Journal 16

ISSN 1757-5834
PROFESSIONAL
strength & conditioning
The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association
No. 16 WINTER 2009

EDITOR
Ian Jeffreys MSc, ASCC, CSCS*D
EDITORIAL PANEL
Raphael Brandon MSc, ASCC
Clive Brewer MSc, BSc(Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Marco Cardinale PhD, ASCC
Dave Clark MSc, ASCC
Daniel Cleather MA, ASCC, CSCS
Paul Comfort MSc, ASCC
Audrey Duncan PhD, ASCC
Mike Favre MSc, ASCC
Duncan French PhD, ASCC
Jon Goodwin MSc, PGCHE, ASCC
Greg Haff PhD, ASCC, FNSCA, CSCS
Liam Kilduff PhD
Jeremy Moody PhD, ASCC
Phil Moreland BAppSci, AssocDip, ASCC
Narelle Sibte BAppSci, Grad Dip, ASCC
Alan Sinclair BSc (Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Gil Stevenson BEd (Hons), ASCC
Margaret Stone MSc, ASCC
Michael Stone PhD, ASCC
Mark Simpson MSc, ASCC
Graham Turner MSc, BEd (Hons), ASCC
COLUMN EDITORS
Graeme Close PhD, ASCC
Nick Ward MSc, CSCS
Stuart Yule BSc (Physio), ASCC
INSIDE
NEWS
page 2
FUNCTIONAL HYPERTROPHY
page 4
PERFORMANCE NUTRITION
page 12
EXERCISE OF THE MONTH

page 18
BIOMECHANICAL ASPECTS OF
SPRINT RUNNING
page 20
THE FIVE PEOPLE YOU MEET IN

HEAVEN
page 25
1 Woodville Terrace, Lytham,

Lancashire FY8 5QB.
t: 0845 300 8078
f: 0845 300 8079
e: info@uksca.org.uk
ith this, the winter, and final edition of Professional Strength and
Conditioning for 2009, I think it is appropriate that I pass on my
heartfelt thanks to all the people who have assisted me in the
production of the Journal over the past year. While I have my
name in print as editor, the Journal production really is a team effort, and
without the hard work of many people, the challenge of producing a quarterly
printed Journal would simply not be achieved. This work is carried out
voluntarily, and is in addition to everyday employment tasks, which makes
everyones efforts so valued and appreciated.
My primary thanks go to Kate Smith, at the UKSCA office, who is the true
champion of this venture. Emails from Kate are frequent and to the point,
reminding me politely, but firmly, of the constant need to move forward with
each edition. Whether this work involves liaising with authors, working with
reviewers, editing initial submissions, proof editing documents and revisions,
Kate reminds me of the deadlines and gently ensures that all tasks are
carried out in a timely manner. It is Kates tireless efforts that ensure that
each edition is completed to time.
My second thanks go to our column editors Stuart, Graeme and Nick. All do
a huge amount of work, sourcing and editing work for each column an
onerous task, which they all do magnificently. Undoubtedly, these columns
play a major role in the quality of the Journal, and their growth and
development have been a major step forward for the Journal.
My third thanks are to the authors who have contributed to this years editions.
All, extremely busy people, I thank them for their time and efforts in
committing themselves to writing for the Journal. The number of new authors
contributing articles has increased greatly and now regularly includes
international based contributors, as well as UK based. This hopefully reflects
the developing esteem in which the Journal is held, and adds a new perspective
to the articles. I appreciate all authors efforts in putting their thoughts and
processes onto paper, and to put these forward for critical review. It can be a
daunting task to present work in front of our peers, but I believe it is a process
that greatly assists in clarifying and structuring our thought processes, and I
would encourage any reader who believes they have information which could
benefit our membership, to commit to producing an article for the Journal. The
Journal is only as a strong as its content, and later in the Journal you will see a
call for authors for the 2010 editions. I hope members will respond to this and
that we will see a greater number of Journal submissions next year.
This naturally leads me onto my final thanks, to the editorial team, who ensure that the articles pass through the
peer review system we have in place. Your excellent efforts are very much appreciated.
The articles in this edition again reflect the diverse range of both knowledge and application in strength and
conditioning. Nick Winkelman, from Athletes Performance in Tempe Arizona, has written a thorough and thought
provoking review on training for hypertrophy, and the need to focus on functional hypertrophy. Iain Fletcher, of
Bedford University has written an excellent piece on the biomechanics of sprinting, and uses excellent
biomechanical analysis to both promote effective speed training, and to question some traditional practices.
In the exercise of the month column, Gil Stevenson has written a great piece on a non traditional exercise, the
deep overhead squat behind neck press, or as Gil likes to term it the back of steel. This article reflects the need
for innovation within the field, ensuring that we keep moving forward with our practice.
Dietary analysis plays an important role in making dietary recommendations. In the Performance Nutrition
column, Dr Allan Hackett of Liverpool John Moores University has evaluated the methods available to assist with
dietary analysis and highlights key issues involved in the application of these methods.
In Nick Wards Five People you Meet in Heaven column, Russell Jolley, from Bournemouth University, has
produced an excellent account of an extended period of work with Coach Robert Dos Remedios. Outlining his time
at the College of the Canyons in Southern California, it gives a great account of life in the trenches of S&C, and
of the philosophies and methods used by an experienced coaching team.
While this completes the editions for this year, the work is already underway on plans for 2010, and hopefully we
can continue to develop the Journal in a manner that reflects the needs of our entire membership.
Ian Jeffreys
Editor
UKSCA NEWS
LOOKING BACK AT 2009
The statistics show that the UKSCA is still
growing, and we hope that we will continue to
meet the needs of the membership through
the benefits and services we provide. This
continued support from members has enabled
us to develop further workshops such as the
Foundation (Level 1 workshop and
certification), as well as the Planning Effective
Programmes workshop which will be launched
in 2010.
Some statistics:
In 2009, we ran 40 workshops, with over 800
members being trained, a 36% increase from
2008
UKSCA 2010 WORKSHOP AND

ASSESSMENT DAY PROGRAMME
The 2010 workshop programme has now been
published and full details can be found on our website
www.uksca.org.uk. With the recent recruitment of new
tutors and assessors, we can now significantly expand
the number of events in 2010 to cope with the
increasing demand from members, and ensure that the
waiting lists for workshop and assessment days are
kept to a minimum. However, we still advise members
to book early to avoid disappointment, as we know that
many members were unable to get on a workshop or
assessment day last year and will be keen to book their
places early in the New Year.
We now have 1250 members (979 at end 2008),

240 of who are accredited, an increase of 85
from this time last year
UKSCA TUTOR AND ASSESSOR

RECRUITMENT AND TRAINING
In 2009 we ran 20 assessment days, with over

330 members taking part
We received over 65 applications for the recently

advertised posts of UKSCA tutors and assessors, and
are now in the process of finalising the training plans
for our 16 new tutors and 15 new assessors.
The percentage of members proving competence

in each element of the assessment day are as
follows:
Lifting - 54%
Speed/agility - 55%
Case study - 73%
MCQ - 74%
230 members attended our 2009 conference, an
increase from 160 in 2008
Running alongside our established workshop
programme, 2010 will see us providing more
specialised opportunities for members, in particular
accredited members.
The tutor event uses the Sports Coach UK - Coach

Educator Training as the basis for training, and will be
run over three days in January. Tutors will then work as
assistant tutors on workshops, until they are deemed
competent to become accredited tutors.
Assessors will undergo their own assessor training in
the New Year, and will then also go through a process
of on-the-job training on assessment days, until they
are deemed competent.
Even with the huge demand for our workshop and
assessment days, the Board is adamant that the quality
of delivery should never be compromised, which is why
we are investing in this upfront training and education.
UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

2
UKSCA | Issue 16 | Winter 2009 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk
UKSCA CONFERENCE 2010

Following on from the success of this years conference, held at a specialist conference venue, next years
conference will be held at Kents Hill Park Training and Conference Centre on 4-6 June 2010.
The following speakers have already been confirmed, and more will be added to the website as and when they
are announced:
Vladimir Issurin Vladimir serves as a scientific and professional coordinator at the Elite Sport Department of
the Israeli Olympic Committee at the Wingate Institute. He has worked as a researcher, professional consultant
and coordinator for Israeli Olympic National teams since 1992. He has written over 150 scientific articles in
national and international journals, and will be presenting his theories and concepts on block periodization and
programming.
Mike McGuigan Mike is a Power Scientist with the New Zealand Academy of Sport. He has worked as a
Strength/Power consultant for a number of national level sports including: Australian Rules football, Cricket,
Rugby league and Soccer. Prior to joining the NZAS, Mike was a Senior Lecturer in Strength and Conditioning at
Edith Cowan University in Australia. Mike will be speaking about power development, monitoring, and
assessment.
Darcy Norman Darcy Norman is a motor and strength preparation coach and physiotherapist, and since 2003
has worked at Athletes Performance (Arizona, USA). His experience includes consulting the German National
Football Team, coaching FC Bayern Munich, coaching Columbia/High Road Professional Cycling Team, and being a
member of Functional Movement Screen Inc. Darcy will present on prehab and injury prevention and
rehabilitation strategies for the S&C coach.
Bookings for the conference are already being taken for further information and to secure your place, look at
our website: www.uksca.org.uk
CALL FOR
PAPERS
Professional Strength and Conditioning is
the official Journal of the UKSCA. Its aim is
to provide members with knowledge and
information, which can enhance
professional practice at all levels of
application, as well as to provide
information on the developments within the
association. To achieve this, it aims to
produce articles and columns, which
address the full spectrum of strength and
conditioning - from scientific study through
to application, as well as providing a range
of news items and updates for members.
For 2010, the Journal is aiming to increase
the range and diversity of articles to reflect
the above aims. We therefore encourage both
practitioners and scientists to submit articles
to the Journal for review, and hopefully
publication, in 2010. This invitation is to both
seasoned writers, and for those taking their
initial steps into writing. Sharing knowledge
and ideas is a key aim of the association, and
is essential if the profession is to move
forward and flourish in the UK. The Journal is
an ideal way to share this knowledge, and we
hope that many members will consider
submitting articles for the coming year.
Articles can be of a range of types, including:
scientific reviews; case studies of programs
delivered; outlines of new and novel ideas
people use in their programmes; guidelines
on the applications of specific training
methods; essentially, anything authors feel
would be of benefit to our membership
details in Submission Guidelines (right).
Additionally, authors are encouraged to
contribute to our current columns, or indeed
suggest and develop new columns.
Submission Guidelines
INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS
Editorial Mission
Professional Strength and Conditioning is the
professional journal for members of the United Kingdom
Strength and Conditioning Association (UKSCA). Its two
major aims are to enhance the profession of strength and
conditioning in the UK, and to provide UKSCA members
with a professional journal that reflects the highest
standards of research and applied practice in the
profession. It aims to achieve this by providing its
members with a range of articles that expand and develop
knowledge in all areas pertinent to the strength and
conditioning professional, providing the most accurate and
up to date information available. A range of articles will
be included in each issue that include practical
applications of previously published peer-reviewed
research findings, the practical knowledge gained by
experienced professionals and primary research findings
together with their application.
Editorial Scope
The Journal is published quarterly with issues in the
spring, summer, autumn and winter of each calendar year.
The journal publishes a mix of full-length articles and
columns, together with short news items that inform
members of UKSCA activities.
Manuscript Submission and Format

Authors should submit manuscripts and all attachments to
the editor at the UKSCA office (ian@uksca.org.uk).
Articles should generally be 2-4,000 words in length, and
focus on a specific topic relevant to strength and
conditioning professionals.
Articles should be in Microsoft word format, (10-12 typed,
double spaced pages, using a standard font) Tables and
pictures should be provided separately as attachments
and their position in the main text should be clearly
marked.
Continued on page 24
Theoretical and practical

applications for functional
hypertrophy: development
of an off-season strategy
for the intermediate to
advanced athlete
Nick C Winkelman, CSCS, NSCA-CPT
Introduction
Nick is currently the Performance Education

Manager at Athletes' Performance in Tempe,
AZ, where he oversees all continuing
education courses, and is a full-time strength
and conditioning coach. He designs and
implements performance training programs
for elite and professional athletes with a main
focus in hockey, baseball, together with
military and fire fighter based groups. Nick
has previously implemented the strength and
conditioning program for the Oregon State
University 2006 College World Series
Champions and has been the Strength and
Conditioning coach for the Pittsburgh Pirates
Rookie League team in Bradenton, Florida.
Nick is in the process of pursuing a Masters
in Strength and Conditioning through Edith
Cowan University, and has dual certifications
with Distinction through the National Strength
and Conditioning Association (CSCS, *D and
NSCA-CPT, *D).
The ability to help athletes achieve supreme levels of strength,

power and muscle hypertrophy represents an important element in
the work of strength and conditioning coaches. Specifically, the
development of muscle hypertrophy, or an increase in muscle crosssectional area (CSA), is often considered one of the most important
physiological adaptations for both elite and recreational athletes. An
increase in muscle hypertrophy, will not only result in an increase in
lean muscle mass (i.e. sarcomeres in parallel), but will ideally result
in an increase in strength.28,31,38 It should be noted that an increase in
hypertrophy does not always result in equivalent strength gains, and
strength gains do not always result in equivalent hypertrophy. This is
seen in the comparable hypertrophy of Type I and II fibers in elite
Bodybuilders and preferential hypertrophy of Type II fibers in elite
Power and Olympic Lifters.7 Within the elite athlete population,
increased strength will ideally accompany increased muscle
hypertrophy, unless of course an athlete plays a sport that requires
non-functional (i.e. increased CSA without sustained or increased
levels of relative strength) hypertrophy, (eg. American Football
Lineman, Sumo Wrestlers, and Bodybuilding).28 Therefore, when
developing elite athletes, the optimal training protocols and
periodization strategies should be used to enhance functional
hypertrophy, or an increase in relative strength with an increase in
muscle CSA.26 The goal of this brief review, is to examine the
physiological mechanisms behind muscle growth, differentiate
between functional and non-functional hypertrophy, and present a
model for the development of optimal muscle hypertrophy in the offseason of an elite athlete.
Science of Hypertrophy
There are multiple mechanisms that are responsible for stimulating
muscle growth, and arguably, each of these mechanisms can be
stimulated using different training protocols. The current research
points to the following two mechanisms: increased muscle tension or
mechanical stress on the muscle tissue; and intramuscular energy

4
depletion due to metabolic demands.22,31,38 This leads

into a cascade of events or what has been termed
upstream signaling, that causes downstream
effects.29 The cascade of events includes the following:
(i) mechanical and metabolic stress; (ii) signaling from
mechanical stress on muscle fibers, hormonal
response, and inflammatory response; (iii) protein
synthesis leading to muscle hypertrophy.22,29,31 When
this process is examined in terms of genetic potential
and training age, the coach will be able to properly
manipulate acute training variables (i.e. volume,
intensity, rest, etc.) to develop a program that
maximizes functional hypertrophy.
Genetics and Training Age

Genetics undoubtedly play a major role in performance
in terms of physiological adaptation and training
potential. Genetics have been linked to resting
hormone levels, performance abilities, and even motor
control at high speeds.30 Genetics can also be linked to
an individuals ability to develop functional hypertrophy.
Van Etten et al.33 found that an individuals ability to
gain fat-free mass, was dependent on their body build
or somatotype, which is a heritable factor.31 Another
study by Petrella et al.,23 found that 16 weeks of
resistance training resulted in greater myofibril
hypertrophy in those that expressed higher populations
of Satellite Cells (SC) prior to training. As training
continues, an individual will get closer to their genetic
potential and for this reason, training age plays an
important role in the athletes development. Kraemer
and Ratamess16 note that muscular strength can be
increased by 40%, 20%, 16%, 10%, and 2%
respectively for untrained, moderately trained, trained,
advanced and elite individuals. As training age
increases, so does the demand for variation and new
ways to stimulate muscle growth. In Ian King's book,
Get Buffed, he points out that the volume and intensity
that stimulates muscle growth at a training age of 1
year may be different from the volume and intensity
that stimulates muscle growth at a training age of 10
years. Further research is still needed in this area to
validate training methods, but understanding genetic
potential and training age allows coaches to design
training protocols geared specifically towards the
athletes physiological make-up.
Resistance Exercise
Stimulus
Resistance exercise places mechanical and metabolic
stress on the neuromuscular system.22,29,31 The intensity
of the load determines the relative force produced by
the muscle, and therefore the mechanical stress. The
force produced by the muscle is determined by the
firing frequency and the number of motor units
recruited.29 Specifically, the number of motor units
recruited is determined by the size principle, where low
threshold motor units (Type I), are recruited under low
intensity conditions and high threshold motor units
(Type II), are increasingly recruited under high
intensity conditions.38 In addition to the intensity of the
load, the ability to move a lighter load explosively, and
therefore with greater acceleration (F= m x A), will
result in higher threshold recruitment and
intramuscular force.29,32 It should also be noted that as
fatigue increases under low intensity conditions, so will
the recruitment of high threshold motor units as shown
by a consistent increase in EMG throughout a set to
failure.26 Additional theories point at an increase in

intramuscular temperature as a potential initiator of
muscle damage and resultant adaptation.1 The
resultant metabolic cost and energy depletion, points
at fatigue being a powerful stimulus for muscle
growth.22,29,31
Mechanical Stress
Mechanical stress or tension on contractile muscle
tissue has been shown to be a powerful stimuli for
muscle growth.1,16,22,26,28,29,31,32 Specifically, eccentric or
lengthening muscle contractions seem to have the
greatest ability to produce force and therefore place
mechanical stress on the tissue.1,22,29 This is the primary
reason why eccentric muscle contractions may optimize
muscle hypertrophy.1,22 In addition, we know that
muscle damage is a strong stimuli for muscle growth,
and studies have shown that eccentric actions are
capable of producing higher levels of muscle damage
when compared to isometric and concentric actions.8
Furthermore, Type II fibers show preferential
hypertrophy during eccentric actions.29 This is primarily
due to the higher mechanical stress placed on each
active motor unit, as there is a reduction in total motor
unit recruitment.5 The muscle damage that follows
eccentric training may result in Delayed Onset Muscle
Soreness (DOMS).5 There are many theories behind the
mechanisms of DOMS and the proposed hypertrophy
benefits of reducing DOMS. In terms of mechanical or
physical damage, the detailed review by Cheung et al.5
proposed the muscle and connective tissue damage
theories. The connective tissue damage theory points
out that Type I fibers have greater levels of connective
tissue than Type II fibers and the greater susceptibility
of Type II fibers to stretch loads, may result in strain
being placed on the supporting connective tissue
structures.5 The muscle damage theory states that the
damage primarily seen during eccentric action results
in disturbance of the sarcomeres architecture and
results in Z-Disc disruption and smearing.5,22 It should
be noted that the review by Nosaka et al.22 showed
that while eccentric muscle actions and muscle damage
are strong stimulants for muscle hypertrophy, they are
not necessary pre-requisites to induce muscle growth.
In that same review, they note that DOMS should not
necessarily be an indicator of muscle damage, but
instead muscle function testing would be a better
marker.22 Both isometric and concentric actions have
been shown to produce muscle hypertrophy and it has
been shown to be comparable to eccentrics when
controlling for power.31 Therefore, when designing a
resistance training program for hypertrophy the
following should always be considered: (i) Per the size
principle, the only muscles that adapt to training are
those that are stimulated37,38; (ii) Increases in high
threshold motor units can be achieved through
increases in load,7 increases in acceleration or
explosive muscle action,29,32 and intramuscular fatigue24;
(iii) There is a preferential hypertrophy of Type II
fibers20,29; (iv) Type I and Type II fibers may signal
different physiological responses due to muscle
actions.33
Metabolic Stress
Another powerful stimulus for muscle growth is the
metabolic cost of resistance exercise and the
associated intramuscular changes. It is known that
multiple muscle contractions result in an increase in

cytosolic Ca++, decreased mitochondrial function,

and increased phosphorylase activity, which can
stimulate pathways that breakdown cytoskeleton and
myofibrils.1,31 This damage can be a powerful
stimulus for muscle growth. An additional
mechanism that is associated with metabolic cost is
the Energetical Theory, which states that, as
intramuscular energy sources are depleted, there is
an increase in degradation to provide the needed
energy substrates.28,37,38 An important practical
consideration is the difference in metabolic cost of
eccentric and concentric actions. We know that
concentric actions will be the first to fail during
exercise to failure. This is, in part, due to the
greater metabolic demand needed during concentric
contractions. This point reinforces why a
combination of eccentric and concentric contractions
may be the most powerful stimulus for functional
hypertrophy gains.
Muscle signalling
The metabolic and mechanical stress from resistance
exercises results in muscle growth signaling due to muscle
contractions, hormonal, and inflammatory responses.1,22,31
Each of these pathways will have downstream effect that
support and stimulate protein synthesis.
Muscle contractions
Muscle contractions directly signal the Protein Kinase
B-Mammalian Target of Rapamycin (Akt-mTOR)
pathway, which increases protein synthesis and
subsequent muscle growth.4,29 This pathway is
stimulated in one of the following ways:
Direct stimulation of mTOR via muscle contractions
and/or Akt directly signalling the mTOR pathway
(protein synthesis), which indirectly inhibits protein
degradation pathways.4,29
Secondly, muscle contractions can directly stimulate
Adenosine Monophosphate-Activated Protein Kinase
(AMPK), which is considered a potent energy sensor
within the muscle.29 It is important to note that the
AMPK pathway can directly inhibit the mTOR pathways,
which results in decreased protein synthesis and an
increase in catabolic processes.29 It is further thought
that AMPK may play a greater role in endurance type
activities and adaptation to Type I fibers.29 This has
important implications for the sequencing of training
and especially the effects of endurance based training
on muscle hypertrophy.
Finally, muscle contractions signal the MitogenActivated Protein Kinase (MAPK) pathway which directly
stimulates existing nuclei within the muscle to initiate
protein synthesis.29
Hormone Response
It has been well documented that anabolic hormones
are stimulated during resistance exercise and further
signal pathways that stimulate muscle hypertrophy.31
Hormones signal and promote muscle growth primarily
through the following mechanisms: Growth Hormone
(GH) indirectly signals the Akt-mTOR pathway through
the signaling of the JAK2;29 IGF-1 directly signals the
Akt-mTOR pathway and activates SC which have a
large role on muscle growth;27 Testosterone acts
directly on existing nuclei and also promotes muscle
growth through stimulation of SC.29
Immune Response
As mentioned earlier, the mechanical stress placed on
the muscle can result in micro-trauma and injury. This
results in an immediate infiltration of inflammatory
cytokines into the muscle cells. Neutrophils and
macrophages enter the muscle tissue to degrade any
damaged structures and stimulate the production of
inflammatory cytokines that include: interleukin-6 (IL6), transforming growth factor-B (TNF-B), and tumor
necrosis factor-a (TNFa).29 IL-6 and TNF-B stimulate the
proliferation and differentiation of SC,22 while TNF-a can
deactivate Akt pathways which results in a cessation of
protein synthesis.29 It should be noted that long-term
resistance training has been shown to depress the
effects of TNF-a in the muscle cell.29
Adaptation (Hypertrophy)
It is the upstream effects from muscle contractions,
hormonal responses, and inflammatory stimulation that
results in downstream signaling of protein synthesis
and eventual hypertrophy. The question that has not
been distinctly answered to date, is what type of
hypertrophy we are in fact stimulating. The literature
points at the following two types of muscle
hypertrophy: (i) non-functional or sarcoplasmic
hypertrophy (i.e. growth in the sarcoplasm and no
direct growth of the contractile proteins); (ii)
functional-hypertrophy or myofibrillar hypertrophy (i.e.
increased amount of myofibrils per muscle fiber and
therefore an increase in sarcomeres in parallel.28,37,38
As strength and conditioning coaches, we need to not
only understand this differentiation, but we also need
to understand how to develop training methods that
support functional hypertrophy. It has been noted in

6
the literature that Bodybuilders have a preferential

hypertrophy of Type I fibers7 and that Type I fibers
have more robust levels of connective tissue when
compared to Type II fibers.5 To the contrary,
Weightlifters have a preferential hypertrophy of the
Type II fibers, which we know is advantageous for
strength and power.7 These differences are important
to consider when designing resistance training
programs, as many coaches will use hypertrophy
protocols for their athletes that may represent the
same protocols used by Bodybuilders. These
protocols are characterized by high volumes,
moderate intensity, and short rest periods of 1
minute or less.14,15 The long term utilization of these
protocols may not only support preferential
hypertrophy of the Type I fibers,7 but also may lead
to preferential non-functional hypertrophy. It should
be further noted, that Type II muscle function could
be impaired due to hypertrophy of the Type I fibers.32
These findings are supported by a study that
compared elite Bodybuilder and Power lifters to the
control group that had been trained for 6 months.19
They found that the elite group had smaller
myofibrillar volume densities (i.e. functional
hypertrophy) compared to the controls and greater
cytoplasmic volume densities (i.e. non-functional
hypertrophy).19 The authors concluded that in
addition to the greater cytoplasmic hypertrophy, that
the elite group must have had a greater number of
muscle fibers.19 It can be noted that they did not
point at hyperplasia or genetic potential as the
answer for the greater number of muscle fibers, but
based on later findings that showed no hyperplasia in
a similar population, any difference in muscle fiber
number is most likely due to genetic variation.18,20 In
terms of training considerations, we need to
remember that what stimulates functional
hypertrophy at an early training age may stimulate
non-functional hypertrophy at a later training age.15
This means that our adaptive mechanism is dynamic,
and variation with increasing training age becomes
very important during the periodization cycles.31
Therefore, the way in which we stimulate functional
hypertrophy in an elite trained athlete, should be
different to the untrained individual. More
importantly, we need to look at relative strength as a
marker for functional hypertrophy development. The
following sections will focus on acute program
variables and present an example functional
hypertrophy program for the intermediate to elite
athlete.
Acute Program Variables

There are many different ways to stimulate
hypertrophy as the previous sections have detailed,
(i.e. Metabolic vs. Mechanical stress). There are many
papers that have examined how different training
variables affect adaptation.16,34 Unfortunately, many
guidelines are presented in absolutes and they do not
examine the dynamic nature of acute training variables
in terms of training age. The following section will
present training guidelines to optimize functional
hypertrophy.
Muscle action type

Research has shown that muscle hypertrophy can be
achieved with many training modes or action types,
(i.e. Eccentric, Concentric, and Isometric).16,34 Research
has pointed at eccentric emphasis being able to
produce greater levels of hypertrophy due to greater

myofibrillar damage, which may be important for
optimal hypertrophy.8,22,34 Elite athletes need to be
efficient utilizing isometric, eccentric, and concentric
phases of muscle action. This is not only important for
stretch-shortening capabilities, but it is also very
important for the demands of the sports and even
injury prevention. Therefore, elite athletes should use a
combination of all training modes, with an emphasis on
the eccentric mode during hypertrophy phases of
training. This emphasis can come in the form of supramaximal loading during the eccentric phase (i.e.
negatives), greater time under tension during the
eccentric phase, and the use of intra-rep pauses or
functional isometrics at various joint angles.16 Note that
these modalities will be explained later in further
depth.
Intensity
When calculating load we can look at it as a
percentage of 1 repetition maximum (%1RM), or the
repetition maximum for a given number of repetitions
(eg. 6RM, 10RM, 15RM, etc.).7 This paper will describe
intensity or load in terms of %1RM due to the
utilization of this method in the majority of the
literature. Studies have shown that to stimulate muscle
hypertrophy, an individual would need to use loads
>65% of 1RM9,21 and that intensity may account for 1835% in the variance (i.e. 18% variance in Type I
hypertrophy and 35% variance in Type II hypertrophy)
of hypertrophy during resistance training.7 In the
review by Fry,7 he found that hypertrophy of Type I,
and to a greater extent Type II fibers, can be achieved
with loads of 40-95% of 1RM with the optimal zone for
muscle hypertrophy occurring within 80-95% 1RM.
Evidence from another review by Wernbom et al.,34
found that the optimal zone for muscular hypertrophy
using dynamic external resistance in Biceps and
Quadriceps studies was between 70-85% of 1RM, with
the highest values in both muscle groups being found
between 70-75% of 1RM. Kraemer and Ratamess16
recommend that loading of 60-70% 1RM, 70-80%
1RM, and 70-100% (emphasis on 70-85%) should be
used for beginner, intermediate, and advanced
individuals respectively.17 In addition to traditional
resistance training, the use of supra-maximal loading
(110 %1RM) during the eccentric phase has been
shown to be effective in stimulating muscle growth.13
When using this type of training, a coach should always
consider risk versus reward, training age, and apply in
very small doses over the course of a periodized plan.
In terms of muscle signaling, no correlations have been
made on load, but it has been recommended that
higher mechanical stress results in greater Akt-mTOR
signaling.29 It should also be considered that force
determines the amount of mechanical stress on the
tissue and we know that force is the resultant of mass
x acceleration. Therefore, to maximize force on the
tissue, the concentric phase of motion should always
be executed with the greatest intention to move the
load quickly.2,32,38 This may be an important variable
when lifting lower percentages for those that want to
maximize volume and the level of force production.
When looking to prescribe loading for athletes during
hypertrophy phases, it would seem apparent that lowmoderate loading can support functional hypertrophy,
but as the athlete progresses there may be a need to
use moderate-high percentages to continue to support
functional hypertrophy. This is supported by the

greater level of sarcoplasmic19 and Type I hypertrophy7

in Bodybuilders who consistently train with lowmoderate loads and high volumes.
Time Under Tension

Time under tension (TUT), can be classified as the
total amount of time the muscle is under stress during
the course of a training set. This has not been a
widely studied area and many of the studies that do
look at training velocity have examined isokinetic
testing, which does not carryover into comparable TUT
guidelines for traditional resistance training.34 It should
be noted that TUT is written in a 3 number sequence
that represents the eccentric, isometric, and
concentric modes (eg. 321 Tempo x 10reps = 60s
total TUT or 6s per repetition), where the total TUT is
a result of the TUT per repetition multiplied by the
amount of repetitions per set. In the review by
Wernbom34 and colleagues, they note that both peak
tension and TUT are important stimuli for muscle
hypertrophy and that to stimulate hypertrophy the use
of a 1-2s concentric phase and a 2-4s eccentric phase
would be optimal when using moderate-high volumes
and 75-85% of 1RM. Similar guidelines were provided
by Bird et al.3, where they recommended a 2s
Concentric, 2s Eccentric, and a 1s Isometric when
training for muscle hypertrophy. A recent study by
Goto,9 actually found that when using a TUT of 1s for
Concentric and 5s for Eccentric, there were heightened
levels of GH with lower levels of Cortisol when
compared to the 5s Concentric and 1s Eccentric group.
This study not only showed the importance of TUT, but
stimulated these results using only 50% 1RM. All of
the above findings support the following TUT
recommendations of Poliquin26: 20-40 seconds TUT per
set for functional hypertrophy/strength (i.e. relative
strength) and 40-70 seconds per set TUT for
hypertrophy (i.e. functional and non-functional
hypertrophy). It can be recommended that for
development of functional hypertrophy, variations in
TUT can be used based on the exercise and that an
emphasis on the eccentric portion may result in
positive anabolic changes and greater mechanical
stress.
Volume
Total volume can be considered the product of sets
and repetitions, while volume load is the product of
sets, repetitions and load. For this review, we will
discuss volume in terms of reps and sets. Volume is
known to be a very powerful stimulus for muscle
growth due to protocols that increase anabolic
hormones (i.e. GH, IGF-1, and Testosterone). It
seems that higher volumes with moderate loads and
short rest time stimulate these hormones to the
greatest degree. Kraemer et al.14,15 found that sets of
10RM with a 1min rest produced greater resting levels
of anabolic hormones than sets of 5RM with a 3min
rest for equated volumes. Another study looked at
volume, and found that 10 sets of a 10RM (i.e. 70%
1RM) with a 3min rest produced significantly higher
anabolic hormones than 20 sets of a 1RM (i.e. 100%
1RM) with a 3min rest.12 Studies that actually looked
at dose response found that the optimal volume for
muscle hypertrophy in the Biceps and Quadriceps
muscles was 40-60 repetitions spread out over 4-6
sets per muscle group.34 The review done by Bird and
colleagues3 supports these findings with a volume
recommendation of 4-6 sets of an 8-15RM. It is
important to note that with high volume training there

can be a strong depletion of muscle glycogen, which
can trigger the energy sensor AMPK, and therefore
inhibits the protein synthesis promoting pathway AktmTOR.29 Despite the potential signaling of the AMPK
pathway a coach should not be afraid of high volume
as long as they are applying the pre-, during, and
post-exercise nutritional strategies. The above
findings once again match the following
recommendations by Poliquin28 : 6-8 repetitions of 4-8
sets for functional hypertrophy/ strength and 9-12
repetitions of 4-8 sets for functional/non-functional
hypertrophy. It should also be noted that as the
training age of an athlete increases so does the
demand for variation and greater levels of
stimulation. For this reason the following guidelines
should be considered: (i) with an increase in training
age, the repetitions should be reduced per set and a
greater amount of sets should be used; (ii) as
exercises increase, the sets per exercise should
decrease; (iii) RM is the most important variable and
should dictate the amount of sets and total TUT; (iv)
variation of high and low rep sequences can be used
concomitantly to produce higher levels of adaptation
in intermediate-elite level athletes.26
Rest
Rest intervals play a large role in stimulating anabolic
hormones and promoting muscle hypertrophy, but at
the same time they play a large role in CP-ATP recovery
and being able to sustain higher loads lifted. Studies
have shown that rest intervals less than 1min will
produce higher levels of resting anabolic hormones
when compared to 3min rest periods.14,15 Willardson35
supports this finding in his review on rest intervals
where he recommends a rest interval of 30-60s to
optimize muscle hypertrophy. From an adaptation
standpoint, if you are trying to induce high levels of
mechanical stress and functional hypertrophy it may be
more appropriate to use 1-3 minutes of rest between
sets, and if you are looking to spike hormonal levels
and stimulate a metabolic response then 30-90s rest
may be more appropriate and, arguably, would promote
functional/non-functional hypertrophy.3,11,16,26,35 Note that
variation in the rest intervals within one session may be
appropriate for intermediate-elite athletes.
Training Frequency
Many studies have looked at training frequency and it
seems conclusive that the optimal stimulus for muscle
hypertrophy occurs when a muscle is trained 2-3 times
per week34 or training occurs 4-6 times a week.16 There
may also be advantages to train in short 30-45min
sessions, 2x per day, to optimize hypertrophy and
counteract the potential catabolic effects of training for
over an hour without supplementation.
Exercise Order
We know that multi-joint exercises can produce higher
levels of anabolic hormones due to the greater level of
mechanical stimulus achieved.3 In addition, we know
that performing multi-joint exercises before single joint
exercises allows for greater levels of performance and
volume.16,29 Both of these variables are important and
potent stimulators of muscle hypertrophy. In addition
to exercise order, we need to be aware of the
sequencing of different strength qualities within
sessions and within the week. In the review by Chiu
and Barnes,6 they looked at the implications of the

8
Program Notes: This microcylce can be used for a one week cycle (4x week) or a two week cycle (2x week). Each training block should be done as a superset or
circuit with the appropriate rest interval between supersets.The sets do not include warm-up sets and the repetition guidelines are repetition maximums (RM).
The last superset in the secondary strength block should be strip sets, meaning the athlete will start with a 6-8RM and remove 15-25% load after each round to
failure (*). DB (Dumbbell), BP (Bench Press), BB (Barbell), RDL (Romanian Dead Lift).
Table 1. An example functional hypertrophy phase for an Intermediate to Advanced athlete.
Fitness-Fatigue Model on the following three training

qualities: Maximal Intensity (i.e. Maximum Power),
Maximal Strength, and Maximal Work. The authors
noted that optimal performance is achieved when
strength qualities are executed in the following manner
within one session and over the course of a week:
Maximal Intensity-Maximal Strength-Maximal Work.6
From an application standpoint this will allow you to
induce greater levels of mechanical stress earlier in the
workout and greater levels of metabolic fatigue later in
the workout, resulting in variation and a strong
stimulus for functional hypertrophy.
Loading Strategies
There are many ways that we can induce hypertrophy
and one of those is the introduction of different loading
strategies within the set. Some of the strategies in the
literature include: High Intensity Training (HIT), SupraMaximal Eccentrics, Strip Sets or Breakdown Sets, and
Functional Isometrics. HIT is training to failure within 1
set and is typically characterized by moderate loads
and high volume. Studies have shown that a single set
of HIT type training following multiple sets of strengthtype training, increased CSA and anabolic hormones to
a greater degree than strength-type training alone.10,11
The authors concluded that intra-exercise variations
between high and low loads may optimize strength and
hypertrophy. It should be dually noted that this type of
training is very fatiguing and damaging to the muscle,
so it should not be used on a frequent basis to avoid
potential overtraining.40 In addition to HIT training, the
use of eccentrics and functional isometrics have been
shown to have positive affects on strength and
hypertrophy.14 Supra-maximal eccentric training
typically uses a load greater than 100% 1RM with an
eccentric TUT of 5s. Functional isometrics are
contractions held for 5-10+s for multiple repetitions.
Strip sets are intra-set load variations, where you start
with a given load and proceed to do repetitions to
failure and continue to remove load until the athlete
can no longer lift the lightest weight achieved.14 This
method will tax the mechanical and particularly the
metabolic aspects of the muscle, and, as was
previously mentioned, fatigue can induce higherthreshold muscle fibers and stimulate anabolic
hormones. Finally, phases and periods of maximal
strength and power are needed to develop superior
levels of hypertrophy. This type of training will increase
force and power capabilities and essentially allow the
athlete to lift heavier loads at higher volumes in
subsequent training phases due to neurological and
architectural changes in the muscle.36 The goal is to
constantly challenge our biological machine with
variation and this is especially important for functional
hypertrophy.
Periodization Implications
The previously mentioned acute variables are only
optimized when placed in a cohesive periodization
model. In the review by Plisk and Stone,25 they
categorize periodization strategies into Beginner,
Intermediate, and Advanced. The Beginner strategy
represents the classical model of periodization where
intensity progressively increases as volume
decreases.25,31 The Intermediate strategy represents the
non-linear approach where phases or days of higher
volume and higher intensity are alternated, (i.e.
Undulating Model).25,31 The Advanced strategy is
characterized by the Conjugate Sequence model, where

phases of concentrated loading are alternated with
phases of concentrated skill work.25,31 From a functional
hypertrophy standpoint, the Intermediate strategy
seems most relevant as it allows for intra-week and
phase to phase variation. The need for variation is
critical for stimulating hypertrophy and this model will
allow the coach to continuously challenge the athlete in
new ways (i.e. Load, Volume, Exercises, etc.).
Conclusion
The ability to develop hypertrophy and specifically
functional hypertrophy is critical for any athletes.
Hypertrophy training does not always result in
myofibrillar hypertrophy (i.e. functional) and with long
term use of incorrect training methods, an athlete may
develop sarcoplasmic hypertrophy (i.e. nonfunctional).21 Note that functional hypertrophy should
result in a maintenance or increase in Relative
Strength. This variable is not always addressed in the
literature, but an increase in body mass without a
resultant increase in relative strength can be
considered non-functional gains. With smart planning,
variation, and monitoring, the strategies expressed in
this review should help athletes develop functional
levels of muscle hypertrophy.
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UKSCA | Issue 16 | Winter 2009 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk 11
PERFORMANCE NUTRITION
Recording dietary
intake as an aid
to exercise
performance
Allan Hackett, BSc (Hons), MPhil, PhD, SRD
Allan Hackett is a Reader in
Community Nutrition in the Centre for
Tourism, Consumer and Food
Studies at Liverpool John Moores
University. He has been involved in
nutritional research since 1976, most
of which has concerned the
measurement of food intake mainly
of children, for example in relation to
dental caries and diabetes mellitus.
He is currently involved in Liverpools
SportsLinx project which has dietary,
fitness and nutritional status data on
some 50,000 Liverpool school
children and is dedicated to helping
children be more active and making
healthier food choices.
Graeme Close is the column editor for

the Performance Nutrition section.
Introduction
The food we eat affects both our health and physical performance; for
example a starving or over-fed athlete is clearly not going to achieve
optimal performance. Nutrient requirements differ between individuals and
between sports, for example, the dietary requirements of men versus
women, young versus old, or power versus endurance athlete will vary in
many ways. Furthermore, there is the individual factor a euphemism for
ignorance perhaps, but the role of nutrient environment gene
interactions is beginning to emerge. The initial promise of individualised
advice based on an assessment of genetic profile is for the time being,
however, still science fiction. Dietary advice may affect athletes by
influencing, or indeed manipulating, body composition and/or metabolism.
The sumo wrestler is an extreme example of the former and carbohydrate
loading for marathon runners an example of the latter. Hence, for the
discerning athlete, there is a case to be made for a systematic monitoring
and evaluation of their dietary intake. This paper addresses the ways in
which the assessment of dietary intake can be accomplished, (by the
athlete or his or her coach), and some pitfalls, (which are many and deep).
It is based on my lectures to students over the past 20 years, which I have
summarised in more detail from the perspective of research elsewhere
(Hackett, 2007).
In the athletic arena, it is generally assumed that this monitoring will be a
DIY enterprise, although working with a well qualified dietician or sports
nutritionist is ideal. Thus, all dietary survey methods are not included in
this paper, with the ones designed purely for research being excluded. The
measurement of food intake has been described as the most difficult of
physiological measurements and there are some fundamental problems
with the estimation of food intake to be considered (Hackett, 2007). In
addition, dietary counselling requires high level skills and there are real
dangers from dietary manipulation which are beyond the scope of this
article. The pursuit of performance, however, should not be at the expense
of health. The advice on healthy eating is summarised by the Food
Standards Agency in its Balance of Good Health / EatWell plate model of
a healthy diet. It should be borne in mind that ultimately, with few
exceptions, dietary advice can only be given in terms of foods, not
nutrients.
Graeme is a lecturer at The University of Liverpool in cellular and metabolic medicine.

His current research is focused upon investigating cellular mechanisms responsible for
muscle damage and repair. Graeme regularly presents at international conferences and
has given keynote presentations on skeletal muscle damage and repair. Graeme is a
former professional rugby league player and currently works with Munster RUFC as the
performance nutritionist. He is also an accredited UKSCA member and a BASES
accredited physiologist.
12
The methods
There is no best method, or gold standard, for
estimating dietary intake. The following questions
should be considered:
What information is needed?
How will amounts of food eaten be estimated (is this
necessary)?
Do estimates of food intake need to be converted
into estimates of nutrient intake? If so, how will this
be done?
Are particular nutrients, dietary components, of
interest?
Is an estimate of concurrent food intake required?
Is a retrospective estimate of food intake required? If
so, for what period?
Is an estimate of normal intake required?
How many, and which days, need to be surveyed?
Weighed inventory method: The subject weighs
each portion of food served to them just before
eating, and later weighs any left-over food. Electronic
balances which are now very light, portable and
precise have enhanced this method. Most often, a
record for seven consecutive days is attempted. If
carried out according to instructions, by well
motivated subjects willing and able to behave exactly
as normal, the weighed inventory method should
give as good a quantitative record of intake in the
field as it is possible to get. However, only very well
motivated subjects will follow all the instructions
precisely. The major potential problems with this
method are that not all food will be weighed, and not
all food can be weighed. For example, food eaten
outside the home, in restaurants, and snack foods are
perhaps most likely not to be weighed or ignored. The
subjects often become very conscious not only of
what they eat, but also, of how much, possibly for the
first time. Validity is likely to be compromised, and
food composition tables are still needed which
inevitably introduce error into the estimates of
nutrient intake.
(A food composition table is a table consisting of an
extensive list of foods giving the average energy
content as well as the macro, and micro nutrients for
that particular food. As well as food composition tables,
there are also computer software programmes that can
give this information. See below for a more detailed
explanation of food composition tables).
Food diaries: These involve keeping a written record
of everything consumed over a set period, usually 7, 5
or 3 consecutive days. The records must be very
detailed, such as what kind of milk was used
(skimmed, semi-skimmed or whole milk). Inevitably,
some foods will be forgotten, for example the custard
consumed with an apple pie. This is a much less
onerous method than the weighed inventory method
and it can be used in all circumstances (eating out). A
good level of engagement is required, but it is a very
flexible method and can generate motivation for dietary
change in suitable subjects. It is then, an excellent
prelude to dietary counselling and for many people the
only prompt needed to make useful changes to their
eating habits. Potential drawbacks with the system
include that only literate well motivated subjects will
follow the instructions, estimating portion sizes is
problematical and food composition tables are still
needed.
Diet history: The individual constructs a record of

what he or she has eaten by recalling actual or usual
food intake.
i. Usual Consumption The subject systematically works
through each day of the week recalling typical activities
and intake. For example, what time do you get up on
Mondays? Do you normally eat first thing in the
morning on Mondays? This record is then enhanced by
cross-checking against an inventory of food purchases
also recalled for a typical week, perhaps supported by
supermarket till receipts. This is a conscious effort to
estimate typical intake, a concept which may have little
meaning for erratic eaters or athletes who follow cycles
of training and performance, (although for athletes the
reverse could be true where cycles of intake are
routine and predictable, sometimes to the point of
obsession). Does a typical/normal or usual intake
exist? Some people do eat the same foods and
amounts on particular days of the week, while others
have very erratic eating habits. Drawbacks with this
method include that estimating portion sizes is
problematical and food composition tables are still
needed.
ii. Dietary Recall The subject recalls all foods and
drinks consumed during the previous 24 hours (very
occasionally longer periods are used). The record is
built up from waking up, to going to bed. Recording
other activities for the period can serve as a memory
aid. For example, if the subject went to the cinema on
the previous day, it is possible that he or she ate some
snack food there (e.g. pop-corn). A high level of detail
is required and information on brand names, cooking
methods, recipes, waste and accompaniments are
necessary. Memory is a significant problem and whole
meals can be forgotten and the method is very
susceptible to effects of the day, for example if the
previous day was the subjects birthday, or they were
ill, the intake could be very abnormal. Some subjects
are much more aware of their eating habits than
others, for example, men are notoriously vague. Other
family members may help with the process to good
effect. Food composition tables are still needed.
Food Frequency Questionnaires (FFQ): In my
opinion these are epidemiological tools only, and should
not be used to evaluate the intake of individuals.
However, a FFQ may form the basis of a check list of
how often some key foods are eaten and can be very
useful. For example, recording the number of portions
of fruit and vegetables eaten each day, or if the athlete
consumes any oily fish to ensure omega 3 fatty acid
intake. A check list of foods is provided with a stem
question such as: How often do you eat....? A
restricted list of alternatives is offered, for example:
daily, once or twice per week, monthly etc. Many
versions of the FFQ have been used, but at all times
the importance of the questions has to be analysed.
Another potential drawback is that it assumes rather
stable eating habits, for example how often do you eat
fish? Additionally, average portion sizes for all foods
are often assumed, and food composition tables must
again be used to estimate nutrient intake.
Establishing portion size

It would seem axiomatic that in order to estimate the
amount of food consumed, measurements must be
taken. This is the basis of the weighed inventory
method, but this is associated with three major
problems: 1. distortion of intake, 2. situations when

weighing food is impossible and 3. careful studies,

(using biomarkers), have shown that the data obtained
is not necessarily more precise than that obtained from
non-weighed methods. A committed athlete however,
may find weighing food intake (occasionally),
interesting, motivating and informative. Obsessive
weighing or attention to food intake could be a sign of
serious problems developing. Athletes who must make
weight are known to be at a high risk of developing
eating disorders. A study of New Zealand jockeys found
low energy and nutrient intakes, and 5 of the 20
jockeys showed signs of disordered eating (Leydon &
Wall, 2002). Many foods are consumed in standard
portion sizes and useful information is often on labels,
which greatly facilitates estimating consumption.
Furthermore, some people have a very keen
appreciation of the amount of food purchased and used
in recipes. Thus, estimating portion size may not be as
crude as it may initially appear to be, especially when
subjects invest time and effort to build up a database
of portion sizes of foods commonly eaten by weighing.
There are published databases of average portion sizes,
(eg. Nelson et al, 1997), but these have inherent
limitations for athletes who may eat foods in far from
normal amounts. The committed athlete is advised to
weigh foods and drinks consumed.
Having constructed a record of foods and drinks
consumed, this must now be evaluated. There are two
approaches. Firstly, the pattern of foods and drinks
alone may tell the whole story. For example, was some
fruit and vegetables eaten every day? Which
carbohydrate rich foods were eaten? What type of
carbohydrate? Was fluid intake adequate and spread
out over the day? Was there excessive reliance on
snack foods? Secondly, an estimate of nutrient intake
could be made. Here it must be stressed that this will
only be as good as a) the record of consumption,
(including weights), and b) the database of the
chemical composition of foods used.
Food Composition tables: computer

programmes
Most dietary surveys rely on food tables to convert
estimates of food consumption into estimates of
nutrient intake. Food tables are simply a catalogue of
the chemical composition of foods. Those used in the
UK are McCance and Widdowsons The Composition of
Foods, now in its 6th edition (FSA, 2003). Over 1200
foods are included and some 46 nutrients listed.
(However, the data for many nutrients are so
incomplete as to be of very little value). Many new
foods are marketed each year and the tables are not
able to include many new products, and where
included, only in infrequent supplements/revisions.
Thus, nutritional analyses are not available for some
foods, (which is likely to include specialist sports
products), which weakens the accuracy of estimates of
intake. Values are listed for macronutrients, minerals
and vitamins, fatty acids, amino acids and a variety of
other components. Using the food tables accurately
requires a great deal of technical knowledge concerning
the way they are organised (coding), the methods used
for analysis and how to handle missing data. Estimates
of intake of micronutrients such as vitamin C and iron
can be extremely misleading and they are not to be
considered analogous to tables of atomic weights
(Widdowson & McCance, 1943). Clearly, only a very
limited number of samples of each food can be
analysed and only one mean figure is given. The

components and composition of many foods are very
variable. Consider apple pie: was it commercially or
home produced, how much apple and what variety was
used, how much sugar was used (which sugars), how
much pastry was used (top and bottom), what kind of
fat and flour, was the pie dusted with sugar, how was it
cooked? Finally, the leftovers may not be comparable
to the initial product, for example the individual who
does not eat the thickest parts of the pastry crust. All
these will affect its final nutritional value. There are
many limitations in using the tables and they should
not be used without a thorough understanding of
these. The introductions to the hard copy text is
essential reading (I recommend reading the
introductions from all three of the last editions of the
tables: 4th, 5th and 6th), but these are not available in
the computer programs.
In order to use the tables, a computer programme is
highly desirable and many are available which do not
infringe copyright, but they are expensive - typically
500 for a single copy. Such programmes are powerful
but potentially very dangerous, since they enable the
tables to be used with minimal understanding. It is very
unwise to use food tables developed for use in other
countries to one in which the survey was conducted.
Validity
A study is valid if it measures what you set out to
measure. When trying to record and measure
behaviour, except in very rare cases, the individual will
report his or her own intake. This provides an
opportunity for each subject to filter his or her report,
either consciously or sub-consciously, to describe an
intake either different to that actually consumed (an
untruth), or to change intake for the duration of the
study. Dietary records however, are unlikely to be either
valid or invalid but may differ from reality to a
greater or lesser extent. A further complication is that
the mis-reporting of, or actual change in, eating habits
may be very specific to certain food items. Those items
most likely to be affected are those regarded as most
sensitive such as alcohol, confectionery and snack
foods. A well-motivated athlete will readily appreciate
the need to tell it like it is.
There are other reasons why an invalid description of
intake may be obtained, for example, items may be
forgotten, or badly described or miscoded, especially
by non-specialists. An individual can gain an
appreciation of the validity of estimates of energy
intake, at least, as follows. If weight is stable, energy
intake must equal energy expenditure, but energy
balance is dynamic and only achieved over a period of
time, (which is unknown and is probably variable, both
between, and within, subjects). It is certainly not
normally achieved on a day by day basis and even 7
days need not reflect balance. Body weight does
indeed fluctuate from day-to-day, (1kg is not
unusual), and from week to week. Thus, if an estimate
of intake does not match expenditure, this is not proof
of under- or over-reporting.
Dr Gail Goldberg and colleagues (1991), calculated cutoffs for valid estimates of energy intake based on
comparisons between calculated basal metabolic rate
(BMR), derived from the Schofield equations, and
energy intake (EI). A ratio of energy expenditure (EE)
to BMR of 1.4 is generally considered to represent a
sedentary individual; their energy expenditure is only

14
1.4 times their basal metabolic rate. This probably

applies to most of the population. Thus, a ratio of
EI:BMR of less than 1.4 may represent underreporting, however, since energy intake varies so much
it must occasionally and naturally dip below the
amount necessary to maintain weight, (at other times
it will be above). Therefore, Goldberg et al.s cut-offs,
make statistically derived allowances, (based on the
day to day variation in intake, the number of days
information available and whether BMR was calculated
or measured), and the cut-offs used are lower.
Typically, an EI:BMR below 1.2 or 1.3 is often used to
indicate under-reporting has occurred. For most
athletes much higher figures would be appropriate,
perhaps as high as 1.7 - 2.0.
(A simple method of estimating BMR is lean mass (kg)
x 22 +500)
The use of the Goldberg equations is complex and the
reader is urged to refer to the original papers as only
the principles have been described here. Their use has
become the most frequently used means of assessing
the likelihood of under-reporting. A draw-back of the
Goldberg equations is that they do not allow for
physical activity, and attempts to estimate activity, (to
add to the estimate of BMR), have been problematic.
Motion sensors (pedometers and accelerometers),
provide an objective, if partial, measure of activity and
have been used with some success. Motivated athletes
may achieve useful, if crude, estimates of energy
expenditure via activity diaries. General concordance
between estimated energy intake and expenditure
would be reassuring.
Reliability
In order to give dietary advice, an estimate of true
intake is required, but food intake is extremely variable
and the impact of this on estimates of intake should be
considered. The crucial question in dietary study design
is: How many and which days to survey?
How many and which days?

This is partly a problem of validity and partly of
reliability. Reliability generally improves as the amount
of information collected increases; the estimate of the
mean becomes closer to the true mean, (crudely, the
high and low intakes begin to balance out). This
assumes that this variation is random which is
acceptable only up to a point, since dietary intake
might also vary systematically. For example, week days
tend to be different to weekend days, summer from
winter, intake changes with age, (quite quickly during
puberty), and in response to training programmes. This

variability may be evident from the foods consumed,
e.g. ice cream consumption is still higher in the
summer, (although not as markedly so as in the past),
but the effect on nutrient intake is less evident.
The intake of many nutrients often follows energy
intake, which suggests that more or less food of all
sorts is being eaten. However, the intake of some
nutrients can be very stable but others can be far less
stable. For example protein is found in almost all foods
and its intake tends to be remarkably constant as a
proportion of energy intake. Iron however, is found in
appreciable amounts in relatively few foods, and so if a
dietary survey happened to include a day when liver
was consumed, iron intake would be well above the true
mean on that occasion. The only solutions to this
problem are to collect information over a longer time
period or estimate usual intake. To reliably estimate
the intake of an individual may require a lengthy survey
which includes all days of the week perhaps on more
than one occasion. It has been suggested that a
continuous survey lasting 3 months might be required
to identify all the foods regularly eaten by an individual.
Intra-individual variation
Intake varies greatly from day-to-day in the same
person; with feasts and famines being identifiable in
many. The coefficient of variation for an individuals
intake of nutrients is often of the order of 20-25%, and
four fold differences in energy intake over the period of
a few days are not uncommon. A short survey therefore
could reflect a high day or a low day purely by chance.
More information would be needed from those with
erratic habits, compared with those with stable eating
habits to achieve the same level for reliability.
Predictions of the number of days required to estimate
intake of different nutrients to a given degree of
precision are shown in table 1. This shows very clearly
that the intake of some nutrients is far more variable
than that for others. Thus, 5 days intake may be
enough to estimate energy intake but 36 days data
are required for vitamin C.
The reliability of different study designs are shown in
table 2. A reliability coefficient of 1.0 is perfect. Clearly,
a huge amount of data is required to give estimates
approaching 1.0. The compromise decided upon will
depend upon the purpose of the study. The table shows
that reliability improves more rapidly with increases in
the number of surveys, rather than with increases in
the duration of each survey. This is because the
information collected at one time is likely to be linked,
Table 1. Effect of day-to-day variation in intake on the precision of estimates of mean nutrient intake. Bingham,
(1987)
Estimate of within person variation (%)
Number of days intake required to be

10% of true mean intake
Energy
23
Carbohydrate
25
Protein
27
Fat
31
10
Fibre
31
10
Calcium
32
10
Iron
35
12
Cholesterol
52
27
Vitamin C
60
36

Table 2. Reliability of estimating sugars intake according to different combinations of length of study (days) and
numbers of studies conducted. Hackett et al., (1983).
Number of days
per survey
Number of surveys
1
10
15
26
41
59
64
78
84
37
54
70
74
85
90
42
59
74
78
88
92
48
65
79
82
90
93
51
68
81
84
91
94
14
56
71
83
86
93
95
whereas that collected at different times (from more

surveys), is more likely to be independent and hence
represent true intake more effectively. Note that
increasing the duration of the survey from 3 to 5
days makes little difference to reliability and
even extending the survey to 7 days, (which
many people find onerous), does not represent a
substantial improvement.
In practice, however, it is unusual to have more than
one estimate of intake. An athlete may build up a
profile over a period of time from regular estimations
of intake and relate these to changing needs e.g.
training/performance and targets. Thus, the food
record becomes an integral part of training.
Conclusions
Keeping a record of intake is an excellent basis for
reviewing ones own eating habits and for giving
dietary advice to an individual or group, for example
enhancing coaching discussions. Estimates of dietary /
nutritional intake are problematic, but dietary advice
can, and indeed must, be given in terms of foods which
can remove some of the problems. Hence, recording
and evaluating dietary intake can be an excellent
motivational tool, and an asset to the training of
serious athletes. It should always be remembered that
dietary surveys cannot diagnose malnutrition. They can
identify poor eating habits and related problems and
suggest useful changes which could be made, and
enable targets to be set. It is vital that the individual
appreciates the need for an unbiased record of normal
intake. If the record is biased, it is useless. For well
motivated individuals who are seeking advice, a 7 day
weighed record is a reasonable, (occasional), request.
For reluctant subjects a much shorter period, or recall
only, based on estimates of amount of foods consumed
is more appropriate. A periodic regular review as part
of a training plan is recommended.
References
Bingham S (1987) The dietary assessment of individuals;
methods, accuracy, new techniques and recommendations.
Nutrition Abstracts and Reviews (Series A) 57, 705-742.
Food Standards Agency (2002) McCance and Widdowsons
The Composition of Foods. Sixth edition. Cambridge: Royal
Society Chemistry. NB: ten supplements were published to the
5th edition.
Goldberg G, Black AE, Jebb SA, Cole TJ, Murgatroyd PR
Coward WA & Prentice AM (1991) Critical evaluation of energy
intake data using fundamental principles of energy physiology:
1. Derivation of cut-off limits to identify under-recording. Euro J

Clin Nutr., 45, 569-581.
Hackett AF (2007) Dietary Survey Methods. Chapter 2 in:
Nutrition and Sport. Ed.: MacLaren D. London: Churchill
Livingstone.
Hackett AF, Rugg-Gun AJ & Appleton DR (1983) Use of a diary
and interview to estimate the food intake of children. Human
Nutrition: Applied Nutrition, 37A, 293-300.
Leydon MA & Wall C (2002) New Zealand jockeys dietary
habits and their potential impact on health. Int J Sports Nutr
Exerc Metab., 12, 220-237.
Nelson M, Atkinson M & Meyer J (1997) Food Portion Sizes - a
photographic atlas. MAFF: London.
Widdowson EM & McCance RA (1943) Food tables. Their
scope and limitations. Lancet i, 230-232.
Recommended further reading

Cameron ME & van Staveren WA (1988) Manual on
Methodology for Food Consumption Studies. Oxford
University Press: Oxford.
Holmes B & Nelson M (2009) The strengths and
weaknesses of dietary survey methods in materially
deprived households in England: a discussion paper.
Pub Hlth Nutr., 12, 1157-1164.
International Journal of Epidemiology (1997)
supplement 1.
This whole issue is devoted to assessing dietary intake
(in the context of the EPIC study).
Macdiarmid J & Blundell J (1998) Assessing dietary
intake: who, what and why of under-reporting. Nutr
Res Rev., 11 231-253.
Margetts B & Nelson M. Eds. (1997) Design Concepts in
Nutritional Epidemiology. 2nd edition. Oxford University
Press: Oxford.
Marr JW (1971) Individual dietary surveys: purposes
and methods. World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics,
13, 105-164 [AFH note: still perhaps the best review
although biomarkers were not available at that time.]
Willet W (1998) Nutritional Epidemiology. Monographs
in Epidemiology and Biostatistics, 15. 2nd edition.
Oxford University Press: Oxford.
Winkler J (2005) The fundamental flaw in obesity
research. Obesity Rev., 6, 199-202.
Websites
European Food Consumption Survey Method. Final
Report (2001)
http://europa.eu.int/comm/health/ph_projects/1999/m
onitoring/fp_monitoring_1999_frep_10_en.pdf

16
EXERCISE OF THE MONTH
Deep Overhead Squat

Behind Neck Press
(The Back of Steel)
Gil Stevenson, BEd (Hons) ASCC
This advanced assistance exercise might be known by a number of
different names, such as the deep overhead squat and behind neck
press. However, the authors favourite was coined by a group of rugby
players to whom it was recently introduced. Their kinaesthetic feedback
led them to christen it the Back of Steel exercise. Anecdotally used by
weightlifters to strengthen the back, Strength and Conditioning coaches
might like to consider the purposes to which this exercise might be
used in the development of postural strength in athletes from various
sports, and how useful it might be as a tool in their toolbox.
Rationale behind the exercise

Gil Stevenson Chair of UKSCA (since
establishment) and prior to that, Chair of the
Steering Group. Gil is also an Accredited
Strength & Conditioning Coach (ASCC) and
UKSCA Assessor.
Gil is recognised as one of the top strength &
conditioning coach educators in the UK and has
lectured internationally on a variety of strength &
conditioning topics. Through his own
Performance Company "Sportspecifix" he works
with a number of national and international
teams and sports governing bodies.
We live in a world where daily default posture tends to promote

imbalance between the anterior and posterior musculature of the
upper torso. Our lifestyle therefore, often promotes stiffness in the
thoracic spine. This is often exacerbated by the movement patterns of
the sports we play, which are commonly anterior dominant. Then, to
add insult to injury, our athletes often further exacerbate the problem
with their fixation on bench press and other anterior muscle group
dominant exercises.
We might wish to consider the benefits this exercise has to bring in
redressing the balance. When performed correctly, with a neutral
spine (natural lumber curve evident,) the whole trunk muscle complex
is involved. The deep abdominals, internal and external obliques,
rectus abdominus and the muscles of the back are involved in
maintaining trunk stability. Also, when performed well with an open
chest and neutral shoulders, shoulder stability and postural strength
are provided by strong isometric contraction of the whole scapular
complex and rotator cuff.
A word of caution
A word of caution is necessary before we proceed. This is not an
exercise for those with a history of knee injury, particularly
patellar-femoral joint pathology, because of the stresses
placed on the knee when holding the low squat position. Prerequisites to attempting this exercise should be the development of
overhead squats with good posture, in addition to good shoulder
flexibility/strength demonstrated via standard overhead pushes and
jerks.
Stuart is the current English Institute of Sport
Strength and Conditioning coach for Judo. He
is responsible for delivering National S&C
services to world class funded players across
the UK.
Stuart previously worked for the Scottish
Institute of Sport, where he had the role of
leading the S&C service to athletes in the West
of Scotland as well as leading and coordinating
S&C nationally for the Judo and Badminton
programmes.
Stuart is a physiotherapy graduate and his
sporting background lies in Olympic Weightlifting,
where he represented Scotland at two
Commonwealth Games.
Muscle Activity
This is a total body exercise with all of the major muscles involved in
achieving and maintaining a low squat posture, while an overhead
pressing movement engages the muscles of the back and arms.
Strong eccentric and isometric contraction of the quadriceps and
gluteals, together with co-contraction of the hamstrings, is necessary
in the held squat position. The before mentioned muscle activity,
provides a stable platform on which the pressing movement can then
take place. The pressing movement engages principally latisimus
dorsi, the posterior deltoids and all of the muscles in the arms
involved in extension and flexion.
This is not a velocity dependant exercise and would probably be best

placed as one which would develop strength closer to the maximum
force end of the force-velocity curve. However, it has the potential for
Stuart Yule is the column editor for the strengthening postures, which in turn, will lead to more efficient
Exercise of the Month section. execution of velocity dependent lifts.

18
Figure 2.
Figure 1.
Performing the exercise

The starting position is achieved from a standard
Overhead Squat stance (figure 1), bar held
overhead in a snatch grip, before descending as in an
Overhead Squat to a full squatting depth, i.e. midpoint of the hip below midpoint of the knee. The
bar remains overhead with the arms fully extended.
This is the start position (figure 2).
From this new start position, the athlete remains in
the deep squat position and simultaneously performs
the prescribed number of repetitions of a behind
neck press, ensuring that the bar is lowered each
time to touch the shoulders (figure 3). The arms
then need to fully extend on each repetition, so that
the bar finishes above or slightly behind the crown of
the head.
Throughout the performance of the presses, the
athlete should maintain an upright posture with the
head up and eyes looking straight ahead. The athlete
should maintain an open chest, the torso should be
erect, and a neutral spine with natural lumber curve
evident. There are massive challenges to trunk
strength while holding the deep squat position, and
care must also be taken to ensure the athlete
maintains knee foot alignment.
On completion of the prescribed number of presses
with arms extended, and the bar in the overhead
position, the athlete completes the movement
combination by ascending as in the completion of an
Overhead Squat (figure 1).
Common mistakes
1) Coaches should watch out for cheating through
the spine by forcing (over extending).
Coaching remedy Reduce the load and coach
a straight back
2) Coaches should also watch out for the elbows
being behind the bar at the beginning of the pressing
movement. This has the effect of pushing the bar
forward and compromising posture and balance.
Coaching remedy Coaches should instruct the
athlete to drop the elbows to be directly under
the bar by externally rotating the shoulders.
This facilitates a vertical press and helps the
athlete achieve an end position where the bar is
above or slightly behind the crown of the head.
Figure 3.
Safety
As with the Olympic lifts, the athlete must be confident
in dropping the bar and jumping clear, while
maintaining sound posture, should there be a likelihood
of failure.
Potential Applications
Applications of the exercise could include:
For rugby, particularly front 5 forwards, where the
postural strength to maintain a straight back under
pressure is vital.
All racket sport athletes might benefit from
developing the eccentric strength to develop greater
movement control when playing shots.
In the sport of kayaking, slalom in particular, where
trunk stability is essential when performing strong
overhead movements.
There are numerous other examples but Strength and
Conditioning coaches, as previously mentioned, are
challenged to consider the benefits of a Back of Steel.
Acknowledgement - Maggie Hendry BSc (Hons)

Physiotherapy, MCSP.

Biomechanical aspects
of sprint running
Iain Fletcher, MSc, FHEA, ASCC
This article is designed to explore some of the biomechanical parameters which
make up sprint performance. The aim is that from this outline, some of the
training modalities which are most relevant in the preparation of sprint athletes,
can be ascertained and integrated into effective speed development
programmes.
The ability to run quickly is one of the most sought after motor capabilities in
many sports. It is not only vital in many aspects of track and field performance,
but a desirable attribute in most game sports. The role of the Strength and
Conditioning coach in the development of sprint speed is therefore vital, if
performers are to maximise their potential. As part of this process, it seems
appropriate to look at the parameters governing sprint performance, in order to
provide ideas on what factors can be affected positively, and to guide the
selection of exercises to elicit these changes.
Figure 1: Deterministic model for sprint running
Figure 1 is a deterministic model outlining the parameters most relevant to

sprint running. To simplify the model even more, running speed is the product
of stride length x stride frequency11 (e.g. 2m/stride x 4 strides/s = 8m s-1). So
the first question a coach needs to address is: what is your training designed to
improve? If stride length or stride frequency are not being addressed within the
programme, then it is very unlikely you will improve running velocity. It is
important therefore, to have a clear understanding of the factors that affect
stride frequency and stride length.
Components of Stride Length
Iain Fletcher is a Senior Lecturer at

the University of Bedfordshire in the
field of Sports Biomechanics. He is a
Sports Coach UK Senior Tutor and
is an accredited Strength and
Conditioning coach with the UKSCA
and registered conditioner with the
BOA. He has 17 years of
experience as an S&C coach
working with a range of sports
performers, including elite track and
field sprinters. Formally an EIS S&C
coach, Iain now works for TASS.
Stride length is made up of 3 phases, the Support Phase, the Drive Phase and
the Flight Phase. The Support Phase can be defined as the horizontal distance
that the toe of the lead foot is forward of the Centre of Gravity (CoG), at the
instant the sprinter lands; the Drive Phase is defined as the horizontal distance
that the CoG is forward of the take off foot, at the instant the latter leaves the
ground, and lastly the Flight Phase is defined as the horizontal distance that the
CoG travels while the runner is in the air.3
The Flight Phase is governed by the principles of projectile motion, and the
body itself is essentially propelled through the air. While we can do little about
air resistance and height of release, the angle of take off can be adjusted, while
the velocity of release is of fundamental importance, and will govern how large
a stride the sprinter will take. A good release velocity is determined by the
ground reaction forces exerted by the athlete, which in turn are the result of
the Drive Phase. To maximise this propulsive force, the triple extension of the
hip, knee and ankle is vital, while the ability to increase the Drive Phase
distance through a good hip extension range of motion will allow these forces to
be applied for longer. Also, if applied in the right direction, it will increase the

20
limited as follows: the athletes CoG is moving forward

with a horizontal velocity, which is determined the
moment the athletes foot leaves the ground. If the
CoGs velocity is 10m s-1 and the lead legs foot is
moving forward at 2m s-1 then the landing foots
velocity will be 12m s-1. Due to this, the direction that
the foot is moving will maintain, accelerate or slow an
athlete. Because of this, the idea of a pawing action on
ground contact at maximum speeds has become
popular. However, it needs to be noted that an active
pull back of the leg may increase stress on the
hamstring. Additionally, while at maximum velocities, it
is unlikely the athlete will have time to instigate a
pawing action. Instead, by positioning the landing foot
under the CoG, the bodys own momentum will allow
the hip to extend. Therefore the hip can be seen as a
pivot, transferring the bodys horizontal forward
velocity to the leading foot, to maintain that velocity
for as long as possible.
Components of Stride Frequency

As running velocity increases, both stride length and
stride frequency will increase. However, at faster
running speeds, stride frequency will increase to a
greater extent than stride length, with faster sprinters
exhibiting greater stride frequency than their slower
counterparts.15 Stride frequency is made up of a
combination of ground contact and flight time. The
ratio between the two will depend on whether the
athlete is trying to accelerate or maintain top speed.
When starting, ground contact is approximately 67% of
the stride frequency time, but decreases to 40-45% at
maximum velocity.1 Short ground contact times are
associated with good stride frequency; this is governed
primarily by the take off velocity from the previous
stride and the ability to transfer that velocity efficiently
through the support leg. However, the usefulness of
short ground contact times will be lost if the impulsemomentum relationship is not remembered. An athlete
therefore needs to increase impulse, (force x time force
is applied), in order to increase momentum
(acceleration), while the direction that force is applied
will indicate the direction of the subsequent
acceleration. In practical terms, a more forceful push
backwards will propel the athlete faster forwards. This
may sound simplistic, but it is interesting to note how
many sprint drills actually promote this concept. For
example, do high knee drills, (with little horizontal, but
a lot of vertical movement), or fast feet, (which have
no triple extension and limited horizontal force) really
help improve sprint mechanics?
Figure 2. The components of stride length

impulse exerted by the athlete, and therefore their
running velocity. The Support Phase needs to be as
short as possible; a large Support Phase will mean that
foot placement is in front of the athletes body, and will
cause a braking force that the athlete will need to
overcome, (remember Newtons 3rd Law: every action
has an equal and opposite reaction). This will cause a
decrease in running velocity, as stride frequency
decreases. The foot needs to be placed under the CoG
while travelling backwards to prevent any braking
forces, efficiently transfering the momentum built up in
the Drive Phase. If forward horizontal reaction is
increased, then forward momentum will be increased.
In practice, the Support Phases braking effect can be
If we examine elite sprinters techniques, it may help us

understand the process of sprinters attaining faster
stride frequencies. Faster sprinters tend to have
smaller hip angles at take off, due to greater hip
extension (increasing impulse applied).14 This will
actually cause shorter ground contacts as the high
forward velocities seen in elite sprinters will result in
the body travelling past the foot more quickly, rather
then the result of fast feet. As velocity =
displacement/time, therefore, time must =
displacement/velocity. In this way, ground contact
times will reduce as the bodys velocity increases.
Basic Running Technique

The technique employed while sprinting, is vital in
order to reach and maintain maximum velocity. To
achieve this, there should be a smooth co-ordination of
legs, (in a cyclical action), and arms (opposite

vice versa. As the leg recovers, the radius of gyration

decreases, as does momentum, so the opposite arm
will flex as it recovers, as this is needed to counteract
less momentum.
The Big Question: How Do We Run

Faster?
Figure 3: Moment of inertia and the recovery phase

movement to the legs), and attached to a rigid torso,
allowing efficient transfer of momentum from stride to
stride.
Good running technique is closely linked to the limbs
moment of inertia and the conservation of angular
momentum. Inertia is the bodys tendency to resist
acceleration and an increase in mass will increase
inertia. However, in angular movement it is a little
more complicated. The moment of inertia is not only
affected by mass, but also the distribution of mass with
respect to the axis of rotation, or the radius of gyration
(represented by k in Fig. 3). In this system, inertia
decreases if mass is distributed closer to a joints centre
of rotation. If we look at the Recovery Phase of the leg
in sprinting, as the foot leaves the track, the hip will
initially extend and then forcefully rotate forward while
the knee rotates backwards. This causes the foot to be
positioned as close to the hip as possible, decreasing
the legs moment of inertia, and therefore allowing a
faster hip flexion action to prepare for the next foot
ground contact, (emphasising heel to bum mechanics).
In faster sprinters, we generally see a more acute
angle between the trunk and thigh, before the knees
and hips extend to place the lead limb on the ground.
The arm action in sprinting is important in the
conservation of angular momentum.10 The analogy of
Newtons 3rd law, states that every angular action has
an equal and opposite angular reaction, while
maintaining maximum velocity requires the total
angular momentum of the body to remain constant.
The greatest angular momentum of the foot is just
prior to touch down, (the foots greatest velocity, with
mass distributed furthest from the hip joint), and this
needs to be counteracted by the opposite arm rotating
backwards. So we see the arm starting in front of the
body in a shortened position, (velocity low and angular
momentum small), it then extends backwards,
increasing velocity and momentum as the arm
straightens, allowing the foots momentum to be
counteracted. The faster the hand is travelling
backwards, the greater the degree to which the
angular momentum of the foot can be tolerated and
To sprint more quickly, an athlete needs to increase the

torque developed by the hip extensors in order to
swing their leg backwards more quickly. Angular
acceleration () of an object, is proportional to the net
torque () acting on that object and inversely
proportional to the inertia () of the object (=) or
=/. So angular acceleration increases if torque
increases or inertia decreases. Therefore, the muscles
around the hip joint produce torque around the hip
joint. Increasing this torque () will increase angular
velocity () of the leg, and conversely increase linear
velocity () of the foot (= ). In the recovery phase,
it is important to decrease angular momentum,
(achieved by heel to bum recovery), as the hip flexion
musculature is relatively weak and requires mass
distributed close to the hips axis of rotation in order to
effectively move the limb forward. The upper legs CoG
in sprinters, is closer to the hips centre of rotation than
in other athletes,13 allowing a decrease in the moment
of inertia. Therefore, it is important that the
distribution of the legs musculature is attended to. The
need for small calves positioned close to the knee, and
upper leg musculature positioned close to the hip joint,
is vital to allow the fast stride frequencies needed in
maximal sprinting. Though this distribution has a
genetic component, exercises employed should not
build unnecessary bulk at a distance from the joints
axis of rotation.
Some Ideas on Training

What physical capabilities does a sprint athlete exhibit
when running maximally? Mero et al.15 describes elite
sprinters as achieving an average stride length of
2.6m, with a 5Hz stride frequency. Ground contact time
varies between 0.08 and 0.1s, while ground reaction
forces of 4.6 times body weight are not uncommon.
Although these may be ranges for elite track sprinters,
it gives an overview of the forces and timings the body
needs to cope with while running maximally.
In terms of muscle function, one of the most important
factors associated with high intensity performances
such as sprinting, is the musculo tendinous unit
stiffness (MTU) achieved upon ground contact,12,16 with
a stiff MTU contributing an elastic component to the leg
muscles, that, in turn, provides additional power
needed to sustain high stride frequencies.4 Very high
forces need to be efficiently transferred from stride to
stride to achieve, and maintain, high stride frequencies
and therefore running velocity. A lack of MTU stiffness
decreases stride frequency,7 as the landing leg will flex
excessively causing a lowering of the bodies CoG,
increasing the bodys stability, and causing a need to
generate more force to propel the body upwards and
forwards. Indeed, the role of the knee joint is clearly
shown in Johnson & Buckleys8 work. Power in sprinting
is produced in the hip, while the knee maintains the
centre of mass height enabling efficient transfer of
propulsive power from the hip to the ankle, any knee
flexion is going to disturb this process.
Foot position therefore becomes vital; a dorsi flexed
ankle in leg recovery will pre-stretch the calf complex,

22
increasing MTU stiffness, helping to promote the stretch

shortening cycle (SSC) achieved on ground contact.2 This can
help store strain energy in the passive components of the calf
complex, (achilles tendon),6 decreasing the coupling time
between eccentric and concentric actions, allowing a more
efficient transfer of momentum. This type of pre-activation can
be enhanced by appropriate plyometric exercises. In utilising
these exercises, the nature of neural recruitment needs to be
noted. Efficiency of movement is enhanced if exercises are
performed along the same neural pathway as the sports
technique attempting to be enhanced.9 Therefore, plyometric
exercises should be used that have a similar ground contact,
posture and limb action to maximal sprinting. It needs to be
noted that, many plyometric exercises utlised to develop
maximum speed follow a recruitment pattern more akin to the
acceleration phase of sprinting, and therefore the aim of the
training intervention should always determine the method
utlised.
References
Increasing muscular strength will not only allow greater

instantaneous power production, but will also enhance SSC
activities5 by allowing the MTU to be strong enough to cope
with high impact forces, by helping increase MTU stiffness.
However, again it needs to be remembered that strength
adaptations will increase contractile force in the direction of
those adaptations; sprinting needs both vertical and
horizontal forces, so both components need to be addressed.
Specific training will gain a specific response. For example in
sprinting, a power output of 20,000-50,000 N s-1 achieved at
a knee angle of 120-140 occurs, while a power clean
achieves a power output between 20,000 and 60,000 N s-1 at
a knee angle of 120-14517 and therefore a specific response
is possible. However, it needs to be noted that the hip
extension and eccentric stress on the hamstrings, vital in a
maximum sprint, may not be fully addressed in this exercise.
Coaches should therefore choose their resistance exercises
carefully to train the whole of the sprint cycle. Other issues
relate to the importance of posture and flexibility, an upright
posture that can cope with the large rotational forces caused
by the arms and legs is vital for conservation of momentum,
therefore an isometrically strong torso, particularly strong in
resisting rotational forces, is important. The flexibility around
the hip is fundamental, importantly, the ability to extend the
hip under load, with an upright body position is vital.
Therefore, coaches should ensure that hip extension range is
optimal, but also note whether the range is sufficient with the
leg straight, body upright and with a force applied through
that range.
6.
Lastly, the anthropometric characteristics of a sprinter changes

some of the parameters needed to sprint quickly. Sprinters
with longer limbs will exhibit greater foot speed compared to
short limb athletes at a constant hip angular velocity, because
of the advantage in terms of range and speed of motion
caused by the increase in lever length. However, the legs
mass will be distributed further away from the hip, causing
greater angular inertia, and the need to control greater
momentum at touch down. In contrast, shorter limbed
athletes will have a greater advantage in force production, as
short limbs have a mechanical advantage in terms of force
production, but slower foot velocities. This means taller
sprinters generally need to work on force production to a
greater extent than foot speed, while short athletes need to
work on foot speed more than force production.
14.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
15.
16.
17.
Atwater, A.E. (1981). Kinematic analysis of

sprinting. In Hay J.G. Sports Biomechanics. 4th
Ed. Prentice=Hall. London.
Bellie, A. & Bosco, C. (1992). Influence of
stretch-shortening cycle on mechanical
behaviour of triceps surae during hopping. Acta
Physiol Scand, 144, 401-408.
Blazevich, A. (2007). Sports biomechanics. A&C
Black, London.
Chelly, M.S. & Denis, C. (2001). Leg power and
hopping stiffness: relationship with sprint
running performance. Med Sci Sport Exerc, 33,
326-336.
Cronin, J.B., McNair, P.J. & Marshall, R.N.
(2000). The role of maximal strength and load
on initial power production. Med. Sci. Sports
Exerc, 32, 1763-1769.
Enoka, R.M. (1997). Neural adaptations with
chronic physical activity. J Biomech, 30, 447455.
Farley, C.T. & Gonzalez, O. (1996). Leg
stiffness and stride frequency in human running.
J Biomech, 29, 181-189.
Johnson, M.D. & Buckley, J.G. (2001). Muscle
power patterns in the mid-acceleration phase of
sprinting. J Sports Sci, 19, 263-272.
Hakkinen, K. (1989). Neuromuscular and
hormonal adaptations during strength and
power training: a review. J Sports Med Physical
Fitness, 29, 9-26.
Hinrichs, R.N. (1987). Upper extremity function
in running: angular momentum considerations.
Int J Sport Biomech, 3, 242-263.
Hunter, J.P., Marshall, R.N. & McNair, P.J.
(2004). Interaction of step length and step rate
during sprint running. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 36,
261-271.
Kokkonen, J., Nelson, A.G. & Cornwell, A.
(1998). Acute muscle stretching inhibits
maximal strength performance. Res Q Exerc
Sport, 4, 411-415.
Kumagai, K., Abe, T., Brechue, W.F., Ryushi, T.,
Takano, S. & Mizuno, M. (2000). Sprint
performance is related to muscle fascicle length
in male 100m sprinters. J App Physiol, 88, 811816.
Kunz, H. & Kauffman, D.A. (1981).
Biomechanical analysis of sprinting: decathletes
vs champions. Br J Sprts Med, 15, 177-181.
Mero, A., Komi, P.V. & Gregor, R.J. (1992).
Biomechanics of sprint running. Sports Med, 13,
376-392.
Nelson, A.G. & Kokkonen, J. (2001). Acute
ballistic muscle stretching inhibits maximal
strength performance. Res Q Exerc Sport, 72,
415-419.
Stone, M. (2002). Strength and Conditioning:
Run, Jump, Throw. Seminar, Strength &
Conditioning '02.
To conclude, sprinting is a vital motor skill for many sports

performers, but it is a complex movement pattern to master,
influenced by many factors. An understanding of the
biomechanical parameters of sprinting is important to
understand the technical considerations behind efficient
sprinting. This will inform any coach as to what fitness
parameters need to be enhanced to produce a faster athlete.
SUBMISSION GUIDELINES continued from page 3

Authors should include a title page, and brief overview of the article. This should be of between 30 100 words,
and should highlight the aim of the article, along with any key terms introduced.
Authors submitting their first document also need to submit a separate author information document that should
include a brief bio, contact information and photo. This is then kept on record and used in any subsequent
publications. It is the authors responsibility to inform the UKSCA office of any changes to their details.
SAMPLE BRIEF BIO: Ian Jeffreys MSc, ASCC, CSCS*D, NSCA-CPT*D,NSCA Coach Practitioner, is a senior
lecturer in strength and conditioning at the University of Glamorgan, and the Proprietor and Performance Director
of All-Pro Performance. He is the Strength and Conditioning advisor to the WSRU Under 16 national team. He is a
board member, assessor and tutor with the UKSCA, and was the NSCA High School Professional of the Year in 2006
References
Articles submitted to Professional Strength and Conditioning should be appropriately referenced, both within the
text and summatively in the Reference List. The accuracy of references used is the responsibility of the author.
Where possible, reference should reflect the primary source of evidence rather than secondary sources.
All references should be placed in alphabetical order by the surname of the lead author. All authors should be listed
in the reference list and et al should not be used. Multiple texts by the same authors are listed chronologically,
then alphabetically.
Numbers should then be assigned to each reference. Parenthetical numbers in the text [(3); (4, 5)] should
correspond to the numbered alphabetical reference list. Each reference listed must be cited in the text
Book
1. Stone, M.H., Stone, M.E., and Sands, W. Principles and Practice of Resistance Training. Champaign Ill: Human
Kinetics. 2007 pp 35-38.
Authors are advised to add page numbers wherever possible to references from books.
Chapter of a Book
2. Epley, B. Developing a policies and procedures manual. In Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning. T. R
Baechle and R.W Earle Eds. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2000. pp. 567-585.
Journal Article
3. Gabbett, T, Kelly, J. and Pezet, T. Relationship between physical fitness and playing ability in rugby league.
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 21(4): 11261133. 2007.
Report/Review
4. Wolstencroft E (ED) Talent Identification and Development : An Academic review. Edinburgh: Sportscotland.
2002.
Conference/Symposium Proceedings
5. Simaros, G. Energy usage during a football match. Proceedings of the 1st International Congress of Sports
Medicine Applied to Football (ed L. Vechiet) Vol II. Rome: D Guannilo. 1980 pp795 -801
Citations should be from published proceedings with an ISBN or ISSN number, and should include page numbers.
References from Electronic Sources
These should be limited as much as possible and may not be accepted in the editing process. The editor reserves
the right to refuse all electronic references that do not meet the standards of the journal. In general, only sites
from the following sources will be accepted.
1.
Refereed Online Journal
2.
Government Resource
3.
Major Non-Profit Professional Organization
Editorial process
Professional Strength and Conditioning has an editorial board that reflects the highest standards of practice and
research in strength and conditioning. This aims to ensure that all accepted articles reflect the highest professional
practice in the industry. Following submission, articles will be allocated to a lead editor, and if needed a sub editor)
who will review the article and report back to the editor on their decision. This decision will then be passed to the
lead author.
The lead author will then be responsible for making any required alterations to the text, and will need to enclose a
document outlining all changes made, together with any supporting comments that address the editors remarks.
Where the authors wish not to make advised changes, this must be supported by a clear rationale and supporting data.
Copyright
On acceptance of an article for Professional Strength and Conditioning, the authors agree to pass copyrights for the
article and all associated tables figures and pictures to the UKSCA. Where tables or figure are copied from a
previously published source, it is the responsibility of the author to obtain and provide proof of permission to
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Details are also available on the UKSCA web site www.uksca.org.uk. For further help and advice, the editorial team
is also happy to guide people through the process. We look forward to working with you to increase our article output
and to ensure that the knowledge and information needs of our membership continue to be met into the future.
24
The Five People

you Meet in
Heaven
Nick Ward is the series Editor for The
Five People you Meet in Heaven
Significant stops on a journey to becoming an

S&C coach
Nick Ward MSc, CSCS
Overview
Mitch Alboms book, The Five People you Meet in Heaven, inspires
the theme for this short series of articles. Based on interesting,
inspiring and challenging people we meet on our journey, the
purpose is to share experiences that people have had along the
way, and which hold some significance for their own development.
Russell Jolley interviews Robert Dos Remedios

Lessons in strength from a time in the trenches
across the pond: A new coach trying to gain
experience.
Throughout this series, prominent coaches in the field of strength and
conditioning have been interviewed to discuss significant steps in their
career. For this edition, I aim to give a slightly different perspective - that
of a new S&C coach taking those significant steps, and spending quality
time actively coaching under the guidance of a top international coach.
This summer, I undertook an internship with Robert Dos Remedios at the
College of the Canyons (C.O.C) in California. It was a wonderful learning
experience for me, and hopefully, this will give other new coaches some
insight into the way other programmes are run and the confidence to ask
for an opportunity.
How the opportunity came about
Russell Jolley BSc (Hons) ASCC has been

the lead strength and conditioning coach
for sportBU at Bournemouth University
since September 2009. His first experience
of strength and conditioning was at
Durham University as an undergraduate
rowing in the University team. He went on
to work at Durham University gym as an
assistant coach and began working
towards his UKSCA accreditation. From
here he moved to sportBU as a duty
manager and assistant S&C coach
passing his UKSCA accreditation in
January 2009, and going on to become
lead S&C coach.
To ensure that I deliver the best programme to my athletes, I am

continually trying to increase my knowledge of the field, be it through
reading, TASS CPD days or seminars. In April 2009, I attended the EXF
Smart Fitness Functional Training Summit
in Newcastle, where coach Robert Dos
Remedios, Coach Dos, was the lead
speaker. His presentations on his CHAOS
Sport Speed programme, general S&C
theories and attitude to training, made
common sense, and provided a great
philosophy around which to build
effective S&C programmes. After the
workshop, I decided the best way to gain
some invaluable experience into the
inner workings of a large scale and
successful S&C programme, was to work
in it myself. Following the workshop, I
successfully applied for an internship
with Coach Dos and through August and
September 2009, I spent a month
working alongside his team at C.O.C in
Southern California.

In at the deep end The coaching

sessions
Coach Dos Robert Dos Remedios
Coach Dos
Coach Dos received his B.A. in Social Sciences from the
University of California, Berkeley, where he attended
on a football scholarship. He received his M.A. in
Kinesiology from California State University, Northridge.
He achieved his CSCS certification in 1990 and his
CSCCa certification in 2007. A highly experienced
practitioner, he has been conditioning athletes for over
20 years.
Coach Dos has worked at C.O.C. for 10 years and in
that time his programme has been very successful. He
and his assistant, Dan Corbet, provide S&C for football,
volleyball, basketball, baseball, soccer, track & field,
softball and, to my surprise, students who take
weightlifting classes as part of the curriculum. The
programme is designed around the basic principles of
hard work and efficiency; Dos ensures that the athletes
know that a lack of either is not acceptable.
How Coach Dos got hooked on S&C

and his major influences
I was first intrigued with strength and conditioning by
my strength coach at CAL, Robin Pound, who taught
me the importance of the entire conditioning process
and how this occupation is both a science and an art.
Since I have started working in this field, I have been
heavily influenced by people such as Robin Pound,
Robb Rogers, Rick Huegli, Fred Roll and Mike Boyle. I
have also learned a huge amount from Alwyn
Cosgrove, Todd Wright, JC Santana and many, many
more professionals (too many to mention).
Almost as soon as I arrived, I was thrown in at the

deep-end. With no introductions, 130 footballers
bowled into the suite and started training. They were
at the start of their in-season programme, following a
severe 2 session-a-day summer regime. As with many
sports, they basically train or talk football all day, so
this meant the S&C programme had to be short, sharp
and effective, to allow for recovery and prevent
overtraining. Following a barbell warm up complex, the
players would complete an explosive lift, (such as a
hang snatch or power clean), a knee dominant and hip
dominant exercise (e.g.front squat or curtsy lunge and
foot elevated deadlift or single leg dumbbell deadlift),
an upper body push and pull and some core and neck
work. Most exercises were performed in supersets, to
lower rest intervals and keep the session moving. This
would take them approximately 40 minutes. The team
was then shipped out to the training field where Dos
would run them for 30 minutes and the specific
coaches would run drills for the next two and a half
hours.
The following session was mens basketball. The
emphasis for this team, who were still in the offseason, was a very rapid increase in size, strength,
work capacity and speed. Every session had a fitness
finisher consisting of between 4 and 30 minutes of HIIT
training of some sort. This is where Dos CHAOS Sport
Speed programme came into play. The programme is
based on reaction times, change of direction,
acceleration and deceleration all geared to maximise
on-field performance. The drills can be changed
depending on the sport being trained, and involves
short intervals of full pace running in either predictable,
or unpredictable scenarios. This could involve a sprint
followed by cutting in a direction pointed by Dos,
change of direction drills on command or shadowing
another athletes actions. The drills cover the main
forms of stimuli: auditory, visual and tactile, and
ensure that the athletes learn to react rapidly on the
field. Acceleration drills would be started from different
positions: kneeling, lying or standing. Feedback on
success was given via completion of a task, for
example, reaching a target ball before it bounced,
staying with an opponent trying to beat you, or by
achieving the desired movement pattern. Deceleration
was also regularly stressed, as it is vital to effective
performance.
A few weeks into the internship, Dos started to
introduce strongman style training, adapted to have a
The Environment
Upon arriving at C.O.C. I was immediately struck by
the facilities available. It is a Junior College, not a
University, but still had 2 sports halls, a football and
baseball stadium, a soccer field and extra training
pitches. The S&C department was also well catered for:
14 platforms, 5 squat racks, kettlebells, TRXs,
Dumbbells and much more in a vast suite with
adjoining studio. This is in stark contrast to the
facilities of most universities in the UK, and it is clear
that sport is paramount in the US education system
and S&C is vital to sports performance.
26
larger emphasis on conditioning. The teams would

carry out medleys of tyre flips, rope jumps, dumbbell
farmers walks and sled pushes etc. As I have done
some of this style of training in the past, I thought I
would have a go. The first medley was 4 tyre flip and
jumps, 30 rope jumps and an eighty yard DB farmers
walk, repeated three times. It was hard work,
confirmed by the re-introduction of my breakfast to my
mouth at the end of it. We then went on to do more
sled pushing and tyre flipping and dumbbell running in
the 40C heat of Southern California. This session was
not reserved only for the boys; the womens softball
team also did the session, albeit with two girls per tyre
and less weight on the sled, but they got stuck in and
enjoyed it.
The Coach
Dos coaching style was like nothing I am used to: I
rowed for Durham University where the S&C coaches
were heavily involved, but generally subtle. Dos was an
erupting volcano from start to finish! It was a very
effective way of keeping control of so many athletes at
one time. When he talked, they listened, and if he was
unhappy about something they acted immediately to
sort it out.
As the internship progressed, I began to chat more to
Dos about the theories behind his programme and the
setup he had at C.O.C. This led to a statement I have
never heard a coach say before: we have all the
equipment we need. I was surprised by this, but it
was true. Dos has the support of all the coaching and
sports staff at the college; all the sports coaches report
to him on a daily basis with information on athlete
performance, illness etc. The rehab team regularly
drop in to keep him updated on the athletes return to
play, the Head of Sport offers nothing but positive
comments and praise for his programme and supports
it accordingly with equipment and facilities. Perhaps,
most importantly, everyone sees the absolute necessity
of S&C to high level sports performance. As a result,
every athlete attends every session in the knowledge
that if they dont, they will not compete on the team.
It was great to see an example of a large scale
cohesive team, working to develop their athletes while
firmly grounded in education.
push the weight they lifted. While lifts like the barbell
bench press were tested, they rarely appeared in the
programme. When I asked Dos about this, he said that
using unilateral exercises like the DB half bench gave
much more in terms of functional strength, and they
still lead to increased 1RM test results each year.
Olympic lifts were used regularly to develop explosive
power, as were kettlebells and jump protocols. KB
swings were used with the beginners and larger groups
to teach the explosive hip extension and controlling the
weight. For the more advanced, Dos added an
increased eccentric control element by having a partner
push the KB down during the swing.
Dos puts his TRX suspension trainers into a lot of his
programmes. He uses them for jumping, single leg
squatting progressions, pulling, pushing and postural
work. They can be easily added to a circuit and by
adjusting the angle of the body to the floor can give a
large variety in weight lifted.
When combined, all these tools create a rounded and
successful athletic programme. Since my return, I have
put many of them into my programme at sportBU, and
I am convinced they are making our athletes
functionally strong and, most importantly, improving
their sports performance.
On a final note I would like to thank Coach Dos, Coach
Corbet and all the Cougars for allowing me to gain
some invaluable experience and helping me to develop
as a S&C coach. I would recommend an internship to
any new coach, because varied experience is vital to
creating a well rounded and effective programme.
Indeed I would argue that without it, you have no
chance of being successful. I now have 1 full-time and
2 part-time interns, with another coming for a month
in March. I hope they can gain something from my
programme that will help them on their way to
coaching success.
The Philosophy underpinning the

programme
Dos guiding principles on programme design were:
Cover the major movement patterns
Learn to deal with your own bodyweight
Use unilateral exercises and work laterally
Maximise efficiency by using supersets, complexes &
compound movements
Keep the sessions short and sweet
Specific exercise selection was via his Menu system.
Each exercise is categorized by its movement pattern
e.g. unilateral hip extension or vertical pull etc., so that
there are a variety of ways to work each pattern. Dos
could then select each exercise depending on his
programme and the difficulty level. He changed the
exercise each session to ensure variety and prevent
stagnation in the programme. The athletes were
instructed to work hard from the very first set and,
provided their technique was correct, to continually
If you have an interesting individual you

would like us to meet, why not submit a
similar article for the next edition?


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ISSN 1757-5834

The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association

No. 16 WINTER 2009

EXERCISE OF THE MONTH

THE FIVE PEOPLE YOU MEET IN

1 Woodville Terrace, Lytham,

UKSCA 2010 WORKSHOP AND

We now have 1250 members (979 at end 2008),

UKSCA TUTOR AND ASSESSOR

In 2009 we ran 20 assessment days, with over

We received over 65 applications for the recently

The percentage of members proving competence

The tutor event uses the Sports Coach UK - Coach

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

UKSCA | Issue 16 | Winter 2009 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

UKSCA CONFERENCE 2010

Manuscript Submission and Format

UKSCA | Issue 16 | Winter 2009 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

Theoretical and practical

Nick is currently the Performance Education

The ability to help athletes achieve supreme levels of strength,

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

UKSCA | Issue 16 | Winter 2009 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

depletion due to metabolic demands.22,31,38 This leads

Genetics and Training Age

failure.26 Additional theories point at an increase in

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

cytosolic Ca++, decreased mitochondrial function,

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

UKSCA | Issue 16 | Winter 2009 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

the literature that Bodybuilders have a preferential

Acute Program Variables

Muscle action type

produce greater levels of hypertrophy due to greater

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

greater level of sarcoplasmic19 and Type I hypertrophy7

Time Under Tension

important to note that with high volume training there

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

UKSCA | Issue 16 | Winter 2009 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

UKSCA | Issue 16 | Winter 2009 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

Table 1. An example functional hypertrophy phase for an Intermediate to Advanced athlete.

Fitness-Fatigue Model on the following three training

characterized by the Conjugate Sequence model, where

Armstrong, R.B., G.L. Warren, and J.A. Warren. Mechanisms

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12. Hakkinen, K., and A. Pakarinen. Acute hormonal

Resistance exercise biology: manipulation of resistance exercise

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Graeme Close is the column editor for

Graeme is a lecturer at The University of Liverpool in cellular and metabolic medicine.

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Diet history: The individual constructs a record of

Establishing portion size

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weighing food is impossible and 3. careful studies,

Food Composition tables: computer

analysed and only one mean figure is given. The

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1.4 times their basal metabolic rate. This probably

How many and which days?