Journal 22

ISSN 1757-5834
PROFESSIONAL
strength & conditioning
The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association
No. 22 SUMMER 2011

EDITOR
Ian Jeffreys PhD, FNSCA, ASCC, CSCS*D
EDITORIAL PANEL
Raphael Brandon MSc, ASCC
Clive Brewer MSc, BSc(Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Marco Cardinale PhD, ASCC
Dave Clark MSc, ASCC
Paul Comfort MSc, ASCC
Audrey Duncan PhD, ASCC
Mike Favre MSc, ASCC
Duncan French PhD, ASCC
Jon Goodwin MSc, PGCHE, ASCC, CSCS
Greg Haff PhD, ASCC, FNSCA, CSCS
Liam Kilduff PhD
Jeremy Moody PhD, ASCC
Phil Moreland BAppSci, AssocDip, ASCC
Jeremy Sheppard PhD, CSCS
Narelle Sibte BAppSci, Grad Dip, ASCC
Alan Sinclair MSc (Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Gil Stevenson BEd (Hons), ASCC
Margaret Stone MSc, ASCC
Michael Stone PhD, ASCC
Mark Simpson MSc, ASCC
Graham Turner MSc, BEd (Hons), ASCC
COLUMN EDITORS
Graeme Close PhD, ASCC
Nick Ward MSc, CSCS
Stuart Yule BSc (Physio), ASCC
INSIDE
RECENT TRENDS IN HIGHINTENSITY AEROBIC TRAINING FOR
FIELD SPORTS
page 3
PHYSICAL PREPARATION FOR

NETBALL PART 1
page 10
PERFORMANCE NUTRITION
page 17
LOWER LIMB POWER OUTPUT

page 21
DEFINING, DEVELOPING AND

MEASURING AGILITY
page 26
THE FIVE PEOPLE YOU MEET IN

HEAVEN
page 29
1 Woodville Terrace, Lytham,

Lancashire FY8 5QB.
t: 0845 300 8078
f: 0845 300 8079
e: info@uksca.org.uk
he summer issue of Professional Strength and Conditioning sees us

revert to our traditional format, having experimented with a special
topic issue in our spring issue. Originally an idea hatched in a
casual conversation with Jon Goodwin at the NSCA Conference last
year, the special topic issue appears to have been very well received.
Feedback from members has been very positive, and we are now looking
at the potential of developing another such issue for 2012. The special
issue format allows us to develop more focussed information on specific
topics of interest, and provide a wider degree of coverage than the
traditional multi topic format. To this end, the editorial team have
already looked at suitable topics for the 2012 issue, but would always
welcome feedback and suggestions from members.
One of the aims of the Journal is to provide our members with

information from some of the foremost practitioners and scientists around
the world. I believe this edition matches these aims. Firstly, it includes an
article from Dr Dan Baker, which looks at methods of using high intensity
exercise to enhance aerobic performance. Dan is one of the most
respected coaches in world rugby league having worked with the Brisbane
Broncos for over 17 years. Additionally he has published numerous
articles, both practical and research based, in the leading peer reviewed
journals around the world. Having Dan contribute to professional Strength
and Conditioning is a great bonus for the journal. This theme of having
information from leading practitioners is also emphasised in Nick Wards
the five people you meet in heaven column. Here Matt Smith, who works
at the University of East London, has used his extensive contact list to
conduct an article with one of the real big names in the field of Strength
and Conditioning; Mike Boyle. Mike is a worldwide, and highly respected
name in the field and has authored a number of leading books and other
publications. In this interview Mike shares his background and
philosophies with Matt, and gives great advice for coaches, both aspiring
and experienced. Additionally in this issue, Dr Paul Gamble, another
widely published author, has contributed an excellent review of injury
prevention in an often overlooked sport in terms of publication, namely
netball. This is the first of a two part article, where in part two, Paul
follows up with some practical application of the principles he covers in
part one.
As usual, our Performance Nutrition section addresses many of the major talking points in the field of nutrition.
In this issue James Morton and Graeme Close address a very topical issue, that of Vitamin D supplementation.
This provides a thorough analysis of the underpinning theory along with important practical advice for coaches.
Also in this issue, Anthony Turner, who directs the MSc programme at Middlesex University, looks at the
challenges of defining agility, and how this impacts upon the appropriate development of agility. Finally, Tim
Sylvester, who is a S&C coach in the SportScotland Institute of Sport system, has authored an article looking at
the literature regarding power outputs in lower limb exercises, and makes some excellent comments based on
this review.
Ian Jeffreys
Editor
UKSCA NEWS
UKSCA ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING
18 June 2011
2010/2011 was the most financially successful year to
date for the UKSCA with a recorded turnover of 442,374
and a profit of 37,523 achieved against a background of
no increase in membership fees since the formation of
the UKSCA in 2005.
BOARD ELECTIONS
The Chair, Jeremy Moody, outlined the recent
electoral process and thanked those members
of the Board that had served over the previous
two year period. The Chair confirmed that
Douglas Bryce had been the only nominee for
the Finance and Administration position and
will continue in this position for another 2
years. The Chair then confirmed the new
Directors as Ian Jeffreys, Pete McKnight,
Bridgitte Swales, Rhodri Lloyd. Details of all
the Board members can be found on the
website under the About section.
Other items covered at the AGM can be found
in the full Powerpoint presentation and minutes
which are available to members under the
Articles section of the website. The annual
accounts will also shortly be published on the
website when they are signed off and
submitted. Please log in first using your email
and password to enable membership access to
the site. Once logged in members can also
access all back issues and articles published in
Professional Strength and Conditioning.
TURNOVER
The primary reason for the increase in turnover is an
increase in the number of members attending UKSCA
workshops in the year and this is supported by a growth
in members from 1307 (241 Accredited) in March 2010 to
1732 (340 Accredited) in March 2011.
The UKSCA has also built up a contingency reserve of
36,055 which gives a level of certainty and security
against the potential challenges that lie ahead such as
the future availability of public funding (which some
members utilise for workshop attendance) and current
economic factors that have the potential to depress other
sources of income.
INCREASED RECOGNITION OF
UKSCA STANDARDS
In July the UKSCA ran a pre-assessment day
for the IRFU in Dublin which will be followed by
an assessment day in Dublin in November this
year. Over the past few months we have also
been running UKSCA Foundation; Planning
Effective Programmes; Plyometrics, Agility and
Speed; and Weight Lifting for Sports
Performance workshops at RAF bases around
the country.
UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

2
UKSCA | Issue 22 | SUMMER 2011 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk
Recent trends in highintensity aerobic training

for field sports
Dan Baker PhD, ASCA Level 3 Master Coach of Elite Athlete Strength & Conditioning.
Introduction
Field sports such as football, team handball, hockey, rugby union and rugby
league, Australian & Gaelic Rules football are characterised by a typically
stop-start nature, with varying movement speeds, multiple changes of
direction and the execution of decisions and individual skills under conditions
of game pressure and/or fatigue. The nature of the movements in these
sports requires the utilisation, and therefore training, of all three energy
systems (ATP-PC, Glycolitic/Lactic acid and Aerobic systems). Despite the
often stop-start nature of these sports, which heralds an increase in
anaerobic energy contributions5, high-intensity aerobic power and
conditioning can be critical for success in many field sports.5,6,7
Due to the high-intensity and less predictable nature of movement of field
sports compared to steady state aerobic long-distance sports (eg.
triathlon, distance running, cycling, swimming etc), the aerobic and
anaerobic conditioning for these sports should differ considerably to the
aerobic requirements of steady state long-distance sports. To address this,
there now appears to be a growing trend towards utilising recent research
and training trends to fully develop the high-intensity aerobic power of the
field sport athletes.9
Historical approach to aerobic conditioning training

Anecdotal evidence gathered by the author suggests that, historically
conditioning coaches for field sports would look at the aerobic conditioning
programmes of elite steady-state aerobic athletes and basically attempt to
mimic these by implementing long, slow distance training (LSD) for 20-40
minutes or more, at intensities equivalent to zones 2 and 3 (and sometimes
the more difficult anaerobic threshold (AT) or critical speed zones from
zone 4) listed in Table 1. In practical training terms, the AT and critical
speed are the highest speed that can be maintained in a single prolonged
effort.4
Dan Baker is a Strength &
Conditioning Coach for the Brisbane
Broncos Rugby League team, a
position he has held for over 17
years. He also holds a Phd which he
completed at Edith Cowan University
under Dr. Rob Newton. He has over
34 peer-reviewed international
publications concerning strength and
power testing and training and that
many again published in the ASCA's
own journal. He is the President of
the Australian Strength &
Conditioning Association (ASCA), an
ASCA Level 3 Strength &
Conditioning Coach and an ASCA
Master Coach of Elite Athlete
Strength & Conditioning. His many
work responsibilities include the
development of strength and power
for all Broncos players, but also the
development of energy system
conditioning for injured players and
assisting in the energy system
conditioning for all other players.
The nature of field sports however, is that there are important explosive
bursts that come at unpredictable times for unpredictable durations with
critical decisions to be made under the fog of fatigue or game pressure.
Continuous aerobic training for 20-40 minutes or more is relatively
ineffective for improving performance in field sports in experienced athletes,
as this type of training does not take into account all the changes in speed,
direction and work time at higher intensities that actually occur during field
sports. Therefore, continuous aerobic training, even if it is performed at
difficult critical speed based intensities, can be seen as less specific to the
needs of experienced field sport athletes.5-7, 9-12
Recent applied research in aerobic training

The most recent research shows that the amount of time spent at or above
the 100% Maximal Aerobic Speed (MAS) appears to be the critical factor for
improving aerobic power.2-8,10 It has been determined that performing a
number of short intervals at 100% MAS was a more effective method of
building aerobic power than LSD training.10 This approach was also more
effective than attempting to train only one interval continuously at 100%
MAS.8
Specifically, an intensity of 120% MAS was determined to be the best single
speed for short intervals that are followed by a short respite (passive rest)
interval, based upon the fact that this intensity allowed the greatest supramaximal training impulse (intensity x volume), in comparison to 90, 100,
and 140% MAS.8 Especially, intervals of 120% MAS for 15-30 seconds

Table 1. Aerobic training zones.
Aerobic
Training Zones
MAS Zone
Heart rate Zone
Zone 1.
Aerobic
Recovery
Zone 2.
Aerobic
threshold
Zone 3.
Aerobic
#2
Zone 4.
Anaerobic
threshold
Zone 5.
Maximal
aerobic
<70% MAS
70-77% MAS
78-85% MAS
86-92% MAS
93-100% MAS
>101% MAS
<70%
70-77%
78-85%
86-92%
93-100%
93-100%
followed by an equal respite interval of passive rest

and continuing on for 5-10 minutes. This is the basis of
the Eurofit method that will be detailed below.
A Japanese researcher called Tabata10 also found that
athletes working at 100% MAS (actually 170% VO2
Max. but the % MAS was not reported) for 20 seconds
followed by 10 seconds passive rest, and continuing on
this manner for 4-minutes produced excellent changes
in aerobic and anaerobic power, far better than
performing LSD training sessions of 60-minutes at 70%
MAS. This type of training is typically known as the
Tabata method.
The basis of all this recent research is that high
intensity intervals of typically 15-30 seconds,
interspersed with 10-30 seconds of either low intensity
active recovery (eg. <40-70% MAS) or passive rest,
continued in this manner for total set times of 4-10
minutes and repeated for 2 or more sets, greatly
enhances aerobic power and capacity. This research
emphasised that it didnt matter if the work/rest
patterns were 20 seconds work, 10 seconds recovery
or 15:15, instead the key fact was that training at,
or above, 100% MAS was the key intensity
parameter, and how long you spent there was the
driving volume parameter under-pinning
improvements in aerobic power.
Consequently, high-intensity interval training at 100%
MAS (Maximal) or at 120%+ (Supramaximal) now
appear to be increasingly used for training elite or
lower-level field sport athletes. The practical
implementation of three of these methods will be
detailed below.
How to determine 100% MAS for the

strength and conditioning coach?
Many coaches in intermittent sports work with large
groups of athletes. To allow for organised and efficient
training, the first step in implementing the following
training methods is to do a MAS test to determine each
athletes capabilities.
There is some debate in the literature about how to
exactly determine 100% MAS. For many strength and
conditioning coaches working with elite athletes around
the world, MAS is simply determined by calculating the
speed attained during the last successful stage of the
Montreal Track Running test.9,10 This will apply to a
speed in km/hr, which is then used to prescribe the
training intervals (the km/hr figure can be reduced to
m/s for easier calculation of intervals). Typically, field
sport athletes such as soccer and futsal players display
MASs of 4.4 to 4.8 m/s.9-11
Alternatively MAS can be calculated by performing a
time trial of between 5 and 6 minutes duration in any
mode of training.1 The time trial can be either as a set
time (eg. 5-minute time trial) and monitor the distance
covered in that time or conversely a set distance (eg.
1.5 km) and monitor the time to complete that set
distance. There is little difference between the methods
of set time or set distance, except that when dealing

with large groups with disparate fitness levels it may
be easier to implement a set distance and monitor time
to completion. However, if most of the running
conditioning is to be shuttle based, then use a shuttle
based test5 and conversely, if the running is mainly
straight line based, use a straight line test (or around a
track/field, such as the Montreal Track test), or a coach
can decide to use both types of time trials. Obviously,
a running test around a track will garner a higher MAS
than a shuttle based test. If using rowing ergometers,
a 5- or 6-minute or a 1500-m or 2000-m time trial is
typically used.
Either way, you end up with a distance and time in
seconds. Divide the distance by the time to complete
that distance and the result is the 100% MAS for that
individual for that particular mode of exercise. For
example, if an athlete runs 1200 m in 300 seconds,
then their 100% MAS equals 4 meters per second,
expressed as 4.0 m/s or 14.4 km/hr. To determine
other training percentages, such as 120% MAS, then
simply multiply the 100% MAS by 120% (eg. 4.0m/s x
120% = 4.8 m/s).
Table 2 displays some theoretical results of testing with a
group of 30 athletes who performed a 5-minute running
time trial around a track. The reality of training large
groups is that athletes of similar abilities can be grouped
together. So the athletes are identified as being of six
broad capabilities in this example, based upon their
running times. In reality, there may be more groups ~ if
you are dealing with 100+ athletes, there may be 8 or
more bands of distinct running MAS capabilities. The
results for this theoretical group of athletes will be used
to illustrate the three methods below.
Practical implementation of high-intensity

aerobic methods
#1. The Maximal Aerobic grids method (also
termed the 100% MAS:70% MAS method).
Based upon French research, coaches have developed
a system called (among other names) the Maximal
Aerobic Grids method. This entailed training initially
with short intervals of 15-30 seconds at 100-110%
MAS interspersed with 15-30 seconds of active
recovery at 50-70% MAS, continuing on for 5-10 or
more minutes.
For running training, implementing this method
basically entails devising rectangular concentric grids of
various dimensions that equal 100% MAS along the
long side of the rectangle and 70% MAS along the
short side (see Figure 1). The fastest group are on the
outside grid or running channel, with the slowest group
along the inside grid. The coach can stand in the
middle of the rectangle, but if two staff are available,
one would monitor the finish point of each long side of
the rectangle.
It can be seen from Figure 1 that theoretical Group 1
runs 72 m in 15-s along the long side of the rectangle

4
Zone 6.
Supramaximal
aerobic
Table 2. Determining 100% MAS from a 5-minute running test with 30 athletes. Based upon the results, the athletes were
assigned to 6 training groups. Other % MAS running speeds to be used in training (110%, 120%, 130%, 70% etc) are then
easily calculated with a spreadsheet.
Group
Distance completed
during a 5-minute
running test
100% MAS =
Mean distance / 300 s
120% MAS =
m/s
#1 (3 athletes)
1400 1450 metres
1425 / 300 = 4.8 m/s MAS
5.8 m/s
#2 (4 athletes)
1350-1399 metres
1375 / 300 = 4.6 m/s MAS
5.5 m/s
#3 (5 athletes)
1300 1349 metres
1325 /300 = 4.4 m/s MAS
5.3 m/s
#4 (6 athletes)
1250 1299 metres
1275 / 300 = 4.2 m/s MAS
5.0 m/s
#5 (6 athletes)
1200 1249 metres
1225 / 300 = 4.0 m/s MAS
4.8 m/s
#6 (6 athletes)
1100 1199 metres
1150 / 300 = 3.8 m/s MAS
4.5 m/s
followed by 50 m along the short side and so forth. It

takes 1 minute to complete one lap of the rectangular
grid and this is completed without pause for 5-minutes
and can be done for 2-4 sets with a 2-3 minute rest in
between sets. The key point here is that each group
has their grid based upon their own MAS capabilities ~
however, despite differences in MAS capabilities among
such large group, each group should be at their
respective corner of the rectangular grid each 15-s,
which makes training compliance easy to monitor. The
athletes are not allowed to speed up during the 70%
sides to get a headstart on the harder sides this just
makes the grid an anaerobic threshold grid, something
to avoid! This is enforced by making the athletes
momentarily stop and hold the start position on the
start of each long side of the grid.
When performing the running versions, it is more
practical to build up to 6, then 8-minutes and repeating
for 2-4 sets (or build up to 10 minutes and performing
1-2 sets) rather than increasing the length of each
Figure 1. Maximal
Aerobic Grids method
consisting of concentric
rectangular grids, with
the long side at 100%
MAS and the short side
at 70% MAS for each
running group. Each
side takes 15 seconds to
complete, with the full
rectangle taking 1minute. The distances
(Long, horizontal sides:
Short vertical sides) are
Group 1 = 72m:50m,
Group 2 = 69m:48m,
Group 3 = 66m:46m,
Group 4 = 63m:44m
Group 5 = 60m:42m and
Group 6 = 57m:40m.
Groups can start at
different corners to allow
for better spacing and
less congestion.
Nonetheless all athletes
hit a corner at the same
time, every 15 seconds.
A single conditioning
coach can stand in the
middle to ensure that
the athletes make it to
their corners at the same
time or with multiple
coaches, a coach can be
stationed on each
corner.
100% repetition to 30 s or more. It is difficult to do the

running grids for 30 s each side because you can
physically run out of room to make a rectangle (eg. 30
s x 4.6 m/s means the long, 100% MAS side would
have to be 138 m long, a distance which is hard to find
on typical sports fields). If conditioning is performed on
rowing machines or bikes, then the interval time
lengths can be increased up to 30 s. Therefore 30 s at
100% MAS followed by 30 s at 70% MAS, continued
for 5 minutes is appropriate for cycling and rowing
ergometers.
Every 3-4 weeks it may be necessary to retest MAS or
more simply to advance each group up to the next grid
(which would be about 105% of their original or
previous MAS). For example, the group that were
running 60 m on their long 100% MAS side are sent up
to the 63 m grid and so forth. This method is now used
by most professional footballers in Australia (soccer,
rugby union & league, and Australian Rules football)
with excellent results.
<---------------------------------- Group 1 = 72 m ----------------------------------->

<---------------------------- Group 2 = 69 m ----------------------------->
<--------------------- Group 3 = 66m ---------------------->
<---------------- Group 4 = 63 m ----------------->
<-------- Group 5 = 60 m ---------->
<---- Group 6 = 57m ----->

For rowing and cycling, difficulty can also be increased

by lengthening the time of the 100% MAS repetition to
40, 45 and 60 s with also a concomitant reduction in
the 70% MAS active recovery repetition from 30 s to
20 s, and finally 15 s. This twofold difficulty
progression also sees a change in the work:recovery
ratio from 1:1 (when 30s 100% MAS: 30 s 70% MAS)
to up to 4:1 (60 s 100% MAS: 15 s 70% MAS). In this
last instance the set length would be limited to 5minutes, 4-minutes of which is spent at 100% of the
aerobic capabilities.
#2. The supramaximal Eurofit method.

This method was developed by the French researchers
and has been validated with professional soccer
players, resulting in large increases in MAS during the
pre-season11 or mid-season7, as well as in school
children.2-3 It is very simple to use. Again every
athletes 100% MAS is determined and then increased
by either 20% (ie. 120% MAS) or 30% (130% MAS).
The athletes are lined up along a line and then run to
the marker cone that represents their 120% MAS
distance in 15 seconds. They rest there for 15 seconds
and then run back to the start line. This process is
repeated for 5-minutes, building up to 8- or 10minutes, with only 1-2 sets being performed. Intensity
can be increased up to 130% MAS after 3-4 weeks.
Figure 2 provides a depiction of the simple set-up.

Again, this is easily coached ~ all athletes must get to
their cone on the 15 second mark, wait 15 seconds and
on the return, they all hit the start line at the same
time, despite different distances being covered.
#3. Implementing the Tabata method

The original Tabata method is quite exhausting (at
170% VO2 max) and is typically only performed for
one 4-minute set. As athletes typically must compete
for longer time durations or multiple rounds (eg. in
mixed martial arts fighting there are three or five, 5minute rounds), the Tabata protocol has been modified
by coaches to be performed at a lower intensity of
120-140% MAS. This allows the set duration to be
increased up to 5-, 6- or even 8-minutes and be
performed for 2-5 sets, allowing for more time to be
spent at or above the critical 100% MAS intensity.
Figure 3 details how this modified Tabata method can
be implemented in a smaller area, such as an indoor
sports area like a basketball court. In this example, the
Tabata method is performed as 20 seconds at 120%
MAS, carried out as 5 seconds out, 5 seconds to
return, performed twice (eg. 17 metres out and 17
metres back x 2), rest 10 seconds and repeat until 5 or
more minutes are completed. The turns that occur in
the run makes this speed quite difficult to maintain and
Figure 2. The Supra-maximal aerobic Eurofit method implemented for the 15 athletes assigned into six groups from Table 2.
Each group runs to their respective marker cones in 15 s, rests for 15 s, runs back to the line in 15 s, rests 15 s and repeats
till the end of the set, typically 6-10 minutes.
Eurofit Method with 1:1 work:rest ratio

Start line
Marker cones for the different Groups
*-----------------------------------------------* 68m = 120% MAS, GR 6

*-------------------------------------------------* 72m = 120% MAS, GR 5
*----------------------------------------------------* 76m = 120% MAS, GR 4
*-------------------------------------------------------* 79 m = 120% MAS, GR 3
*-------------------------------------------------------------* 83m =120%MAS, GR 2
*-------------------------------------------------------------------* 86m = 120% MAS, GR 1
Figure 3. Modified Tabata protocol with the six groups of athletes from Table 2. The athletes must run twice out and back to
their respective marker cones in each repetition (20 seconds), rest 10-seconds and then repeat till four or more minutes have
elapsed. This method also increases the anerobic energy.
Modified Tabata Method at 120% MAS with 20:10 work:rest ratio

Group 6 - 17 m out & then 17 m back x 2 in each 20 s rep
* -------------------------------------------------- >*
< ------------------------------------------------Group 5 - 18 m out & then 18 m back x 2 in each 20 s rep
* -------------------------------------------------- >*
* -------------------------------------------------- >*
*----------------------------------------------------------- >*
< ---------------------------------------------------------Group 2 20.5 m out & then 20.5 m back x 2 in each 20 s rep
*--------------------------------------------------------------- >*
< -------------------------------------------------------------Group 1 21.5 m out & then 21.5 m back x 2 in each 20 s rep
*------------------------------------------------------------------- >*
< -----------------------------------------------------------------

6
Figure 4. Modified Tabata protocol with variable interval lengths using ONLY GROUP 4 from Table 2 to illustrate. Group 4s
120% MAS equals 5m/s. Any interval length can used, but a 2:1 ratio should be maintained. The athletes do not know which
cone to run to until after each repetition has started. Set lengths are typically 4-6 minutes.
Modified Tabata Method #2 at 120% MAS with variable interval lengths

20 m out & back 20 m in 8 s
*30 m out & back in 12 s* 40 m out & back in 16 s
*--------------------------------- >------------------------------> ------------------------- >

< --------------------------------- <---------------------------- < -------------------------more sport specific for sports such as soccer. Turns also
increase the anaerobic energy contribution.5
There may appear to be little difference between the
Eurofit and Tabata methods, but the critical difference
is the Eurofit is based upon a 1:1 (15s:15s) work ratio,
whereas the Tabata method utilises a 2:1 ratio
(20s:10s). This apparently minor differential has a
pronounced effect upon the accumulation of fatigue
when multiple repetitions or sets are performed.
Another variation of the Tabata method is to maintain
the 2:1 work/rest ratio and 120 MAS but alter the
length of the intervals to 8:4, 12:6, 16:8 etc. One of
the limitations of all the above conditioning methods is
that there are predictable work periods. Athletes quickly
adapt to some sort of pacing strategy or know when
they are about to start their next effort. With this
second Tabata method the coach can set different
coloured cones for each time/distance interval for each
group. Upon the Go command, the athletes start their
effort but not till about 2 seconds later are they given
the command which will designate which cone they run
to and return from. They do not know until that point
will they be running to the cone designating 6s out and
back, 8s out and back, 16s out and back and so on (see
Figure 4). This strategy disrupts running rhythm and
recovery strategies, entails reaction to situational
commands and causes repeat high-intensity efforts to
occur at less predictable times more than any of the
other above high-intensity methods.
Periodisation and progression of training

The three training methods above have an inbuilt
intensity progression as athletes work from 100% MAS
in the Grids method to 120 and 130% MAS in the
EuroFit and Japanese Tabata methods. The other
variable for difficulty progression is the choice between
the active recovery (at 60-70% MAS in the Grids
method) versus the passive rest inherent in the EuroFit
and Tabata methods. Furthermore the Tabata methods
work:rest ratio of 2:1 may prove even more difficult as
compared to the 1:1 EuroFit method. The second
Tabata method with variable interval lengths may prove
more even difficult for athletes but this may be due to
reasons other than just physiological reasons.
Introducing turns in the Tabata, or any method, will
also cause an increase in difficulty as this increases the
anaerobic contribution.5
Training can be progressed via the systematic use of all
of these different methods, starting with the
100%:70% grids method, moving to the EuroFit 120%
MAS method and finishing with the Japanese Tabata
methods within a training cycle. Each method can be
implemented for 2-3 weeks before progressing to the
next method. Within each 2-3 week mini-cycle, the
typical volume progressions would also occur (5-minute
sets building up to 8- or even 10-minute sets and/or 2
sets building up to 3 or 4 sets). Consequently, when a
progression to the new method occurs after 3-weeks,
there is a marked decrease in volume, but an increase
in intensity ~ this week serves as a volume un-load

week. Therefore, as intensity initially increases with the
introduction of the new method, volume is lowest, but
builds up over 3-weeks before implementing the next
intensity progression, again with a lower volume.
Once an athlete has attained some training experience
with these methods, weekly undulating periodisation is
also possible with one aerobic training day emphasising
increasing the time spent at 100% MAS (and possibly
also the time of each repetition spent at 100% MAS)
via the grids method and the other training day spent
emphasising the time spent well above 100% MAS (ie.
The Supra-maximal aerobic Eurofit or Tabata methods).
This methodology is based around the Supramax
methods DEVELOPING new aerobic power and the
Maximal method, conditioning the body to SUSTAIN
the current 100% MAS for longer periods (or to be able
repeat it more often). This within-week alternation of
methods allows the athlete to toggle between milder
active recovery (eg. 15 s @ 70% MAS) and passive
recovery (15 s rest). An example of this is depicted in
Table 3, which outlines the rowing ergometer training
performed twice per week by female surfboat rowers.
Integrating high-intensity aerobic training

with sports training and small-sided
games
The limitation of the above methods is that there is still
some predictability about them. Intermittent sports
often require intense efforts at unpredictable times and
hence some researchers and coaches have advocated
small sided games as a better alternative to traditional
conditioning due to the unpredictability of games and
the fact that games also develop sports skills and
game sense. However the overload delivered by games
is also unpredictable.
Practical experience has shown that the alternating of 5-8
minute sets of the above conditioning drills with 3-8 mins
of small-sided games is an effective conditioning and
sports skill development tool in intermittent field based
sports. Typically, skills are coached in relatively low stress
situations (low heart rate, minimal fatigue, less than full
speed or full-force opposition), which is fine for the initial
skill development and tactical learning situations.
However, does this type of training enhance the skill or
tactical sports performance of advanced athletes? The
authors experience is that the fatigue resulting from the
performance of the above conditioning drills allows the
head skill/sports coach to see fatigue related breakdowns
in 1) individual skill technique, 2) decision-making or 3)
inability to match the game speed, resulting in the
effective dismantling of the teams defensive or offensive
structure/patterns/formation during the during ensuing
skill- and small-sided games. Typically, these three types
of breakdown occur in the most fatiguing parts of real
competition games but are not so well illuminated to the
athlete or coach during normal skill or tactical training
sessions which are practised in less stressful situations.
Thus, the head skill/sports coach can develop and

Table 3. The high-intensity aerobic training program performed on rowing ergometers 2d/wk by female surfboat rowers.
Type of Training
Week 7 Unload
Week 8 Basic
Day 1 Supra-max
aerobic @ 120% MAS
Objective: DEVELOP
high-intensity aerobic
power
15:15 x 8 reps x 2 sets

Notes: = 2 x 4-minute sets
120% MAS=85m in 15s,
followed by 15 s REST
2-min rest between sets
Session Summary:
Time spent at 120% MAS = Time spent at 120% MAS = Time spent at 120% MAS =
240 s
360 s
480 s
Session length = 10-mins
Day 2 Maximal aerobic

@ 100% MAS
Objective: SUSTAIN
high-intensity aerobic
power despite fatigue

Notes: = 3 x 4-minute sets
100% MAS=145m in 30s
70% MAS = 100m in 30s
Session Summary:
Weekly Summary

Notes: = 2 x 6-minute sets Notes: = 2 x 8-minute sets
120% MAS=85m in 15s
120% MAS=85m in 15s

Notes: = 3 x 6-minute sets Notes: = 3 x 8-minute sets
100% MAS=145m in 30s
100% MAS=145m in 30s
70% MAS = 100m in 30s
70% MAS = 100m in 30s
Time spent at 100% MAS

(Race pace)
= 360 s

(Race pace)
= 540 s

(Race pace)
= 720 s
Time spent at or above

100% MAS = 600s

100% MAS = 990s

100% MAS = 1350s
implement intense small-sided games that challenge or

illustrate which of these types of breakdowns occur (and to
which athletes) for different critical sports situations. It has
been the authors experience that, for example, an 8-minute
supra-maximal 120% MAS EuroFit set, immediately followed
by a 3 to 6-minute small sided game, backed up by a 3minute semi-passive recovery (stationary passing and
catching of balls) and followed by a 5 to 8-minute
100%:70% grid set and another small-sided game has been
quite challenging, not only to an athletes aerobic and
anaerobic conditioning, but also to the athletes ability to
maintain individual skill levels, decision making and team
structure during the second small sided game. Accordingly,
high-intensity aerobic conditioning can be seen as part of an
integrated and coherent sports performance enhancement
programme.
Conclusions
Experienced athletes gain little in terms of enhancing their
aerobic power from LSD training at 70-80% MAS. Training
at, or above, their 100% MAS has been shown to be more
effective. Three methods have been presented. Two use
supra-maximal intensities (120% MAS) interspersed with
10-15 seconds of passive respite. The third method uses
maximal 100% intensity for 15-30 seconds, interspersed
with either equal time periods of active lower intensity of
60-70% MAS or a 2:1 or 3:1 work:lower-intensity recovery
period (eg. 30 s: at 100% MAS: 15 s at 50% MAS). The two
supra-maximal methods are believed to be best for
developing new levels of high-intensity aerobic power. The
maximal method outlined is thought to best condition
athletes to be able to sustain high-intensity aerobic power
for longer periods or to be able to repeat their high-intensity
efforts, such as is the case with many intermittent sports.
Despite total training duration being quite short ~ (eg. 1-3
sets of 4-10-minutes duration) ~ this training is quite
effective in improving aerobic power, not only for
intermittent field sport athletes, but also for athletes
competing in events of 4-10 minutes duration (e.g.
kayaking, rowing, MMA, wrestling). Integration of this type
of training with challenging small-sided games is also highly
recommended for field or court sport team athletes (soccer,
hockey, basketball, rugby league, rugby union etc) to
complement their skill and tactical development under
stressful situations akin to the real competitive environment.
References
1. Baker D. Large group aerobic conditioning. Strength and
Conditioning Coach. 15(4):21-25. 2007.
2. Baquet, G, Berthoin S, Gerbeaux M and Van Praagh E.
High-intensity aerobic training during a 10-week one-hour
physical education cycle: Effects on physical fitness of
adolescents aged 11 to 16. Int. J. Sports Med. 22:295300.
2001.
3. Berthoin S, Manteca F, Gerbeaux M and Lensel-Corbeil
G. Effect of a 12-week training program on maximal aerobic
speed (MAS) and running time to exhaustion at 100
percent of MAS for students aged 14 to 17 years. J. Sports
Med. Phys. Fitness. 35:251256. 1995.
4. Billat, V and Koralsztein. JP. Significance of the velocity
at O2max and time to exhaustion at this velocity. Sports
Med. 22:90108. 1996.
5. Buchheit, M. The 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test:
Accuracy for individualizing interval training of young
intermittent sport players. J. Strength Cond. Res 22(2):365374. 2008.
6. Castagna, C., Barbero . and J. Carlos. Physiological
demands of an intermittent Futsal-oriented high-intensity
test. J. Strength Cond. Res. 24(9):2322-2329. 2010.
7. Dupont, G., K. Akakpo, and S. Berthoin. The effect of inseason, high-intensity interval training in soccer players. J.
Strength Cond. Res. 18(3):584589. 2004.
8. Dupont, G., N. Blondel, G. Lensel, and S. Berthoin.
Critical velocity and time spent at a high level of O2 for
short intermittent runs at supramaximal velocities. Can.
J.Appl. Physiol. 27:103115.2002.
9. M. Newton. How to conduct a running based Maximal
Aerobic Speed test and structure an aerobic interval
training session based on the test results. Australian
Strength & Conditioning International Conference on
Applied Strength & Conditioning. Gold Coast, Nov. 12-14,
2010.
10. Tabata I, Nishimura K, Kouzaki, M, Hirai Y, Ogita, F,
Miyachi M and Yamamoto K. Effects of moderate-intensity
endurance and high intensity intermittent training on
anaerobic capacity and VO2 max. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.
28:13271330. 1996.
11. Wong, P-L, Chaouachi, A, Chamari, K, Dellal, A, and
Wisloff, U. Effect of preseason concurrent muscular
strength and high-intensity interval training in professional
soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 24(3): 653-660, 2010.

8
Week 9 Shock
Physical Preparation for

Netball Part 1: Needs
Analysis and Injury
Epidemiology
Paul Gamble PhD, CSCS*D
Introduction
Physical preparation for sports is typically undertaken with the dual aim of
enhancing performance and guarding against injury. The latter objective is
particularly important in the case of female team sports players, given the
higher rates of lower limb injury that are characteristically observed among
these athletes.1,46,52 As a sport that is played exclusively by females at elite
level, netball carries a level of intrinsic injury risk in the same way as
observed with other female team sports. In the case of netball, it would
appear that there are additional extrinsic risk factors due to the rules of the
sport. In particular, the rule that players must come to a stop within one and
a half steps after receiving the ball places added emphasis upon rapid
deceleration, stopping, and landing movements.48 These movements are often
specifically implicated in the injury mechanisms for knee and ankle injury in
particular.
Accordingly there is a need for appropriate physical preparation at all levels.
Inadequate physical preparation and failure to perform a minimum level of
weekly conditioning was identified as a major factor contributing to injuries
observed with recreational netball players.45 This is of particular relevance to
initiatives encouraging adult females back to netball following long periods
away from the sport, given the likelihood of low levels of physical conditioning
among these individuals. However, it has also been indicated that levels of
physical preparation of players competing at elite level may also be
suboptimal.11 Standards of physical preparation and preparedness vary widely
between countries. Whereas New Zealand and Australia are recognised as
leading best practice, other nations appear less well served. Senior players
competing at international level (national squad players representing Wales),
were identified as having marked deficiencies in mobility, stability, and
capacity to execute fundamental movements required on court.11
Paul Gamble began his career

working in professional rugby union
with English Premiership side London
Irish, and has since worked with
national level athletes from a diverse
array of sports, as well as serving as
national strength and conditioning
lead for Scottish Squash. Paul
completed his PhD in 2005 and has
since published a number of articles
on various topics in the field of
strength and conditioning. Paul has
also authored two textbooks, the
second of which is due for
publication in September, 2011.
Naturally, physical preparation for netball should also account for the upper
limb in order to support the sport skills of passing and shooting the ball, as
well as guarding against potential overuse injury. The two-handed chest pass
is often associated with netball; however players also frequently execute
passes with a one-handed over-arm throw, usually with the dominant arm.
This technique was reported to comprise almost half of all passes executed
during an international match.32 That said, the match featured in this study
was from 1986 and trends in the intervening years have seen numerous
technical or tactical changes. The one-handed over-arm pass is employed
particularly for passes over longer distances or requiring greater velocity. In
accordance with this, defensive positions reported a high proportion of onehanded over-arm passes reflecting the number of long passes to players
further up the court executed by these playing positions.32
Playing positions in netball have defined roles and operate in designated
areas within the court. This is reflected by the different somatotypes
exhibited by players selected in different positional groupings (defence,
midfield, attack). Mesomorphy (muscularity) and ectomorphy (height and
limb length) are reported to vary between playing positions at elite level.31
Similarly, the different roles on the court are reflected in a different relative
emphasis on particular athletic movements and sports skills.32 It follows that
an advanced programme of physical preparation should reflect these
differences for individual players in each playing position.

10
Objectives of Physical Preparation for

Netball
It could be argued that the primary objective for physical
preparation for netball players is guarding against injury;
this will necessarily involve specifically addressing
identified intrinsic and extrinsic injury factors.16 The
second major aim when undertaking netball players
physical preparation is enhancing performance by
improving athleticism, developing movement skills for
improved change of direction and agility, and enhancing
both power and endurance exhibited on court.
The landing movements when receiving or intercepting
the ball, particularly those executed with a single-limb
touchdown, can involve considerable ground reaction
forces: values around 6.8 times body mass have been
reported previously.33 This has implications for the need
for development of muscle and connective tissues, in
addition to eccentric strength and eccentric speedstrength capabilities, in order that players are able to
absorb these landing forces. The movement techniques
adopted, along with the corresponding muscle
recruitment and activation strategies, also have the
potential to help reduce impact forces.32
Specific Movement Demands of Netball

A defining factor for movement in netball is the rule
requiring players to come to a complete stop within
one-and-a-half steps of receiving the ball. The various
landing strategies in the act of catching the ball
represent a key movement skill set for the netball
player, not only from the point of view of avoiding rule
infringements and being more efficient and effective on
court, but perhaps more importantly to guard against
lower limb injury in particular.
Players are observed to adopt various movement
strategies when receiving the ball including a hop or
leap onto one foot or a horizontal jump landing on both
feet.32 Based upon kinetic assessments, the pivot and
turn movement when receiving the ball appears to
impose the greatest lower limb loading.48 The
movement strategy employed appears to depend upon
the demands of the situation it has also been
observed in an early study that the players preferred
movement strategy may vary between dominant
versus non-dominant limb.32 Relevant factors with
regard to movement strategy include the type of pass
(straight, loop, or bounce pass) and the direction of
movement employed when intercepting the ball (e.g.
towards dominant or non-dominant side). The height of
the pass is also shown to influence lower limb kinetics
during the landing movement.48
The movement strategies most commonly used also
appears to vary between different playing positions on
the court. One study reported that defensive positions
had a greater proportion of one limb or asymmetrical
landings; midfield positions showed a fairly even
distribution of symmetrical (both feet) versus
asymmetrical (single-limb touchdown) landings; and
attacking players demonstrated a greater tendency for
symmetrical landings.32 The different relative reliance
on certain movements and landing strategies would
appear to reflect the relative demands of each playing
position. Accordingly, whilst there is a need to develop
the full range of movement and landing strategies
players may use, there should also be a particular
emphasis on the particular movements that are most
common for each playing position.
Whichever strategy is used when receiving or

intercepting the ball, movement skills instruction and
appropriate neuromuscular training can help players
capacity to absorb impact forces upon landing, which
can be considerable (reportedly around 6.8 times body
mass).33 Elite players appear to develop landing
strategies that attenuate impact forces through lower
limb joints.48 Adopting greater knee and hip flexion
when landing can help to more evenly distribute impact
forces throughout the lower limb kinetic chain. The
run-on landing is advocated as the safest movement
strategy, based upon kinetic analyses.48 Decelerating
during the penultimate step prior to landing/catching
the ball is also shown to help dissipate landing forces
more evenly through both feet.
In addition to the jumping, hopping and landing
movements to receive or intercept the ball, there are a
variety of change of direction, tracking, and evasive
movements players will perform when not directly
involved in receiving or challenging the ball which
represents the majority of their time on court. It
follows that movement skills training must fully account
for developing the full range of athletic movements, in
addition to the netball-specific landing movement
techniques mentioned previously.
Injury Incidence in Netball

From the limited published studies that exist in the
literature, netball appears to be associated with a high
rate of injury. It has been reported previously that
24% of all participants sustained an injury at the
Australian national championships held in 1988.31
Similarly, data from the 3-day 1995 New South Wales
State Championships in Australia reported 238 injuries
per 1000 player hours.35 More recent data from
national league competition in Australia reported
incidence of injury rates ranging between 66.7 and
71.4 per 1000 participations over three seasons
spanning 2003-2005.51 The difference in injury data
reported between the latter studies may be attributed
to a combination of the difference in eras studied (and
the measures taken to address injury risk in recent
years) and the different reporting methods employed in
each study. Although differences in reporting methods
make comparisons between studies difficult, these
figures appear considerably greater than what is
reported for elite female basketball players.37
The majority of injuries in netball involve the lower
limb45 and the predominant type of injury is ligament
sprain or disruption.35,54 The majority of injuries are
sustained during competitive matches rather than
practices51, which is a finding common to most team
sports.16 The ankle is the most frequent site of injury
for both recreational and elite players, followed by the
knee.45,51 Lateral ankle sprain has been identified as the
single most commonly reported injury in netball.33 The
mechanism of this injury in netball typically involves
landing in a plantar-flexed foot position, combined with
forced inversion upon landing.
The injuries that appear to be most prevalent in netball
specifically, ankle, knee, lower back and shoulder
are also among those most commonly identified as
having a particular high risk of recurrence.55 Identifying
the common injury mechanisms and specific risk
factors for these injuries is important to guard against
these injuries in the first instance, and also to help
prevent recurring incidence for those players with a
history of these injuries. Preventing repeated

UKSCA | Issue 22 | SUMMER 2011 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk 11
occurrence of injury also has wider implications, given

that athletes who suffer recurrent injuries over a
prolonged period are more likely to cease to participate
in sport.55
Mechanisms and Risk Factors for

Identified Lower Limb Injuries
Presented here is a summary of risk factors and injury
mechanisms for some of the injuries most commonly
sustained by netball players, based upon injury
surveillance studies of netball and data from related
female team sports:
Ankle
The lateral connective tissue structures of the ankle are
among the most frequent sites of injury during sports
participation. Lateral inversion sprain injury accounts for
the majority (85%) of all ankle injuries among
athletes.30 A common mechanism for ankle inversion
sprain injury in netball and related sports is landing
with a plantar flexed ankle position, in combination with
forced inversion, upon touchdown. In accordance with
this, ankle injuries sustained in netball are reported to
be frequently associated with landing and also playerto-player contact.35,51 A study of Greek female
professional basketball, which is the sport closest in
nature to netball, identified that the majority of ankle
sprains during matches occurred within the key area of
the court (i.e. the scoring zone in front of the posts).37
This was attributed to the greater number of ankle
sprain injuries involving player-to-player contact within
these areas. Consequently, the playing positions which
most frequently engage in contesting possession in
these areas of the court were also reported to suffer the
highest incidence of ankle injury in female professional
basketball.37 A similar pattern is likely in netball.
The pattern of ankle injuries monitored during a
playing season in female professional basketball
peaked during the initial two months (particularly the
first month) following the start of the season.37 This
peak in the incidence of ankle injury coinciding with the
start of competitive matches would appear to suggest
inadequate or inappropriate physical preparation of
players during preseason. A similar pattern might
likewise be expected in netball.
The prevalence of ankle injuries in netball33, combined
with the high rate of recurrence with this injury55, may
predispose netball players to the syndrome known as
chronic ankle instability.30 A study of netball indicated
almost half of injuries sustained by players during state
championships were recurrences of previous injuries.35
Chronic ankle instability describes a pattern of
recurrent ankle sprain injury with persisting symptoms
of mechanical and functional instability, such as
episodes of the ankle giving way during normal
activities. Various deficits have been identified in those
suffering with chronic ankle instability, which appear to
often arise from a combination of both mechanical
instability (i.e. physical changes to joint and connective
tissue structures from the initial injury or injuries) and
functional instability factors.
Deficits in strength and possible inhibition of individual
muscles that contribute to providing stability to the
ankle following injury, have been identified as a factor
in functional instability. In contrast to clinical
approaches that typically focus on the peroneal
musculature, based upon the literature it is the invertor
muscles which actually appear to be those most
affected.30 Those suffering with chronic ankle instability

also appear to have reduced proprioception, in
particular impaired sense of ankle joint position in the
frontal plane. Similarly, kinaesthetic sense during
movement may be impaired in those with chronic ankle
instability. Postural control and static balance are often
both reported to be reduced in those with chronic ankle
instability, and dynamic stabilisation is another aspect
of neuromuscular control that is found to be affected.30
Mechanical factors and known deficits in strength,
proprioception, neuromuscular and postural control can
be screened for during players initial musculoskeletal
and movement profile. Where identified, players can
then undergo specific training to address these deficits.
Knee
Anterior-Cruciate Ligament Injury
The most traumatic type of knee injury netball players
are exposed to is anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)
rupture. Complete rupture of the ACL is often
accompanied by damage to joint cartilage structures
and is further associated with long-term pathology
following surgical repair of the ACL.52 Female team
sports players suffer a considerably higher rate of ACL
injury reportedly 2-10 higher than male athletes in
the same sports52 this is the case particularly in
sports that involve jumping and pivoting movements.27
The classic mechanism for non-contact ACL injury is
deceleration combined with change of direction
executed with the foot planted.52 Both landing and
change of direction movements are frequently
implicated in non-contact ACL injury.27 The
deceleration, landing and change of direction activities
commonly identified with ACL injury feature frequently
in netball, for example, deceleration and landing in the
act of receiving the ball. Similarly, rapid change of
direction movements occur frequently off the ball as
attacking players attempt to evade defensive players in
order to find space to receive a pass and defenders
aim to track the players they are marking and attempt
to intercept the ball.
In addition to experiencing higher incidence of ACL
injury, the mechanism for this injury may also differ for
female athletes.61 Certain anatomical differences exist
between genders; however more relevant on the
basis that they are modifiable are the neuromuscular
factors. Deficits in neuromuscular control of the lower
limb kinetic chain are implicated in the injury
mechanism for ACL rupture, which appears to be the
case for female athletes particularly.27 Females often
exhibit ligament dominance i.e. rely on passive joint
stability rather than active muscular joint stabilisation.14
Furthermore, there is a tendency for female athletes to
demonstrate quadriceps dominance; which is
potentially detrimental as the action of the quadriceps
can increase anterior shear forces at the knee joint.52
The ACL is also particularly prone to injury when
landing and change of direction movements are
executed in an upright stance, which is again
characteristic of female athletes.41
Female athletes also demonstrate different motor
patterns during landing and change of direction
movements, such as reduced hamstring activity and
asymmetric gastrocnemius activation, in comparison to
male athletes.40 A prospective study also identified
differences in joint kinetics (torques or movements of
force measured at the joints) and kinematics (joint
angles) of female athletes who subsequently suffered

12
ACL rupture.27 Specifically, athletes who went on to

become injured exhibited a more pronounced valgus
knee angle, as well as significantly greater knee
abduction movements of force and ground reaction
forces during a jump-landing task. In this way, female
athletes appear to differ to males: valgus lower limb
alignment during stop-landing movements was
reported among female but not male athletes
competing in the same team sports.14
Deficits in lumbopelvic stability have similarly been
implicated in ACL injury risk with female team sports
players. A prospective study identified that a measure
of trunk stability was a significant predictor of female,
but not male, athletes who suffered knee ligament
injury and ACL injury in the study period.61 Impaired
ability to control the position of the trunk, and hence
the centre of mass, during athletic movements will
affect torques generated at the lower limb joints.
Capacity to control lateral lean of the trunk in
particular was strongly associated with ACL injury
incidence in the female athletes studied.61 This is
supported by a recent study of video captures of ACL
injuries that identified lateral trunk lean in combination
with increased abduction angle at the knee joint in the
female athletes as they sustained ACL injury.29 This
pattern was not found in equivalent video captures of
male athletes suffering ACL injury. Both measured knee
abduction and lateral trunk lean, and angles were
significantly greater among the female versus male
ACL-injured athletes captured in the video footage.29
Patellar Tendinopathy
Although not as severe as the traumatic ACL injury,
patellar tendinopathy (jumpers knee) is a chronic
injury that affects a large number of athletes.58
Understanding of the underlying pathology of patellar
tendinopathy is incomplete from relevant studies it
appears to not be an inflammatory condition. The
consensus is that suboptimal tracking of the patella
and associated stresses on connective tissues is
implicated in the mechanism for this injury.9
Accordingly, patellar tendinopathy is commonly
associated with sports that involve high knee extensor
torques and repeated jumping movements.58 Certain
positions on the court that engage in repetitive
jumping might therefore be particularly prone to this
overuse injury specifically the goal defence (GD) and
goal keeper (GK) positions. Although players will often
train and play through the pain and discomfort
involved, persistent symptoms can severely limit
performance. Serious cases may necessitate surgical
intervention and can even be career ending.36
An imbalance in function of muscles and/or connective
tissue structures, medial and lateral to the knee joint,
has the potential to disrupt the tracking of the patella.
Accordingly, imbalances or aberrant recruitment of
medial and lateral lower limb muscles have been
implicated with patellar tendinopathy. Classically,
practitioners have focussed on the quadriceps, with
muscle tone and function of vastus medius oblique
(VMO) receiving much attention. However, differences
in medial and lateral gastrocnemius activity have also
been identified among female players; interestingly this
was not the case for the male players studied.40
Symptomatic subjects are often identified as having
altered activation and possibly atrophy of the VMO
versus vastus lateralis muscle however this is not
always the case.9
Another of the factors that could conceivably disrupt
tracking of the patella is malalignment of the kinetic

chain of lower limb joints in frontal and sagittal planes
during single-limb stance and athletic activities. The
function of hip muscles that contribute to lumbopelvic
stability and control of lower limb alignment in singlelimb stance are therefore also identified as possible
factors in development of patellar tendinopathy.9
Isokinetic concentric and eccentric torques in hip
external rotation and eccentric hip abduction torques
are reported to be impaired in subjects with
patellofemoral pain.5 This is not consistently found to be
the case with isometric measures of hip external rotator
or abductor strength.9 Deficits in lateral trunk flexion
isometric strength have been reported in those suffering
patellofemoral pain. The trunk muscles that contribute
to lumbopelvic stability during athletic movements
hence also appear to be implicated.9 Patellar
tendinopathy therefore appears to be multifactorial a
range of musculoskeletal factors may be present, and
these may vary between individual cases.
Lower Back
The lower back has been identified to be the third most
common site of injury among female team sports
players.47 Defensive positions in netball may be
particularly prone to low back injury due to repetitive
and prolonged exposure to hyperextension postures,
combined with continually reaching overhead as they
try to block opponents shooting and passing
opportunities. Associated stresses placed upon the
lumbar spine and stabilisers of the lumbo-pelvic-hip
complex may cause symptoms of low back pain.
Low back pain is commonly associated with disrupted
motor control of various spine stabilisers and impaired
capacity to sense spine position3 it is open to question
whether these effects are a cause or symptoms that
occur subsequent to the episode of low back pain or
injury. Guarding against low back injury requires
appropriate development of each of the three distinct
subsystems that contribute in different ways to
providing stability to the lumbo-pelvic-hip complex. The
deep lumbar stabiliser muscles serve a unique role
given their attachment at segmental level of the lumbar
spine and pelvis, and the fact that, as postural muscles,
they are designed to fire in a tonic fashion. The more
superficial and larger muscles of the trunk serve to
brace and help control the position of the trunk during
more strenuous activity, which is important both for
reducing stresses placed upon the spine and lower limb
kinetic chain.9,61 Finally, in a weight-bearing stance the
muscles of the hip and pelvis play a vital role in
stabilising the pelvis from the supporting lower limb(s).
Consequently, deficits in strength and flexibility of the
muscles of the hip are commonly identified as a risk
factor for low back injury.41,47
Shoulder
The shoulder can be conceptualised as a loose ball
and socket joint: the position of the socket (i.e.
glenoid fossa) is dictated by the position and
orientation of the scapula; the position of the ball of
the humeral head within the socket of the glenoid fossa
is principally controlled by the rotator cuff muscles.13
Suboptimal positioning and control of the motion of the
scapula (scapula dyskinesis) can lead to suboptimal
positioning of the socket. Conversely, impaired or
imbalanced function of any one of the four rotator cuff
muscles will result in suboptimal positioning of the ball
within the socket. Either scenario, alone or in

combination, can lead to pathology-related

impingement with associated pain and weakness or
dysfunction with similar symptoms termed secondary
impingement.8
Netball players who frequently perform over-arm
passing/throwing movements during games and
training may develop muscle imbalances and specific
weakness due to microtrauma accompanied by
associated symptoms of pain and impingement which
are characteristically found in overhead throwing and
striking sports.60 Movement-based screens and
provocative tests appear most effective for identifying
clinically significant issues with respect to shoulder
joint pathology, impingement symptoms, or scapula
dyskinesis.8,56 This is underlined by the observation that
in overhead sports aberrant resting scapula posture is
often seen even among players who are healthy and
asymptomatic.49 A variety of screens exist that allow
not only the type but also the origin of any
impingement to be elucidated.8 Similarly, versions of
these tests enable the practitioner to establish whether
there is any scapula involvement or if the
impingement is restricted to the glenohumeral joint.
Conclusions
The lack of studies pertaining to netball poses
challenges for evidence-based training prescription,
however what data exist all point to the crucial
importance of appropriate physical preparation for
netball players from the point of view of guarding
against injury particularly. Based upon studies from
related sports, there would appear to be multiple
components that should be incorporated into netball
players training. This issue will be addressed in Part 2
of this article, which will appear in the next edition of
Professional Strength and Conditioning. There remains
a critical need for further studies that specifically focus
on netball, particularly at elite level.
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PERFORMANCE NUTRITION
Do UK based athletes
require vitamin D
supplementation?
Graeme L Close BSc (Hons), ASCC, PhD and James Morton
BSc (Hons), PhD
In 2008, Willis et al.14 published a review paper entitled Should we be
concerned about the Vitamin D status of athletes? As practicing sports
nutrition consultants as well as a University Lecturers and researchers,
this excellent review made us sit up and take notice of the emerging
literature on vitamin D and athletes. In fact, the more we read, the
more we actually did get concerned. Since this review, there has been
much discussion on the effects of vitamin D status on the health and
performance of athletes however, definitive studies on athletic
populations are unfortunately still lacking. This article will look at the
theory behind why vitamin D status may be important to athletes and
attempt to draw some conclusions and recommendations for the
strength and conditioning/sports nutrition professional.
What is Vitamin D?
James is a senior lecturer in Exercise
Metabolism and Sports Nutrition at
Liverpool John Moores University.
His research interests focus on the
exercise-induced cellular and
molecular responses of human
skeletal muscle and the influence of
diet and nutrition on modulating
these responses. As an early stage
researcher, James has been
awarded with Young Investigator
Awards from the British Association
of Sports and Exercise Sciences and
the European College of Sport
Sciences. He is the current
performance nutritionist consultant to
Liverpool Football Club and also
specialises in providing nutritional
and conditioning support to
professional boxers.
The term Vitamin D refers to a group of fat-soluble pro-hormones. The

discovery of vitamin D can be largely credited to the observation that
supplementation with cod liver oil prevented rickets (osteomalacia).
One of the components of cod liver oil credited with preventing rickets
was identified and termed vitamin D as it followed the earlier discovery
of vitamins A, B and C.16. There are 2 major precursors to vitamin D
known as vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) and vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol).
Due to these biological precursors, vitamin D could be described as a
unique vitamin since under optimum conditions, physiological
sufficiency could be met through endogenous synthesis (Willis et al.,
Many foods are fortified with vitamin D2
including some milk and orange juices.
Graeme Close is the column editor for

the Performance Nutrition section.
Graeme is a senior lecturer in Exercise Metabolism and Sports Nutrition at

Liverpool John Moores University. Graeme has published several papers in sports
nutrition focusing upon free radicals and antioxidants. Graeme is accredited with BASES
(physiologist) and the UKSCA. Over the last 5 years Graeme has worked as a nutrition
and Strength & Conditioning consultant with various sports teams and individual athletes
and is currently the performance nutrition consultant to Munster RUFC. Graeme is also
a former professional rugby league player.

Food
IU per serving
(% RDA)
Cod Liver Oil
1,360 (340)
Wild cooked Salmon
800 (200)
Mackerel (cooked)
400 (100)
Fortified orange juice
100 (25)
Beef Liver (cooked)
46 (12)
Egg (whole)
20 (5)
Fortified Milk
120 (30)
Table 1. Example of foods containing vitamin D including the

absolute amount in International Units and the % RDA.
Data adapted from the US department of agriculture.
2008). Vitamin D3 is synthesised when the skin is

exposed to UVB radiation, i.e. sunlight. UVB radiation
converts 7-dehydrocholesterol (found in the skin) to
pre-vitamin D3, which is then converted to Vitamin D3.
There are many factors that can impair the conversion
of 7-dehydrocholeterol to pre-vitamin D3 including
aging, skin pigmentation, clothing, cloud cover,
sunscreen use, and perhaps most importantly the time
of the year.14 During the winter months when the sun is
low in the sky it has been reported that it is very
difficult for UVB rays to pass through the atmosphere
and consequently there may not be sufficient UVB
radiation to synthesise vitamin D. It has recently been
reported that in the UK between October and March,
synthesis of vitamin D may be almost impossible and
therefore, the majority of the UK population may be
vitamin D deficient during the winter months.13
Vitamin D2 in contrast, is mainly derived from the
diet15 although it must be stated that very few foods

naturally contain vitamin D and therefore, many foods
are fortified with it including some milk and orange
juices (see Table 1). Vitamin D2 and D3 are converted
to 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-OHD) in the liver and
therefore, measurement of circulating 25-OHD is
perhaps the best, (and most widely cited), measure of
total vitamin D status. The RDA for vitamin D in the UK
is 400IU although many authors suggest that this value
is too low and there is certainly no consensus on the
optimum daily vitamin D intake for athletic
performance. The USA has recently increased their
RDA of vitamin D to 600IU per day up the age of 70
and 800IU for those aged 70+.
Are athletes deficient in Vitamin D?

For many years the vitamin D status of athletes has
been largely ignored. At no point in our education as
undergraduate or post graduate students was vitamin
D ever discussed and during the first authors career as
a rugby league player, not once did anyone measure or
even try to estimate vitamin D levels. The reason for
this apathy in relation to vitamin D may be a
consequence of the general assumption that vitamin D
levels were adequate in the general population,
combined with a lack of knowledge as to the
importance of vitamin D in many aspects of health.
There are also equivocal suggestions from vitamin D
experts as to what constitutes a vitamin D deficiency.
Zittermann17 defined sufficiency as between 100250nmol/L and described a range of sub-optimal levels
based on the effects on physiological function (Figure
1). It is important to note that this figure shows that
sufficiency is between 100-250 nmol/L and as yet there
is no evidence that being at the top end of this scale is
optimum compared with being at the lower end of the
sufficient scale.
It should also be highlighted that excessively high
vitamin D levels (greater than 250nmol/L) can be toxic
and may result in hypercalcemia and
hyperphosphatemia. Vitamin D intoxication can present
itself as nausea, fatigue, constipation, back pain and
memory loss whereas prolonged hypercalcemia from
excessively high vitamin D intake can cause soft tissue
Figure 1. Classification of vitamin D status based on serum 25-OHD levels (taken from Zittermann.17

18
calcification and elevated blood pressure. To our

knowledge, no study has ever reported vitamin D
levels in the toxic range from a normal diet high in
vitamin D or through sunlight exposure, only through
the intake of mega dose supplementation. Moreover,
even with supplementation, vitamin D intoxication is
reported to be extremely rare.16 Data on intoxication
have reported doses as high as 50,000IU per day,
whereas doses traditionally classed as very high
(10,000IU per day for 5 months) have shown no signs
of toxicity.12 However, the possibility of toxification
should not be ignored, especially in athletes, due to the
high prevalence of uncontrolled supplement intakes in
athletic populations.
In a comprehensive review of the field, Zitterman17
suggested that during the winter months both children
and older adults in the UK are reported to have levels
<50nmol/L (insufficiency), and that these levels are
only marginally better in the summer with values
approximately 60-80-nmol/L (hypovitaminosis). It is
also important to consider that dark skinned children
living in the UK have very low vitamin D status.17 This
is because dark skin has high levels of melanin, which
competes with 7-dehydrocholesterol for the absorption
of UVB. Clemens et al.,4 have suggested that dark
skinned individuals may need up to 50 times the
sunlight exposure of an individual with pale skin
complexion.
There is a lack of published studies on the vitamin D
status of athletes and even less on UK based athletes,
however the extant data does suggest that like the
general public, athletes do appear to be deficient. In a
collaboration between Liverpool John Moores University
and Professor Bill Fraser at The University of Liverpool,
we have recently tested the vitamin D status, (using
the highly sensitive technique of tandem mass
spectrometry), of several groups of elite athletes
including professional soccer players, rugby players and
jockeys. Data generated in the months between
December-February suggest that athletes may be
deficient with mean values for these athletes being
between 40-60nmol/L with some athletes less than
10nmol/L and classed as being deficient (unpublished
observation). Moreover, in keeping with the
suggestions of Clemens et al,4 we also observed
particularly low levels in dark skinned athletes. These
results are currently being prepared for publication.
What is the physiological role of vitamin

D in relation to athletes?
Bone Health For many years it has been known that
vitamin D is essential for optimal bone health through
its regulation of calcium homeostasis, with deficiencies
being clearly linked with osteomalacia. Although the
chances of osteomalacia are highly unlikely for
athletes, (although not impossible especially in athletes
competing in a severely weight restricted state), the
risk of stress fractures are high in athletes, with some
authors suggesting rates as high as 21% in track and
field athletes.11 Studies have suggested that low
vitamin D status is related to a higher incidence of
stress fractures suggesting that hypovitaminosis could
be a major problem for the bone health of athletes.
Interestingly, Dawson-Hughes et al5 reported that the
low vitamin D status observed in the wintertime
resulted in a transient fall in bone mineral density,
suggesting that athletes may be particularly susceptible
to bone problems during hard training in the winter. It
Recommendations include 10-30 minutes twice per week

of sun exposure between the hours of 10am-3pm without
sunscreen.
should however be noted, that this study was in older

non-athletes and this study is yet to be repeated on
athletic populations.
Muscle function The sudden and marked increase in
the interest in vitamin D status of athletes probably
corresponds with the discovery of a vitamin D receptor
on human muscle tissue10 which may regulate protein
synthesis in a dose-response manner. It has therefore
been suggested that restoring adequate vitamin D
status may stimulate protein synthesis and improve
musculoskeletal performance.2,3 There is also evidence
that vitamin D could interact with Insulin like growth
factor 1 (IGF-1) and, through its splice variant
mechano-growth factor (MGF), stimulate muscle
specific stem cell differentiation and proliferation
respectively.1,9 Muscle specific stem cells are essential
for cell growth and repair and therefore any
impairment in function could have severe
consequences for athletes. At the moment, this
suggestion that low vitamin D concentrations may
impair muscle structure and function in athletes
remains hypothetical and this is something that we are
currently researching in our laboratories. Preliminary
data indeed suggests that correcting low vitamin D
status does improve athletic performance (1-RM
muscle strength), but these studies are early and
require further analysis.
Immune Function A third important role of vitamin
D with respect to athletes is in relation to immune
function. Gleeson6 explained the effects that exercise
has on the immune system, suggesting that athletes
may be especially susceptible to infection. In our
experience working with elite athletes, it is important
that nutritional plans are not only devised to improve
performance, but also to maintain (or even enhance)
immune function during times of intense training.
There is now significant evidence that vitamin D plays
a key role in the immune system, and this may be
related to their association with monocytes.7
Do your UK based athletes require

vitamin D supplementation?
Much more research is needed in athletic populations
before a definitive answer could be given. However, it
is interesting to note that in the Harvard Universities
version of the food pyramid (http://www.hsph.harvard.
edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/pyramid/),

References
1.
2.
3.
4.
daily vitamin D supplementation is advised for most
people. Given the key role that vitamin D plays in
health, and potentially athletic performance, it would
appear wise to ensure that athletes are not deficient,
and data would suggest that this is highly likely
especially during the winter months. Therefore, it may
be wise to get your athletes tested for vitamin D to
allow sports nutritionists/dietitians/medics to make
informed decisions on the need to supplement or not.
5.
6.
One of the major problems with supplementation is

prescribing a dose, as there are no definitive
recommendations to correct marginal deficiencies. If
there are clinical deficiencies present, Professor Bill
Fraser, in a personal communication, suggests that
supplements can be prescribed from a medic and this
often involves 20,000IU (Dekristol) being given once
per week for 6 months, followed by once per month for
6 months. However this must be prescribed and
monitored by a doctor.
7.
Another option is for athletes to obtain sensible skin

exposure to sunlight. Recommendations include 10-30
minutes twice per week of sun exposure between the
hours of 10am-3pm without sunscreen.7 However, this
again should be only be advised after consultation with
a doctor, ensuring that skin type is suitable for this
level of exposure and sunburn does not occur with the
associated increase in the risk of skin cancers.
10.
Perhaps the safest option is to attempt to consume a

vitamin D rich diet utilising some of the foods outlined
in Table 1 and during the winter months, consider a
daily 1000-5000 IU supplement for 8-12 weeks
depending on the magnitude of deficiency and in
consultation with a qualified individual (Close et al.,
Unpublished Observations). It has been argued that the
common dose of 400IU found in multivitamins is not
sufficient to increase vitamin D levels and therefore a
separate supplement is required.
8.
9.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Conclusion
We hope this brief commentary has provided a useful
insight into a contemporary area in sports nutrition, but
furthermore, we hope that it has stimulated interest
amongst readers to conduct further research in this
area. Moreover, we would encourage practitioners to
monitor the vitamin D status of their athletes throughout
the year looking for seasonal variations. Through our
collective efforts we may be able to improve the health,
wellbeing and performance of our athletes.
15.
16.
17.
Ates, K., Yang, S. Y., Orrell, R. W., Sinanan, A. C.,

Simons, P., Solomon, A., Beech, S., Goldspink, G.
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89, 552-72.

20
Lower Limb Power

Output : A Literature
Review
Tim Silvester, BSc (Hons), ASCC
Introduction
Variations on weight training, strength training, weight lifting, power
lifting, speed training, plyometrics and combination training have
been used by many coaches and athletes down the ages to improve
performance. Even now, with the science and technology available
to assess performance capabilities and training modes, there are still
differences of opinion on which training mode is best suited for
specific performance outcomes. It would be easy to suggest that the
best option would be to employ all the above in a training
programme to ensure that the athlete benefits from every aspect of
strength, power and speed conditioning. However, this would not be
appropriate and as such, it is important that coaches and athletes
utilise the most effective methods of performance improvement for
the specific individual development needs.
The purpose of this review is to compare any significant differences
in the force, velocity and power output of lower limb muscles during
countermovement jump (CMJ) and weighted squat (WS) type
movements, and to assess how these should impact training
prescription.
The Exercises
The squat, as previously described by Yule40 and Chandler and
Stone8 is a widely recognised exercise that is used by athletes and
recreational trainers to improve and increase a range of physical
capacities. Almost every sport that requires the participant to use
their legs in some way will probably use the squat, in one of its
various forms, as part of a training routine to improve lower limb
performance.
Tim Silvester is a full-time S&C Coach

(UKSCA Accredited) with the Sportscotland
Institute of Sport (West), and is responsible
for the design and delivery of S&C support
for netball and wrestling. He also works with
cycling, golf, rowing and trampoline.
Tim is a graduate of Strathclyde University
with a BSc (Hons) in Sport and Exercise
Science, and has a background in sprinting
and rugby, with over 30 years of competitive
playing experience at club level.
A CMJ is a plyometric type movement that utilises the stretchshortening cycle, and is frequently used to develop a range of
physical capacities including speed improvement.6, 22, 38 It is
performed from an upright stance with the feet shoulder width
apart, and the hands either at the side of the body swinging or kept
on the hips throughout the movement. The ankles, knees and hips
are quickly flexed, then forcefully and quickly extended to achieve
as much vertical height as possible. Various studies of the force,
velocity and power outputs for CMJ have shown the benefits of using
these exercises for the performance improvement of speed, strength
and power, and are often used as part of a strength and
conditioning programme.11, 28
A Review of the Literature

The key to effective strength and conditioning is to improve sports
performance. In many sports, running speed plays a major role,
although it is the initial speed or acceleration, rather than the
maximum speed that is seen as of greater importance for successful
performance.2, 11 This could be the initial acceleration needed to beat
an opponent in a field sport such as rugby or hockey, or the reactive
speed of movement required during racquet sports such as
badminton or squash. In addressing improvement in sports

performance such as acceleration, it has been

suggested that measures of athletic performance are
strongly correlated with measures of maximum force,
the rate of force development and power.33 This makes
a comparison of methods aimed to enhance these
qualities very important.
The basis for this literature review is derived from
several independent studies looking at squats and
various jumps and their force and power outputs
determined from force platform data and jump
heights.2, 4, 6, 10, 14, 16, 37 From these studies, it is apparent
that the rate of force development (RFD), is a key
component in achieving quick movement. RFD has
historically been calculated during an isometric
contraction performed on a dynamometer; however,
recent studies have shown that the RFD for dynamic
movement on a force platform can be calculated using
force, velocity and time data.27, 33 This applied approach
to testing can therefore utilise exercises that are used
in the field, and are thus more applicable to sporting
performance.
Power = velocity x force, and therefore has both a
force and a velocity component. Having a high
proportion of fast twitch or type II muscle fibres is
important for high force, high velocity and high
power outputs. It is understood that the amount of
force that can be developed has a significant impact
on power production. The velocity at which that force
can be utilised for sport performance often
determines the level of success or the outcome of
the performance, as was shown by Farina15 and his
colleagues, where it was suggested that larger
numbers of fast twitch or type II motor units are
recruited at faster limb speeds with respect to slower
limb speeds, even at similar external forces. Hence,
the ability to generate power could be one of the
most important factors in sports performance,
particularly in those sports involving sprinting,
change of direction and jumping.20 It must be
recognised and understood that these three elements
of dynamic performance i.e. speed, strength and
power, require different training strategies and
stimulus to achieve their potential.
An increase in strength or force production generally
coincides with an increase in one, some or all of the
following; muscle cross-sectional area (muscle
hypertrophy), an increased proportion of fast type IIa
phenotypes and myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoforms,
greater pennation angles, greater neural drive,
increased RFD, increased motor unit (MU) firing rates
and synchronisation.1, 3, 12, 37 It is accepted that
increases in force production can increase power
outputs, however if strength was the only prerequisite
for speed then the power lifting champions would also
be 100m sprint champions, and this is not the case.
Absolute peak force is therefore not the only factor
that should be considered when looking at speed of
movement. The time to peak force or the amount of
force that can be developed in the early phase (<250
ms) of muscle contraction is also important to sport
performance. It has been shown that dynamic,
explosive or maximal velocity training can increase
the RFD, thus reducing the time to peak force or
increasing force production earlier in the
contraction.12, 41
Typical contraction times to maximum force for large
limb muscles are 300 ms, however, sports such as
sprinting, boxing and some athletic field events involve
contraction times of 50-250 ms1, which implies that

peak force is not achieved during these actions.
Maximal force contractions are only required for a few
sports such as powerlifting. Most sports require force
at higher movement velocities.35
A study of propulsion forces involved during
weightlifting and CMJ indicated that performance
was not improved by increasing the magnitude of
force generation, but by increasing the rate of force
generation and the time during which a higher
percentage of maximum force is applied.19
Therefore, if more force can be developed more
quickly, resulting in a leftward shift of the
force/time curve, i.e. the RFD, during the early
phase (100-200 ms) of muscle contraction, then
this would enhance power output and consequently
sport performance.1, 27
It is accepted that weightlifting, i.e. the clean and jerk
and the snatch, where athletes attempt to lift the most
weight, as opposed to weight or resistance training,9 is
recognised as having among the highest power outputs
for human movement. For example, a 1 repetition
maximum (1RM) lift in the snatch can produce a
maximum power output of 3000 Watts (W), in
comparison to 1100 W by the same lifter for a 1RM lift
in a squat,27, 28 whilst a recording of 6981 W was made
during the second pull of a world record attempt at the
clean.18
However, it has been suggested that the optimal
training load for power development is approximately
30% of the 1RM27, 28, 39, although optimal loads of
between 10 and 85% have also been suggested27, 28 and
that the highest power output and RFD is found in
those athletes who combine high force and high
velocity training.20
It has also been demonstrated that average and peak
force and velocity are higher during ballistic
movements, (where the load is released at the end of
the range of motion) than traditional lifts, due to the
deceleration required to stop the load at the end of the
conventional movement.29 Kellis study reported that as
the load during the squat was reduced, then the
deceleration phase increased thus reducing all force
and kinematic parameters. However, the GRF was
maintained at near maximal levels throughout loaded
squat jumps and peak GRF was recorded in the early
phase of the movement.29
Recent studies have also suggested that the highest
instantaneous peak power may be achieved at
bodyweight i.e. no external load.14, 37 Garhammer18
reported that the power outputs for the CMJ of
experienced weightlifters came within 10% of the
power outputs for the second pull phase of a snatch
or clean, approximately 5000W, (see Table 1). This is
interesting from an applied perspective, in that taking
a simple measure of CMJ height will allow for quick
and easy monitoring of power gains during an S&C
training phase. Studies have shown that heavy
resistance training, at loads of 80-90% 1RM can
improve force output and the rate at which that force
is applied.1, 21 However, velocity specific or high
velocity training at loads of 30% 1RM and less have
also been shown to improve power output and RFD.12,
27, 28
It should be noted however, that these studies
have used a variety of testing methods, tools,
protocols and subjects, and as such it would not be
possible or appropriate to directly compare the
results.

22
Table 1. Means (s.d.) for squat and CMJ and comparative data from related studies.
Sub
Total time
Pmax
Vmax
Fmax
pRFD
Av. RMS
Squat mean
1.14
438.2
0.2125
1129.33
3812.6
0.093
Squat stdev
0.31
563.02
0.20
360.52
2328.64
0.03
CMJ mean
0.68
3656.18
3.988
1105.67
4282.96
0.024
CMJ stdev
0.18
1205.25
1.35
138.84
1092.29
0.02
0.12
6981
1200
Comparative data
Ref. 1
Clean second pull
Ref. 1
Squat
Ref. 1
Clean pull & Snatch
3430
Ref. 1
Second pull
5260
Ref. 2
Jerk
Ref. 2
Snatch
Ref. 2
Clean
Ref. 2
Squat
1100
Ref. 3
CMJ
5023
2.8
2228
Ref. 4
Squat jump
4320
2.46
1374
0.32*
0.98*
0.6
5400
2.6*
3000
2.0*(pull)
2950
1.6*
* data relevant to the adjacent exercise but taken from reference 1.

Ref. 1. (Garhammer, 1993).18
Ref. 2. (Haff & Potteiger, 2001).20
Ref. 3. (Izquierdo et al. 1998).24
Ref. 4. (Driss et al. 2001).14
Non referenced data from an Honours Degree dissertation 2006.
As previously discussed, there are various suggestions

for the optimal load for power development, although
many of these studies neglected to report or test the
power outputs at body weight or 0% 1RM for lower
limb movements. Only 2 studies have been found that
test or extrapolate lower limb power output at 0%
external loading, although the studies used different
subject populations and testing protocols.14, 37 However
in both studies, a squat jump was used in comparison
to a loaded squat jump or squat, and both studies
demonstrated that the unloaded squat jump produced
the highest power output.
There are several possible reasons as to why CMJ
height is greater than squat jump height and thus
potentially, a more powerful movement. A countermovement utilises the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC),
which is an eccentric contraction or stretch under load
followed immediately by a concentric contraction,
which allows for higher forces to be developed in the
muscle tendon unit at the start of the concentric
contraction and so to an increase in its force
development capabilities.22, 23, 38
There are several mechanisms thought to be
responsible for this, either singularly or in combination.
One hypothesis for the greater performance of the CMJ
is that a higher level of active muscle state is achieved
prior to the onset of the concentric contraction; in
that there is greater cross-bridge attachment and less

myofibrillar displacement than in a standard squat
jump. In this way, concentric contraction commences
at a more optimum length, enabling greater joint
movements.6, 38 It has also been suggested that the
storage and reutilisation of elastic energy may improve
performance with a countermovement, by storing
energy gained during the active pre-stretch in the
series elastic elements for use during the concentric
phase, which theoretically improves the work
accomplished.6
It has been demonstrated that pre-stretching, or the
potentiation of the contractile element, alters the
muscle fibre properties, improving the mechanical work
of the muscles during the first 300 ms of shortening. It
is important to note that the velocity and displacement
of the pre-stretch significantly affects the level of force
that can be produced.6, 38 It has been suggested that
the CMJ has a higher peak power output than a WS in
studies by Garhammer18, for the squat 1274 W, by Haff
and Potteiger20 for the squat 1100 W, by McBride31 for
the CMJ 4910 W, and by Izquierdo et al24 for the CMJ
5023 W. However, these studies mostly use trained
athletes, power lifters and weight lifters.16, 18, 20, 31
The greater vertical velocity logically begets a lesser
time for the concentric contraction for the same range
of motion. A greater vertical velocity for the CMJ, but

with a similar GRF to the WS would imply a more

powerful contraction was produced during the CMJ. It
has been suggested that elite weight lifters can
produce similar power outputs for CMJ and the second
pull of a snatch or clean. Interestingly the time taken
to complete the second pull of these lifts has been
reported as 0.12 s, while for the jerk phase of a clean
and jerk, the time has been reported as 0.32 s, which
indicates that velocity is a significant component of
human muscle power output.18
As previously discussed muscle contraction times
during most sports do not allow peak force to be
attained. It is therefore surmised that if the rate at
which force can be developed, and the amount of force
that can be developed earlier in the contraction can be
increased, then the greater the power output. This
indicates a shift to the left of the force/time curve and
represents an increase in the RFD, if not a difference in
the pRFD.
It is thought by many coaches and athletes that to
increase power, heavy weights must be lifted, which
would result in an increase in force development. This
is correct in that power is a product of both force and
velocity and an increase in one or the other will result
in an increase in power. Although studies have given
force outputs for the squat as 2413 N by Fatouros et
al16, and as 2381 N by Kellis et al,29 in comparison to
force outputs for the CMJ of 2228 N by Izquierdo et
al24, and of 1934 N by McBride et al.31
Increases in stretching speeds during the SSC are
strongly associated with increases in force outputs
during jumping motions.7, 30 Therefore, the use of CMJ
and depth/drop jumps, (where the subject jumps from
a given height to the floor to perform a CMJ type
movement), would elicit maximal force generation in
the shortest period of time and consequently an
increase in power output. Studies on
combination/complex training suggest that performing
a plyometric type exercise after a heavy resistance
exercise could be beneficial due to the heightened
stimulation of the neuromuscular system, potentially
creating optimal conditions for the subsequent
plyometric exercise.25, 26
This phenomenon of post-activation potentiation during
combination/complex training may induce a similar
neuromuscular response as the pre-stretch occurring
during the SSC of plyometric movements. The faster
the eccentric or countermovement phase of a CMJ,
then the greater the potentiation effect and the more
powerful the concentric contraction.7, 30 This could
suggest a further reduction in the number of exercises
needed to be performed during a training schedule,
thus increasing efficiency and reducing the risk of
overtraining. Further benefits of plyometric training
have been reported to include increased motor unit
functioning, increased inhibition of antagonist muscles
as well as improved activation and co-contraction of
synergistic muscles, and increased muscle stiffness.7, 30
It would therefore seem that increasing the use of, or
including plyometric exercises within a periodised plan
will have both performance improvement and
potentially organisational benefits.
Conclusions and recommendations

In conclusion, this review suggests that plyometric type
movements have a higher peak power output than
squat type or non ballistic movements. Interestingly,
there was little difference in force outputs or peak RFD
between the two types of exercise. This runs in

contrary to some suggestions that there would be
differences in these variables between the two
conditions. The time to peak RFD, total concentric
contraction time and vertical velocities all concur to
suggest that plyometric and ballistic type movements
are more powerful than non ballistic movements.
This evidence gives further weight to the inclusion of
high velocity training in an S&C programme, as well as
training with high loads for athletes involved in sports
where speed of movement is important. Future studies
should consider whether depth/drop jumps elicit higher
peak and/or average power outputs than CMJ, and if
post-activation potentiation has a significantly greater
effect on the subsequent concentric contraction than
pre-stretch potentiation.
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36. Peterson, M. D., Rhea, M. R. & Alvar, B. A. (2004).
Maximising strength development in athletes: A metaanalysis to determine the dose-response relationship.
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 18, 377382.
37. Rahmani, A., Viale, F., Dalleau, G. & Lacour, J. (2001).
Force/velocity and power/velocity relationships in squat
exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology 84,
227-232.
38. Walshe, A. D., Wilson, G. J. & Ettema, G. J. C. (1998).
Stretch-shorten cycle compared with isometric preload:
contributions to enhanced muscular performance.
Journal of Applied Physiology 84, 97-106.
39. Wilson, G. J., Newton, R. U., Murphy, A. J. & Humphries,
B. J. (1993). The optimal training load for the
development of dynamic athletic performance. Medicine
and Science in Sports and Exercise 25, 1279-1286.
40. Yule, S. (2005). The Back Squat. The UK Strength and
Conditioning Association Newsletter 2, 11-15.
41. Zehr, E. P. & Sale D. G. (1994). Ballistic movement:
muscle activation and neuromuscular adaptation. The
Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology 19, 363-378.

Defining, Developing
and Measuring Agility
Anthony Turner, MSc, ASCC
Defining Agility
Agility may be defined as the ability to change direction rapidly, without
losing balance, using a combination of strength, power and neuromuscular
coordination.7,8,12,17 Until recently, these types of definition have dominated
and greatly affected the way in which agility is trained and tested. However,
recent developments have questioned whether these definitions truly reflect
the nature of agility in a sports context, and as such, new definitions retain
these movements but also add a reactive element. For example, Young et
al.,16 and Sheppard and Young13 also add that agility is further affected by the
athletes perceptual and decision-making skills (see Caption 1 and Figure 1).
What is not in question is that agility plays a major role in the performance
of many sports and indeed, for team sports such as soccer9 and racquet
sports such as tennis, agility may be the best single indicator of overall
performance.
The significance of these more recent definitions may be illustrated by the
fact that many agility drills are pre-planned and therefore only assess an
athletes ability to change direction (and not respond to a sport-specific
stimulus). However, in most sports, a change in direction is produced in
response to a stimulus such as an opponents actions, and is influenced by
perceptual and decision-making skills.13,15,16 For this reason, the ability to
change direction and speed in a pre-planned movement, such as that
demonstrated in certain agility tests (e.g. T-test, Pro-agility, 5-0-5), may be
better described as change of direction (COD) speed.15
Developing Agility
As a consequence of this updated definition of agility, several tests and drills
have been developed5,3 that require athletes to change direction in response
to a stimulus such as a light, thus incorporating reaction time within the
agility task. Again, this may not replicate on-field play as reaction time will
Anthony Turner is a Strength

& Conditioning Coach and a Senior
Lecturer and Programme Leader
for the MSc in Strength &
Conditioning at Middlesex
University, London, England.
Agility may be defined as the ability to change

direction in response to a sport-specific stimulus,
incorporating physical, technical, perceptual and
decision-making skills.
Figure 1. Schematic definition of agility.
Agility
Cognitive response to
sports-specific stimulus
Change of direction
speed
Physical skills
Technical skills
Perceptual skills
Decision-making
skills
Speed
Strength
Power
Reactive Strength
Accellerating
Decelerating
Cutting
Side stepping
Backward running
Landing
Visual Scanning
Auditory Scanning
Number of
available options
Speed of decision
processing

26
Progression Steps
Definition
Example Drills
Technical Drills
Focusing and developing specific

movements in a closed environment
Acceleration
Deceleration
Cutting left and cutting right
180 turns
Side stepping
Pattern Running
Involves two or more technical drills

sequenced in a sport-specific pattern.
This is taught as a closed skill.
Tennis: Accelerate over 3m, decelerate, side

step left over 2m, 180 turn, accelerate over 5m
Soccer: Side step to the right over 2m,
accelerate over 10m, cut to the right, accelerate
over 3m, decelerate
Reactive agility
training (RAT)
An open skill designed to reinforce

game-like situations which compel
athletes to respond to random, sportspecific stimuli
Tag
Copy cat
Mirror image
Shadows
Temporal occlusion
training (TOT)
Using video footage, an athlete can watch an

Enables athletes to learn the association opponent try to dodge in front of him. However,
between an early cue and its resultant
the step before the opponent initiates his COD,
outcome
the video is stopped. The athlete must react on
the basis of the available cues.
Table 1. Developing Agility
be preceded by an athletes ability to anticipate what is

about to occur and for example, the direction in which
an opponent is about to move.15 Abernethy et al.,2
suggested that more skilled athletes produce quicker
and more accurate responses because of their ability to
pick up anticipatory cues, especially the posture or
kinematics of an opponent (e.g. the angle of the hips,
the lower legs and the chest). Specifically, studies
show that high level soccer players have superior visual
search strategies.4,10,11,14 For example, Williams and
Davids14 showed that elite soccer players scan their
environment before utilising longer ocular fixation
durations to task relevant cues. In addition, they
demonstrate reduced reaction times during a one-onone situation, due to an enhanced ability to extract
relevant cues from their opponents kinematics, thus
enabling them to better anticipate the opponents next
move.14 Similarly, high level goalkeepers demonstrate
superior accuracy in predicting the direction of penalty
kicks through a greater ability to recognise and focus
on relevant visual cues such as the head, kicking leg
and ball.10 Due to the significance of these cues, Young
and Farrow15 question the value of using non-sportspecific training stimuli such as lights and auditory
cues, let alone those that do not involve a reaction
time component. Therefore, unless the agility drill is
sport-specific, high level athletes are unable to use
their perceptual and decision-making skills to their
advantage.1
Further evidence for the need to progress towards
sport-specific random stimuli may be gleaned from the
study of Besier et al.3 These investigators analysed
planned vs. unplanned cutting movements. The
unplanned movements were consequent to a light
stimulus and thus imposed a time constraint on the
subjects. The investigators concluded that because of
inadequate time to make the appropriate postural
adjustments and to position the leg in an optimum

position, significantly greater loads on the knee joint
were experienced in the unplanned cutting task. This in
turn is likely to increase the risk of knee ligament
injury. The authors summarised that learning to
respond more quickly to a COD stimulus in sport may
not only enhance performance but also reduce the risk
of injury.
Despite the need for sport-specific stimuli, a
progression from closed to open agility drills is still
recommended as this provides the athlete with the
time and focus needed to develop and consolidate the
individual components that define agility. For example,
Holmberg6 suggests that agility is best developed by
progressing through the following phases:
1.
Technical drills
2.
Pattern running
3.
Reactive agility training (RAT)
Technical drills involve focusing and developing specific

movements, for example, acceleration, top speed,
decelerating and cutting, (these can be taught within a
closed environment). Pattern running generally involves
several of the aforementioned technical movements
sequenced in a sport-specific pattern and are generally
considered very effective for novice athletes (this is
also taught as a closed skill). However, when technical
mastery is attained, agility drills that simulate
competition-like situations whilst compelling athletes to
react to random stimuli are a more optimal method of
training. Holmberg6 suggests that these RAT sessions
enable athletes to relocate their attention to the
kinematics of an opponent and force the athlete to
make a choice in response to the early appearance of
such information. Therefore these drills will improve
anticipatory skills and fundamental movement
actions.15,17

An agility test for netball was devised

by Farrow et al.,4 in which players had
to respond to a life-size video clip of
an attacking player about to pass a
ball. Via video analysis, total time and
decision time, (defined as the time
taken between ball release and the
instant the foot was planted to change
direction), was measured. In line with
the aforementioned studies, it was
found that the highly-skilled players
were faster partly because of faster
decision times. Interestingly, the
better players anticipated the pass
direction and thus were able to move
before ball release. However, the lessskilled players initiated their
movement after ball release, thereby
increasing both total time and decision
time.
Young and Farrow15 suggest an alternate mode of RAT
known as temporal occlusion training (TOT), whereby
athletes learn the association between cues and
resultant outcomes. For example, via edited video
footage, an athlete can watch an opponent try to
dodge in front of him, however, the tape is paused
prior to the opponent initiating his COD and the athlete
must react on the basis of the available cues.15
To summarise, Young and Farrow15 offer 2 principle
guidelines when training agility. Firstly, they suggest
the strength and conditioning coach identifies the
specific movement patterns used by successful athletes
in a particular sport, as the practice of these would
likely optimise the transfer to on-field play compared to
a more generalised approach. Secondly, they suggest
athletes practice agility skills under the time
constraints of game situations, because this causes the
athlete to make fast postural adjustments specific to
the demands of competition. It is recommended
however, that athletes are first able to demonstrate
technical mastery of the many movements
encompassed by agility within a closed environment
before progressing to the introduction of random,
sport-specific stimuli (see Table 1).
Testing Agility
At present, agility is largely tested via closed skills such
as performing the T-test, Pro-agility or 5-0-5 in the
quickest time possible. However, following the recent
adaptations to the definition of agility, this therefore
defines them as COD speed test. Nevertheless, despite
the reported methods to test and train true agility, e.g.
via edited video footage projected onto a large screen
(see Caption 2 for details), it is difficult to advocate its
use within a testing environment. For example, apart
from issues concerning cost and resources, a plethora of
video clips would need to be developed and standardised
and a familiarisation period granted to each player.
Moreover, these factors would also significantly influence
the reliability of the test and thus, this value would first
have to be quantified. Alternatively, if hand signals from
a coach are used, then again reliability issues regarding

timing of signal and clarity may be questioned.
Furthermore, this form of stimuli, including that
generated from electronically controlled signals, would
still not qualify as a true indication of agility as they do
not incorporate the kinematic cues of an opponent which
are considered fundamental.
As a final note, when testing agility, the strength and
conditioning coach should exert caution when
incorporating sport-specific movements which utilise a
sports implement such as striking a ball. Under these
conditions, when only time is recorded, this movement
is often neglected and does not reflect in play
mechanics (thus the validity of the test may be
compromised). For example, the athlete may not jump
as high to volley a ball, or kick a ball with the
necessary power or accuracy required to score a goal.
In summary, until such tests are rigorously validated,
the use of COD speed tests is advised, with true agility
used as a vital component of agility training.
In Conclusion
Agility may be defined as the ability to change
direction in response to a sport-specific stimulus,
incorporating physical, technical, perceptual and
decision-making skills. Unless the athlete responds to a
sport-specific stimulus, agility should be defined as
change of direction speed.
It is recommended that agility is trained by
progressing from closed to open skills, whereby the
athlete is eventually exposed to random, sport-specific
stimuli following mastery of the many technical skills.
Due to time, cost and resource constraints, coupled
with issues regarding validity and reliability, it is
currently recommended that testing is conducted in a
closed environment utilising COD speed tests.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Abernethy, B., Thomas, K. T., & Thomas, J. T. (1993).

Strategies for improving understanding of motor expertise
(or mistakes we have made and things we have learned!!).
In J. L. Starkes, & F. Allard, Cognitive Issues in Motor
Expertise (pp. 317-356). Amsterdam, The Netherlands:
Elsevier Science Publishers.
Abernethy, B; Wann, J; Parks, S. (1998). Training
perceptual motor skills for sport. In B. Elliott, Training for
Sport: Applying Sport Science (pp. 1-68). Chichester: John
Wiley.
Besier, T. F., Lloyd, D. G., Cochrane, J. L., & Ackland, T. R.
(2001). External loading of the knee joint during running
and cutting manoeuvres. Medicine and Science in Sports
and Exercise , 11681175.
Farrow, D., Young, W., & Bruce, L. (2002). The
development of a test of reactive agility for netball: A new
methodology. Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports
and Exercise , 8 (1), 52-60.
Hertel, J., Denegar, C. J., Johnson, P. D., Hale, S. A., &
Buckley, W. E. (1999). Reliability of the Cybex reactor in
the assessment of an agility task. Journal of Sport
Rehabilitation , 8, 24-31.
Holmberg, P. (2009). Agility training for experienced
athletes: A dynamical systems approach. Strength and
conditioning Journal , 31, 73-78.
Jullien, H., Bisch, C., Largouet, N., Manouvrier, C., Carling,
C. J., & Amiard, V. (2008). Does a short period of lower
limb strength training improve performance in field-based
tests of running and agility in young professional soccer
players? Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research ,
22 (2), 404-411. (continued on page 31)

28
The Five People

you Meet in
Heaven
Nick Ward is the series Editor for The
Five People you Meet in Heaven.
He is the lead for S&C for TASS.
Significant stops on a journey to becoming an

S&C coach
Nick Ward M.Kin. (Exercise and functional fitness),
BA (Hons) Sport Studies, CSCS, ASCC
Overview
Mitch Alboms book, The Five People you Meet in Heaven, inspires
the theme for this short series of articles. Based on interesting,
inspiring and challenging people we meet on our journey, the
purpose is to share experiences that people have had along the
way, and which hold some significance for their own development.
Matt Smith interviews Mike Boyle

MS: Mike, can you briefly describe how your strength coaching career got
started?
MB: Im actually a Certified Athletic Trainer so I started out on the sports
med side of things. I graduated with both a Bachelors and a Masters from
Springfield College, one of the worlds great academic institutions. We
learned how to think, how to perform and how to coach. For those in our
field the education is second to none. I was lucky enough to have a dorm
director named Mike Woicek for my first two years. Mike, for those who
dont know, is the current Dallas Cowboys strength and conditioning coach
and the man with the most SuperBowl rings in the history of the NFL.
What luck! Another guy at Springfield College at that time was Rusty
Jones, current Chicago Bears strength and conditioning coach. Very early
on I had great mentors and role models. I left Springfield College after five
years and took a job at Boston University as an assistant athletic trainer.
Matt Smith is a UKSCA Accredited

Strength and Conditioning Coach
based at the University of East
London. He has an honours degree in
Sport Health and Physical Education,
a Masters degree in Sports Coaching
and is a Functional Movement Screen
certified specialist. Matt is currently
working in China as the Lead
Performance Specialist for the
Chinese womens national football
team in their preparations to qualify
for the 2012 Olympic Games.

In the back of my mind, I knew I wanted to be a

strength coach. After six months of athletic training I
took the plunge. I quit my job as an athletic trainer
and became the volunteer strength coach. Very few
schools even had full-time strength and conditioning
coaches at the time. I worked in a bar 4-5 nights a
week to pay the bills and threw myself into the job.
MS: Did you have an athletic career before getting into
coaching?
MB: My father was a teacher-coach and Hall of Fame
football player in college and I was going to be just like
him. To cut to the chase, my football career was ended
by two serious problems that afflict too many athletes.
Lack of size and lack of talent were two things I just
couldnt overcome. What I did learn was that I had
some fast twitch muscle fiber and liked lifting. In the
early eighties I actually competed as 181lb powerlifter.
I only say that because many think Im a skinny geek
who never lifted a weight, although I must confess that
I currently resemble a skinny geek who never lifted a
weight.
MS: What was your big break in coaching?
MB: I became a hockey expert at the urging of the
hockey coaches at Boston University. I figured it out
and also figured out that there was no one training
professional hockey players in Boston. I had found my
niche. I met an agent and talked him into sending me
a few minor league clients. I told him no NHL guys. I
needed desperate guys that would listen to a football
guy about making it to the NHL. I also started training
high school hockey players because, in truth, I needed
the money. That may have been the smartest thing I
ever did. To make a long story shorter, some of my
new minor league clients did make the NHL and the
Boston Bruins offered me a part time job as their
strength and conditioning coach. With a little money
from BU and some from the Bruins, I gave up the bar
work and became a full time strength and conditioning
coach with two jobs. I did this for 10 seasons.
MS: What are your big rocks in terms of your
philosophy when it comes to preparing athletes?
MB: Its easy. We have a basic core of stuff we want to
get good at which has no relation to sports played. You
need to get proficient and strong in basic single and
double leg exercises. You need to master basic upper
body exercises. You need to sprint, jump, push/pull a
sled and condition. If you want sport specific training,
go practice. You wont see any silly fake specific stuff
in my facility.
MS: How about preparing team sports?
MB: For team sports it all about strength, speed, and
conditioning. We waste way too much time with sports
specific baloney. Get your athletes strong, get them
fast and get them in shape.
MS: So for speed
MB: To get faster, you need to do two things: get
stronger and run sprints. Its not hard and its not cute.
I really like heavy sled pushes also.
MS: And strength
MB: Strength is the easiest quantity to improve. The
key is Newtons Law. Action: reaction. If you can put
out more force, you get better at a lot of stuff.
MS: Whats your strategy when it comes to
conditioning?
MB: Watch the game. Train for the game. Aerobic base
is a waste of time. If the game is run, walk, jog then
that might be a good programme.

MS: Youve had a big influence on the strength and
conditioning community, who has influenced you?
MB: The list is endless. I hate to leave someone out.
Ive been heavily influenced by Vern Gambetta. He was
way ahead of his time. Don Chu, Al Vermeil, Mike
Woicek, Dan John the list could go on forever. My
friends at Athletes Performance are some of the best
in the industry. Mark Verstegen has a great staff Craig Freidman, Darryl Eto, Anthony Slater, Sue
Falsone I always enjoy talking to them. I love talking
to Alwyn Cosgrove, Robb Rogers and Gray Cook at the
Perform Better seminars. I also have really enjoyed
Todd Wrights talks on functional training. He really
gets it.
MS: Where do you currently look for new ideas?
MB: Truth is it gets tougher each year to find new info.
In the past few years most of my new ideas have come
from the physical therapy world. Mike Clark, Gray
Cook, Mark Comerford, Shirley Sahrmann. However, I
think we have gone too far with the therapy side. I
think these folks are brilliant, however they dont do
what we do. They can provide ideas but, they dont
actually work with athletes for a living.
MS: How do you feel your philosophy has changed over
the years?
MB: Strangely, Ive changed very little. What has
changed more is the definition of functional training.
Function now seems to be driven from a physical
therapy model rather than from a strength and
conditioning model. Many of the functional people in
the therapy world would not consider what I do very
functional yet Im still the same guy I was ten years
ago in many ways. I pride myself in keeping up with
trends. We are doing less volume for our advanced
athletes. My college guys are experimenting with 3
days a week this summer. The changes we have made
are more about frequency of training than about
exercises. What I would say continues to evolve is our
knowledge of core training.
MS: What advice would you offer to aspiring coaches?
MB: The list is long. Get ready to arrive early, stay late
and give people more than they asked for. Be ready to
work. Dont wait to be asked. Coaches should invest in
themselves with books and DVDs. Read an hour every
day. Divide the time between professional reading and
self help reading.
MS: What 3 S&C books would you say are required
reading?
MB: Training for Speed - Charlie Francis; Starting
Strength - Kilgore and Rippetoe; Functional Training for
Sports - Boyle (I just looked it over and I still like it).
MS: What about 3 personal development books?
MB: How to Win Friends and Influence People - Dale
Carnegie; The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People Steven Covey; Goals - Brian Tracy
MS: What drives you?
MB: I think never wanting to fail and never being
satisfied. I always said what makes you a success is
also what makes you crazy. I struggled for a long time
to find balance. I think my kids coming along helped
me do that. I think Steven Coveys Seven Habits of
Highly Successful People also helped. Covey asks if you
live your priorities. I think at times my job was treated
as a higher priority than my family. Ive worked to
correct that. Im getting a little old. My goals are more

30
personal than professional. I want to be a better father

and a better husband. I think Im doing a pretty good
job coaching.
MS: How do you deal with all the different egos and
personalities of the athletes you train?
MB: Treat athletes or people the way you want to be
treated. The Golden Rule is always good for starters.
Make it fun but disciplined. Require good behavior.
Make athletes get in line, dress properly and act
properly. Be willing to lose money over principles.
There are far too many in our profession who pander
to athletes and parents. You dont need to be Vince
Lombardi to enforce the Golden Rule.
MS: How do you ensure that athletes dont undo the
good work they do in training outside of the gym?
MB: You dont, you just do the best you can. I have a
few quotes I like here: it is better to light one candle
than to sit and curse the darkness and the best time
to plant a tree was two years ago, the next best time
is today. Dont worry about stuff you cant control.
Control what you can.
MS: I know how busy you are. How do you get so
much done? Whats your secret?
MB: As I always say, the secret is there is no secret.
Read about how to save time and to be more
productive. Read The One Minute Manager. It's a great
start. Pick up little tricks. Success is really is about
getting up and being organised. I personal train 10-15
hours a week, work as a college strength and
conditioning coach (BU is currently number 2 in the
country), coach Pro athletes 8 hrs a week, all the while
keeping up with writing, emails, strengthcoach.com
and strengthcoachblog.com. I love the idea of "readyfire-aim" approach. I would rather have done one thing
than thought about three. I read another great tip but,
can't remember where. The tip was to be a 90%
person. If a success oriented person strives to do
100% they rarely complete anything. The advice was
the last ten percent kills you and stalls you. I don't
worry any more if every article or DVD is perfect. I
want to always deliver a quality product but I don't
obsess over it any more. Don't over-plan or over-think,
just strive to get a lot done. Make a list and start
checking stuff off.
MS: Youve been doing this a long time now, what
keeps you in the game?
MB: I love the process. I love trying to find ways to do
it better. Whether it is athletes or personal training
clients, I love trying to find a better way. Day in and
day out I still want to see our athletes get better and
our coaches improve. Seeing the kids who started with
me as athletes get college jobs and seeing my interns
work in professional sports. I get a lot of pleasure now
from seeing the young coaches I have worked with go
on to great success. I think in the end, motivation is
internal. I want to be the best. I never expected to be
where I am today.
MS: What would you like your legacy to be?
MB: I want to be remembered as an honest, ethical,
hardworking guy who gave people good value.
MS: Thanks for your time Mike, anything you would
like to wrap up with?
MB: KISS: Keep It Simple Stupid. Demand great
technique and great effort. Coach, thats the job.
If you have an interesting individual you would like us to meet, why

not submit a similar article for the next edition?
(continued from page 28)

8. Little, T., & Williams, A. G. (2005). Specificity of
acceleration, maximum speed, and agility in professional
soccer players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research , 19 (1), 76-78.
9. Mirkov, D., Nedeljkovic, A., Kukolj, M., Ugarkovic, D., &
Jaric, S. (2008). Evaluation of the reliability of soccerspecific field tests. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research , 22 (4), 1046-1050.
10. Savelsbergh, G. J., van der Kamp, J., Oudejans, R. R., &
Scott, M. A. (2004). Perceptual learning is mastering
perceptual degrees of freedom. In A. M. Williams, & N. J.
Hodges, Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research Theory and
Practice. London, England: Routledge.
11. Savelsbergh, G. J., Williams, A. M., van der Kamp, J., &
Ward, P. (2002). Visual search, anticipation, and expertise
in soccer goalkeepers. Journal of Sports Sciences , 20,
279287.
12. Sayers, A., Eveland Sayers, B., & Binkley, H. (2008).
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Preseason fitness testing in national collegiate athletic

association soccer. Strength and Conditioning Journal , 30
(2), 70-75.
Sheppard, J. M. & Young, W. B. (2006). Agility literature
review: classifications, training and testing. Journal of
Sports Sciences , 24, 919-932.
Williams, A. M., & Davids, K. (1998). Visual search
strategy, selective search strategy, and expertise in soccer.
Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport , 69, 111129.
Young, W. B., & Farrow, D. (2006). A review of agility:
Practical Applications for Strength and Conditioning.
Strength and Conditioning Journal , 28, 24-29.
Young, W. B., James, R., & Montgomery, I. (2002). Is
muscle power related to running speed with changes of
direction? Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness,
42, 282-288.
Young, W. B., McDowell, M. H., & Scarlett, B. J. (2001b).
Specificity of sprint and agility training methods. Journal of
Strength and Conditioning Research , 15, 315-319.


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ISSN 1757-5834

The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association

No. 22 SUMMER 2011

PHYSICAL PREPARATION FOR

LOWER LIMB POWER OUTPUT

DEFINING, DEVELOPING AND

THE FIVE PEOPLE YOU MEET IN

1 Woodville Terrace, Lytham,

he summer issue of Professional Strength and Conditioning sees us

One of the aims of the Journal is to provide our members with

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

UKSCA | Issue 22 | SUMMER 2011 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

Recent trends in highintensity aerobic training

Historical approach to aerobic conditioning training

Recent applied research in aerobic training

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

Table 1. Aerobic training zones.

followed by an equal respite interval of passive rest

How to determine 100% MAS for the

of set time or set distance, except that when dealing

Practical implementation of high-intensity

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

UKSCA | Issue 22 | SUMMER 2011 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

1400 1450 metres

1425 / 300 = 4.8 m/s MAS

1375 / 300 = 4.6 m/s MAS

1300 1349 metres

1325 /300 = 4.4 m/s MAS

1250 1299 metres

1275 / 300 = 4.2 m/s MAS

1200 1249 metres

1225 / 300 = 4.0 m/s MAS

1100 1199 metres

1150 / 300 = 3.8 m/s MAS

followed by 50 m along the short side and so forth. It

100% repetition to 30 s or more. It is difficult to do the

<---------------------------------- Group 1 = 72 m ----------------------------------->

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

For rowing and cycling, difficulty can also be increased

#2. The supramaximal Eurofit method.

Figure 2 provides a depiction of the simple set-up.

#3. Implementing the Tabata method

Eurofit Method with 1:1 work:rest ratio

Marker cones for the different Groups

*-----------------------------------------------* 68m = 120% MAS, GR 6

Modified Tabata Method at 120% MAS with 20:10 work:rest ratio

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

UKSCA | Issue 22 | SUMMER 2011 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

Modified Tabata Method #2 at 120% MAS with variable interval lengths

*30 m out & back in 12 s* 40 m out & back in 16 s

*--------------------------------- >------------------------------> ------------------------- >

Periodisation and progression of training

in intensity ~ this week serves as a volume un-load

Integrating high-intensity aerobic training

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

15:15 x 8 reps x 2 sets

Day 2 Maximal aerobic

30:30 x 4 reps x 3 sets

15:15 x 12 reps x 2 sets

30:30 x 6 reps x 3 sets

Time spent at 100% MAS

Time spent at 100% MAS

Time spent at 100% MAS

Time spent at or above

----------------------------------------------- 68m = 120% MAS, GR 6

30 m out & back in 12 s 40 m out & back in 16 s