Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ISSN 1757-5834
EDITORIAL PANEL
Raphael Brandon MSc, ASCC
Clive Brewer MSc, BSc(Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Marco Cardinale PhD, ASCC
Dave Clark MSc, ASCC
Paul Comfort MSc, ASCC
Audrey Duncan PhD, ASCC
Mike Favre MSc, ASCC
Duncan French PhD, ASCC
Jon Goodwin MSc, PGCHE, ASCC, CSCS
Greg Haff PhD, ASCC, FNSCA, CSCS
Liam Kilduff PhD
Jeremy Moody PhD, ASCC
Phil Moreland BAppSci, AssocDip, ASCC
Jeremy Sheppard PhD, CSCS
Narelle Sibte BAppSci, Grad Dip, ASCC
Alan Sinclair MSc, ASCC, CSCS
Gil Stevenson BEd (Hons), ASCC
Margaret Stone MSc, ASCC
Michael Stone PhD, ASCC
Mark Simpson MSc, ASCC
Graham Turner MSc, BEd (Hons), ASCC
COLUMN EDITORS
Graeme Close PhD, ASCC
Nick Ward MSc, CSCS
Stuart Yule BSc (Physio), ASCC
INSIDE
RECOVERY IN PERFORMANCE SPORT
page 3
CONFERENCE REVIEW
page 18
My special thanks go out to all the authors who contributed articles to the
journal. Without their efforts, the production of a quarterly journal would
simply not be possible. I hope this year's content reflects our aim to
produce a journal that is appropriate to all our members from experienced
practitioners to those taking their first steps in the industry. To this end, I
would again encourage people to get involved in the writing process. We
all have information and experience that can benefit others, and putting
this in print is a great way of formulating thoughts and passing on
relevant experience and knowledge. Thanks also go out to our reviewers
who invariably carry out their tasks diligently and to a consistently high
standard. The review process is an essential part of our quality control,
and without the voluntary efforts of our reviewers this process could not
be carried out. All are unbelievably busy people and their efforts in
reviewing our articles are greatly appreciated.
One of the great challenges of editing a relatively new journal is ensuring
we have sufficient quality submissions to enable us to produce quarterly
editions. Without the efforts of our column editors this would make my
job especially difficult. Undoubtedly, the columns add a great deal to the
journal and allow for in-depth content within specific areas. My thanks go
out to Graeme, Nick and Stuart for their work on the journal over the last
few years.
A great deal of work goes into the final production of the journal, the
majority of which is unseen. Once again my huge thanks go to Kate Smith
for her unstinting and professional work in getting the journal to print.
She has a great attention to detail and ensures that each issue gets to
print to the highest standards possible.
The content of this edition also involves looking back, including a review of our highly successful conference
held in Stirling in June. Great congratulations need to go out to Dr Duncan French in getting such a great lineup of speakers, which made the event an unqualified success. The other main articles focus on specificity and
recovery. From our earliest introduction into training science, specificity has always been listed as an Universal
Training Principle, but how fully do we analyse and understand the concept of specificity? Dr Phil Graham-Smith
and his team from Salford University (Paul Comfort, Paul Jones and Martyn Matthews), outline how specificity
needs to be looked at from a range of perspectives and how what may appear on the surface to be a specific
exercise, may lack certain parameters that will maximise transfer to sports performance. In recent years there
has been a great increase in the focus on recovery within the realm of strength and conditioning. Today many
teams and athletes are utilising recovery strategies, although the benefits of some of these are yet to be fully
understood or proven. Harry Fisher (a strength and conditioning coach at the University of East London) and
Julie Gooderick (head strength and conditioning coach at Queenswood School) have produced a very effective
summary of the importance of recovery and also looked at some of the potential benefits of various strategies.
In Nick Wards The Five People You Meet in Heaven column, Luke Story, S&C coach at Derbyshire Cricket, has
interviewed Marcus Elliott, Director of Peak Performance Project, a private performance facility based in Santa
Barbara, California. Marcus has taken his extensive experiences in professional sport and developed a facility
and programme that is built around his core philosophies and methods, and he provides a revealing insight into
these. In Stuart Yules exercise of the month column, James Hairsine, (the assistant strength and conditioning
coach for the Leeds Carnegie rugby union first team) has looked at the use of drop jumps and the specific
benefits that these exercises may bring to a strength and conditioning programme.
Ian Jeffreys
Editor
UKSCA NEWS
Recovery in
Performance Sport: A
review of selected
macro and micro
strategies
Harry Fisher, MSc, ASCC, Julie Gooderick, MSc, ASCC
Introduction
2.
3.
The GAS theory (Figure 1), described by Selye, is used to explain short
term and long term reactions to stress.49 This model suggests that the
body elicits a similar response to stress, regardless of the mode (e.g.
physical, mental, emotional stressors), and the response is determined by
two major systems of the body, the nervous and endocrine systems. GAS
is outlined by three stages; the alarm phase (phase 1) is the initial
response to the stressor (e.g. fatigue or muscle soreness). The stage of
resistance (phase 2) is the bodys response, and how it adapts to the
stressor it is exposed to (supercompensation). The stage of exhaustion
(phase 3) is initiated when the exposure to the stressor is too long. This
may also be referred to as overreaching/overtraining.55
The SFRA model (Figure 2) is a concept similar to the GAS theory.
SFRA64,65,66 suggests that the application of stimulus/stress will produce
fatigue, and that this fatigue accumulates in proportion to the strength
and duration of the stimulus/stress. It is also important to note that this
stimulus (e.g. an exercise session) also activates mechanisms leading to
increased protein synthesis,4 and with adequate rest the fatigue is
UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION
Overtraining
Figure 2: The Stimulus Fatigue Recovery Adaptation
Concept. P = performance; T = time.
Sleep
Sleep can be considered as a passive recovery
strategy, and has been shown to improve cognitive,
psychological, immune, metabolic and neuro-chemical
functioning.4,34,47 There are two main types of sleep;
rapid eye movement (REM) and non-rapid eye
movement (NREM).47 Non-rapid eye movement sleep
can be further broken down into 4 main stages, the
first stage being the transition between wakefulness
and sleep, and stages 3 and 4 being the most deep
sleep.47 Stages 3 and 4 are also known as slow wave
sleep.4 It is during stages 3 and 4 of NREM that the
Physiological
Psychological
Contrast bathing/cold
water immersion
Hypnosis
Compression garments
Music
Antioxidant
supplementation
Neurolinguistic
programming
Massage
Reflexology/aromatherapy
Vibration/electrotherapy
Meditation
Stretching
techniques/yoga
Reflexology/
aromatherapy
Cold Temperature
(C)
Total Duration
(C)
(mins)
8-10
40-42
2:1
8-10
38
1:1
Vaile et al.
8-10
40-42
2:1
15
Vaile et al.61
15
38
1:1
14
Gill et al.16
Hamlin.24
60
Compression Garments
Compression garments have seen a recent rise in
popularity and are claimed to both increase
performance (particularly with regards to repeated
power expression)1,12,16 and enhance recovery.12,33,37 The
mechanisms for enhanced recovery are suggested to
be via increases in blood flow, muscle oxygenation and
muscle oscillation51,52 and following their use postexercise, athletes have reported decreases in soreness
and swelling.12,33,52 Sigel et al.50 suggested the optimal
pressure gradients to generate the fastest venous flow
in the lower limb (Table 3); this was supported by
Lawrence and Kakker.35
It should be noted that these suggestions were based
from research sampling a non-athletic population (both
studies) and further research is needed into
determining optimal suggestions for an athletic
population post exercise. The use of sports
compression garments, therefore, should be carefully
considered, as commercial branded sports garments
vary significantly in the amounts of pressure
generated, which could mean garments are used
ineffectively. Duffield et al.13 found markers of muscle
damage after sprinting were similar between a group
wearing lower limb compression garments and a group
without, suggesting compression garments to have a
minimal effect. However, the pressure of the garments
used was not stated in this study; this could have been
a causal factor in producing these results. Montgomery
et al.37 suggested compression garments may only be
effective after extreme eccentric exercise, when
changes to muscle architecture and increases in
swelling are more apparent.
Body Part
Ankle
18
Calf
14
Knee
Upper Thigh
10
Lower Thigh
Summary
A combination of macro and micro strategies must be
utilised to keep a balance between training and
recovery, and to maintain performance levels. The
consideration of macro recovery strategies such as
effective periodisation, recovery periods and proper
planning of training cycles must take the largest focus.
The trade off between using micro recovery strategies
and adaptation needs to be understood and considered
by coaches when planning programmes. Micro recovery
strategies should not be considered as sole recovery
strategies for athletes, more as an integration of acute
recovery components into a carefully considered
periodised plan.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
Movement Specificity
what does it mean?
Dr. Philip Graham-Smith BSC(Hons), Phd, CSCS, BASES Accred, Paul Comfort
BSc(Hons), MSc, PGCAP, CSCS*D, ASCC, Paul Jones BSc (Hons), MSc, CSCS, BASES Accred,
Martyn Matthews BSC(Hons), MSc, CSCS*D
Introduction
When an exercise is described as specific, there is an assumption that the
exercise is functional and is therefore transferable to a sports skill. Often the
main criteria for specificity is that the exercise must follow the same movement
pattern at a similar speed. For overload, exercises often utilise some additional
resistance in one form or another, e.g. body weight, free weights, bands or
pulleys etc. The focus of such an interpretation is fundamentally on whether the
exercise adopts similar force-length and force-velocity characteristics to a
sports skill and is assessed qualitatively on whether the joints appear to operate
through similar ranges and planes of motion.
Dr Phil Graham-Smith
Paul Comfort
Paul Jones
Martyn Matthews
Martyn Matthews is a Senior Lecturer in Strength & Conditioning and Rehabilitation at the
University of Salford.
Figure 1. A
comparison of the
forces acting in
dumbbell and cable
punches.
exercises and to plan exercise selection more strategically within the context
of a periodised programme.
Before we go on to explain our concept of movement specificity, it is
important that we stress the importance that S&C coaches have a
responsibility to fully understand the physical and technical demands of their
athletes sports/skill. Without this knowledge, we would argue that they
cannot prepare and condition them appropriately to withstand the loads and
stresses athletes experience in competition, or generate the relevant forces at
the appropriate rates and velocities to optimise performance. S&C coaches
should understand the technical model that an athlete and coach adopt and
have the ability to identify cause and effect relationships that are based on
sound mechanical and biomechanical principles. Without this knowledge the
S&C coach will not be able to optimise exercise selection and address all the
demands placed on the athlete.
Speed Principles
When considering an exercise, the S&C coach should assess what the typical
movement speeds are in the athletes skill (in terms of horizontal speed,
vertical speed and rotational speed). Speed has an important function on the
levels of force loading, ability to generate force and the typical movement and
ground contact times.
With technology readily available for S&C coaches to evaluate speed and
contact times, there is a danger that we make false assessments and criteria
for specificity. For example, ground contact times for long jumpers are around
120ms2 and some coaches attempt to replicate such contact times in drop
jumps. It is possible to get close to these contact times (around 150ms), but
this comes at the expense of dramatically changing the contact mechanics,
body orientation and the ability to generate vertical impulse. The fundamental
underlying reason for this is that a drop jump has limited horizontal motion,
whereas long jumpers approach the board at speeds of between 9-11m/s. Our
research has demonstrated that a realistic drop jump contact time should be
between 180 to 220ms for drops of up to 40cm.1
Movement Coordination
Principles
The amount of force a muscle can
produce depends on the amount
of lengthening or shortening of
the muscle relative to the resting
length. This is known as the
forcelength relationship and
takes into account the amount of
overlap between actin and myosin
filaments, and the extent to
which the filaments can slide
across each other. A lengthened
muscle-tendon complex generates
extra tension through the elastic
tissues, including the tendon. It is
therefore no surprise that this
feature figures highly when we
discuss movement specificity, as
performing skills that enable the
muscle to contract through
similar ranges of motion adhere
to this principle. Whilst we can
Conclusion
To avoid the potential risk of overlooking specific
conditioning requirements of a sports skill, S&C
specialists should evaluate the biomechanical (physical
and technical) demands of the sports skill with respect
to the principles outlined above. Using this approach,
the conditioner should be able to select exercises that
cover each criteria and periodise them accordingly
within the programme. Clearly, certain exercises are
more specific than others, however under this
approach, supplementary, postural or stabilising
exercises can be justified and included within the
programme.
In summary, the usefulness of this approach is to:
reflect on whether your drills are covering all the
important components and movement principles that
are associated with the successful execution of the
athletes sports skill;
check to ensure that you cover all the movement
principles in a logical order, becoming more specific
as your athlete enters the competitive season and
aims to peak, i.e. plan progressions within a
periodised programme;
explore how variations of a lift/drill may be more
specific and beneficial to the athletes development,
and;
understand the limitations of setting specific
quantitative limits to exercise performance (e.g.
contact times).
References
1.
2.
3.
Balance principles
The term balance embraces several factors; symmetry
of movement, support characteristics and muscle
balance. When referring to symmetry we need to
identify whether the movement is unilateral or bilateral.
In unilateral skills there is a greater emphasis on
4.
Drop Jumps
James Hairsine, MSc, BSc (Hons), ASCC
Introduction
Ross once asked Is the real reason why Olympic weightlifters are good
vertical jumpers because they inadvertently do a lot of fast eccentric
training in the catch phase of the full movement?.18 With power output
being fundamental to sporting success or failure, from a swing of a golf
club to a push off the wall in swimming, there is always a need to
optimise/increase an athletes power producing capabilities. This means
that it is important that coaches look at all methods by which power
output can be enhanced. The above question implies that there may
potentially be another mechanism by which Olympic lifts can provide a
potent power development stimulus. This mechanism, focussing on the
rapid eccentric element of the exercises, is termed fast eccentrics. Fast
eccentrics have been described as eccentric contractions that occur at
speeds 180o/sec.15 As Ross18 previously stated, many strength and
conditioning coaches may be inadvertently training fast eccentrics
through the Olympic lifts and their derivatives. The purpose of this article
is to highlight the benefits of utilising eccentrics in a training programme,
and to describe the physiological benefits more specifically of training
with fast eccentrics. This article focuses on one specific fast eccentric
exercise, the drop jump, and the exercise is expanded on further with
regards to how to progress this movement.
Drop Jumps
During sport specific movements there is a requirement for effective and
efficient deceleration. Deceleration can come in many forms, during
sprinting controlling the late swing phase of the lower limbs and during
throwing actions at the release phase. Deceleration can also be seen in
whole body actions, not just in localised areas, through rapid deceleration
of whole body mass during changes of direction on the sports field/court.
Maximising eccentric performance capabilities can be a method of
increasing the physical potential of an athlete in a number of ways.18
Table 1. Eccentric Training and Benefits.
1. Improving force
production
2. Selective fibre
type change
3. Enhancing
Thus allowing greater preservation of strength
performance during a over a time period of planned competition.4,12
taper
4. Strengthening
tensile structures of
muscle (pre-rehab)
Figure 1.
Starting
Position
Drop Jump
The drop jump is an exercise that utilises lower body fast
eccentrics through rapid deceleration during the catch phase of
the landing.
Start Position
The start position requires the athlete to be in an upright stance
in an elevated position. The height of the position is determined
by the landing capabilities, the training aim of the session and the
overall strength of the athlete (Fig.1).
The Drop
This phase involves the athlete taking a step forward off the box
with hands in an athletic position (i.e away from the body,
reinforcing correct upper body position to react to stimulus in
sporting environments), head up and looking forward with an
upright body position (Fig.2). A common fault at this stage of the
movement, is that the athlete may jump off the box or collapse
into the drop whilst moving forward, rather than making a
controlled step off in an upright athletic position. A coaching cue
could be for the athlete to remain tall.
Landing
Figure 2.
The Drop
8.
9.
10.
Practical Application
With the nature of sport and many sporting actions
requiring maximal explosive intent there is a prerequisite for training the fast twitch muscle fibres of
the body. Utilising fast eccentrics in an athletes
training programme could be a novel way of adding
variation to the training programme while at the same
time potentially increasing the number of type IIx
muscle fibres within the musculature of the athlete.
11.
12.
13.
Considerations
Drop jumps are a high impact exercise, therefore
implementing the exercise should be considered in an
appropriately periodised plan. Due to the intensity of the
exercise, the athlete should be injury free and
demonstrate a sufficient level of overall strength. He/she
should also display a good base level of eccentric control
before approaching this exercise. For example fast
eccentrics can be applied to a number of different
exercises and not just regarding the lower extremities.
Any exercise utilising landing mechanics and/or
exercises that follow this principle of rapid deceleration
can be applied to different muscle groups and
movement patterns. Further research is therefore
required to establish fast eccentric training in a wide
range of muscle groups, movement planes and patterns.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
Conference Review
2011
Jeremy Sheppard Developing Ballistic
Leg Strength for Vertical Jump
Performance and Coaching Plyometrics
and Accentuated Eccentric Movements
(Keynote and Breakout Sessions)
One of the great aims of strength and conditioning
is effective application of evidence-based practice.
This requires the integration of scientific evidence
generation with high-level practical application. This
often requires collaboration between a number of
individuals and establishments but occasionally
people come along that carry out both aspects
simultaneously and demonstrate how data collected
in the field guides subsequent training application.
Dr Jeremy Sheppard is one such individual. Dr
Sheppard is a widely published researcher, with a
worldwide reputation in the development of
explosive power and speed, but at the same time Dr
Sheppard is an active coach, a role that he
considers his primary function. In this way, while
employed as a lecturer at Edith Cowan university, Dr
Sheppard is also currently Sport Science Manager
for surfing Australia. His labs are currently the
beaches of Queensland a job no one in the
audience would want to exchange! Previously, he
worked with Australian Volleyball.
The main theme of Dr Sheppards presentation and
breakout session was a scientific theory and
practical application of methods to enhance
explosive jump performance. Dr Sheppard clearly
presented how jump performance was multifaceted
and relied on a range of force parameters. He
clearly outlined how his training applications vary
between sports and in response to the specific
kinetic and between kinetic and kinematic variables
of the sport. He further outlined how his profiling of
each athlete involved a number of jump applications
which provided data across a range of jump
variables, as well as across other force based
variables. What was crucial is that this was not data
for datas sake, as he directly used this data to
develop appropriate programmes for his athletes. A
key message presented was that strength underpins
power development, and how training strength
qualities are an important part of his training and
monitoring process. Dr Sheppard outlined how he
periodises the various force parameters into
effective programmes based on the athletes
individual capabilities, their stages of development
and their competition profiles. These programmes
included a range of methods from traditional (such
as the Olympic lifts) to non-traditional, such as
assisted jumps. However, at all times Dr Sheppard
outlined how he is guided by the data he is
generating daily on athlete performance. The
presentation clearly demonstrated how effective
fine, due to the fact that the mass that is added will be
lean muscle mass as strength and power are developed
over time.
Recruiting female throwers can be a challenge. They
need to be around 6 feet tall, have about 20% body
fat, and be athletic. Thus, a fast explosive volleyball
player would be preferred to a tall rower since the
volleyball player is more likely to possess the agility
and coordination required for throwing. Other issues
associated with body image being big and strong as
a female, can put girls off involvement in the sport.
Parental influences, alongside learning aggression,
training for maximum strength and weight
management can add to the challenges.
Mental characteristics also seem to play a key role in
recruitment into the events. Traits such as mental and
emotional stability, desire, patience, consistency and
intrinsic motivation are vital. Coupled with the required
ability to raise and lower intensity to match a given
situation, emphasises that physical prowess and
technical proficiency is not solely enough for success in
throwing.
A brief look at the current state of throwing in Britain,
showed that in mens and womens shot put and
discus, no one has yet thrown the A standard for
qualification for 2012, few have thrown the B standard,
and no one is near the worlds best throw for this year,
let alone close to breaking a world record.
A number of video and picture sequences were used to
outline the basic biomechanical and technical phases. A
look at rotational and conventional techniques and the
hip to shoulder relationship before release were briefly
touched upon before coming to the detail of running a
throws programme.
Shot put and discus are two events where maximum
strength and power have a very direct impact on
performance, and so a relatively simple periodisation
model can be followed. When looking at the phases of
training, and how they relate to each macro or
mesocycle, Meg highlighted that we must bear in mind
that each phase builds on the previous phase and lays
the ground work for the next phase to come.
The first phase is the general preparation phase, or
Concentrated Load Phase, which follows the
Verkhoshanskys theory of concentrate load (1977),
where 3 sets of 10 reps are performed on each
exercise. This is a 4-week block, with 4 lifting days per
week, where the intensity of loading increases weekly
for the first 3 weeks at 60%, 65% and 70%. The 4th
Mitch Alboms book, The Five People you Meet in Heaven, inspires
the theme for this short series of articles. Based on interesting,
inspiring and challenging people we meet on our journey, the
purpose is to share experiences that people have had along the
way, and which hold some significance for their own development.
Marcus Elliott
He was somebody that was not afraid to go against the norm and certainly
not afraid to ruffle a few feathers in the S&C community while doing it. In
the high pressure world of professional sport, many S&C coaches/sports
scientists can be overly protective of their athletes and neglect certain
aspects of training. High profile and highly paid pro athletes can also
sometimes get in the habit of dictating what type of training they want to
do in the gym. Dr. Elliott on the other hand, strived to get the best out of
his athletes. It didnt matter if they were a NBA player that had just signed
a $30million 4 year deal, if they were training under his roof they were
doing what he prescribed. Dr. Elliott prided his training on being safe yet
aggressive.