Strength & Conditioning:

A members communication from the UKSCA

Welcome to the first newsletter from the
UKSCA. In time, it is hoped that this will
develop into a full journal for the association,
but all great oak trees have to begin with a
small acorn.
In this communication, I would like to
introduce the first of a number of regular
columns that editors have kindly volunteered
to lead the development of. These editors will
be looking for people to contribute their
thoughts,
knowledge,
expertise
and
challenges to, in order that we can stimulate
new methods and ideas within fellow
professionals, will collate these columns. I
Lead Article
Exercise of
the month:
Appears in
this edition

Editor:
Alan Sinclair
alan.sinclair@sisport.com
Editor:
Stuart Yule
Stuart.yule@sisport.com

High School
corner
Appears in
this edition

Editor:
Ian Jeffreys
ian.jeffreys@coleg-powys.ac.uk

Strength &
Conditioning
Research

Editor:
Mike Favre
Mike.favre@usoc.org

A perspective
on.
Appears in
this edition
Strength &
Conditioning
case studies
Ask the
expert

Editor:
Clive Brewer
Clive.brewer@sportscotland.org.uk

hope that you, the association members, are

keen to contribute towards these developments
and I would encourage everyone to engage in
seeing this as an opportunity to continue to grow
our association together.
Within the next few months, the UKSCA will be
inviting certain companies to tender for the
contract to publish and distribute a magazine to
the membership: Until that process has been
undertaken, I hope that you will all be happy
with this newsletter. As we see it, the content of
the information presented is the important thing!
The regular columns that will be included in the
publication include:
Topical discussion on strength and conditioning
issues
This column will look at a different exercise
each month, the muscles and joints that are
utilised, key technique and coaching tips, and
how this exercise can be used in a
sportspersons programmes.
This column will present a perspective on a
much needed, but often neglected, area of
strength and conditioning in the UK: Activities
that are, or should be, occurring in schools and
colleges
strength
and
conditioning
programmes.
Looking at any and all aspects of research,
from
interesting
articles
published
to
interesting events and / or experiments taking
place.
Invites Strength & conditioning coaches to
present, in 250 words, their views on a
discussion topic

Editor: Applicant needed!!

Case studies offer a view of how problems can

be solved in the strength and conditioning
world.
Editor:
Your questions on how to tackle a specific
Clive Brewer
problem will be forwarded to specialists in an
Clive.brewer@sportscotland.org.uk area for support and guidance.
Profile of a
Editor:
Get to meet a fellow strength and conditioning
coach
Graham Turner
coach, find out more about them, their training
G.Turner@leedsmet.ac.uk
philosophies and their career history.
Letters to the Editor: Sarah Kilroy
Your thoughts, views and questions for the
Association
info@uksca.org.uk
board
We will also be looking to include information relating to events, such as the workshops that are
currently being designed for members, and accreditation dates and venues that we will be holding
regularly around the country. The next available date is the 15th October (venue: Dundee
University). For more details, please contact Sarah Kilroy, who manages the administration for the
UKSCA (info@uksca.org.uk). More information can also be obtained from the website:
www.uksca.org.uk
Clive Brewer: Director, UKSCA

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In Pictures:
The UKSCA has a panel of Accredited assessors who will be overseeing the accreditation process.
These people have all passed the accreditation process through a two-day peer-review workshop at
Loughborough, which also incorporated assessor orientation training. This was designed to
familiarise the individuals with the nature of competency based assessment, and also the format
and requirements of assessing a UKSCA event.

UKSCA Accreditation Assessors at the Loughborough event in March 2005:

There have since been 3 accreditation days, with more planned. Keep looking at the website for the
latest information.

Professor Mike Stone receives the inaugural Honorary fellowship of the UK strength & Conditioning
Association from UKSCA Chairperson Gil Stevenson at the 1st Annual UKSCA Conference May 2005
Conference in May 2005 Loughborough University
Over 220 delegates attended the 3 day conference with top-class speakers from the UK and
overseas. The conference was hosted by English Institute of Sport and supported by UK Sport. The
delegates were primarily strength & conditioning practitioners working with athletes at all levels.
We also had representatives from other allied professions/groups involved in sport and the High
Performance System eg physiotherapists, sports science specialists and sports massage
practitioners.
The high number of delegates and the profile of their employers ensure that the strength &
conditioning community in the UK was represented in breadth, across a range of sports and in
depth, at all levels from youth teams to elite performers.

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Dave Reddin RFU National Fitness Coach

Keynote presentation Conditioning to Win Training the RWC Winners 2003

Professor Rob Newton Edith Cowan University, Australia

Strength & Power for Sport: Mechanisms, Development, Assessment & Management

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A perspective on
Column Editor: Clive Brewer (clive.brewer@sportscotland.org.uk)
This column has been designed as a challenge to strength & conditioning professionals to put down
their thoughts on certain topics that can be compared by the readers to the thoughts of other
professionals. The aim of this snap-shot approach is to help to clarify the diversity of opinion (in
some areas) for readers, or strengthen the consensus of opinion amongst the professionals in other
areas. Typically this is how we as a profession, or as individual practitioners, evolve our thoughts:
By making informed decisions on what we do in practice and being able to justify such decisions
with evidence based information.
The challenge that I will set to practitioners every edition is to respond to a discussion topic in less
than 250 words! Strictly 250 words! Any more than this and they have been told it will be edited
out.
This is a way of stimulating interest in topic areas that may need further investigation in more
detail in later articles / editions. Contributors have been asked to respond honestly and openly,
without attempting to ask others views on this before submitting a response. The idea is for these
250 words to reflect their own professional practice:
I would also like to, at this stage, acknowledge the generosity of these professionals in freely and
voluntarily contributing their knowledge to this discussion, and I hope that I can rely on them, and
many others amongst the readership, to contribute to future columns.
The title of the first editions discussion is:
The role of static stretching in my programmes.......................
Tommy Yule:
Senior Strength & Conditioning Coach, English Institute of Sport, Yorkshire region.
Static stretching in my program is very much based on the needs of an athlete and is mainly used
to improve the trainability of athlete. If an athlete in a given session performs an exercise
incorrectly due to insufficient mobility, then if I know the training history of the athlete, I may use
static stretching in an attempt to achieve an acute increase in joint range of motion (ROM).
Studies have shown that static stretching has been detrimental to strength and power production.
In reality, however, when an athlete is unable to perform an exercise properly due to lack of
mobility it is unlikely that the athlete is physically prepared or skilful enough to overload the
desired exercises to the extent whereby their full strength or power capabilities can be realised.
For longer term improvements in ROM a separate flexibility program that includes static stretching
may be prescribed. Often this may be under the guidance of a physiotherapist, if the athlete has a
history of injury, or the athlete's coach if an increase in joint ROM is required for perfecting
sporting technique. However, I would always consider the goal i.e. to improve sporting
performance, when I advocate static stretching. As an example, I would think carefully about
prescribing an ankle flexibility program for a long jumper who couldn't perform the squat to a
satisfactory depth due to ankle flexibility, as altering the muscle-tendon length or stiffness
characteristics of the ankle musculature may be detrimental to their long jump performance.

Alan Sinclair:
Strength & Conditioning Coach, Scottish Institute of Sport, Tayside & Fife
There is some evidence that including static stretching as part of a comprehensive cool-down can
promote recovery after exercise. For example, a cool-down protocol which included
static
stretching along with low intensity jogging and partner assisted passive movement of the lower
limbs, resulted in decreased impairment of vertical and broad jumps and 30m sprint time following
intensive exercise compared to a control group.
Although there is no evidence that - when applied to a whole population - static stretching prior to
exercise reduces injury risk, I believe when there are specific instances where static stretching
following exercise is warranted in this regard. For example a key risk factor for hamstring injuries
is not only poor hamstring flexibility and strength, but is also poor flexibility in the hip flexors. The
mechanism may be that tight hip flexors cause an anterior tilt of the pelvis which, in turn,
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increases the distance between the origin and insertion of the hamstrings, thereby weakening
these muscles and leaving them more susceptible to sudden injury by virtue of the length-tension
relationship. Therefore, when used as part of a comprehensive flexibility regime, which includes
dynamic stretches and is individually prescribed, I believe static stretching does have a role in
decreasing the risk of such injuries.
The final area where static stretching has a role is in improving performance in sports whose skills
demand high levels of flexibility. Again, the exercises should be prescribed on an individual basis
depending on the individuals flexibility assessment & sport-specific flexibility requirements.
Ian Jeffreys
Director, UKSCA; Strength & Conditioning Coach, Coleg Powys
I believe that the discussion on static stretching needs to focus on three areas.
In terms of warm up, the evidence is such that static stretching is not included in any warm ups. I
like to look at warm up as movement preparation; as we are warming up for dynamic movements,
then static stretching does not fit into a movement prep programme aimed at enhancing
subsequent performance. Instead, I prefer to use general movement patterns to raise body
temperature, combined with dynamic movements through the key ranges of motion the athletes
will experience in the workout/game. This has the effect of maintaining body temperature and
additionally through carefully selecting the movements; other session aim can be achieved during
this time.
My main use of static stretching is in the regeneration phases. These occur both post workout, (as
a cooldown) and as separate entities, used specifically as regeneration sessions and often
combined with light recovery based sessions. Sessions involve dynamic and static stretches, with
the focus on integrated movement rather than on isolated muscle stretches. In addition, I utilise
systems such as PNF, active isolated stretching into these routines to provide a variety of flexibility
stimuli.
I am increasingly utilising a more individualised stretching programme. Within any group there will
be many different athlete's needs, and these may involve issues such as balanced flexibility, bi
lateral deficits etc. What is needed is an individual prescription, to target each individual's specific
requirements, needs that can be identified from comprehensive assessment.

Gil Stevenson:
Chairperson, UKSCA; Scottish Institute of Sport Network S&C Coach; Head Coach, Scottish
National Womens Rugby Team.
Static stretching, whether active, passive or forms of PNF is a well-proven strategy for increasing
range of movement. It is for this purpose that I include it in some conditioning sessions,
particularly when working on improving weightlifting technique.
Static stretches are never prescribed as part of a warm up, with preference being given to more
specific dynamic stretching and progressively intense movements specific to the activity.
It should also be recognised that weight lifting sessions with an exercise selection which includes
squats and the Olympic lifts and their derivatives are very much dynamic flexibility workouts.
Athletes training in this way improve their flexibility as a result of their weight lifting. Strengthflexibility exercises such as overhead squat and stiff leg dead lift ensure that the fitness qualities of
flexibility and strength are developed in synergy with each other. It is during the performance of
these lifts and also with full depth squats that I might introduce a held bottom position (which is in
fact a passive stretch) to improve the novices range of movement. Try holding the bottom position
of an overhead squat for 5 seconds progressing to 10 seconds then 15 seconds. The improvement
of the athletes range of movement is dramatic!
Static stretching is reported to aid the recovery process following rigorous exercise. However I
place the priority after hard sessions on cool down strategies e.g. ice baths, cold showers and
refuelling. Massage is another strategy for recovery which athletes should be encouraged to make
use of.
Mike Favre:
Strength & Conditioning Coach, US Olympic training Centre, Colorado Springs USA
Most of my teams flexibility work is done through dynamic warm-up/flexibility routines and
through the use of full range of motion weightlifting movements. Any static stretching activities
are scheduled for post exercise. The static stretching will usually be conducted in a group/team
setting. The routine will start from standing position and progress to sitting and lying stretches.
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This can take anywhere from 10 to 20min. The purpose is to stretch our full body for relaxation
and recovery. Although the research may not completely support this, the athletes believe
stretching does this for them. I also address issues such as shoulder inflexibility with static
stretching.
Static stretching is done in conjunction with full range of motion weightlifting movements such as
snatches and/or behind the neck presses. My wrestling, judo and swimming athletes tend to have
shoulder flexibility issues. Many are anteriorly rotated at the shoulders. This anterior rotation and
inability to exteriorly rotate is the root of many of their shoulder injuries.
I employ a number of different static stretching variations targeting the shoulders on a daily basis
to address this issue. Stretching is done before and after for those with the highest priority. Doing
the static stretching prior may not be best for their lifting, but then again they arent able to
perform much high intensity overhead work anyway.
I have found this approach to be extremely beneficial for my athletes in increasing their range of
motion/flexibility and reducing injury rates in their shoulder area.
In summary:
It would seem that there is a general consensus amongst our contributors that:

Static stretching plays little or no part in performance preparation Dynamic flexibility

exercises form the basis of pre-performance routines

Full-range training movements can contribute to increases in joint range of movement

Static flexibility has a role to play post-performance, but that this is based upon
comprehensive individual assessment and prescription: A uniform approach is not deemed
appropriate

Static flexibility has a role to play as part of an integrated training programme that
combines a number of elements to gain the desired goal.

PNF is a proven strategy for increasing range of movement.

Dynamic movements used in

warm ups serve as movement
preparation

Photo Courtesy of strength & conditioning

for games players (2005) The national
coaching foundation

Copyright UKSCA 2005

The use of full range of motion

weightlifting movements can
increase an athletes range of
movement.

Photo Courtesy of strength & conditioning for

games players (2005) The national coaching
Page
foundation

SCHOOL AND COLLEGE CORNER

Ian Jeffreys
THE NEED FOR A STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING APPROACH IN OUR SCHOOLS
THE COLUMN RATIONALE
Following the success of the London Olympic bid, attention has started to focus on the likely medal
haul at these games. Whilst the games may appear a long way away, it is important to remember
that many of the potential medallists are currently in our schools and colleges. Potentially, schools
provide an ideal opportunity to positively affect the athletic development of our future athletes. It
is therefore important to examine whether or not our schools are providing the appropriate
opportunities for the optimum development of our future stars. Whilst many schools have very
impressive sport skill development programmes, the number that effectively develop strength and
conditioning is limited. This often means that there is no co-ordinated progressive strength and
conditioning development programme in place. This makes the optimal development of athletes
almost impossible, and places our potential elite athletes at a disadvantage to countries where
such a programme is in place. In comparison to the systems and facilities in American High Schools
for example, Britain compares abysmally, and this will remain the same until strength and
conditioning is given an appropriate voice and is driven forward in this sector. The aim of this
column is to highlight areas of concern and potential for strength and conditioning coaches working
in the school and college environment and provide information that may be helpful to them in
performing their roles.
THE NEED FOR A STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING APPROACH IN OUR SCHOOLS
Talent alone does not win medals, instead this talent needs to be developed and honed over a long
period of time if an athlete is ever to reach their full potential. Whilst it is clear that an appropriate
Physical Education and sport programme in schools should play a vital role in the development of
tomorrows champions, focus within these programmes primarily tends to fall on developing sport
specific skills, and often little or no emphasis is put on the physical conditioning of the athlete. In
many cases performance levels are not optimal, not because of a lack of sport specific skills, but
rather because the athlete lacks the necessary conditioning levels to carry out these skills.
Similarly, they often lack the basic strength and conditioning that will allow them to develop to a
more advanced level. This is especially important in the current climate, where the general
conditioning levels of youngsters is falling. Thus, a large population exists, which may have the
basic sport skills, yet lack sufficient physical condition to optimally perform these skills. This, at
best, prevents them from reaching their full potential, and at worst, leaves them subject to injuries
due to this lack of conditioning.
It can be argued that an appropriate strength and conditioning programme should form the
backbone of an athletes development, with sport specific skills built onto the conditioning base.
This would allow a students physical conditioning to be progressively developed through their
school life. This conditioning base should be integrated into both curricular and extra curricular
activities, as it meets many of the stated national curriculum aims concerned with developing
health, fitness and performance enhancement. It is essential that our future athletes develop
efficient and effective motor skills, and many of these are common to many sports, allowing them
to be delivered in a non-sport specific environment. The development of these basic motor skills
will facilitate the learning and development of sport specific skills at a subsequent time. What is
vital to note is that critical ages exist for the optimum development of essential motor skills such
as speed, agility, dynamic balance etc, and if these are not utilised, then the windows of
opportunity afforded us are lost, making future development of these skills more difficult. In
addition these skills require the correct sequence of development, again stressing the need for an
effective strength and conditioning base to the planning of the PE curriculum.
How can strength and conditioning be integrated into a school programme?
I feel that Strength and Conditioning can be incorporated effectively into all school programmes,
and can play a vital role in all areas of the school sport and PE programmes. Examples of how
strength and conditioning knowledge and expertise can be integrated into a school programme
include.

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Setting up a PE curriculum based upon a long term athlete development programme

(LTAD), and built around the critical ages of athlete development, with a focus on balanced
athletic development, and fundamental physical literacy.
Designing effective strength and conditioning sessions, and integrating these into the sport
specific aspects of the programme.
Developing effective athlete testing and screening programmes
Devising and implementing appropriate strength programmes, to include free weight
structural exercises.
Ensuring all student athletes have a sound fitness base from which to progress to the
training to compete stage of the LTAD
Educating student athletes, allowing them to carry out appropriate conditioning in their
own time, in addition to that delivered during curriculum time.

THE CURRENT SITUATION

It is incumbent on the PE teaching profession to ensure that students are encouraged to take part
in activities that develop their own fitness and health, and which also enhance the fitness
parameters required of elite performance. A strength and conditioning approach provides an ideal
medium with which to address these needs. However, in terms of strength and conditioning few
schools give this vital aspect any real credence, and seldom is it integrated into a long-term
approach. It is frustrating to see weights rooms, where they are present, under utilised in the core
curriculum. All too often, where any usage is made, they are often used by the less athletic
groups, with no structured programme to follow, and with little coaching taking place. These
classes often involve minimal effort on machine-based equipment, whilst the more athletic take
part in traditional sports. Similarly, it is frustrating to see a few sprint drills being taught once the
summer track and field season arrives, when for the previous months little or no work has been
carried out on running techniques.
Similarly, the current situation regarding facilities is woeful. A well-designed weights room provides
an essential tool in both the development of top-level performance, and the development of
general fitness. Unfortunately, this type of facility is few and far between, with the fitness suite
concept dominating planning. It would be hoped that with a commitment to strength and
conditioning then the needs for a well-designed weights room could be pushed, and planners made
aware of the specific needs of student athletes.
IMPLEMENTING THE STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING APPROACH
To optimally develop our future athletes, strength and conditioning must play a crucial role from a
young age. If we are to develop this, then schools should play a key role, and with commitment
and partnerships from schools, colleges local education authorities, sports councils etc,
considerable development is possible. In implementing this development five key stages can be
identified
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Identifying an appropriate implementation strategy

Developing the staffing base
Setting up the LTAD
Planning and implementing the activities
Monitoring progress

Identifying an appropriate implementation strategy

The ideal case scenario would be for every school to employ an accredited strength and
conditioning coach to act as a performance director, and to implement effective physical
development programmes for all students. Whilst this is an unlikely scenario, three options are
available which could lead to effective development systems being implemented.
1
Identify a single development centre
2
Employ a peripatetic strength and conditioning coach
3
Develop a current member of staff in each school
One option is for Local, Education authorities to designate one school in each area to be their
centre for athletic development. These would then employ a designated strength and conditioning
coach, who would act as performance director and be responsible for implementing a strength and
conditioning programme, built around long term athlete development principles. This school would
then be the focus for investment and facility development, with talented athletes encouraged to
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attend this school. Some specialist sports colleges do exist, and it would be hoped that in the
future the role of a specialised strength and conditioning coach would be an integral part of the
accreditation of these colleges.
Alternatively, peripatetic strength and conditioning coaches could be employed, whose
responsibility would be to design and implement programmes in a number of schools. They would
also be responsible for identifying appropriate staff in schools that would be able to deliver aspects
of the designed programme. Many authorities do currently employ sports development officers, and
so the idea is not without precedent. Unfortunately the current development officers tend to be
sport specific and work in isolation. The potential impact of a strength and conditioning coach or
development officer would be massive in terms of the physical development of our future athletes.
A third option would be for a school to identify a member of staff with responsibility for strength
and conditioning. This success of this option would be dependent upon the skill, qualification and
knowledge base of their current staff, and would, in reality, only work in situations where
appropriate staff were already in place.
Developing the staff base
Whichever approach is used, a key to success would be to employ and empower appropriately
skilled and qualified staff. The UKSCA accreditation will hopefully play a major role in both
developing a pool of qualified coaches and also in up-skilling current coaches and teachers.
Currently, few schools have access to a suitably skilled and qualified strength and conditioning
coach, and the PE teacher gives any conditioning advice etc. The field of strength and conditioning
is constantly evolving, and thus keeping abreast of important developments in this area requires a
large commitment to continued education via an effective staff development programme. By
employing or designating a staff member to the role of strength and conditioning coach, a school is
providing their students with a tool essential to their athletic development. This would be instead of
the more traditional approach of focussing on specific sport, as is often the case in the extra
curricular programme. In my opinion this is a role equally as important as the school football,
netball or rugby coach if we are to fully develop a performers talent. This person would also be
able to stress the important role of strength and conditioning to athletic development thus
developing an appropriate attitude to conditioning, and also promoting the role of lifetime fitness.
Setting up the long term athlete development programme
Once the staff have been identified or employed, the next step would be to set up the LTAD
programme. This would involve identifying the basic performance parameters that underlie
successful performance at different developmental stages. In addition critical ages for motor
development need to be identified, together with an appropriate long term sequence of
development. By setting up this system, athletes would be able to lay the conditioning foundation
upon which future development will be based.
Planning and implementing the programme
Once the LTAD programme in place the next stage is to put the details into the programme. Here
progressive activities can be planned that appropriately develop the identified parameters
throughout the students school life. The programmes can be utilised in specific blocks of work, in
specific strength and conditioning sessions, or as part of other sessions. Through the whole
process, there will be a movement from general conditioning to specific conditioning, but with each
step dependent upon the successful development of the previous stage.
Monitoring progress
The final step would be to incorporate an effective testing and screening programme for all
students, into the programme. This will allow the coach to identify areas of strengths and
weaknesses at each developmental stage, affording an opportunity to determine whether previous
work has successfully achieved the aims set. This screening process then allows for plans to be
adapted appropriately, It also allows students to chart their own progress through their school life.
An appropriate battery of tests would be devised by the strength and conditioning co-ordinator,
which would cover the identified fitness parameters required at each age group. This would clearly
fit well into the national curriculum aims of engaging in fitness development activities, allowing a
quantifiable measure of progress. This step also affords an ideal opportunity for students following
A level programmes to develop their performance analysis skills.
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CONCLUSION
The effective introduction of strength and conditioning into the school programme, and the
deployment of strength and conditioning professional would be a huge step in ensuring that our
future stars are given the best opportunity to develop. I hope that in the next few years we can
move towards a situation where every school and college district has an employed strength and
conditioning coach, empowered to deliver programmes that address the long term development
requirements of our future champions.
In future columns I hope to address areas that can directly enhance the quality of our strength and
conditioning provision in schools and colleges, and hope to initiate discussion amongst practitioners
that will lead us on to this ideal situation.
Any practitioners who would wish to contribute to this column are encouraged to contact me at
ian.jeffreys@coleg-powys.ac.uk.
On a related note

Who said Kids shouldnt learn Olympic lifting movements? Dr Kyle Pierce (US weightlifting
development centre) instructs a young (11 years old) judoka at a sportscotland workshop in May
2005. Members may be interested in reading research supervised by Dr Pierce in this area: This
can be found at www.coachesinfo.com/category/strength_and_conditioning (filed under abstracts
from the sports biomechanics journal).

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Exercise of the Month

Stuart Yule
The Back Squat:
In this, the first exercise of the month article, the back squat will be discussed. It is a well
established exercise in many athletes training programmes and is an exercise that every strength
and conditioning coach should have in their armoury.
The back squat is an exercise that can be used across sporting populations and can be manipulated
extensively as a tool to produce your desired training response.
The back squat is commonly seen in gyms and its use amongst athletes is becoming more
prevalent, however there is often debate as to the correct implementation of the technique. In this
article the correct and safe technique will be described. Some issues and solutions to squatting
problems will be highlighted and finally the practical application and positive benefits of successful
back squatting will be discussed.
Overview
The back squat is a knee and hip extensor exercise.
The list below highlights the key muscles that are used in the correct execution of the back squat
and the muscle action.

Quadriceps-knee extension
Gluteus maximus- hip extension
Gluteus medius (posterior fibres) - hip extension and lateral hip rotation.
Hamstrings-hip extension
Erector spinae-spinal and pelvic stabilization
Latissimus dorsi- spinal and pelvic stabilization
Adductors (magnus, longus, brevis, minimus)-assist with hip extension and stabilization.
Abdominals- spinal and pelvic stabilization.

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Technique
Table 1 Outline of back squat technique

POSITION
Start Position
(Figure 1)

DESCENT
(Figure 2-5)

DESCRIPTION

PROBLEMS

VARIATIONS/SOLUTIONS

Hands evenly spaced shoulder

width apart on bar

Unable to have shoulder

width grip due to poor
shoulder external rotation

Widen grip until comfortable

Bar positioned just below C7

across upper trapezius and
rear deltoids-high bar

Pain across neck where bar

is positioned

Athlete stands extended

through spine, hips and
knees-bracing spinal
musculature

Unable to hold extended

position

Feet are positioned just

outside shoulder width with
toes pointing slightly
outwards
Athlete takes a breath in at
start
Unlocks hips and begins to
flex at knees with a slight
anterior lean with trunk
Hips go behind heels and
knees and hips flexed until
femur is parallel with floor
Feet remain flat throughout

Potential depth problems

Ensure bar is below 7thcervical

vertebrae
Low bar-positioned below rear
deltoids and upper trapezius
Ensure athlete has no spinal
pathology that limits ability to
extend thoracic and lumbar spine.
Has ability to hold correct posture
without bar or load.
Allow athlete to experiment with
stance width to find a comfortable
position that allows a full range of
motion

Unable to reach parallel

Widen stance, point toes out

slightly.

Heels come off floor

Check ankle range of motion.

Widen stance, turn feet out
slightly. Raise heel of shoe
(weightlifting shoe)

1. Athlete leans too far

forward.
2. Athlete allows lumbar
spine to flex.
3. Allows thoracic spine to
flex

1. Widen stance, adjust load,

encourage athlete to drive and
extend hip
2. Ensure that athlete can
posteriorly and anteriorly tilt
pelvis in an unloaded situation.
Adjust load and practice correct
movement patterns.
3. Encourage athlete to keep chest
up and to keep their elbows under
bar and not extend behind their
body

Feet forcefully driven into

floor
Knees and hips extend
Knees maintain position over
toes in coronal plane

Knees deviate inwards and

hips internally rotate

Hips raise at the same tempo

as bar

Hips raise at a higher

tempo than bar

Spinal curvature is
maintained (rigid extended
thoracic and lumbar lordosis)

Lumbar and thoracic

flexion

Possible weakness in hip

abductors.
Increased foot pronation.
Load too heavy?
Single leg exercises may need to
be considered in conjunction with
reinforcement of squatting
movement pattern
Athlete has relative weakness I hip
extensors.
Load is too heavy?
Encourage athlete to extend at hip
forcefully through sticking point
Load too heavy?
Weakness in spinal extensors
Encourage athlete to drive chest
up.

Knees go beyond toes in the

sagittal plane and maintain
alignment over toes in the
coronal plane
Athlete maintains anterior
trunk lean throughout motion
maintaining lumbar lordosis
and thoracic rigidity

ASCENT
(Figure 5-7)

Breath out through mid range

of movement (sticking point)

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Figure 1. Start position

Figure 2. Descent

Figure 3. Descent approaching parallel position Figure 4. Descent- maintaining posture

Figure 5. Descent/Ascent-loss of spinal posture

Figure 6. Ascent- foot and knee alignment

Figure 7. Ascent- incorrect knee alignment (internal rotation)

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Technical issues.
Table 1 and figures 1-7 highlight a correct and safe technique, which when performed with
appropriate supervision can enhance performance and aid in an injury prevention strategy.
The two issues that have caused debate are the depth to which the squat should be performed and
the extent to which the knees go beyond the toes. In the sporting environment it is important to
provide an appropriate stimulus which will result in specific adaptations necessary to improve
sporting performance. It is therefore important to consider the specificity of force and power
characteristics as well as movement in the sport prior to prescribing a particular squatting
technique.
In dynamic sporting activities hip extension is central to explosive movement. During a full range
of motion back squat, the gluteus maximus, a powerful hip extensor, becomes increasingly more
active, the deeper the squat is performed (Caterisna et al 2002). This highlights the importance of
performing the movement, through its full range, if specific force and power characteristics are
desired.
Coaches will often prescribe partial squats, the rational being that the knee angle is specific to that
which occurs during running. However the force and power characteristics are often neglected and
the load that is required in the partial squat position to overload sprinting or jumping is substantial.
Prescribing partial squats should always be carefully considered, through analysis of athletes
training history, their ability to load through their spine and the power and force characteristics of
the event/sport. These considerations will establish an understanding of the partial squat load,
which is required to give an appropriate training overload, for a particular event and also the
athletes ability to perform the exercise effectively, to have a positive transfer of training effect and
avoid injury.
Knee and hip/lumbar spine torque are central to the second issue. It is very common to see
individuals from the health and fitness industry squatting and not allowing their toes to go beyond
their toes; however is this appropriate and safe within a sports performance context?
Firstly, if we merely consider the action of taking our knee past our toes. Does it happen in sport?
It depends on the sport and the techniques involved, however from judo to curling, the knee is
stressed in a position beyond the toes. The fact that it happens raises the question-should we train
it?
Forward motion of the knees beyond the toes is dependant on squatting depth and anterior trunk
inclination. Research does suggest that increasing knee extension does decrease patellofemoral
and tibiofemoral compressive forces (Escamilla, 2001) and therefore by increasing the forward
motion of the knees during the squat, will increase the shearing forces through the knees. If stress
through the knees is to be minimized, there must be a re distribution of the force and this occurs
around the hip and lumbar spine. Due to the anterior trunk inclination, to minimize knee stress
forces, excessive forces are potentially transferred through the hips and lumbar spine (Fry et al
2003), thus increasing injury potential to lower back. With an injury free athlete, it is important
therefore to apply correct technique and allow the forces to be distributed evenly through the hips
and knees safely to avoid injury by allowing some anterior trunk inclination and allowing the knees
to move forward in front of the toes.
Application
As has been described the back squat is multi joint hip and knee strengthening exercise. Its use
across sports and the qualities it is aiming to develop are unique to the sport and individual.
Outlined below are some examples of variations that may be applied, the physical benefits at
different stages of a periodised sporting plan and an example of the sports that may benefit. At all
stages of training it must be emphasized that correct technique and the athletes well being is
paramount.
General preparation:

Leg and hip hypertrophy (sprinting, rugby, throwing..)

Leg and hip strengthening (judo, team field sports, track and field, racket sports curling)

Rehabilitation/prehabilitation (all sports, female athletes prone to ACL/ligament ruptures)

Specific trunk strengthening (rugby-front row forwards, contact sport)

Specific preparation.
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Leg and hip strengthening (track and field, rugby.)

Partial squats-overload certain weak positions specific to event/sport (throws, sprints..)
Speed squats-leg and hip power (badminton, explosive anaerobic sports)

Competition

Strength maintenance (team/seasonal sports.)

Jump squats power development

Table 2 below is an example of how the back squat could be progressed in a power sport and the
volume load and intensity manipulated over a mesocycle.
General preparation

B
SL

BS
SL

BS
SL

Specific preparation 1

BS
SL

BS

BS

BS

Specific preparation 2

BS

BS

BS
PS

JS
PS

Competition

JS
PS

BS JS
JS

JS

VL
I
Table 2. Example of back squat volume load and intensity over a mesocycle
Key: VL- back squat volume load, I-back squat intensity, BS- back squat, PS- explosive partial squat, JS-jump squat, SLsingle leg squat

Acknowledgements
Thank you to photographer Tommy Yule and demonstrator James Karageorgiou.
References
Fry AC, Smith JC and Schilling BK. Effect of knee position on hip and knee torques during
the barbell squat. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 17(4): 629-33, 2003.
Escamilla, RF. Knee biomechanics of the dynamic squat exercise. Medicine and Science in
Sport and Exercise. 33 (1): 127-141, 2001.
Caterisano A, Moss RF, Pellinger TK, woodruff K, Lewis VC, Booth W, Khadra T. The effect of back
squat depth on the EMG activity of 4 superficial hip and thigh muscles. Journal of Strength
and Conditioning Research 16(3):428-32, 2002.

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