up
which
invention.
to the introduction
own
Railwayin 1838, no
sprung
developtheir
up
of the
between
the
The
gauges
seven
-feet gauge
marked
improvement
however,
rivalry,
tended
greatlyto
capabilities.
THE
This
but
is the
on
below
the
STEAM
83
ENGINE.
plan adopted on
the Great
Western
Railway ;
carriagefor
agitatedthe
the earliestintroduction of
From
eight wheels
appear
of
the
makers
designs
of the
to
have
; but about
in the
on
1840-42
animated
an
railwaypress.
tended
opinionevidently
the Bafer of the two
but
all
cussion
dis-
six-wheeled
Both classes
have their
mechanical
locomotives,
four,six,or
been
merits
respective
carried
engineswas
as
have
public
engine
contingencies
; hence
the
eight-wheeled
engineson both gaugeB, weighingabout
36 tons each,which realised speedsof about sixtyand seventy
it will
miles per hour.
The weightof these monster
engines,
be
observed,was
eight times
weight of the
in
the
won
prize 1829; whilst the
miles per
speed is only-twice that of the Rocket (thirty-five
hour)at that time. It is worthy to remark that the existing
Rocket
more
than
the
:(tytons),which
enginesin
-1829
were
from
10
to 16
\ tons, and
were
sidered
con-
to what
far too
may
be considered
as
proper and
in this
practicable
importantrespect.
84
THE
motion
TRAIN
MOVING
ON
When
MATHEMATICAL
the train of
on
ON
OF
LEVEL
RAILWAT.
locomotive
the
railway,
THEORY
of
power
its
engine commences
the engineexceeds
the
sistance,
re-
becomes
train will then be
uniform,which
is commonly called
steady
speed,or
speed; the work or motion
greatestor maximum
destroyedby the resistance being now exactlyequal to the
power exerted by the engine. See formula (v),
p. 32 ; see
Statics and Dynamics,"Weale's Series.
also
the
"
by experimentthat
the friction
on
the
or
"
weightw
of the
train, beingthe
"
-efficient
co
resistance to motion
the
on
no
railwayis
also
train,"
the
"-
"
space
H
Let
requiredto
power
in feet moved
move
in the time
over
in
of horse-powers
in P; then,
number
since 33000 are the.
estimated number of units of work which
horse
can
one
perform in a minute,P = 33000 H = units
minutes,and
of work
pounds move4
or
one
foot in
minute,and
one
"
tO
feet moved
=
on
in
minute
one
by.the weight
units of work
a
level
in moving
.required
railway.
"\P
3,3000jH =
the
"
In railwaycalculations
miles,which
are
them
multiplying
most
commonly
for w, 5280
result after
to
is
train
"A"
given in
usually
be reduced
"
"
"
M=m^~
whenoe
"
or
carriages
in
; whence
"
to
pounds
tons, and
and
respectively
by 2240 and 5280 ;
280 ; if,therefore,
substitute
we
feet
also
2240
"
by
is
W
(A),there will
reduction,
y
86
THE
be drawn
"
on
6.
"
to, in
amount
level railwayby an
Example
OF
At what
5.
Example
THEORY
MATHEMATICAL
formula (A),
By transposing
33000
J_
.t
33000
48
60 x
_1_ "
_
'
"JT
~~
weight of
being reduced
the
2240
pounds
to
and
5280
feet
AGAINST
TRAIN
AND
FRICTION
45
280
50
the
MOVING
ON
"
ON
respectively.
THE
GRAVITY
and
JOINT
AN
RESISTANCES
INCLINED
OF
PLANE.
Dynamics,
J
txt
"
Weale
s, and
H,
feet,and
100
ri
ci
'
Series,
hn
"
"
"
respectively
represent the
.
requiredm
time
in
pounds,
feet moved
"
33000
in
one
An
in
weight
"
"
r-r^
100
as
let
the
moving
and
;
'
lOO.n
"?,
units of work
minute
by
the
weight
100
"
hn
100
_
tv
"
100
work
whence
zrp-r
100
s
w
"
...P
in the power
which
100
then
equal
'
siD
"B"
33000X100^
be
must
(100 + hn)
Whence
distance moved
of
8M0oJ=15^"i-.(PX"!
Now, let W
units
"
in the last
(B,)and
in formula
being substituted
as
ENGINE.
8TEAM
THE
being taken
87
after
H=
(1)
"
looo*,w
t.B.
1000
,
Whence
'
ft)W.
14
(5 +
256(5 + 14ft)B
1000
t.U
256
(5 +
14
256
(5 +
14
'
A) W
h) W
"
1000*.
,
1280
"
W.S
which
negativelywhen
in
moves
a
on
descendinggradientof a railway,
It also appears
gravityassists the moving power.
h is negativeand equal to ^ of a foot,then no
case
that when
is
required to
vanishes,since in this
power
be taken
h must
the train
(5)
3584
In
W.S
"
w
1000H
and
280,
reduction,
"
256
the
move
=
5 +
ascends
A train of 40 tons
case
Example 1.
rising2 feet in 100, with
"
of H
0.
a
railwaygradient,
By formula (1),
256
UK)
(5 +
256
(5 +
28)
40
15
_
~
1000
1000
84
"$
60
horse -powers.
in the last
horse -powers,
as
the train is 60 tons, the rise
example,when
of
in
motion 30 miles per hour.
" foot
100, and the rate
Answer.
92 horse -powers.
Required the
the weight of
Example 2.
"
"
Example
An
3.
"
gradient,rising
" of
horse -powers
ascends a
foot in 100, with a uniform
speed of
engine
a
of
75
1000
1
.
~"
256
(5 + 144) S
weight of
x
60
the train.
75
_
~
256
(5 +
V)
20
66-7.tonB-
88
THE
MATHEMATICAL
Example 4." A
falling
J of a foot
hour; what
per
THEORY
train of 120
in
100, with
uniform
gradient,
speed of
horse -powers
the
are
descends
tonB
a
OF
50 miles
exerted
the
by
engine?
Here
the
the h must
because
negative,
be
gradient;hence, by
256
(5
14
h)
formula
(1),
356
(5
j)
50
60
120
"
~*
1000
=
Example
1000
38f
horse ^powers.
5.
"
rise of -Jof a
its
when
horse-powersare
a
gradient,
having
40.
SAFETY
In locomotive
VALVES.
enginesthere
are
two
valves placed
safety
of steam when
it exceeds the
these valves. One of them
on
that
the
valves
have
the boiler
as
fast
as
it is
when
generated,
the
engine is
not
at work.
lever
ON
given.
THE
This
on
the
VARIABLE
RESISTANCES
TO
LOCOMOTIVE
ENGINES.
89
ENGINE.
STEAM
THE
the
varies
which
atmosphere,
winds
assist
or
retard
its motion
more
or
less,
except
resistance of the
it is considered
atmosphereis difficultto
the square
result of the experimentsof Pambour
here be
The
to vary
given,and also
power
estimated
moving parts of
steam
through
as
the
determine
velocity.The
these
shall
subjects
theory.
be
cannot
engine
exactly
examples to
of the locomotive
of the
the
on
illustratethe
by
boiler to the
90
THE
Example.
MATHEMATICAL
THEORY
OF
railwaytrain
can
being 90
8 x
tons.
90
720
(30\2
j
30
"
370
resistance of the
friction,
atmosphereagainst
the train.
720
-f 270
of the
train,
3-1416
wheels in
whole
18-8496
feet moved
by
over
the
driving
revolution,
one
18-8496
990 lbs.
990
18661-104
work
of resistance in
one
revolution.
Since the
enginehas
two
and
cylinders,
each
makes
piston
1
per
100
square
3
-jr-x 4
inch
on
the
600
the work
in
.pistons
of 1 lb. pressure
revolution
one
of the
drivingwheels.
effective pressure of one
square inch of the piston,
by the work of 1 lb. per square inch pressure in
multiplied
must
be equalto the resistances in one revolution
revolution,
one
The
hence,
18661-104
"
"
600
1AO
031*102
"
lbs. =
pressure
on
one
square inch.
the
as
directly
and
hence, at
that
velocity,
"175
30
31102
.-.
91
ENGINE.
STEAM
THE
5*25 lbs.
X 31102
resistance of the
+ 15 + 1
+ 525
blast-pipe,
56-795 lbs.
"
"
140
of revolutions of the
number
60
per minute.
drivingwheels
4
140
"
31416
6 x
560
of strokes of the
number
pistonper
minute.
100
3
X
ttt
-7T
560
cubic
583
feet
of steam
volume
144
feet
is
"
; and
117
since
bushel
number
and
minute
evaporatedper
for 5
hours,which
it
requiresto
go
150
over
miles,
117
there results
-ry~
60
32 bushels of
For
90 tons 150 miles.
convey
the new
these importantsubjects,
see
to
on
the Steam
coals,nearly,
further information
edition of
"
on
Tredgold
Engine."
the subject
of the motion of locomotive engines
la concluding
Note.
on
out
it will be here proper to remark that the methods
of laying
railways,
of cutting,
the ground,
on
railway-curves
embanking,"c, were first prepared
the
author
the
work
of
this
of the railwayera (1824);
commencement
at
by
in
and have since that time been fully
not onlyin this
adopted practice,
its
and
but also in India,the United States,
numerous
colonies,
kingdom and
other foreign
than thirty
thousand copiesof his works,
countries;more
embodyingthese methods in a practical
form, have been sold. He also gave
the contents of railway
a greatly
improvedmethod of calculating
cuttings,
lands and commons
of variable
and remodelled the severalmethods of dividing
"
92
THE
OF
THEORY
MATHEMATICAL
in proportion
to the value of their claims,
value among the several claimants,
mathematics
scientific
of
a more
thus givingthese importantparts
applied
"
Baker's
See
Land
form than theypreviously
and comprehensive
possessed.
"
and
Weale's Series,
and Baker's
and Engineering
Engineering
Surveying,"
Earthwork."
ON
THE
STEAM-BLAST,
OR
STEAM-
JET, IN LOCOMOTIVES,
ETC.
circumstance
bears
steam
the intermittent
M. Peclet's
"
was
not
greater
See
94:
equationfrom which
can
readilybe
an
THEORY
MATHEMATICAL
THE
OF
the volume
found
temperature.
and hence
T/*'+
would
that if h
the
difference,
x/tf+
459\
_
459
h(t!"t)
/rt,
column
of air at t!,
having
would be expelled
from
the chimney,which
increase
of temperature.
it by
The
an
height of
reduced
such expelled
air
of
the
to
column,
temperature t,
the
area
same
as
such
would
be
(f +
K{l! -t)
^
This may
v
which
459
459
*)
""
if+
459
theorem
as
that
is
459
'
height;whence
same
(t
y/ motive height
is the
i!
"
cepting
given by Tredgold,exthat given
littleless than
by Regnault.
THE
Vl'./7iJuA tiurr
STEAM
95
ENGINE.
It--
MISCELLANEOUS
1. Given the
area
of the
EXAMPLES.
of a high-pressure
piston
stationary
r
^
'
'
..
""'
*
"
%X
the
feet,
minute,-N^V^
*"
H*lf^"*.
\*
engine 400
/,
"
* *
is cut off at 1 foot of the stroke,,
the clear -v'*
the pressure of steam is 30 lbs.,,
the elas---;
2.7. "2
*^ance is i of a foot,
ticityof vapour in the condenser is 4 lbs.,the effective
#5
feet,the
'
steam
of
the boiler is -J-
"
"":
the clearance
lengthof the stroke includingclearance 10J feet,
of
is
off
2
feet
the
cut
of
the stroke,..
steam
\ -0
at
a
foot,
being -J
;"
'
"
in the cylinder
is 48 lbs. per square
the pressure of steam
the*r
of vapour in the condenser is 4 lbs.,
inch, the elasticity
total resistance from friction is If lbs. per square inch of the
.
piston,the
effective evaporation
of the boiler is "" of
duty
of the
engine,allowingone
bushel
cubic
minute, the
minute,and
to
evaporate
of the
'
pistonis 1500
area
6quare inches,lengthof X-Z '.
the stroke including
clearance of 6 inches is 9 feet,
the steam
c
"
z
'
"
is
the number
"
"- The
area
"
"
'
-*
steam
lt$*~
and the
"
""
quantity
of the
"
'
""
f
'
"
-
:i
"
, .
stroke,and the total resistance of vapour in the condenser and of friction are
together 5^ lbs.;requiredthe
of the
horse -powers.
I
I
96
6. The
MATHEMATICAL
THEORY
OF
horse-powersof
an
engineare 200, the lengthof \
stroke with clearance of 6 inches is 10 feet,the steam is
^cnt off at 20 inches of the stroke,the pressure of the steam
"
y"
:.
THE
"'
of vapour
the elasticity
45 lbs.,
3-r.V7'is
in the condenser
is 4
lbs.,
|bad
7. The
area
of the
of the stroke
pressure of
vapour in the condenser
and
friction are
inch
lbs.
5
what
at
together
; required
part of the
per square
be cut off so as to yieldall its work,
stroke the steam
must
the horse -powers of the enginertheuseful load on
of water evaporated. 1 'ir.'
and the quantity
Let
of the piston=
3600 square
the
8.
area
the
piston,
'
*""
.","""
""*
10
inches,the
feet,the number
of strokes per
*i minute = 18, the elasticity
of the steam
36 lbs.,
that of
=
the resistance of friction
the vapour in the condenser including
h
of the stroke ; required
5 lbs.,
and the steam is cut off at -Jthe
"i
'
3
'
is 50
cylinder
the steam
be
must
the
resistance of the vapour in the condenser togetherwith the
friction of the engineis 5 lbs. per square inch on the piston?
10. The length of the stroke is 10 feet,
the steam is cut
/.V*
cut
"
off at
A
'
$ of the stroke,the
of the
pistonis 3600
square
"*"? uX
...
the length
P^8tonifl2000 square inches,
the clearance of 6 inohes is 12 feet,
of the stroke including
"\*^ the effective evaporation
is ^f of a cubic foot per minute,
in the cylinder
is 50 lbs.,
and the
; the pressure of the steam
of the vapour in the condenser togetherwith the
\
elasticity
'^Resistance of friction is 6 J lbs.;requiredthe pointat which
11- ^ne
'- ,o3
*:
area
area
"f tne
must
be
"
the
.
steam
cut
off,so
may
be
THB
the
expended,
number
STEAM
97
ENGINE.
of strokes per
water,
i
12. The
diameter
stroke
of the
10
of the
is 40 inches,
the length
cylinder
be obtained
by
means
of
APPENDIX.
ON
THE
STRENGTH,
IMPORTANT
FRICTION,
PARTS
OF
ON
In
and
STEAM
THE
Mr.
SEVERAL
ENGINE.
GUDGEONS.
gudgeons,one
for wear,
ETC., OF
this
Tredgold,on
usuallyallowed
gives the
principle,
is
following
Rule.
Multiplythe
"
stress in
pounds hy
of the
in inches.
2240
12
215040
60
lengthof the
product,divided
the
215040
nearly,
fiO
and
-"
6| inches,the
diameter
of the
gudgeon.
CRANKS.
force
or
"
"
and
not
requiredits breadth
exceed
-^ of
an
and
inch.
depth,so
that
99
APPENDIX.
6000
the
By
3s
'1
rule,
rrrr
"
be assumed
inches,then
the
nearly
6 inches
of the
cube
:=
the breadth.
by
depth multiplied
If the breadth
nearly
609
=*
JobJ
depth,
If the
depth at
995
"
-"
depth multiplied
by
of the
cube
; then
instead of 2662
1628
be taken
if the breadth
breadth; and
the
where
inches,as
"
before,then
"/"
995
"
6*93
6*93
and
"
"
3*465
the
inches,
Let P
f
and
AXLE.
number
ing
correspond-
; then
3-1416
7r
depth.
7T
AN
OF
FRICTION
lesser
work
inches,the
it
1500 lbs.,
on
weightof the shaft and other parts pressing
Example.
"
Given
making
expended on
the shaft
work
10 revolutions
per minute
3-1416
1500
-07
-5
quantityof
work
precedingformula
10
=
go
the
requiredthe
friction.
=
expended on
f
ono,,
^
54-992
lbs.,
100
APPENDIX.
FRICTION
ON
PIVOT.
the
symbolsP, r, n, /, representing
The
in the last
thingsas
formula
following
same
pivot,
4"2P/r"
the work
"
10
weight pressingupon
per minute; requiredthe
-efficientof friction /
co
2000
-07
25
10
of which
be shown
is
the frictionof
of
number
bears
largecylinder
the sum
of the
cylinders,
of the
in the
Let d
s=
diameter
and
==
the number
"
CYLINDERS.
OF
proportion which
"
ft.,
s=
FRICTION
may
pended
ex-
"
areas
pivot
work
4-2 X
The
friction.
Let the
'25 of
pivot
lbs. ; the
revolutions
on
of the
it 2000
the
inches,
makes
Given
Example.
3
expended on
of
"
of the small
one
of them
largecylinder
cylinders,
; then
it
n
"
/.
But
eP
*/n
area
diameter
the frictionis
cylinder
; therefore
of the
of the
largecylinder.
to the
proportional
circumference
of the
is
cylinders
d n,
ir
is
largecylinder
t
largecyKnderj
the
::wd
cylinders
::
\/".
largecylinder:
*Sn : wdn,
:
v^m;
y
the
of
friction
102
APPENDIX.
formula,
the
By
100
that is.
72
"
"
3-1416
202
=s
31416
7200
20
1256-64
^832
94-59 inche8"
of the roll.
nearly,the requireddiameter
placewith
go the
may
were
of strokes
number
same
the round
when
as
ropes
on.
If
Example.
"
up
shaft,the
where
ropes,
what
these round
engine may
the
go
of strokes
number
being\
d
x
fathoms,with
corf
round
each other,
do not coil upon
that the
of the flat rope roll,
so
same
is 60
drawing a
ropes
be the diameter
must
10 strokes in
engine goes
depth of which
an
before,the
as
inch ?
an
7T
"
n2 1
irn
AH
60
that
is,
79
72
"
3*1416
4320
To
When
inch
10
132-5
inches
,^ fi
the diameter
enginedraws
coals out of
each
the corves
will not pass
half way between the top and
corf which
from the
descends
in
findthe Position of the Meetings
an
157-08
=5
p..
OJ
102
"
3-1416
11 feet
"
Coal
Shaft.
103
APPENDIX,
in the
througha greaterspace
its number
below
same
midshaft.
the ropes
which the
the roll
on
are
ascendingcorf
findwhere
The
the
depth of
Ascendingand DescendingCorves
the Shaft.
the
depth
as
represented
Let
be
will meet in
given.
the
of the
meeting
dt
1.
At
what
distance from
the bottom
of a coal
radius
of
the
the
roll
corves
meet,
being 3" feet,
of
the
of
and
the depth of
thickness
the
rope being -J- a foot,
the shaft 170 fathoms?
6 x 170
1020
feet ; then,by
First,170 fathoms
Example
"
the
formula,
dt
\
^
1020
420*76
feet
the shaft ;
distance of the
meetings from
the bottom
of
104
APPENDIX.
whence, 1020
"
42076
59924
feet
distance of the
meetingsfrom
in the Monk
Wearmouth
Colliery?
TABLE
OF
HYPEEBOLIC
jp
LOGARITHMS.
106
APPENDIX.
107
APPENDIX.
108
APPENDIX.
110
APPENDIX*
APPENDIX.
Ill
112
AITBNDIX.
113
APPBHDIX.
114
APPENDIX.
TABLE
OF
FRICTION
OF
GUDGEONS
MOTION
ON
THEIR
OR
ENDS
AXLE
EN
BEARINGS.
Surfaces in Contact
In the usual
Con-
tinuously
way.
Oast-iron axles in
cast-iron bear-
ings
0054
greasy
014
0075
wrought iron
bearings
soft gom
damped
scarcely
greasy
lignum vitse
bearings
unguent
with oil or
Cast-iron axles in
016
019
018
hog'slard
009
0*056
016
greasy and
without
to 008
greasy
.
013
1007
028
019
hog'slacd,tallow,or
Cast-iron axles in
0054
to 008
0*10
of
l
ard
and
014
hog's
molyb
dena
with oilof olives,
Wrought-ironaxlesgreased
in cast-ironbear007 to 0*08
hog'slard,tallow,or
.
....
"
ings
...
soft gom
bearings.
.
bearings
.
bearings
axles J
Lignum-vitas
in ditto
lard
"
with hog's
lard
ligoum-vitae greased
bearings
.
011
010
009
}
.
0045
0052
0'12
015
greasy
...
025
019
with oil
greased
with hog'slard
greased with oil, or
tallow
with hog's
lard
greased
Lignum-vitaaxles
in
019
greasy
0054
009
scarcely
greasy
with oil,
or hog's
greased
.
0-08
0054
....
007
to
116
APPENDIX.
FRICTION
OF
TABLE
OF
ONE
{From
UPON
SURFACES
PLANE
THE
OTHER.
the experimentsof M.
Dispositionof
Surfaces in Contact.
Mbrm.)
the
wood
endways
ways
upon
dry soap
oak
Ash, fir,
beech,wild
and service-treeupon
oak
unguent
j
)
water
)-
parallel
/
perpendicular
pear-tree,
ditto
without
in
steeped
\
onwoodlengthElm
rubbed with
perpendicular
j
ditto
eieot of
Friction.
without
|
unguent j
ditto
oak
Co-effi-
State of the
Surfaces.
Fibres.
parallel
Oak upon
MOTION
IN
without
unguent /
ditto
ditto
019
036
io
040
026
rubbed with )
dry soap
without
with water
rubbed with
ditto
025
062
unguent /
Cast-iron upon oak
0-34
0-45
ditto
with water
ditto
016
043
ditto
0-48
0-21
049
0-26
j, 019
dry soap /
Copperupon
oak
.
ditto
oak
ditto
ditto
ditto
...
Tanned
lengthways j
without
unguent i
leatherupon cast-iron\
and brass
ditto
062
ditto
025
ditto
ditto
020
027
032
ditto
029
with water
without
unguent
in
steeped
Tanned
\
.
water
greasedand
in
steeped
water
with oil
0-56*
036
023
015
116
APPENDIX.
Surfaces
in Contact
Disposition of the
State of the
Fibres.
Surfaces.
without
in threads
upon oak
Hemp,
parallel
in cord,
or
perpendicular
parallel
Cast-iron ditto
brass
upon cast-iron
upon iron
!npon
....
unguent
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
Wild pear-tree
Iron upon iron
Iron upon cast-ironand brass
.
unguent
with water
without
....
greased in.\
the usual
way, with
ditto
tallow,
hog's
lard,oil,or
soft gom
slightly\
the]
greasy to
touch
without
ditto
unguent
ditto
ditto
oolite
brick upon calcareous )
Common
ditto
/
oolite
wood endways
Oak upon calcareous oolite
parallel
ditto
Wrought-iron
called
mus-1
Calcareous stone,
ditto
chelkalk,
upon muschelkalk }
ditto
ditto
ditto
....
upon \
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
saturated
"
.
"
wood
Printed by James
endways
parallel
with water
j
\