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PROFESSIONAL

strength & conditioning

ISSN 1757-5834

The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association

No. 24 WINTER 2011/2012


EDITOR
Ian Jeffreys PhD, FNSCA, ASCC, CSCS*D

EDITORIAL PANEL
Raphael Brandon MSc, ASCC
Clive Brewer MSc, BSc(Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Marco Cardinale PhD, ASCC
Dave Clark MSc, ASCC
Paul Comfort MSc, ASCC
Audrey Duncan PhD, ASCC
Mike Favre MSc, ASCC
Duncan French PhD, ASCC
Jon Goodwin MSc, PGCHE, ASCC, CSCS
Greg Haff PhD, ASCC, FNSCA, CSCS
Liam Kilduff PhD
Jeremy Moody PhD, ASCC
Phil Moreland BAppSci, AssocDip, ASCC
Jeremy Sheppard PhD, CSCS
Narelle Sibte BAppSci, Grad Dip, ASCC
Alan Sinclair MSc, ASCC, CSCS
Gil Stevenson BEd (Hons), ASCC
Margaret Stone MSc, ASCC
Michael Stone PhD, ASCC
Mark Simpson MSc, ASCC
Graham Turner MSc, BEd (Hons), ASCC

COLUMN EDITORS
Graeme Close PhD, ASCC
Nick Ward MSc, CSCS
Stuart Yule BSc (Physio), ASCC

INSIDE
RECOVERY IN PERFORMANCE SPORT
page 3

MOVEMENT SPECIFICITY - WHAT


DOES IT MEAN?
page 10

EXERCISE OF THE MONTH - DROP


JUMPS
page 14

CONFERENCE REVIEW
page 18

THE FIVE PEOPLE YOU MEET IN


HEAVEN
page 25

1 Woodville Terrace, Lytham,


Lancashire FY8 5QB.
t: 0845 300 8078
f: 0845 300 8079
e: info@uksca.org.uk

n the last edition of Professional Strength and Conditioning for 2011,


it seems appropriate to reflect back on the past year, and to thank
those that contribute their time and effort so generously in the
production of this journal. One of our major achievements this year
was the production of a special edition of Professional Strength and
Conditioning on speed development. I would like to thank Jon Goodwin for
his efforts in this venture, from the initial idea through to eventually
getting the edition in print. Based upon the success of this edition we are
now in the process of getting content for an issue focussed specifically on
youth training, which Rhodri Lloyd is co-ordinating and which we hope to
publish later in 2012.

My special thanks go out to all the authors who contributed articles to the
journal. Without their efforts, the production of a quarterly journal would
simply not be possible. I hope this year's content reflects our aim to
produce a journal that is appropriate to all our members from experienced
practitioners to those taking their first steps in the industry. To this end, I
would again encourage people to get involved in the writing process. We
all have information and experience that can benefit others, and putting
this in print is a great way of formulating thoughts and passing on
relevant experience and knowledge. Thanks also go out to our reviewers
who invariably carry out their tasks diligently and to a consistently high
standard. The review process is an essential part of our quality control,
and without the voluntary efforts of our reviewers this process could not
be carried out. All are unbelievably busy people and their efforts in
reviewing our articles are greatly appreciated.
One of the great challenges of editing a relatively new journal is ensuring
we have sufficient quality submissions to enable us to produce quarterly
editions. Without the efforts of our column editors this would make my
job especially difficult. Undoubtedly, the columns add a great deal to the
journal and allow for in-depth content within specific areas. My thanks go
out to Graeme, Nick and Stuart for their work on the journal over the last
few years.
A great deal of work goes into the final production of the journal, the
majority of which is unseen. Once again my huge thanks go to Kate Smith
for her unstinting and professional work in getting the journal to print.
She has a great attention to detail and ensures that each issue gets to
print to the highest standards possible.

The content of this edition also involves looking back, including a review of our highly successful conference
held in Stirling in June. Great congratulations need to go out to Dr Duncan French in getting such a great lineup of speakers, which made the event an unqualified success. The other main articles focus on specificity and
recovery. From our earliest introduction into training science, specificity has always been listed as an Universal
Training Principle, but how fully do we analyse and understand the concept of specificity? Dr Phil Graham-Smith
and his team from Salford University (Paul Comfort, Paul Jones and Martyn Matthews), outline how specificity
needs to be looked at from a range of perspectives and how what may appear on the surface to be a specific
exercise, may lack certain parameters that will maximise transfer to sports performance. In recent years there
has been a great increase in the focus on recovery within the realm of strength and conditioning. Today many
teams and athletes are utilising recovery strategies, although the benefits of some of these are yet to be fully
understood or proven. Harry Fisher (a strength and conditioning coach at the University of East London) and
Julie Gooderick (head strength and conditioning coach at Queenswood School) have produced a very effective
summary of the importance of recovery and also looked at some of the potential benefits of various strategies.
In Nick Wards The Five People You Meet in Heaven column, Luke Story, S&C coach at Derbyshire Cricket, has
interviewed Marcus Elliott, Director of Peak Performance Project, a private performance facility based in Santa
Barbara, California. Marcus has taken his extensive experiences in professional sport and developed a facility
and programme that is built around his core philosophies and methods, and he provides a revealing insight into
these. In Stuart Yules exercise of the month column, James Hairsine, (the assistant strength and conditioning
coach for the Leeds Carnegie rugby union first team) has looked at the use of drop jumps and the specific
benefits that these exercises may bring to a strength and conditioning programme.
Ian Jeffreys
Editor

UKSCA NEWS

8th ANNUAL CONFERENCE 15-16 SEPTEMBER 2012


This year's UKSCA Annual Conference will take place at Royal Holloway, which is based in Surrey. It has been
moved from our normal date in the summer, to make space for London 2012 and to allow as many of our
members to be able to attend as possible.
Like last year, we have kept the format to remain over two days, as we had great feedback following that
change last year.
As always, there will be excellent quality speakers and the conference will be a great place to network with
colleagues and gain some valuable CPD.
Costs and speakers will be announced over the next couple of months, but please mark this date in your diary.

CPD REMINDER TO ACCREDITED MEMBERS


The closing date for the next CPD cycle is getting nearer and we wanted to take this opportunity to remind those
of you who became accredited between 1st October 2009 to 31st March 2010, that you are required to submit
your CPD log following the end of the CPD cycle on 31st March 2012. The deadline for submission is 30th June
2012, however, we will be happy to receive submissions before this date. For further details on the scheme and
how to document your CPD credits, please contact Kate via kate@uksca.org.uk
UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION
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Recovery in
Performance Sport: A
review of selected
macro and micro
strategies
Harry Fisher, MSc, ASCC, Julie Gooderick, MSc, ASCC
Introduction

Harry has a Masters degree in Strength


and Conditioning and is a UKSCA
accredited strength and conditioning
coach. Harry is currently a lead tutor for
The Training Room Academy and a
strength and conditioning coach at the
University of East London, working with
athletes from GB Basketball, GB
Handball and Paralympic Weightlifters.

Julie Gooderick is the Head Strength


and Conditioning coach at Queenswood
School, leading the programme for a
wide variety of junior athletes from Team
GB athletics, England hockey, tennis
and many more sports. Julie has a
Masters degree in Strength and
Conditioning and is an accredited coach
with the UKSCA.

Athletic success depends primarily on the combination of genetic


endowment, training, technique, equipment, and proper nutrition.45
Training is an organised process whereby the body and mind are exposed
to stressors, in the hope that adaptation will occur. However, this requires
proper organisation of training and recovery.3 The balance of training and
recovery will be paramount in the success or failure of the training
component if adaptation is to be achieved.53 Recovery must be considered
a crucial factor in the foundations of all programmes, and athletes who
frequently do not have sufficient recovery time, may well see a decrement
in both short and long term performance. The aim of this article is to
discuss theories of recovery and adaptation; then to review different
macro and micro strategies in terms of their advantages and
disadvantages, as well as strategies for implementation.
The importance of recovery for the purpose of adaptation is well
established.20,21 Recovery can be defined as regaining what was lost; in
other words returning the athlete only to where they started.55 On the
other hand, adaptation is defined as the process of adjustment to a
specific stimulus; this process will ultimately lead to a change in
performance.55 The role of the strength and conditioning coach is to
manipulate the work load and recovery periods to both maximise
adaptation and avoid fatigue becoming detrimental to performance. The
following theories demonstrate the manipulation of volume and intensity
to bring about adaptation:
1.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

2.

Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation Theory (SFRA)

3.

Fitness-Fatigue Theory (Fit-Fat)

The GAS theory (Figure 1), described by Selye, is used to explain short
term and long term reactions to stress.49 This model suggests that the
body elicits a similar response to stress, regardless of the mode (e.g.
physical, mental, emotional stressors), and the response is determined by
two major systems of the body, the nervous and endocrine systems. GAS
is outlined by three stages; the alarm phase (phase 1) is the initial
response to the stressor (e.g. fatigue or muscle soreness). The stage of
resistance (phase 2) is the bodys response, and how it adapts to the
stressor it is exposed to (supercompensation). The stage of exhaustion
(phase 3) is initiated when the exposure to the stressor is too long. This
may also be referred to as overreaching/overtraining.55
The SFRA model (Figure 2) is a concept similar to the GAS theory.
SFRA64,65,66 suggests that the application of stimulus/stress will produce
fatigue, and that this fatigue accumulates in proportion to the strength
and duration of the stimulus/stress. It is also important to note that this
stimulus (e.g. an exercise session) also activates mechanisms leading to
increased protein synthesis,4 and with adequate rest the fatigue is
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Figure 1: The General Adaptation Syndrome. P =


performance; T = time

The Fit-Fat model (Figure 3) is currently a popular


concept of recovery-adaptation11,43,68 that considers
sport preparedness. The characteristic of sports
preparedness deals with the degree to which an athlete
is ready to perform. According to this paradigm,
athlete preparedness may be determined by the
principle after-effects of training: fitness and fatigue.68
Essentially, this model points to fatigue dissipating at a
faster rate than fitness, thus leading to enhanced
preparedness.56 The Fit-Fat model suggests that fitness
and fatigue demonstrate an inverse relationship, unlike
the GAS and SFRA concept, which assumes they share
a cause and effect relationship. This therefore implies
that strategies which maximise fitness and minimise
fatigue will have the greatest potential to optimise
athlete preparedness.55 This relationship is supported
by the enhanced performance effects demonstrated
after the use of a taper.38

Overtraining
Figure 2: The Stimulus Fatigue Recovery Adaptation
Concept. P = performance; T = time.

Figure 3: The Fitness - Fatigue model. T = time.

dissipated and adaptation occurs. The adaptation can


be often referred to as overcompensation or
supercompensation. This model is not limited to just a
single response, but also illustrates that if this
stimulus/stress is not applied at sufficient frequency,
detraining will occur. Furthermore, detraining is
influenced by the length of time taken to prepare.55 It
is suggested that the greater the duration of the
training phase, the longer adaptations will last, and
with a greater resistance to detraining.68

If prolonged training occurs in a state of fatigue, high


levels of stress are created which could lead to
overreaching, and subsequently possible overtraining
and burnout.3 Overtraining can be defined as long term
excessive training causing detrimental physiological
and psychological adaptations2; closely related to an
imbalance between training and recovery.53 Calder6
identified four generic types of fatigue metabolic,
environmental, neural and psychological. An imbalance
of training and recovery components can cause
athletes to be subjected to prolonged exposure to one
or many types of fatigue.28 Overreaching refers to short
term excessive training, which could lead to
overtraining and exhaustion if it is not closely
controlled.53 The identification of phases of
overreaching and symptoms of overtraining in athletes
is critical. Overtraining can be identified through a
combination of physiological markers, such as
decreases in urinary norepinepherine from baseline
measures, blood levels of creatine kinase (CK) or
changes in the cortisol: testosterone ratio.23,28
Alternatively, or additionally, it may be assessed
through psychological responses, such as decreased
performance, persistent fatigue and altered mood
state.17,28,36 Mackinnon36 suggests the importance of
regular physiological monitoring for detection of signs
of overtraining. For overreaching or overtraining to be
identified without physiological markers, coaches need
to know their athlete and question any unexplained
changes in performance or mood. Once signs of
fatigue, overreaching or overtraining have been
identified, appropriate strategies can be put in place to
restore the balance of training and recovery.
There are times when planned overreaching may be
implemented62,63 and this concept can be described by the
SFRA model. This is an advanced training strategy to
bring about supercompensation and is generally only
utilised by elite level athletes with small windows of
adaptation.3 For example, Verkhoshansky63,65 noted that
sequential execution of similar training sessions, a
concentrated linear load of strength or strengthendurance training for several weeks, could result in
excessive fatigue and a diminished speed-strength
(power) capability. On resumption of normal training, an
enhancement in performance, beyond baseline values,
could be observed. Similar results have been observed
among young weightlifters after a planned high volume
over-reaching phase14,54 and may be linked to alterations
in anabolic/catabolic hormone levels.55

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Macro recovery strategies


Macro recovery strategies can be defined as long term
recovery considerations, such as planning effective
periodisation and competition schedules, long-term
nutritional plans and regular sleeping patterns.
Coaches will often face challenges scheduling sufficient
recovery periods into an athletes year, given the
generally heavy competition schedule most athletes
undertake during a season. A carefully considered
periodised plan, as previously described, can prevent
athletes getting to the stage of overtraining, and long
term periodisation should be an important
consideration for strength and conditioning coaches
when planning programmes. Within a periodised plan,
recovery cycles and transition periods must be
implemented at appropriate times.53 Additionally, the
use of frequent monitoring tools and reactive
programming will allow both athlete and coach to
identify overreaching or overtraining and respond by
adapting subsequent training accordingly if necessary.
Following intense exercise, delayed onset of muscle
soreness (DOMS) is physiologically characterised by
disruption to myofibrillar material and cellular
damage;27,48 this in turn leads to a decrease in
performance associated with a reduced number of
functioning motor units.60 Planning effective microcycles should allow muscle architecture to return to
normal following previous training sessions, meaning
the athlete is able to recruit and utilise the maximum
number of motor units for a given movement,67 not
only maximising performance, but also the efficiency of
movement and technique. By cycling training focuses,
the athlete is also kept psychologically stimulated, thus
reducing boredom and preventing training becoming
stagnant.
Recovery times implemented into a periodised plan
need to be of sufficient length to allow physiological
and psychological recovery to occur, but without
significant detraining effects. Strength trained athletes
have shown increased levels of testosterone and
growth hormone with up to 14 days complete
inactivity, with a reduction in cortisol also evident,26 but
any further cessation of training beyond this length of
time has shown decreases in muscular strength and
power.18 VO2max shows decreases after 2 weeks
passive rest,18 however in highly trained subjects the
decline in VO2max is to a lesser extent than in
moderate or untrained subjects.15 The above data
demonstrates the effects of prolonged periods of
passive rest, emphasising that recovery periods
implemented into macro and meso cycles should
compose primarily of active rest with shorter passive
rest periods interspersed. The optimal balance of
recovery: training is thoroughly individual53 and must
be assessed by the coach on a case by case basis.

Sleep
Sleep can be considered as a passive recovery
strategy, and has been shown to improve cognitive,
psychological, immune, metabolic and neuro-chemical
functioning.4,34,47 There are two main types of sleep;
rapid eye movement (REM) and non-rapid eye
movement (NREM).47 Non-rapid eye movement sleep
can be further broken down into 4 main stages, the
first stage being the transition between wakefulness
and sleep, and stages 3 and 4 being the most deep
sleep.47 Stages 3 and 4 are also known as slow wave
sleep.4 It is during stages 3 and 4 of NREM that the

body is in a heightened anabolic state.8 It is suggested


the majority of people require 5-10 hours sleep per
night, yet it is well advocated that athletes require
longer, to allow physiological adaptation and recovery
to occur.8,46 During training periods of lower volume or
intensity, active rest (with a focus on the word
active), is important to allow athletes recovery time
whilst maintaining sleep patterns. Hague et al.22
showed completely sedentary days had clear
physiological effects on athletes sleep. These effects
included a decrease in slow wave sleep and therefore a
decrease in the secretion of growth hormone (GH)
associated with the first phase of slow wave sleep.8 The
content of active rest periods, or tapering phases,
should be carefully considered when programming, to
ensure pre-competition sleep is not adversely affected.
Sleep patterning is thoroughly individual and optimal
suggestions for use as a macro recovery strategy is
complex and multifactoral; it is beyond the scope of
this article to discuss in full depth.

Micro recovery strategies


Micro recovery strategies can be defined as acute
strategies used in response to a particular stress. Micro
recovery strategies are often more carefully considered
by coaches, yet without macro strategies in place, the
effects of these strategies may be limited. All strategies
have advantages and disadvantages to their use, and it
is important for the coach to determine appropriate
times to implement such strategies. Both physiological
and psychological strategies should be considered
(Table 1), and given the multi-factorial nature of
fatigue or overtraining, implementation of multiple
strategies may be appropriate.
The use of such strategies is often dependent on
finance, coach expertise, athlete preference and time.
Some of the more popular and more accessible micro
recovery strategies are considered below.

Cold Water Immersion and Contrast Bathing


Cold water immersion involves the athlete partially or
fully immersing the body in water, with literature
suggesting the optimal water temperature to be
between 8-15C.25,29,40,61 The effects of cold water
immersion or ice baths are suggested to be a
reduction in the inflammatory response caused by
vasodilation, decreased CK and pro-inflammatory
enzymes, thus enhancing the recovery process.4
Contrast bathing involves a period of partial or full
submersion in cold water, followed by hot water.
Table 1: Examples of physiological and psychological micro
recovery strategies.5,10,19,53

Physiological

Psychological

Contrast bathing/cold
water immersion

Hypnosis

Compression garments

Music

Antioxidant
supplementation

Neurolinguistic
programming

Massage

Reflexology/aromatherapy

Vibration/electrotherapy

Meditation

Stretching
techniques/yoga
Reflexology/
aromatherapy

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Table 2: Protocols for contrast bathing

Cold Temperature
(C)

Hot Temperature Ratio Hot:Cold

Total Duration

(C)

(mins)

8-10

40-42

2:1

8-10

38

1:1

Vaile et al.

8-10

40-42

2:1

15

Vaile et al.61

15

38

1:1

14

Gill et al.16
Hamlin.24
60

Contrast bathing is suggested to cause vasoconstriction


and vasodilation of blood vessels, increasing peripheral
circulation and therefore accelerating the removal of
lactic acid and oedema.5,9 This is supported by Vaile et
al.60 who found thigh volume measured immediately
after contrast bathing, was significantly less than the
thigh volumes of a passive rest group. However, it has
been documented that the removal of oedema via
drainage into the lymphatic system, requires muscular
contraction or gravity and is independent of vascular
activity.10 This could suggest that it may be beneficial
to precede contrast bathing with an active cool down
routine post exercise.
Vaile et al.60 found contrast water therapy post
eccentric exercise, was associated with faster
restoration of strength and power (isometric
contractions and squat jump) 24, 48 and 72 hours post
exercise, in comparison to passive rest. The use of
contrast bathing has been associated with decreased
CK post exercise16,25,60,61 and decreased perception of
muscle soreness.5,61 Papalia and Bye40 suggested cold
water submersion alone to be ineffective in increasing
the restoration time of power, as they found vertical
jump performances to still be decreased from baseline
measures 48 hours post heavy eccentric exercise. In
addition, self perceived muscle soreness was still
increased 48 hours post exercise in comparison to a
passive rest control group. Vaile et al.62 suggested that
cold water immersion alone slowed the removal of
exercise induced metabolites, therefore questioning the
use of cold water therapy post exercise for enhanced
recovery of the muscular system. However, the same
study advocated the use of cold water immersion for
enhanced recovery between repeated exercise bouts
(60 minutes apart), as this allowed a higher level of
performance to be maintained in repeated exercise
bouts in comparison to an active recovery group.
The suggested protocols in recent research for contrast
bathing vary in time spent in water, however there
does seem to be consistency regarding temperatures
used and ratio of cold:hot water immersion. Table 2
above demonstrates some of the contrast bathing
protocols used in recent literature, all of which
produced favourable results in terms of decreased
perception of soreness, decreased CK values, or faster
return to baseline levels of speed, strength or power in
comparison to control groups.
Cold water and contrast bathing recovery methods are
cheap and easy to utilise. However, as with any
strategy, the disadvantages must also be considered.
When using contrast bathing, anecdotally athletes will
spend a significantly longer time period in the hot
water immersion unless carefully monitored. If this is
allowed to occur, this could further increase post
exercise dehydration and accentuate neural fatigue.23
Further cons of the use of cold water therapy are
discussed in more detail later in the article.

Compression Garments
Compression garments have seen a recent rise in
popularity and are claimed to both increase
performance (particularly with regards to repeated
power expression)1,12,16 and enhance recovery.12,33,37 The
mechanisms for enhanced recovery are suggested to
be via increases in blood flow, muscle oxygenation and
muscle oscillation51,52 and following their use postexercise, athletes have reported decreases in soreness
and swelling.12,33,52 Sigel et al.50 suggested the optimal
pressure gradients to generate the fastest venous flow
in the lower limb (Table 3); this was supported by
Lawrence and Kakker.35
It should be noted that these suggestions were based
from research sampling a non-athletic population (both
studies) and further research is needed into
determining optimal suggestions for an athletic
population post exercise. The use of sports
compression garments, therefore, should be carefully
considered, as commercial branded sports garments
vary significantly in the amounts of pressure
generated, which could mean garments are used
ineffectively. Duffield et al.13 found markers of muscle
damage after sprinting were similar between a group
wearing lower limb compression garments and a group
without, suggesting compression garments to have a
minimal effect. However, the pressure of the garments
used was not stated in this study; this could have been
a causal factor in producing these results. Montgomery
et al.37 suggested compression garments may only be
effective after extreme eccentric exercise, when
changes to muscle architecture and increases in
swelling are more apparent.

Antioxidant Supplementation Vitamins C and E


The antioxidant properties in Vitamins C and E, found
in substances such as tart cherry juice and pineapple
extracts, are claimed to reduce inflammation and
enhance recovery via the neutralisation of free radicals
and reactive oxygen species, produced by cells during
exercise.59 This in turn causes an imbalance between
reactive oxygen species and antioxidants, and can be
termed oxidative stress.59 In addition, Vitamin C has
also suggested to be of benefit in the reduction of
Table 3: Optimal pressure gradients to maximise venous flow.

Body Part

Optimal compression pressure


(mmHg)

Ankle

18

Calf

14

Knee

Upper Thigh

10

Lower Thigh

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DOMS post exercise,31,32 assist in a faster restoration of


strength31 and decrease the secretion of cortisol and
adrenaline post exercise.41 Studies suggesting these
findings all utilised a protocol where subjects were
given supplementation both prior and post exercise,
with the optimal concentration of Vitamin C
supplementation still seeming inconclusive. Vitamin E
supplementation both pre and post strenuous exercise
has been shown to decrease markers of muscle
damage post exercise.7,30 However, the use of combined
Vitamins C and E supplementations may offer
additional benefits than a single Vitamin supplement.

Figure 4: The process of adaptation and the interception of a


recovery component. Supercompensation is not reached due
to the interception of antioxidant supplementation.

The use of a combination of Vitamins C and E has


suggested to be of greater benefit than one of the
vitamins alone, as Vitamin C can regenerate Vitamin
E.59 Rokitzki et al.46 supplemented long distance
athletes with Vitamins C and E daily (400 IU and
200mg respectively), 4.5 weeks prior to a marathon.
Post marathon, the increase in CK was significantly less
in the group of athletes taking supplements, in
comparison to a placebo group. This is supported by
Schroder et al.52 who reported a supplementation of
both vitamins for 32 days during a competitive
basketball season resulted in decreased oxidative
stress compared to players not using supplementation.
In comparison to these findings, Peterson et al.42 found
no benefit of 500mg Vitamin C and 400mg Vitamin E
14 days prior to a downhill running test. Post exercise,
there were no significant differences in CK activity in a
comparison between supplemented and placebo
groups. It could be suggested that the differences in
findings between current literatures could be due to
differences in training age or ability of subjects, which
could affect the level of oxidative stress produced
during exercise and therefore the effectiveness of
supplementation. Additionally, the exercise protocols
utilised in the above studies differed significantly, so it
could be inferred that the levels of oxidative stress
would have varied across subjects and studies.

Disadvantages of micro recovery strategies


Despite advocated benefits of the use of micro
recovery strategies post exercise, it is important to
consider that whilst aiding recovery, certain strategies
may be blunting adaptations. Nemet et al.39 found local
ice therapy immediately following sprint-interval
training was associated with a greater decrease in both
pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and with a
greater decrease in anabolic hormones. The study
found that applying an ice pack in the recovery period
resulted in a significant decrease in GH, insulin-like
growth factor-I (IGF-I) and testosterone. It is well
documented that the use of antioxidants post exercise
inhibits skeletal muscle adaptation (Figure 4),
especially with regards to mitochondrial biogenesis.19,57
When considering the use of micro recovery strategies
such as cold water/ice therapy or antioxidant
supplementation, the coach must acknowledge that
there is a trade off between recovery and adaptation.
Therefore, the use of such recovery strategies may be
appropriate in-season, when times between games are
short, as opposed to in an off season, when the focus
is generally on adaptation.
Research on the use of micro recovery strategies is still
emerging and there is not yet clarity on suggested
optimal programming for each strategy. Additionally,
there is a lack of research showing the long term
effects of regular micro-recovery strategies and if their
effectiveness is enhanced, diminished or remains

constant. In the majority of protocols used to assess


micro recovery strategies, authors have utilised a
method where subjects completed heavy eccentric
exercises. Given that sport involves many types of
contractions, often over a longer time frame than
predominantly tested in current research, there is a
need for more sport specific research in this area to
determine effectiveness and field-based application.
Nutrition and hydration should also be carefully
considered as both macro and micro strategies, but
due to the complexity of variables in these strategies,
it is beyond the scope of this article to discuss all
aspects in full detail.

Summary
A combination of macro and micro strategies must be
utilised to keep a balance between training and
recovery, and to maintain performance levels. The
consideration of macro recovery strategies such as
effective periodisation, recovery periods and proper
planning of training cycles must take the largest focus.
The trade off between using micro recovery strategies
and adaptation needs to be understood and considered
by coaches when planning programmes. Micro recovery
strategies should not be considered as sole recovery
strategies for athletes, more as an integration of acute
recovery components into a carefully considered
periodised plan.

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compression stockings on blood lactate following an
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Birch, K. and George, K. (1999). Overtraining the female
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Movement Specificity
what does it mean?
Dr. Philip Graham-Smith BSC(Hons), Phd, CSCS, BASES Accred, Paul Comfort
BSc(Hons), MSc, PGCAP, CSCS*D, ASCC, Paul Jones BSc (Hons), MSc, CSCS, BASES Accred,
Martyn Matthews BSC(Hons), MSc, CSCS*D
Introduction
When an exercise is described as specific, there is an assumption that the
exercise is functional and is therefore transferable to a sports skill. Often the
main criteria for specificity is that the exercise must follow the same movement
pattern at a similar speed. For overload, exercises often utilise some additional
resistance in one form or another, e.g. body weight, free weights, bands or
pulleys etc. The focus of such an interpretation is fundamentally on whether the
exercise adopts similar force-length and force-velocity characteristics to a
sports skill and is assessed qualitatively on whether the joints appear to operate
through similar ranges and planes of motion.
Dr Phil Graham-Smith

Paul Comfort

If we were to adopt this simplistic theory of movement specificity we would be


doing our athletes a disservice. The danger of such an interpretation is that
athletes train for their sport skill simply by performing the skill itself. This could
result in an over emphasis on a specific muscle group, potentially leading to
muscle imbalances (agonist vs. antagonist and/or left vs. right asymmetry), and
potentially a greater risk of injury. This may be exacerbated if we simply add
additional load into the movement, which may also adversely affect the velocity
characteristics of the movement. There is a risk that athletes may not be
conditioned appropriately to tolerate the demands of their skill, and may reach a
performance ceiling sooner.
Often, exercises are adopted that are not well critiqued in terms of the direction of
force loading and the detriment this may have on posture, muscle contraction
type, joint loading and velocity. For example, in figure 1 we compare the dumbbell
punch with a cable punch. The movements appear similar to a boxing punch, as
the joints go through similar ranges of motion. However, the lines of the resistive
force and the direction of the muscle action differ greatly. In the dumbbell punch,
gravity acts on the dumbbell and this will change the kinetics and kinematics of the
movement, placing more emphasis on shoulder and trunk strength rather than the
transfer of momentum through the kinetic chain into the fist. The cable punch
enables the muscles to generate force along the path of the fist. Both exercises
may well be necessary for boxers, but we need to be more reflective on how and
why such exercises fit into the conditioning programme for athletes.
S&C specialists also introduce exercises into programmes that do not necessarily
replicate sport-specific movement patterns. These could include many forms of
abdominal and postural control exercises. Does this perceived non-specificity mean
that such exxercises are a waste of the athletes time and energy? There is a danger
that by adopting such a narrow view of specificity, many essential supplementary
aspects of conditioning may be overlooked within the athletes programme.

Paul Jones

Consequently we prefer to consider specificity more holistically, encompassing a


range of biomechanical principles. These are categorised as: speed; force
loading; movement coordination and balance. This approach may help S&C
coaches to justify their exercise selection, to select more appropriate variants of
Dr Phil Graham-Smith is a Senior Lecturer in Sports Biomechanics at the University of Salford.
He has 20 years experience working with UK Athletics and is Consultant Head of Biomechanics
at the English Institute of Sport.
Paul Comfort is the Programme Leader for the MSc Strength and Conditioning at the University
of Salford and Head of Sports Science Support for Salford City Reds Rugby League. Paul is a
co-editor of the book Sports Rehabilitation and Injury Prevention.
Paul Jones is a lecturer in Sports Biomechanics and Strength & Conditioning at the University of
Salford. Paul was formerly the performance analyst for UK disability athletics and has over 10
years applied biomechanics experience across a range of sports.

Martyn Matthews

Martyn Matthews is a Senior Lecturer in Strength & Conditioning and Rehabilitation at the
University of Salford.

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Figure 1. A
comparison of the
forces acting in
dumbbell and cable
punches.

exercises and to plan exercise selection more strategically within the context
of a periodised programme.
Before we go on to explain our concept of movement specificity, it is
important that we stress the importance that S&C coaches have a
responsibility to fully understand the physical and technical demands of their
athletes sports/skill. Without this knowledge, we would argue that they
cannot prepare and condition them appropriately to withstand the loads and
stresses athletes experience in competition, or generate the relevant forces at
the appropriate rates and velocities to optimise performance. S&C coaches
should understand the technical model that an athlete and coach adopt and
have the ability to identify cause and effect relationships that are based on
sound mechanical and biomechanical principles. Without this knowledge the
S&C coach will not be able to optimise exercise selection and address all the
demands placed on the athlete.

Speed Principles
When considering an exercise, the S&C coach should assess what the typical
movement speeds are in the athletes skill (in terms of horizontal speed,
vertical speed and rotational speed). Speed has an important function on the
levels of force loading, ability to generate force and the typical movement and
ground contact times.
With technology readily available for S&C coaches to evaluate speed and
contact times, there is a danger that we make false assessments and criteria
for specificity. For example, ground contact times for long jumpers are around
120ms2 and some coaches attempt to replicate such contact times in drop
jumps. It is possible to get close to these contact times (around 150ms), but
this comes at the expense of dramatically changing the contact mechanics,
body orientation and the ability to generate vertical impulse. The fundamental
underlying reason for this is that a drop jump has limited horizontal motion,
whereas long jumpers approach the board at speeds of between 9-11m/s. Our
research has demonstrated that a realistic drop jump contact time should be
between 180 to 220ms for drops of up to 40cm.1

Force Loading Principles


When selecting an exercise, the S&C coach should understand the
characteristics of force loading on the athlete (the magnitude and the rate of
loading). For example, does the sports skill require the athlete to accept load
in response to an impact with the ground (which involves some passive

loading prior to an eccentric


muscle contraction), is it a selfgenerated force acceptance
through a countermovement
(with no impact), or does the
athlete generate active force
(and this may involve isometric
or concentric muscle
contraction)? The S&C coach
needs to appreciate the
magnitude of horizontal and
vertical ground reaction forces
and how they are typically
distributed about the joints,
(often described as joint
movements, which are
determined through the process
of inverse dynamics). The rate at
which force is accepted or
generated provides a further
indication of the severity and
intensity of the skill. This feature
is described by the load rate
(for passive force acceptance
immediately following an
impact), or by the rate of force
development (for active force
generation - eccentric, isometric
and/or concentric dependent on
the characteristics of the skill).
Load rate/rate of force
development is reflected by the
steepness (gradient) of the
force-time graph. Care must be
taken when interpreting the
passive, eccentric and concentric
phases of movement - (it is best
to associate against
corresponding displacement
measurements and synchronised
video recordings). Measurements
can be taken instantaneously or
as an average RFD between
points that reflect the steepest
part of the graph.

Movement Coordination
Principles
The amount of force a muscle can
produce depends on the amount
of lengthening or shortening of
the muscle relative to the resting
length. This is known as the
forcelength relationship and
takes into account the amount of
overlap between actin and myosin
filaments, and the extent to
which the filaments can slide
across each other. A lengthened
muscle-tendon complex generates
extra tension through the elastic
tissues, including the tendon. It is
therefore no surprise that this
feature figures highly when we
discuss movement specificity, as
performing skills that enable the
muscle to contract through
similar ranges of motion adhere
to this principle. Whilst we can

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simply eyeball the ranges of motion that joints undergo,


we do have to be careful when assessing the length of
biarticular muscles. We need to understand the extent to
which both joints contribute to changes in muscletendon length and also determine their combined effect.
There are several studies that have derived regression
equations to determine muscle-tendon length changes
relative to changes in joint angles.3,4 Although speed and
force loading characteristics were mentioned previously,
it is important to identify the ForceVelocity
characteristics of the movement from an internal
perspective (Joint movement vs. Joint angular velocity).
For this we can utilise information relating to net joint
movements, joint angular velocities and joint powers.
Joint movements provide an insight into the net amount
of muscular effort that is required to make a change to
the joint angle, and, combined with the joint angular
velocity, we can derive joint power. The latter allows us
to assess the percentage contribution of specific joints
(and associated muscles that produce the observed
movements) and an indication of the transfer of energy
between joints in the kinetic chain. The flow of energy
between joints is what we refer to as sequential
movements. Force and velocity is initially developed
from proximal segments and through coordinated
muscle contractions velocity is increased and passed to
more distal segments in the kinetic chain. This results in
a high end point speed, e.g. in a throwing task, velocity
is transferred in a chain from hips shoulders elbow
wrist hand/implement. Proximal to distal sequential
motion can also be examined by assessing the temporal
characteristics of the resultant linear speed of each joint.
Another aspect of movement coordination is to
acknowledge whether the movement initiates a stretchshorten cycle (SSC) in specific muscle-tendon units. The
SSC is when there is a fast coupling between an eccentric
muscle action (lengthening) and a concentric one
(shortening). This is characterised by countermovements, e.g. movements away from the intended
direction followed quickly with movements toward. As the
muscle and tendon are rapidly stretched, greater tension
and energy is developed within the muscle-tendon
complex. This additional energy contributes to greater
power output in the shortening (concentric) phase.
Finally, efficiency of movement implies that a task can
be performed with less energy expenditure. Whilst we
acknowledge that efficiency is multifaceted and
includes previously mentioned principles such as SSC,
we would like this principle to focus more on the
optimal use and sequencing of muscle contractions
between agonist and antagonist muscles. For example,
the ability to switch off antagonistic muscles when the
agonist is working enables a more forceful and efficient
contraction of the agonist, i.e. it doesnt have to
overcome the additional resistance provided in a cocontraction. When selecting exercises it would be
useful to identify whether co-contractions exist,
whether they are necessary for joint stabilisation, and
the extent to which they may limit (or enhance)
performance. Elite runners and swimmers seem to
exhibit this quality as they appear to make their
performance effortless and graceful.

stabilisation to prevent excessive frontal plane collapse,


e.g. hip adduction, pelvic drop and knee valgus in a
jump landing. For any skill that involves an impact with
the ground, it is necessary to develop the athletes
proprioceptive ability and neuromuscular control. Not
only will this help to reduce the risk of injury, but it will
help establish control of the body earlier. Establishing a
firm base of support prior to active force generation is
essential to ensure that force is applied in the right
direction. An example of when this is not achieved would
be a triple jumper drifting laterally across the 3 jumps.
To reduce the risk of injuries it is important to establish
good muscle balance, avoiding an over-emphasis on one
muscle group (agonist versus antagonist muscle
balance), and over-compensation due to a weakness in
one limb (balance between left and right limbs).

Conclusion
To avoid the potential risk of overlooking specific
conditioning requirements of a sports skill, S&C
specialists should evaluate the biomechanical (physical
and technical) demands of the sports skill with respect
to the principles outlined above. Using this approach,
the conditioner should be able to select exercises that
cover each criteria and periodise them accordingly
within the programme. Clearly, certain exercises are
more specific than others, however under this
approach, supplementary, postural or stabilising
exercises can be justified and included within the
programme.
In summary, the usefulness of this approach is to:
reflect on whether your drills are covering all the
important components and movement principles that
are associated with the successful execution of the
athletes sports skill;
check to ensure that you cover all the movement
principles in a logical order, becoming more specific
as your athlete enters the competitive season and
aims to peak, i.e. plan progressions within a
periodised programme;
explore how variations of a lift/drill may be more
specific and beneficial to the athletes development,
and;
understand the limitations of setting specific
quantitative limits to exercise performance (e.g.
contact times).

References
1.

2.

3.

Balance principles
The term balance embraces several factors; symmetry
of movement, support characteristics and muscle
balance. When referring to symmetry we need to
identify whether the movement is unilateral or bilateral.
In unilateral skills there is a greater emphasis on

4.

Graham-Smith, P. and Brice, P. (2010). Speed,


strength & power characteristics of horizontal
jumpers. Presented to the International Society of
Biomechanics in Sport, University of Northern
Michigan, Marquette. July 20th 23rd, 2010.
Graham-Smith, P. and Lees, A. (2005). A threedimensional kinematic analysis of the long jump
take-off. Journal of Sports Sciences, 23(9), pp. 891903.
Grieve, D.W., Pheasant, S. and Cavanagh, P.R.
(1978). Prediction of gastrocnemius length from
knee and ankle joint posture. In: Biomechanics VIA, International Series on Biomechanics, vol.2A. E.
Asmussen and K. Jorgensen, eds. University Park
Press: Baltimore, pp. 405-412.
Visser, J.J., Hoogkamer, J.E., Bobbert, M.F. and
Huijing, P.A (1990). Length and moment arm of
human leg muscles as a function of knee and hipjoint angles. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol., 61:453-460.

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EXERCISE OF THE MONTH

Drop Jumps
James Hairsine, MSc, BSc (Hons), ASCC
Introduction

James is currently the Assistant Strength


and Conditioning Coach for the Leeds
Carnegie Rugby Union first team. James
started his career in South Africa working
for the Western Province Rugby Institute.
Following this, he successfully completed
an internship with the EIS working with
Olympic athletes in Boxing, Volleyball and
Paralympic Table Tennis, developing a
comprehensive understanding of physical
preparation at the highest level.

Ross once asked Is the real reason why Olympic weightlifters are good
vertical jumpers because they inadvertently do a lot of fast eccentric
training in the catch phase of the full movement?.18 With power output
being fundamental to sporting success or failure, from a swing of a golf
club to a push off the wall in swimming, there is always a need to
optimise/increase an athletes power producing capabilities. This means
that it is important that coaches look at all methods by which power
output can be enhanced. The above question implies that there may
potentially be another mechanism by which Olympic lifts can provide a
potent power development stimulus. This mechanism, focussing on the
rapid eccentric element of the exercises, is termed fast eccentrics. Fast
eccentrics have been described as eccentric contractions that occur at
speeds 180o/sec.15 As Ross18 previously stated, many strength and
conditioning coaches may be inadvertently training fast eccentrics
through the Olympic lifts and their derivatives. The purpose of this article
is to highlight the benefits of utilising eccentrics in a training programme,
and to describe the physiological benefits more specifically of training
with fast eccentrics. This article focuses on one specific fast eccentric
exercise, the drop jump, and the exercise is expanded on further with
regards to how to progress this movement.

Drop Jumps
During sport specific movements there is a requirement for effective and
efficient deceleration. Deceleration can come in many forms, during
sprinting controlling the late swing phase of the lower limbs and during
throwing actions at the release phase. Deceleration can also be seen in
whole body actions, not just in localised areas, through rapid deceleration
of whole body mass during changes of direction on the sports field/court.
Maximising eccentric performance capabilities can be a method of
increasing the physical potential of an athlete in a number of ways.18
Table 1. Eccentric Training and Benefits.

Stuart is currently Head of Strength and


Conditioning at Glasgow Warriors. He
previously worked at the English Institute
of Sport as Strength and Conditioning
coach for Judo, where he was
responsible for delivering National S&C
services to world class funded players
across the UK. Stuart is a physiotherapy
graduate and his sporting background lies
in Olympic Weightlifting, where he
represented Scotland at two
Commonwealth Games.
Stuart Yule is the column editor for the
Exercise of the Month section.

1. Improving force
production

Chronic: Training eccentrically over time has been


shown to increase concentric force production
including 1RM.6,15,1

2. Selective fibre
type change

Fast eccentrics such as a catch phase of a clean


or a catch during a clap push up have been
suggested to shift muscular fibre types to more
explosive type IIx fibres.15

3. Enhancing
Thus allowing greater preservation of strength
performance during a over a time period of planned competition.4,12
taper
4. Strengthening
tensile structures of
muscle (pre-rehab)

Eccentric training increases tendon and ligament


strength,22,8 therefore making joints more robust.

5. Possible decreased Stretching eccentrically on an acute and chronic


inhibitory response to level reduces the excitability of stretch receptors,
stretch & load
therefore leading to increased range of
movement.10
6. Potentiation of
Loaded eccentric complex training has been
stretch shortening
shown to elicit an increased SSC response and
cycle (SSC) response therefore increased power output per concentric
rep.21

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Muscle fibres respond to a stimulus (training) subjected to them


and as a result have been known to show some plasticity
gradually shifting from one fibre type to another over time.20,16
Fibre type change from type IIa to type IIx has been suggested to
be the most common shift of motor units.20 Changes from type I
to type II fibres have been known in severe cases of spinal cord
injury and de-training19,16 and therefore this shift in fibre type is
unlikely to be a training outcome. One method of achieving the
muscular fibre shift from type IIa to type IIx is with the use of
fast eccentric exercises such as the drop jump. The increase of
type IIx from type IIa muscle fibres results in greater force
absorption and production capabilities.15 This is essential to
increasing power output in ballistic movements, as well as
increasing rate of force development and muscular force
production.5

Figure 1.
Starting
Position

Fast eccentrics are a way of specifically targeting the type IIx


muscle fibres due to the rapid nature of the movements.14 This
theory goes against the size principle which states that smaller
motor neurons are recruited before larger ones. Stone et al.23 and
Nardone et al.14 support this and mention that motor neurone
recruitment may be modified according to task specificity, force,
velocity and demands of the mechanical movement. There are a
number of animal studies that show this selective fast twitch fibre
recruitment for rapid voluntary actions13,11 however, there is also
research to support this in humans.9,14,3,24 Muscle fibres with slower
relaxation times may not be able to control a sudden descent as
is seen in the catch phase of a drop, as they may not be able to
express sufficient force in the required time frame. Therefore
selective recruitment of faster twitch fibres (type IIx) could occur,
to enable the body to effectively carry out the drop action. This
possible mechanism is supported further as forces generated from
eccentric contractions (during a catch phase), have little effect on
the velocity of muscle shortening7 resulting in high levels of force
output at fast shortening velocities.

Drop Jump
The drop jump is an exercise that utilises lower body fast
eccentrics through rapid deceleration during the catch phase of
the landing.

Start Position
The start position requires the athlete to be in an upright stance
in an elevated position. The height of the position is determined
by the landing capabilities, the training aim of the session and the
overall strength of the athlete (Fig.1).

The Drop
This phase involves the athlete taking a step forward off the box
with hands in an athletic position (i.e away from the body,
reinforcing correct upper body position to react to stimulus in
sporting environments), head up and looking forward with an
upright body position (Fig.2). A common fault at this stage of the
movement, is that the athlete may jump off the box or collapse
into the drop whilst moving forward, rather than making a
controlled step off in an upright athletic position. A coaching cue
could be for the athlete to remain tall.

Landing

Figure 2.
The Drop

An important safety element to this exercise is the landing


mechanics involved. Correct landing mechanics are based upon
the safe distribution of force through the body upon landing. The
force distribution should be transferred from the mid foot to the
heel section of the feet. A common fault is landing flat-footed or
with the weight too far forward leading to poor impact force
distribution and an unbalanced landing. A coaching cue for the
landing should also be to land silently to ensure the correct
position of the feet.
The catch of the movement requires the athlete to be at the
bottom of a squat position with the femur almost parallel to the
ground thus allowing for greater gluteal and hamstring
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Figure 3. Drop Jump Catch

Figure 5. Progression Split Squat

Progressions and Adaptations


recruitment2 (Fig.3). There may be some sporting
variation in the hip/knee angles during this catch
phase. For example a sprinter with shorter ground
contact times (some contacts as little as around 0.9s17
and greater hip/knee angles upon contact, may gain a
greater transfer of training effect by catching at these
greater angles and thus allowing a more sudden and
sports specific stopping time). The upper body should
be in an upright athletic position.

This exercise can be developed further by increasing


the intensity of the drop. This can be achieved by
increasing the height of the elevated position or by
increasing the body weight by wearing a weights vest.
Multiple fast eccentric landings could be implemented
through a staggering of various box heights or by using
a sloping embankment or hill. A progression would be
to introduce bands attached around the waist of the
athlete, thus increasing the velocity of the drop (see
Fig. 4). Bands could also be attached from the floor at
different angles thus producing pulling forces at

Figure 4. Progression Band Pull

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different points, causing the athlete to stabilise upon


landing with different muscle groups and thus
simulating the complex forces applied upon the body
during sporting activities. Once such skill acquisition
has been completed, from the accepted starting
position (Fig.2), a side step off the box into a splitstance landing could be introduced which would
replicate sports-specific movements such as the lunge
landing in squash (Fig.5). Once a similar pathway of
progression in the split stance has been achieved a
single leg landing approach could be implemented.

8.

9.

10.

Practical Application
With the nature of sport and many sporting actions
requiring maximal explosive intent there is a prerequisite for training the fast twitch muscle fibres of
the body. Utilising fast eccentrics in an athletes
training programme could be a novel way of adding
variation to the training programme while at the same
time potentially increasing the number of type IIx
muscle fibres within the musculature of the athlete.

11.

12.

13.

Considerations
Drop jumps are a high impact exercise, therefore
implementing the exercise should be considered in an
appropriately periodised plan. Due to the intensity of the
exercise, the athlete should be injury free and
demonstrate a sufficient level of overall strength. He/she
should also display a good base level of eccentric control
before approaching this exercise. For example fast
eccentrics can be applied to a number of different
exercises and not just regarding the lower extremities.
Any exercise utilising landing mechanics and/or
exercises that follow this principle of rapid deceleration
can be applied to different muscle groups and
movement patterns. Further research is therefore
required to establish fast eccentric training in a wide
range of muscle groups, movement planes and patterns.

References
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Brandenburg JP & Docherty D. (2002) The effects of


accentuated eccentric loading on strength, muscle
hypotrophy, and neural adaptations in trained individuals,
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Caterisano A, Moss RF, Pellinger TK, Woodruff K, Lewis
VC, Booth W, Khadra T. (2002) The effect of back squat
depth on the EMG activity of 4 superficial hip and thigh
muscles, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
16(3): 428-432.
Citterio G & Agostoni E. (1984) Selective activation of
quadriceps muscle fibers according to bicycling rate,
Journal of Applied Physiology, 57(2): 371-379
Colliander EB, Tesch PA. (2008) Effects of eccentric and
concentric muscle actions in resistance training, Acta
Physiologica Scandinavica, 140(1): 31-39.
Cormie P, McGuigan MR, Newton RU. (2010) Influence of
training status on power absorbtion & production during
lower body stretch-shorten cycle movements, Journal of
Strength and Conditioning Research, 24: 1.
Doan B, Newton RU, Marsit JL, Triplett-McBride NT,
Koziris, LP, Fry AC, Kraemer WJ. (2002) Effects of
increased eccentric loading on bench press 1RM, Journal
of Strength and Conditioning Research, 16(1): 9-13.
Enorka RM. (1996) Eccentric Contractions Require Unique
Activation Strategies By The Nervous System, The

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Gerber JP, Marcus LR, Dibble EL, Greis EP, Burks TR,
Lastayo CP. (2007) Safety, feasibility, and efficacy of
negative work exercise via eccentric muscle activity
following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction, The
Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy, 37(1):
10-18.
Grimby L & Hannerz J. (1977) Firing rate and recruitment
order of toe extensor motor units in different modes of
voluntary contraction, Journal of physiology, 264(3): 865879.
Guissard N & Duchateau (2006) Neural aspects of muscle
stretching, Exercise and Sports Science Reviews, 34(4):
154-158.
Hoffer JA, ODonovan MJ, Pratt CA, Loeb GE. (1981)
Discharge pattern of hind limb motor neurons during
normal cat locomotion, Science, 213(4506): 466-467.
Housh TJ, Housh DJ, Weir JP, Weir LL. (1996) Effects of
Eccentric-Only Resistance Training and Detraining,
International Journal of Sports Medicine, 17(2): 145-148.
Kanda K, Burke RE, Walmsley B (1977) Differential control
of fast and slow twitch motor units in the decerebrate cat,
Experimental Brain Research, 29(1): 57-74.
Nardone A, Roman C, Schieppati M. (1989) Selective
recruitment of high-threshold human motor units during
voluntary isotonic lengthening of active muscles, Journal of
Physiology, 409: 451 471.
Paddon-Jones D, Leveritt M, Lonergan A, Abernethy P.
(2001) Adaptation to chronic eccentric exercise in humans:
the influence of contraction velocity, European Journal of
Applied Physiology, 85(5): 466 471.
Pette D & Staron RS (1997) mammalian skeletal muscle
fibre type transitions, International review of Cytology, 170:
143-223
Ross A, Leveritt M, Riek S. (2001) Neural influences on
sprint running: training adaptations and acute responses,
Sports Medicine, 31(6): 409-425.
Ross A. (2005) Training Eccentrically: a different option?
New Zealand South Island Academy, Strength and
Conditioning Conference.
Roy RR, Talmadge RJ, Hodgson JA, Oishi Y, Baldwin KM,
Edgerton VR. (1999) Differential response of fast hind limb
extensor and flexor muscles to exercise in adult spinalized
cats, Muscle & Nerve, 22: 230-241.
Scott W, Stevens J, Binder-Macleod SA. (2001) Human
skeletal muscle fibre type classifications, Physical Therapy,
81(11): 1810-1816.
Sheppard J, Hobson S, Barker M, Taylor K, Chapman D,
McGuigan M, Newton R. (2008) The effect of training with
accentuated eccentric load counter-movement jumps on
strength and power characteristics of high-performance
volleyball players, International Journal of Sports Science
and Coaching, 3(3): 355-363
Silbernagel KG, Thomee R, Thomee P, Karlsson J (2001)
Eccentric overload training for patients with chronic
Achilles tendon pain a randomized controlled study with
reliability testing of the evaluation methods, Scandinavian
Journal of Sports Medicine & Science in Sports, 11(4): 197206.
Stone MH, Stone M, Sands WA. (2006) Principals and
practice of resistance training, Human Kinetics: Leeds
Wakeling JM, Uehli K, Rozitis AI (2006) Muscle fibre
recruitment can respond to the mechanics of the muscle
contraction, Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 3(9):
533-544.

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Conference Review
2011
Jeremy Sheppard Developing Ballistic
Leg Strength for Vertical Jump
Performance and Coaching Plyometrics
and Accentuated Eccentric Movements
(Keynote and Breakout Sessions)
One of the great aims of strength and conditioning
is effective application of evidence-based practice.
This requires the integration of scientific evidence
generation with high-level practical application. This
often requires collaboration between a number of
individuals and establishments but occasionally
people come along that carry out both aspects
simultaneously and demonstrate how data collected
in the field guides subsequent training application.
Dr Jeremy Sheppard is one such individual. Dr
Sheppard is a widely published researcher, with a
worldwide reputation in the development of
explosive power and speed, but at the same time Dr
Sheppard is an active coach, a role that he
considers his primary function. In this way, while
employed as a lecturer at Edith Cowan university, Dr
Sheppard is also currently Sport Science Manager
for surfing Australia. His labs are currently the
beaches of Queensland a job no one in the
audience would want to exchange! Previously, he
worked with Australian Volleyball.
The main theme of Dr Sheppards presentation and
breakout session was a scientific theory and
practical application of methods to enhance
explosive jump performance. Dr Sheppard clearly
presented how jump performance was multifaceted
and relied on a range of force parameters. He
clearly outlined how his training applications vary
between sports and in response to the specific
kinetic and between kinetic and kinematic variables
of the sport. He further outlined how his profiling of
each athlete involved a number of jump applications
which provided data across a range of jump
variables, as well as across other force based
variables. What was crucial is that this was not data
for datas sake, as he directly used this data to
develop appropriate programmes for his athletes. A
key message presented was that strength underpins
power development, and how training strength
qualities are an important part of his training and
monitoring process. Dr Sheppard outlined how he
periodises the various force parameters into
effective programmes based on the athletes
individual capabilities, their stages of development
and their competition profiles. These programmes
included a range of methods from traditional (such
as the Olympic lifts) to non-traditional, such as
assisted jumps. However, at all times Dr Sheppard
outlined how he is guided by the data he is
generating daily on athlete performance. The
presentation clearly demonstrated how effective

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data collection should underpin and subsequently guide


training application. In effect, Dr Sheppard is singlehandedly bridging the gap between science and
practical application. This is the core of sport science at
its very best.
In his breakout session Dr Sheppard clearly
demonstrated both his underpinning scientific
knowledge, but also his ability to integrate this
knowledge into the safe and effective delivery of
culture. Focusing on plyometric training, Dr Sheppard
outlined the rationale underpinning the protocol and
also how he sequentially develops plyometric abilities
across a range of athletes. He demonstrated how he
progresses exercises according to the abilities of the
athlete concerned. In his coaching toolbox he has
exercises that are ideal for complete beginners and
exercises the challenge even the highest ability
athletes. Across all application, Dr Sheppard outlined
how the coach needs always to be looking at technical
performance to ensure, not only the safety of the
athlete, but also that the exercise prescription is
achieving the given physiological aim. In this way,
effective programming of plyometrics is important, but
it also needs to be supported by effective coaching if
maximal effectiveness is to be gained.

Stuart McGill Lessons Learned from the


Greatest Athletes (Keynote)
(Keynote Session)
Dr McGill is commonly regarded as the worlds
foremost authority on back fitness, and it has long
been the UKSCAs aim to see Dr McGill present at the
annual conference. In his keynote session Dr McGill
presented a number of key concepts which
underpinned his approach to enhancing performance.
Firstly, optimal performance requires stability, and
stability results from stiffness. Maximal stiffness is
achieved through the co-contraction of a number of
muscles, a concept called superstiffness, and not
through isolation of single muscles. This is the
fundamental concept underpinning Dr McGills bracing
technique, which he further developed in the breakout
sessions. This achievement of superstiffness was
fundamental to effectiveness in a range of actions such
as making contact with a golf ball, a martial artist
breaking a wood block, or a rugby player making
effective contact in the tackle area.
However, superstiffness is not a panacea, and does
have a serious trade off. This is explained by the fact
that while stiffness maximises stability and the ability

to apply force, it automatically inhibits speed


application. However, high performance in athletics
requires rapid muscle activation onset and force
development, together with an equally rapid
requirement for muscle relaxation, allowing for
maximal speed of movement to be achieved. Thus,
while superstiffness allows for maximal stability, a
superstiff segment will limit the speed attainable
through this segment. This has clear implications for
sports where stability is required but where the velocity
of actions are also crucial, such as for throwers,
golfers, sprinters, martial art exponents etc. Dr McGill
explained how this apparent performance dichotomy
can be alleviated through a pulsing of stiffness and
relaxation. During his extensive research into the
muscle recruitment patterns of a range of sports
performers Dr McGill has found that stiffness and
relaxation are pulsed during key times in a movement.
Super stiffness therefore needs only to occur briefly in
most cases, but if it needs to be brief, the motor
control system must be highly tuned to ensure optimal
super stiffness. For example, in golf, the initiation of
the downswing is produced through a pulse of
superstiffness, followed almost immediately by a
relaxation of the associated muscle groups to allow for
the application of high velocities. To Dr McGill,
understanding the relationship between speed,
compliance and stiffness is the key to achieving
ultimate performance. Many of these concepts were
then further developed in Dr McGills interactive
breakout sessions.

Meg Stone The Recruitment and


Development of the Shot and Discus Athlete
(Keynote Session)
As British record holder in the discus since 1981, fourth
on the UK all-time list for shot put, with a power clean
of 150Kg as an athlete, together with being a sports
scientist, and a world recognised coach, Meg has all
the credentials necessary to deliver a presentation on
throwing.
Before getting into the nitty-gritty details of how to
train for improvement in these events, Meg highlighted
both the physical and mental characteristics needed to
be successful. First and foremost, size matters. This
must not be confused with lardy. You need to be tall,
strong, fast and powerful. Ideally, recruiting an
individual who is tall and with a large wingspan, is
generally athletic, has good kinesthetic awareness and
coordination, is a good place to start. A lanky frame is

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fine, due to the fact that the mass that is added will be
lean muscle mass as strength and power are developed
over time.
Recruiting female throwers can be a challenge. They
need to be around 6 feet tall, have about 20% body
fat, and be athletic. Thus, a fast explosive volleyball
player would be preferred to a tall rower since the
volleyball player is more likely to possess the agility
and coordination required for throwing. Other issues
associated with body image being big and strong as
a female, can put girls off involvement in the sport.
Parental influences, alongside learning aggression,
training for maximum strength and weight
management can add to the challenges.
Mental characteristics also seem to play a key role in
recruitment into the events. Traits such as mental and
emotional stability, desire, patience, consistency and
intrinsic motivation are vital. Coupled with the required
ability to raise and lower intensity to match a given
situation, emphasises that physical prowess and
technical proficiency is not solely enough for success in
throwing.
A brief look at the current state of throwing in Britain,
showed that in mens and womens shot put and
discus, no one has yet thrown the A standard for
qualification for 2012, few have thrown the B standard,
and no one is near the worlds best throw for this year,
let alone close to breaking a world record.
A number of video and picture sequences were used to
outline the basic biomechanical and technical phases. A
look at rotational and conventional techniques and the
hip to shoulder relationship before release were briefly
touched upon before coming to the detail of running a
throws programme.
Shot put and discus are two events where maximum
strength and power have a very direct impact on
performance, and so a relatively simple periodisation
model can be followed. When looking at the phases of
training, and how they relate to each macro or
mesocycle, Meg highlighted that we must bear in mind
that each phase builds on the previous phase and lays
the ground work for the next phase to come.
The first phase is the general preparation phase, or
Concentrated Load Phase, which follows the
Verkhoshanskys theory of concentrate load (1977),
where 3 sets of 10 reps are performed on each
exercise. This is a 4-week block, with 4 lifting days per
week, where the intensity of loading increases weekly
for the first 3 weeks at 60%, 65% and 70%. The 4th

week is a recovery week at 55%. It is important to


note that the percentages are based on what the
athlete can lift for 10 repetitions, with the last 2 or 3
reps being very difficult, not on their 1RM. During this
phase the volume of technical work is kept very low,
with drills being performed on 2 days. There are also 2
conditioning sessions per week in this phase.
The next phase is the Strength Gaining Phase, which
comprises of 1 or more 4 week blocks. Within each
block there are 3 weeks of increasing load and 1 week
recovery. If there is more than one 4-week block,
there is a multiple accumulation of loading. Each
exercise is performed for 3 sets of 5 repetitions. The
conditioning sessions are similar to the previous block,
however, the volume of technical throwing work
increases significantly.
The Power Phase follows this and again is made up of
1 or more 4-week blocks. The first week is an
overreaching week with increased volume load, where
5 sets of 5 reps are performed. Week 2 is back to 3x5
at the normal training load, followed by week 3, which
has a slight increase in load. Week 4 is a recovery
week with reduced loading. The volume of throws
decreases significantly in this block, and there is an
emphasis on maximal throws.
Tapering was the final area covered in the
presentation. Meg referenced Mujika and Padillas paper
on the scientific bases for precompetition tapering
strategies, and Inigo Mujikas book on Tapering and
Peaking for Optimal Performance. The taper is a shortterm reduction in volume, sometimes by 60-90% in
order to minimise fatigue and allow a peak in
performance. In throwing performance, improvements
would be expected to be from 0.5-6%.
The take home message is that a good, solid, planned
and progressed programme based on timeless
principles of training does work and will produce
results. We simply need to recruit the right people into
the sport.

Prue Cormie Influence of Strength on


Muscular Power
(Keynote Session)
Prue Cormie is fast becoming recognised as a world
leader in her field. Her presentation was hugely
enjoyable, and it was an absolute pleasure to listen to
someone of her scientific calibre discussing principles and
theories that we could all take back and use in our own
applied settings on Monday morning with our athletes!

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Prue gave a fascinating keynote presentation entitled


The influence of strength on muscular power. In this
talk, Prue gave an overview of all the structural and
morphological features, as well as the respective neural
features, that impact the expression of strength and
power. Following this in-depth physiological overview,
Prue then proceeded to present a host of her work,
and that of others, expressing how strength and/or
power training can be best implemented into a training
plan for highly trained and less experienced athletes.
The physiological components identified through
scientific investigation, which have been shown to
impact power production in human subjects, are
separated into two categories. The morphological
components include the following:
Fibre type
Cross sectional area
Fibre architecture (including fascicle length and
pennation angle)
Tendon and musculo-tendon unit properties
Neural factors were also discussed, and these
components included:
Motor unit recruitment
Firing frequency
Intermuscular coordination
Neural inhibition
A central theme running through Prues presentation
was the importance of strength on the expression of
muscular power. This was highlighted by a series of
both acute and chronic training literature that showed
performance adaptations with changes in muscular
strength. Indeed, strength has been shown to have a
strong correlation to both power output in vertical
jump tests, as well as sprint speed over 5m, 10m and
40m sprints. This certainly gave those listening to the
presentation food for thought, as it brought home just
how important the pursuit of muscular force generation
may be.
Prue concluded her information-packed presentation
with some practical advice as to when to programme
for power development and when to programme for
strength gains within an athletes training plan. What
became apparent is that strength training is equally
effective as power training at increasing peak power
output in relatively weak individuals. In comparison,
stronger athletes have an enhanced capacity to adapt
to power-type training strategies, and therefore this

approach should be introduced for more advanced


athletes.
In conclusion, Prue highlighted that the expression of
muscular power is central to sports performance in
many different competitive disciplines. However, all the
data that Prue presented reinforced the fact that power
is built on a foundation of strength, and the importance
of strength development of any athlete should not be
overlooked. The strength level of an athlete will always
dictate the upper limit of their potential to generate
maximal power because the ability to generate force
rapidly is of little benefit if maximal force is low.

Bill Foran The Science behind Miami


Heats In Season Strength Programme
(Keynote Session)
Fresh off the Miami Heats appearance in the 2011 NBA
Championship finals, Head Strength & Conditioning
Coach, Bill Foran, gave a candid and insightful
overview of the teams in-season strength programme.
From the outset of his talk, Bill highlighted the joint
by joint concept that the Miami Heat adopt in their
strength and conditioning strategies. This included an
emphasis on mobile shoulders with stable scapulae, a
mobile thoracic spine with a stable lumbar spine,
mobile hips, but stable knees and ankles. In particular,
Bill placed great importance on the hips and core as
central components of all his training plans.
Using a case study of research evidence from Bret
Contreras, Bill indicated how scientific study was
informing his programming choices and exercise
selections. This included evidence that exercises
working in the vertical profile had the greatest EMG
activation of the hips in a flexed position, while
horizontal plane exercises had the highest EMG
activation in the extended position. For this reason, in
his discussions Bill highlighted that the direction of hip
training is important, and both vertical and horizontal
forces should be evident in a good hip training
programme. These findings resulted in the selection of
the following exercises as a priority:

Vertical Profile Exercises


Squats
Trap Bar Deadlifts
Lunges
Step Ups
Straight Leg Deadlifts

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Horizontal Profile Exercises


Bridges and Bridge Variants
4-Way Hip Extension
Kickbacks
With respect to the Miami Heats core training, the work
of Dr. Stuart McGill, (who happened to be sitting in the
audience listening to how his work was helping other
practitioners in the field), was evident in driving the
training strategies. Bill talked about how this largely
focused on the core not acting as a power generator,
but instead as a power transmitter following the
development of explosive force characteristics by the
lower and upper limbs. This is perhaps something that is
appropriate to all sports, not just the game of
basketball.
Elsewhere in the Heats in-season strength programme a
classic categorisation of hip and knee dominant
exercises for the lower body, with horizontal or vertical
pushing/pulling for the upper body. Bill used working
examples of players that have adopted these techniques
during his more than 15yrs in the NBA, and the
beneficial effects that had been achieved.including the
great Shaquille ONeil.
In summary, this was a welcome insight into the
strength training strategies of a successful professional
sports team from the other side of the pond. What was
refreshing was the use of research and evidence-based
practice in guiding strength and conditioning training
programmes. Bill was a humble and open presenter, and
it was refreshing to hear someone of his experience
talking so openly and candidly about the methods he
uses.

Matt Lovell Your Sports Nutrition Questions


Answered
(Breakout Session)
This thorough presentation covered a spectrum of
topics, which will require further reading in order to
understand in greater depth. However, an appreciation
of the breadth of the subject of sports nutrition was
gained. Matt introduced the topic by stating that
everyone is different, and that each athletes body type
and goals need to be considered when focusing on
optimising nutrition.
Matt stressed that any issues relating to nutrition need
to be dealt with on an individual basis. Factors could
involve the autonomic nervous system, carbo oxidative
system, lipo oxidative system, electrolyte system, acid

alkaline balance, endocrine type, blood type,


prostaglandin imbalance, or the glucose challenges
just to name a few. All these, incidentally, are
nutritionally governed or influenced.
But how do we know what an athlete needs? Following
clinical signs and symptoms, collecting questionnaires,
taking bloods, urine and saliva samples are all ways of
testing for deficiencies, imbalances, optimal function
levels and hormonal levels. These results, coupled
with an understanding of which foods support these
systems, can then be used to help iron out these
problems.
There are some trends, however, that can be applied
to a wider group of subjects, not just the athlete
population. These, among others, include vitamin D
deficiency or inadequacy, imbalance of essential fats,
disbiosis (poor digestion of proteins), low intake of
anti oxidant nutrients, and low intake or absorption of
B vitamins. In response to some of these trends,
there are some general recommendations that can be
applied: take pro biotics, take antioxidants; both from
vitamins and plant based drinks at key times,
supplement with 2000ius of vitamin D, take time to
chew your food, avoid excess red meat consumption,
eat organic meats.
Matt outlined 3 key stimulators for muscle adaptation
and recovery. These are training stimulus,
macronutrients / supplements, and sleep, summarised
as: train, eat, and sleep. Of these, to optimise training
stimulus, it was suggested that athletes should train
twice per day, as EPOC is proportional to heartrate,
meaning we increase recovery demands and
fatburning throughout the day. With respect to
macronutrients, each one was unpacked in detail,
outlining importance of quantity and timing of
ingestion for the greatest benefit. Protein in particular
was highlighted as critical for endurance athletes, a
population who typically focus on the importance of
fueling with carbohydrates. There is some evidence to
show that protein can help avoid overtraining and
performance drop-off in elite level cyclists. It can also
improve glucose sensitivity, and favorably enhance
body composition. It may also help in raising
testosterone levels.
A large focus was given to insulin sensitivity and its
response to certain foods. About 80% of all health
problems can be cured through insulin and adrenal
management; therefore it is important to understand
its function and response. An importance was placed
on keeping insulin levels as low as possible outside
the training recovery window. Matt explained that an
understanding of insulin sensitivity is beneficial.
Upon reflection of this presentation, its strength lay in
the sound use of solid science, alongside some
practical applications and protocols of how to treat
certain problems or rectify imbalances. Matt gave
examples of foods and supplements, which trigger
greater glucose uptake by muscle cells, as well as lists
of foods that increase insulin sensitivity. A list of
symptoms of poor blood sugar regulation were given
as: fatigue, being irritable or shaky when hungry,
rapid mood swings, sleeping problems, poor
concentration, forgetfulness, excessive sweating, and
stubborn body fat which does not seem to shift no
matter how restrictive you are with your diet. The
importance of sleep and some of the cycles involved
was also discussed, i.e. the release of growth
hormone in a 1-3 hour window after falling asleep.

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This was all tied in with training and eating, to complete


the 3 stimulators of regeneration.

athletes to work through traditionally accepted


ranges.

The quantity of material presented was enough for a


whole weekend of debate and discussion; however, it
was packaged neatly into a whistle-stop tour of sports
nutrition. He highlighted numerous areas that directly
applied to coach/athlete situation. It ended leaving the
listener hungry to know more.

This talk was an absolute treat! Many nuggets of


information were given to all those who attended
from one of the worlds true leaders in their field.
Fascinating and interesting, whist at the same time
daunting when considering the precision that we
perhaps should pay attention to, this presentation
was certainly a highlight of the conference.

Stuart McGill Perfect Technique:


Enhancement of Performance, Injury,
Resiliance and Tolerable Training Volume
(Breakout Session)
Its not often you get the chance to see true worldleaders in their field demonstrate the techniques and
methods that they use on a daily basis; but this is
exactly what Stuart McGill did in his breakout
workshop. A hugely interactive session, Stuart used
members of the audience to demonstrate a host of
techniques and corrective methods. For 90 minutes,
the audience was taken through a whistle-stop tour
of a number of the crucial techniques that Stuart
McGill has been adopting throughout his illustrious
career. Everyone had plenty of ideas to go home with
and immediately start to try and implement.
Central to Dr. McGills demonstrations were the
correct execution of exercise technique. This was
something that was stressed throughout. Creating a
strong and powerful posture and back alignment
serves to i) protect the back from injury, and ii) to
allow the optimal transfer of force and power. In this
context, Dr. McGill used members of the audience to
effectively demonstrate a variety of issues that
would need to be corrected in order to promote
optimal back health and performance; this included
the correct power position for squatting movements,
but also more remedial demonstrations of how to rise
up from sitting or lying positions without
compromising the alignment of the vertebrae.
Being in Stirling, Scotland, one of the interesting
points that Dr. McGill discussed was the existence of
what he termed a Scottish hip. Referring to the
ancestral anglo-saxon origins, the Scottish hip it was
suggested, impacted the depth to which athletes
should be made to squat and/or perform exaggerated
hip flexion exercises. From a practical perspective,
this gave insight for all the practitioners within the
room to consider ROM around the hips and pelvis,
and how it might not always be best to force

Bill Foran Miami Heats Conditioning and


Nutrition 2 Keys to Success
(Breakout Session)
While many texts and University courses provide the
background information needed to become a strength
and conditioning coach, anybody working on a day to
day basis with athletes knows that there really is no
substitute for experience. This experience does not
only involve the design and implementation of
training, but also crucially requires building
relationships with the coaching staff and players.
Nowhere was this more clear than in Bill Forans
breakout session which outlined some of the day to
day training and nutritional practices of the Miami
Heat basketball team, which had just played out a
NBA final series with the Dallas Mavericks, and which,
over the last year had become the most talked about
team in basketball, being the latest to take on a
dream team persona with the inclusion in its line-up
of superstar players Lebron James, Chris Bosh and
Dwayne Wade.
What was immediately clear was that Bills role
encompassed a wide definition of strength and
conditioning, and involved a range of applications
including monitoring of nutrition and the players
associated body composition. Experienced coaches
will always say that one of the keys to their success
is getting buy in from the Head Coach. In this, Bill
outlined how fortunate he was in having the
legendary coach Pat Riley as the lead of the
organisation. One of the legendary coaches in
basketball history, Riley achieved huge success as
head coach of the LA Lakers leading them to three
NBA titles, and coaching what is generally regarded
as the greatest team in Lakers history. He later
followed this with successful coaching stints at the
New York Knicks and Miami heat. Riley is a great
believer in physical conditioning and expects his
teams to show high levels of fitness and optimal
body composition. Bill outlined how he monitored
these parameters and also how he managed to
implement his conditioning and nutritional
programme in the high pressure environment of the
NBA. Again the great insight here was how he dealt
with the challenges of superstar players and a
schedule that saw the teams play 82 regular season
games in a five month regular season and 21
further playoff games. Playing an average of 4
games per week, and with extended road trips
interspersed in these games, perfect training
approaches are difficult to achieve. Bill gave a
detailed insight into the unique challenges he faced
and some of the ways in which he dealt with these
challenges. The fact that Bill had just completed his
23rd year with the team and his 13th in the position
of head of S&C are testament to his ability to deploy
effective methods and his ability to work with
players and coaches to help them achieve the
highest levels of performance.

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Rhodri Lloyd Dispelling the Myths of


Plyometric Training for Young Athletes
(Breakout Session)
Dr Rhodri Lloyd, a senior lecturer in strength and
conditioning at the University of Gloucestershire gave a
comprehensive presentation on the application of
plyometric training in the youth population. This helped
dispel some of the myths about plyometric training,
while at the same time provided excellent takeaway
tips on how to effectively and safely implement
plyometric training in a group of youth athletes.
Dr Lloyd started by outlining the basic underpinning
physiology of plyometric training, providing an excellent
overview of the stretch shortening cycle and factors
contributing to its optimal function. This then developed
into an explanation of how an enhancement of stretch
shortening cycle function was an important element in
the development of youth athletes, and how plyometrics
could play an important role in the optimal development
of athletic performance. This also helped dispel many of
the concerns that practitioners may face when looking
to set up these programmes. A key element in
designing effective programmes is how effective
methodologies are in eliciting appropriate performance
improvements. Dr Lloyd presented evidence of how safe
and effective plyometric programmes had improved to
increase a range of performance factors including
speed, agility, lower limb power and reactive strength
index in youth athletes. Dr Lloyd later suggested that
there may be windows of accelerated development in
stretch shortening cycle function but that these were
not as clear-cut as suggested by some of the long term
athlete development models. The data also suggested
that plyometrics are able to enhance athletic function in
relatively young athletes and that this may be a crucial
factor in adequately preparing them for both sports
performance and everyday activities which, in
themselves, often contain stretch shortening cycle
activities. Dr Lloyd then went on to outline how
effective and safe plyometric programmes can be
deployed in the youth population and provided clear
guidelines in terms of intensity volume frequency
repetition velocity and recovery.
In summary, he presented a number of key take home
messages:
1. Plyometric training can positively affect a number of
performance variables in children.
2. There is little evidence to support the notion of
injury risk.

3. They may be windows of opportunity for slow or


intermediate stretch shortening cycle function but the
evidence is less clear for fast stretch shortening cycle
function (although he did outline some of the limitations
of the long term athlete development model).
4. He stressed that the quality of plyometric training
was far more important than the quantity and that
programme design needs to consider volume intensity,
frequency, repetition, velocity and recovery.

Liam Hennessy Recovery: Its Role in


Preparing to Perform
(Breakout Session)
Dr Liam Hennessy is generally regarded as one of the
worlds foremost authorities in the rugby performance
world and has been fundamental in the results achieved
by the Irish National team, and the Irish regions over
the last decade. Dr Hennessys talk outlined his
approach to recovery and its role in maximising the
performance of Irish players over this time.
Fundamental to Dr Hennessys approach was his
delineation of recovery strategies as micro and macro.
While he did outline some of the micro strategies he
utilised, his message was that without macro
management of fatigue, the micro strategies may be
irrelevant. While outlining how the IRFU had managed
the macro recovery strategies what was clear was that
this approach demanded co-operation from coaches
players and administrators, and that without this cooperation, success would be hugely limited. This also
demanded a high degree of big picture thinking, and an
agreement around an overall framework for the
attainment of long term performance goals rather than
short term results. Dr Hennessey outlined that perhaps
the key factor to control in an almost year long game
such as rugby union, was the fixture schedule, and how
this needed to revolve around player performance. In
this way, training could then be planned and periodised,
with times of high competitive demand, balanced with
times for both intense training and planned recovery.
What was fascinating about this talk was how Dr
Hennessey presented a real world model, rather than a
theoretical construct. He outlined some of the real
challenges faced in implementing the model, and some
of the methods deployed to deal with these challenges.
All in all a great presentation that was theoretically
rooted in science but which had been deployed to great
effect in the real world of professional sport.
Photos Erika Stevenson

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The Five People


you Meet in
Heaven
Nick Ward is the series Editor for The
Five People you Meet in Heaven.
He is the lead for S&C for TASS.

Significant stops on a journey to becoming an


S&C coach
Nick Ward M.Kin. (Exercise and functional fitness),
BA (Hons) Sport Studies, CSCS, ASCC
Overview

Dr. Marcus Elliott is the founder and


director of Peak Performance Project
(P3), a performance training facility
located in Santa Barbara, California.
P3 train an extensive list of
professional athletes from such
backgrounds as the NBA, MLB, MLS,
NFL, ATP and AVP. Before
establishing P3, Marcus studied
Medicine at the world renowned
Harvard University. He has also
worked for the US Olympic Training
Centre as a sports scientist and was
previously hired by the New England
Patriots as their lead on Injury
Prevention.

Mitch Alboms book, The Five People you Meet in Heaven, inspires
the theme for this short series of articles. Based on interesting,
inspiring and challenging people we meet on our journey, the
purpose is to share experiences that people have had along the
way, and which hold some significance for their own development.

Luke Storey interviews Marcus Elliott

Marcus Elliott

In 2009, I finished a years internship with Bath Rugby Club. Although I


gained a huge amount of hands on experience working with pro rugby
players, I felt I lacked the knowledge and understanding of working in a
multi-sport setting. After finding P3 on the internet and going through 2
phone interviews with Marcus, I was accepted onto the internship, which
ran from June to Sept. From the minute I met Marcus I was engrossed, by
not only his vast knowledge of sports science, but also his ability to share
his wisdom with others. We immediately sparked a good relationship, me
enjoying his wise words and him enjoying my mild case of ADHD, which he
believed worked well when confidently coaching athletes I had just met.
Luke Storey MSc ASCC CSCS
Luke is currently the Strength &
Conditioning coach at Derbyshire
County Cricket Club. He has
previously worked in Professional
Rugby and for the English Institute of
Sport. He is accredited and certified
with the UKSCA and NSCA
respectively and has an MSc in
Sports Physiology.

He was somebody that was not afraid to go against the norm and certainly
not afraid to ruffle a few feathers in the S&C community while doing it. In
the high pressure world of professional sport, many S&C coaches/sports
scientists can be overly protective of their athletes and neglect certain
aspects of training. High profile and highly paid pro athletes can also
sometimes get in the habit of dictating what type of training they want to
do in the gym. Dr. Elliott on the other hand, strived to get the best out of
his athletes. It didnt matter if they were a NBA player that had just signed
a $30million 4 year deal, if they were training under his roof they were
doing what he prescribed. Dr. Elliott prided his training on being safe yet
aggressive.

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already worked with Olympic sprinters and was


confident that we could reduce muscle injuries in our
NFL players or other speed sports. However, I also had
the additional advantage of heading up a 10 year study
of muscle injuries where we examined mechanisms and
all variables associated with nearly 1800 muscle
injuries in the NFL. Conservative estimates were that
we saved the club in excess of 2 million dollars per
year in lost playing time from muscle injuries. This
says nothing of the increases in team chemistry from
keeping key players on the field. We went from having
a mean of over 21 treated muscle strains per year to 2
and then 3 in the first 2 years of the programme.
What was your biggest challenge when working with
the New England Patriots?

Over the past 3 years I have had the pleasure of


learning from a number of practitioners but none of
which come close to the life experiences and
knowledge I gained from Dr. Marcus Elliott. Marcus will
always be on the end of the phone or email if I ever
need any advice and he will always be my go to guy
in the S&C community.
After qualifying as a Physician why did you choose to
go down the Sports Performance route instead of
working in medicine?

The Patriots situation provided the right environment to


succeed. The owner of the club made it clear that they
were going to be investing in this progressive
programme and everyone was extremely cooperative. I
directed the programme, but the strength coach,
medical staff, sprint coach, and trainers were each
given roles to play in implementing the programme.
Even when a strength coach is working as an island,
there can be some great wins, and the type of
comprehensive success we had with the Patriots
requires everyone being on the same page - a
comprehensive approach. This all-in team effort,
working together towards something that is bigger
than the sum of its parts, and playing a role in taking a
team to the very top of its sport is a wonderful feeling.
After working in American Football why did you choose
to establish your own training facility?
It is tempting to lever success in one area into a
career, and it would have been easy to build a career
in American Football alone. However, I like to solve

From a young age it was my goal to understand as


much as possible about the human body and to use
that to more effectively and more precisely develop
elite athletes. I wanted to raise the bar in this niche of
the sports world. Even during the medical school
interview process, I was clear that this was my track
and that I was only continuing my education to have
another arm of information to work from in
performance enhancement. I never considered leaving
performance, rather I wanted to be fluent, not only in
exercise physiology and biomechanics, but medicine as
well. Although most people dont realise it, nor give
them credit (or compensation) that reflects it, the
strength/performance coach is absolutely the front line
on the sports medicine team. For those who are paying
attention and have the insight, the vast majorities of
injuries in sport are telegraphed long before they occur
and the way athletes stay healthy is to build physical
tools that can handle forces in excess of those being
applied in sport. The strength coach is responsible for
making sure those systems are built. There are huge
competitive advantages for teams and organisations
that can lead in this area.
What were your main responsibilities during your 3
years at the New England Patriots?
I designed and oversaw the implementation of a front
edge programme to reduce muscle injuries and
improve athleticism. Instead of sending players away
in the off-season with a generalised strength
programme, we did extensive testing of each athlete
and developed corrective foci for intervention BEFORE
the players showed up to start the season. I had
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problems and love wrapping my brain completely


around a new sport. The opportunity to do smarter
things across all sports was very appealing to me and
the ground weve established in the NBA, MLB and
others is very satisfying. We have been thinking very
much about soccer over the past couple years and I
am confident we will bring some important pieces to
that game over the next few years. Also, establishing a
private facility was always the plan. As long as
professional athletes keep showing up and paying the
rent, there is a freedom and efficiency in a private
facility that is difficult to find working for a team or
organisation. If we see a more efficient way to do
something, a new technology that will create
advantages, a unique need of any given athlete, we
pursue it. There is no bureaucratic system to be
navigated, no red tape to slow processes. We are
pioneering the use of new technology in performance,
collect so much data with a great system of checks and
balances in place, and are learning so much in this
environment. This process is also attracting a uniquely
motivated group of professional athletes. Additionally,
we are fielding offers from organisations in every
major sport to take over or bring our insights to their
club. I feel very fortunate and really think I have the
best of all worlds right now.
As well as your role at P3, you are also the Director of
Sports Science & Performance at the major league
baseball team the Seattle Mariners. Have you found it
hard to get the athletes to buy into your training
methods and bin their old traditional ways?
I was recently hired to bring our model of athlete
development to MLB. We took over the minor league
system last year, brought in comprehensive player
assessment and personalised programmes for all 250
players in their system and they had the most
successful year in their history, by almost any
measure. Our programme is designed to utilise some
unique technology applications to evaluate specific
physical tools needed for the sport, to attack individual
needs of each player, and to re-evaluate these physical
tools frequently to see if were effective. Although our
main goal is to improve the performance of our
athletes we also reduced the days lost by injury by 562
in our first year. Its generally not difficult to get buy in
with the players, even when you are varying
significantly from the historical paradigm, as long as
you have clear, rational explanations for why we are
doing what were doing....and in terms they can
understand. I would say that some of the coaches and
career insiders are more difficult than the players when
it comes to change. Some of that comes from just not
understanding, some of it comes from fear of change
or insecurity, and perhaps some from habit and
laziness. However, after the success of the programme
last year, I think buy-in is near 100% within coaches
and other organisational people. It all feels very good.
The players on the other hand just want to be better
and most have decent instincts if your case is
compelling.
Do you think some professional organisations are not
fully utilising the benefits of strength & conditioning,
and why do you think this is?
Without a doubt! The strength and conditioning coach
plays such a significant role in nearly every major
sport but they are rarely given the appropriate weight
within the organisation. They are a big deal. However,
I can tell its shifting. There is a significant interest
right now in sports science and I see more and more

organisations interested in upgrading this area. Im


certain that this will just keep accelerating as the
potential competitive advantages dwarf those in most
other areas in which the pro sports team might
upgrade.
You are notorious in using technology to aid your
programme design and coaching of athletes. Where do
you see the technology and science of S&C going in
the future?
Yeah, we are definitely pioneering the use of
technology. For instance in our latest collaboration we
can do pretty much anything that can be done in any
biomechanics lab in the world, and are using that
technology extensively to get a better understanding of
injury prevention and performance. This is undeniably
a big piece of the future when it comes to S&C. We
use technology, not only to more precisely understand
our athletes and to prescribe exercise, but also to learn
about our effort and the correlations between injuries
or performance variables and physical qualities of our
athletes. The hallmark of the scientific method is to
use observation and clinical trials that eventually
PREDICT what an outcome will be when given a
starting variable. For instance, if we believe that
increasing horizontal drive force in MLB athletes
increases rotational power, then we should see an
increase in power numbers in our athletes in whom we
have increased horizontal drive through training. This
is the type of exercise we go through constantly at P3
and with the professional teams we have been involved
with. In order to do that with precision, to measure
more than simple performance variables, you will need
technology. Also, the technology is changing fast right
now. It should be a very interesting next couple of
decades.
Finally what advice would you give to somebody
working with high profile professional athletes?
First, to create a great relationship with elite athletes
they must know that you have good information AND
that you are there for them. Second, keep learning.
The people you meet who have been in the field for
decades and still have a spark in their eye are
invariably those who are constantly evolving. Fearfully
or stubbornly defending an out-dated model is always
a sinking ship and a sure way to a miserable career,
and likely a short career in the new world of
professional strength coaches. Lastly, its a great time
to be in performance. The quality of available jobs, the
respect given to those in the field, and the exploding
technology and informatics potentially make this a
renaissance period in the field.

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