PSC 13 Spring 2009

ISSN 1757-5834
PROFESSIONAL
strength & conditioning
The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association
No. 13 SPRING 2009

EDITOR
Ian Jeffreys MSc, ASCC, CSCS*D
EDITORIAL PANEL
Raphael Brandon MSc, ASCC
Clive Brewer MSc, BSc(Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Marco Cardinale PhD, ASCC
Dave Clark MSc, ASCC
Daniel Cleather MA, ASCC, CSCS
Audrey Duncan PhD, ASCC
Mike Favre MSc, ASCC
Duncan French PhD, ASCC
Jon Goodwin MSc, PGCHE, ASCC
Greg Haff PhD, ASCC, FNSCA, CSCS
Liam Kilduff PhD
Jeremy Moody PhD, ASCC
Phil Moreland BAppSci, AssocDip, ASCC
Narelle Sibte BAppSci, Grad Dip, ASCC
Alan Sinclair BSc (Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Gil Stevenson BEd (Hons), ASCC
Margaret Stone MSc, ASCC
Michael Stone PhD, ASCC
Mark Simpson MSc, ASCC
Graham Turner MSc, BEd (Hons), ASCC
COLUMN EDITORS
Graeme Close PhD, ASCC
Nick Ward MSc, CSCS
Stuart Yule BSc (Physio), ASCC
INSIDE
NEWS
page 2
EXERCISE OF THE MONTH

WALL DRIVES
page 5
GLYCEMIC INDEX AND GLYCEMIC

LOAD
page 7
A MODEL OF PERIODISATION
page 14
GETTING TO THE BOTTOM OF

LOCOMOTOR CONTROL
page 19
THE FIVE PEOPLE YOU MEET IN

HEAVEN
page 29
1 Woodville Terrace, Lytham,

Lancashire FY8 5QB.
t: 0870 116 1566
f: 0870 116 1233
e: info@uksca.org.uk
elcome to the first edition of Professional Strength and

Conditioning for 2009 a year which already promises to be a
very busy one for the organisation. One of the major
developments planned, is that by the conclusion of the year we
should have in place, all of the elements of the professional development
and education programme that was outlined in a previous Journal. The
Level 1 programme has already been set up and piloted, and is now in full
swing. Level 2 is approaching initial completion and entering a consultancy
phase. This will allow for any aspiring strength and conditioning coach to
enter the pathway at their preferred level and have a clear professional
development pathway to progress along.
A glance at the event calendar in the news section, clearly demonstrates

how busy 2009 promises to be for the organisation, with the number of
assessment and workshops almost doubled from 2008. Add in the
additional demand for Level 1 courses, and it is immediately clear that the
number of UKSCA events will reach a record high this year. I am also
delighted to be able to announce the dates and location of our National
Conference, which will this year be held on the 5-7th June at Wyboston
Lakes in Bedfordshire. Finalising dates and venues has been exasperatingly
difficult this year, and it is down to the huge efforts of Duncan French and
Sarah Kilroy that we have finally been able to confirm arrangements.
This issue of the Journal sees the development of a new column, entitled,
The Five People you meet in Heaven. This column is edited by Nick Ward
who is Director of Strength and Conditioning for the Talented Athlete
Scholarship Scheme (TASS). Nicks aim is to produce interview based
articles with a number of people linked directly, or indirectly, with strength
and conditioning. These interviews will hopefully generate a range of
interesting topics that will both inform and provoke debate. This will
include a range of methods, from thought provoking discussions/comments
on specific aspects of the strength and conditioning profession, insights
into people philosophies on various methodologies, through to outlines of
peoples development within the industry. If any members would like to
produce an article/interview on a person who has made a significant
contribution to their personal development, or to the development of the
profession; or would simply like Nick to interview a particular person, they
can contact Nick at nick@uksca.org.uk.
In this editions Performance Nutrition column, Graeme Close, and Don McClaren discuss the concepts of Glycemic
index and Glycemic load, and their contribution to athletic performance. As always, Graemes column takes a
very applied approach to this topic and produces some excellent summary advice. Clive Brewer and Clare
Pettigrew have produced an excellent article on training the gluteal complex. The article also takes a very applied
approach, and provides a comprehensive and sequenced system to fully developing this important muscle group.
In Stuart Yules Exercise of the Month column, Andy Hudson, (lead S&C coach for England and GB hockey),
covers the wall drive exercise. This is an effective exercise to develop acceleration technique, but which also
contributes to gluteal activation and development as seen in Clives article. For the final article, Nick Winkelman,
a full time coach at Athletes Performance in Tempe Arizona, has written an excellent paper looking at the
application of periodisation to sprint performance.
As always, we encourage submissions from members for the journal, or if there are specific topics members
would like to see, then please contact me at the editorial office.
Ian Jeffreys
Editor
UKSCA NEWS
UKSCA MEMBER DEVELOPMENT AFTERNOON WITH PROF. MIKE STONE AND
DR. GREG HAFF
Limited places will be available for members to attend a unique CPD half-day facilitated by world leading experts
in programme design. Following last years successful format, a small group of members will have the opportunity
to present their annual plan and weekly sessions to their peer group and with the expert facilitators, receive
feedback and stimulate in-depth debate in a way that is not possible in a normal conference or lecture
environment.
The sessions will be held on Thursday 4th June at the conference venue and full details will be mailed to all
members later this month.
PROFESSIONAL INSURANCE
FOR UKSCA MEMBERS
UKSCA'S CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT MODEL LAUNCHED
We are currently working with a leading

insurance broker to develop a
Professional and Public Liability Insurance
policy for members of the UKSCA.
Developed specifically for strength &
conditioning coaches, the policy will cover
all aspects of your work and is designed
to ensure your legal expenses and any
damages awarded are covered in the
event of a claim, as well as giving you
access to experienced specialist claims
handlers together with a solicitor to help
you through the process. The policy will
have a number of added benefits, such as
worldwide cover for those travelling with
athletes or teams and a choice of cover
levels to suit your needs. Full details and
application forms are available from LFC
Graybrook:
2009 sees the launch of the UKSCAs CPD model for Accredited
Members, developed to provide a framework for the continuing
development of members skills and competencies, forming the
basis of the re-registration of their accredited status. A proposed
model was developed last year by Education Director, Jon
Goodwin, and the Board. It was presented to the membership at
the AGM and voted on by the Accredited membership for
adoption by the Association. The key features of the scheme
are:
Tel: 01245 321185

Fax: 01245 322240
e: graybrook@lfcinsurance.co.uk
Members will be required to present their CPD portfolios every

2 years, in order to maintain their accredited status
Members are required to gain 100 CPD points, through a
variety of development activities
Initially the system will be self-governed with members
keeping their own portfolios which they will submit every 2
years and the UKSCA will spot-check no less than 20%
The activities through which members can gain points are split
across a number of areas and no single activity can serve as the
entire portfolio. The areas and some examples of activities
within each one are shown below:
Work experience in S&C (eg 60 points for full time position, 20
points for offering mentoring to a pre-accredited S&C coach)
Formal learning (eg 10 points for attendance at a 1 day/6 hour
workshop, 30 points for attendance at the UKSCA Annual
Conference)
Progression of the profession (eg 20 points for relevant
conference presentations, 20 points for writing a journal article)
Full details of the CPD model are available in the
members section of the website or copies can be
obtained from the UKSCA office.
UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

2
UKSCA | Issue 13 | Spring 2009 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk
UKSCA HOSTS FIRST OVERSEAS ASSESSMENT

December 2008 saw a major development of the UKSCAs accreditation with the first ever accreditation being
run overseas. The accreditation took place at East Tennessee State University, and was linked to the SPEC
Conference held at ETSU. Five coaches signed up for the accreditation which was run by UKSCA assessors,
Ian Jeffreys and Clive Brewer, who were both guest speakers. The assessment took place immediately after
the Conference and so Ian and Clive were able to facilitate the assessment, whilst attending the conference.
This demand from the US reflects the high esteem the UKSCA accreditation is already held in, and also
reflects the importance attached to the practical aspects of the assessment by practicing coaches. Pictured
below are the five coaches who undertook the assessment along with Clive, Ian and Dr Mike Stone.
From left to right: Dr Larry Meadors, Ian Jeffreys, Dr

Greg Haff, Scott Austin, Clive Brewer, Brad de
Weese, Kyle Smith and Dr Mike Stone.
Dr Greg Haff undertaking the weightlifting

assessment under the watchful eye of assessor
Clive Brewer.
MARK SIMPSON CHOSEN TO

REPRESENT THE UKSCA AT THE
ANNUAL NSCA CONFERENCE
This year, the UKSCA's representative at
the NSCA National Conference, Las Vegas
in July, will be Mark Simpson, MSc, ASCC.
Mark will be speaking on Programming,
Monitoring and Evaluation of Strength and
Power Parameters for Track Sprint Cycling.
Mark is the Lead Strength and Conditioning
Coach for the English Institute of Sport,
North West Region, based at the
Velodrome in Manchester and his
presentation will draw on his work with the
British Cycling Team over the last four
years, in particular three Olympic Gold
Medalists/World Record Holders.
The invitation to present on behalf of the
UKSCA goes out to Accredited Members
each year and this year saw a number of
outstanding applications, demonstrating
the excellence of the work UKSCA
members are doing, in particular linking
the application of science to applied
practice.

UKSCA | Issue 13 | Spring 2009 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk 3
5TH ANNUAL UKSCA MEETING CONFIRMED SPEAKERS

The 5th Annual Meeting of the UKSCA takes place 5-7th June at the Robinson Executive Conference Centre,
Wyboston Lakes, Bedfordshire. Once again this event will give members of the UKSCA the opportunity to listen
and interact with internationally and nationally renowned speakers from the field of strength & conditioning
research, coaching, and professional sport; to network with friends and colleagues from the strength &
conditioning profession; and to share in 3 days of professional development and learning.
With the release of the final conference schedule imminent, the following represent a quick snapshot of some of
the outstanding speakers that are already confirmed for this years event:
Dr Avery Faigenbaum (The College of New Jersey); a world renowned researcher and practitioner in the field of
youth fitness and paediatric resistance training.
Dr Andy Fry (Kansas University); an expert in resistance exercise, skeletal muscle physiology, endocrine
responses and adaptations to exercise, and overtraining.
Dr Inigo Mujika (Athletic Club Bilbao); a leading researcher in applied sports science, including training methods
and recovery, tapering, detraining and overtraining.
Dr David Bishop (University of Verona); a former sports scientist to the Olympic Gold medal-winning Australian
womens water polo team, Dr. Bishop has over 90 published research papers in the area of exercise and sport
science.
David Sandler (StrengthPro Inc); President and CEO of StrengthPro Inc, and a strength coach for more than 18
years in NCAA. Chairman of the Arnold Classic Strength Training Summit.
Ade Mafe (MK Dons FC); a retired international sprinter, the current fitness coach at Milton Keynes Dons and
formerly Millwall and Chelsea FC.
More outstanding speakers and the full conference schedule to follow soon
CALL FOR
SCIENTIFIC/CASE STUDY
ABSTRACTS
As mentioned above, the 5th Annual
Conference will take place on June 5-7th
2009. We look forward to welcoming you
all to what hopefully will be another
outstanding event.
Free communications, in poster format,
provide a great opportunity for members
of the association to present novel
information, exchange research findings,
and display their work to peers and
colleagues within the field of strength
and conditioning. The UKSCA are very
keen to continue to develop the scientific
components of the annual meeting, in
particular the poster section. Posters will
be positioned in the exhibit hall
throughout the conference for viewing by
the attendees.
Members are strongly encouraged,
beginning investigators and established
researchers alike, to submit abstracts of
their work for acceptance as a poster
presentation at the 2009 UKSCA annual
meeting. Abstracts of up to 400 words
should be submitted on or before Friday
8th May 2009, in order to aid the
conference organising committee with
their preparations. Abstract submissions
should be made to
Duncan.french@eis2win.co.uk
We look forwards to receiving your
abstracts. Mark your calendars, and dont
miss the opportunity to present your
work. Thank you in advance for your
support of the UKSCA and the continued
excellence of our annual meeting.
4
EXERCISE OF THE MONTH
Wall Drives
Andy Hudson, BSc (Hons), ASCC, CSCS
The ability to accelerate efficiently and effectively is an essential
component of any field or court sport. Given the distances required to
reach maximum speed, in most instances in sport a player will not
have the opportunity to reach their peak speed. Therefore, maximising
the ability to accelerate effectively from static or from a sub maximal
pace is essential, and the utilisation of exercises that develop this
ability are an important aspect of a strength and conditioning coachs
tool box.
Andy Hudson is the England & GB Mens

Hockey Lead Strength and Conditioning
Coach and works as a Senior S&C
Coach at the English Institute of Sport.
The Wall Drive is an exercise that predominantly helps to develop an

athletes ability to apply the appropriate force through the ground,
during the stance phase, when accelerating. Quick acceleration
towards peak speed not only requires high ground reaction forces but
also an ability to recover the leg quickly, sought partly through rapid
hip flexion.1 The rate that an individual can recover their leg in order
to take the next step, during the first 10 metres of acceleration is
critical.1,3 Developing the quickness of this movement will impact on
the entire acceleration phase. Both of these factors are supported by
appropriate body position, and this drill will aid in the development of
all these physical characteristics.
Start Position
Stuart Yule is the column editor for the
Exercise of the Month section.
Starting in an upright position, place both hands against a wall at the

same level as the shoulders. Fully extend the arms then walk the feet
away from the wall until the body is at an angle of 30 to 45 degrees
(Figure 1). The body must be fully extended from shoulders to ankles
(this should see the heels come clear from the floor). Coach the
athlete to keep their chest out and shoulders back, asking them to lift
their chin and look forward.
The athlete should raise the active leg by drawing the knee up
towards the level of the hip. The knee should be flexed up to 45
degrees (so the lower leg is in-line with the angle of the body)
(Figure 2). The hip should not be flexed so much that the pelvis is
pulled into a posterior tilt. It is essential that the athlete maintains a
strong and stable trunk position.2
The ankle must be dorsi-flexed (pulling the toe towards the shin), thus
creating a positive angle. This places the muscle tendon unit of the
gastrocnemius and the achilles tendon under tension, preparing it for
optimal ground contact4 (Figure 3).
Stuart is the current English Institute of

Sport Strength and Conditioning coach
for Judo. He is responsible for delivering
National S&C services to world class
funded players across the UK.
Stuart previously worked for the Scottish
Institute of Sport, where he had the role
of leading the S&C service to athletes in
the West of Scotland as well as leading
and coordinating S&C nationally for the
Judo and Badminton programmes.
Stuart is a physiotherapy graduate and
his sporting background lies in Olympic
Weightlifting, where he represented
Scotland at two Commonwealth Games.
The Action
The focus should always be on driving the active leg back and down,
so the forefoot makes contact under or behind the hips. The hip and
knee of the active leg must be fully extended. A repetition is
completed when the active leg becomes the stance leg and vice
versa. The movement should be quick and forceful, with maximal
intent.
NB It is important that at the point where movement is initiated, the
stance leg does not perform a large counter movement where the
focus becomes pulling the knees up high.
Application
Initially, it is perhaps best to start working in single reps, resetting
after each one and checking that the key coaching points are adhered
to. This ensures that each repetition is performed with best practice,

Figure 1.
enhancing the skill development aspect of the exercise. When the

athlete is able to consistently maintain the correct body position,
then the progression should be made to executing quick successive
reps.
Double sets of odd numbers, with a brief pause between them can be
used, thus always starting the next sets with a different leg. The
activity is very fatiguing if done correctly. Limiting sets to seven reps
is advisable even for competent athletes, as it is likely this drill will
be placed towards the end of an extended warm-up and in
conjunction with other speed development work.
Below is an example of how the drill can be used within a session:
Reps
Figure 2.
Sets
Recovery
1 reps followed by a 3 second pause x 6 1 set
30 seconds
3 reps followed by a 3 second pause x 2
2 sets
30 seconds
5 reps followed by a 3 second pause x 2
1 set
45 seconds
7 reps
2 sets
45 seconds
The Adaptations and Considerations

Wall drives allow an opportunity to transfer weight room strength
onto the pitch, with the glutes and hamstrings actively extending the
hips in real time. During a sprint, the hamstrings and the gastrocs
are working both reactively and isometricaly.2 The drill allows a
partial replication of these characteristics.
Figure 3.
It is essential that the athlete maintains lumbar and pelvic neutral at

the point of ground contact. If the trunk collapses into a de-powered
position there will be a loss of force application to the ground and
hence a reduction in the net force produced (Figure 4). In order to
effectively implement this exercise, the athlete must have a strong
and stable trunk and must be able to dissociate the pelvis from the
lumbar spine in order to create the appropriate body position. They
must also have a strong and robust posterior kinetic chain as a great
deal of force is transferred through it.
It is probably worth considering that, depending on the training
status of the participant concerned, the focus of physical
development can be on one or all of the elements covered in this
article, and its optimal application will depend upon both the aim of
the programme and the athletes capabilities. Initially, some athletes
may struggle to correctly find, or maintain, the correct start
position. This could be due to strength and/ or range limitations
around the hip, or through an inability to maintain a rigid body
position, or for some other reason. In these instances these issues
may need to be addressed before the athlete is able to maximally
utilise the wall drive exercises.
Figure 4.
References
1. Deane R, Chow J, Tillmam M, Fournier K. Effects of flexor training on
sprint, shuttle run, and vertical jump performance. JSCR. 19(3): 615-621,
2005.
2. Bosch F and Klomp R. Running: Biomechanics and exercise physiology in
practise. London: Elsevier. 2005.
3. Guskiewicz K, Lephart S, Burkholder R. The relationship between sprint
speed and hip flexion/ extension strength in collegiate athletes. Isokinetics
and Exercise Science. 3(2): 111 116, 1993.
4. Kuitunen S, Komi P, Kyrolainen H. Knee and ankle joint stiffness in sprint
running. Medicine and Science in Sport & Exercise. 34: 166 173. 2002.

6
PERFORMANCE NUTRITION
Glycemic Index and

Glycemic Load:
relevance for
athletes in training
Don is a professor of sports
nutrition at Liverpools John
Moores University where he is
responsible for the nutrition and
metabolism modules in the
undergraduate and postgraduate
programmes. He has published
widely in various areas of nutrition
and metabolism as well as on
nutritional supplements. He is chair
of the British Association of Sport
and Exercise Sciences (BASES)
Sports Nutrition Interest Group
and is an accredited physiologist
with the BOA as well as being a
Fellow of both BASES and the
European College of Sports
Sciences. Don has been nutritional
consultant with many professional
sports clubs and currently works
with Everton F.C., Manchester City
F.C., and Sale Sharks R.U.F.C.
Graeme Close is the column editor for

the Performance Nutrition section.
Professor Don MacLaren, Cert.Ed., BSc(Hons), MSc, PhD and

Dr Graeme L. Close
Not all carbohydrates are the same

It has long been accepted that carbohydrates are essential for optimum
athletic performance and that depletion of the bodys carbohydrate stores
are associated with premature fatigue.1 Athletes are therefore advised to
consume a diet high in carbohydrates, supplement carbohydrates before
exercise, drink carbohydrates during exercise, and replace them as soon as
possible after exercise.2 More recently, there has been an interest in
exploring the effects of different types of carbohydrates on athletic
performance.3 Carbohydrates have been classified (nutritionally) into simple
and complex forms depending on their structure. In the last 8-10 years or
so, the concept of Glycemic Index (GI) has been promoted as a more
appropriate way of nutritionally classifying carbohydrates.4 This article
explains the concept of GI as well as Glycemic Load (GL), before discussing
how they can be utilised by athletes and coaches to reduce body fat,
promote the growth of lean muscle mass, prevent fatigue and enhance
recovery.
Carbohydrate-containing foods include breads, potatoes, pasta, vegetables,
rice and sugars. Traditionally, carbohydrate-based foods were classified as
either complex or simple, with this classification being based upon the
number of monosaccharide units linked together and also the fibre content
of the food.4 Foods that had a high fibre content with many monosaccharides
were classed as complex carbohydrates (e.g. potatoes and pasta) whereas
foods with a low fibre content and containing a single or few
monosaccharides were classed as simple carbohydrates (e.g. glucose,
fructose, sucrose, and maltodextrins). The rate at which carbohydrates are
digested and released as glucose into the bloodstream varies considerably
and for many years there was also a common assumption that simple
carbohydrates induce a rapid rise in blood sugar compared with consumption
of complex carbohydrates. This assumption led to the development of
dietary guidelines to maximise athletic performance based upon splitting
carbohydrates into simple and complex.5 However, despite this being an easy
system of classification, the assumption that simple carbohydrates cause a
rapid rise in blood sugar compared with complex carbohydrates does not
always hold true.6 An example of this is that fructose is classed as a simple
carbohydrate but does not result in a rapid rise in blood sugar, whereas
mashed potato, which would be classed as complex carbohydrate, causes a
rapid rise in blood sugar. Therefore a more informative system has been
developed classifying carbohydrates according to the rate at which they
increase blood sugar, known as the Glycemic Index (GI).
Graeme is a lecturer at The University of Liverpool in cellular and metabolic medicine.

His current research is focused upon investigating cellular mechanisms responsible for
muscle damage and repair. Graeme regularly presents at international conferences and
has given keynote presentations on skeletal muscle damage and repair. Graeme is a
former professional rugby league player and currently works with Munster RUFC as the
performance nutritionist. He is also an accredited UKSCA member and a BASES
accredited physiologist.
Figure 1. Method of calculating the glycemic index of food.
Size, texture, and ripeness of a food (e.g. ripe

banana has a high GI compared with an unripe
banana)
Presence of fat and/or protein (reduces GI)
Presence of soluble fibre (increases GI)
Presence of fructose (reduces GI)
Other factors in food e.g. phytates (reduces GI)
A common misconception is that the chain length (i.e.
the number of monosaccharides) of the carbohydrate
affects the GI: this is not the case. The GI value
depends principally on the rate of digestion of the
carbohydrate into its simple sugars (i.e.
monosaccharides), and their subsequent absorption in
the gastrointestinal tract (Figure 2).
Introducing the GI system of

classifying carbohydrates
The GI system of classifying carbohydrates was
originally developed to help patients with diabetes to
control their blood sugar,7 but it is now commonly used
by athletes to maximise performance, and by the
general public as a means of controlling body fat.8 The
system involves ranking foods based on their
immediate effect on blood glucose. Carbohydrate foods
that break down quickly during digestion have the
highest GIs. After consumption of high GI foods there
is a rapid and high increase in blood sugar. The GI
system normally expresses foods as a percent
compared with glucose or white bread. The precise way
it is calculated is by calculating the incremental area
under the blood glucose response curve of a 50g
carbohydrate portion of a test food expressed as a
percent of the response to the same amount of
carbohydrate from 50g of a standard food taken by the
same subject9 (see Figure 1).
Foods are usually classified as being high, moderate or
low GI on a scale of 0-100.
High GI above 70 (potato, white bread, white rice)
Moderate GI 55 to 70 (table sugar, orange juice,
oats)
Low GI below 55 (beans, berry fruits, milk)
There are many factors that affect the GI of food and
this can make their selection difficult. Such factors
include:
Figure 2. Glycemic Index and its affect on gastric emptying.
The physiological consequences of eating a high or a

low GI meal on blood glucose and plasma insulin are
different. Figure 3 highlights these effects, and as can
be seen, there are a few phases in response. The first
2 hours after a high GI food is one of hyperglycemia
and hyperinsulinemia followed in the next 2 hours by
reactive hypoglycemia, decreased carbohydrate and
fat oxidation, as well as an increase in hunger. If an
individual was to exercise approximately 3 hours after
ingestion of such a food, there would be less fat and
more carbohydrate oxidised than if a low GI food had
been consumed.10 Indeed, the glucose and insulin
responses to a low GI meal demonstrate an attenuated
response and no apparent reactive hypoglycemia (see
Figure 3), nor is there a period of hunger associated
with this type of meal.
Exercise-based studies have clearly demonstrated that
there is greater fat oxidation (fat burning) following a
low GI meal when compared with a high GI meal. The
likely cause for this concerns the insulin concentrations.
It should be remembered that insulin is a potent antilipolytic hormone i.e. it prevents the breakdown of fat
stored in adipose tissue, and as such, results in
lowered levels of fatty acids in blood from fat cells. The
net effect is an increase in carbohydrate oxidation
following a high GI meal. The implications of this for
training are considerable if a fat burning session is
required.
Another effect of a high GI meal is that concerning
hunger and satiety. Figure 2 illustrates the rapid
digestion and absorption following a high GI meal in
comparison with a low GI meal. This results in an
immediate, but not long-lasting, satiety as the brain
detects the sharp increase in blood glucose. However,
the sharp increase is followed by a rapid decrease and
hence the probability of increased hunger. A low GI
meal takes longer to digest and absorb, and so results
in a prolonged feeling of fullness. Studies in relation to
this have been performed and concluded on the merits
of a low GI meal for lowered frequency of feeding and
greater levels of satiety.11
The health benefits of low GI meals have also been
reported. McMillan-Price et. al.12 randomly assigned 129
overweight or obese young adults (aged 18-40 years)
to one of four reduced calorie, reduced fat diets over a
12 week period. Two of the diets were highcarbohydrate diets (high GI and low GI), and the other
two high in protein (with high GI or low GI).
Comparison between the two high-carbohydrate diets
showed that the low GI treatment doubled fat loss, and
this effect was strongest in women. Participation in the
high-protein, high GI diet was equally effective for fat
loss as the high carbohydrate, low GI diet, although

8
Figure 3. The effects of low and high GI foods on blood glucose (Red line) and blood insulin (green line) concentrations.
the two had diverse effects on LDL (bad) cholesterol the high protein, high GI group showed increased
levels of LDL or 'bad' cholesterol, while there were
significant reductions in those on the high
carbohydrate, low GI diet.
Carbohydrate ingestion and insulin

Carbohydrates are stored in humans as a polymer of
glucose known as glycogen. This glycogen is mainly
stored in the liver and skeletal muscle, although other
tissues such as the brain, adipose tissue, heart and
kidneys can store a small amount. Skeletal muscles are
the main stores of glycogen containing approximately
400-500g of glycogen, whilst the liver contains
approximately 100g.
The storage of glucose as glycogen occurs under the
control of the hormone insulin. Due to insulin and other
hormones such as glucagon, the body maintains blood
glucose within a very narrow range (normal resting
glucose is about 4-5mmol/L). When there is an increase
in the concentration of blood glucose after a meal,
insulin is released from the beta cells of the Islets of
Langerhans in the pancreas. The release of insulin
promotes the uptake of glucose into skeletal muscles,
liver and other tissues, where it is stored as either
muscle or liver glycogen or converted to triglycerides
and stored as fat. Data suggest that the rate of rise in
blood glucose plays a major role in determining if the
glucose is stored as muscle/liver glycogen, or converted
to triglycerides and stored as fat.
increasing protein synthesis and decreasing protein

breakdown. Recent data suggests that the major effect
of insulin post-exercise is inhibiting the effect on
protein breakdown, whereas the provision of amino
acids is the most important nutrient to promote protein
synthesis.14
The control of insulin though dietary carbohydrate
intake is therefore extremely important following
resistance training. Studies from Professor Mike
Rennies laboratory in Nottingham, have shown that
providing amino acids immediately post resistance
exercise is essential to facilitate muscle protein
synthesis, and in a recent excellent review on this topic
20g of protein was suggested to be most effective.15
Since insulin has also been shown to be highly
important in promoting an anabolic environment
through preventing protein degradation,13 it would
therefore appear wise to increase insulin concentrations
post-exercise through the provision of high GI
carbohydrates along with protein supplementation.
Effect of GI on muscle protein

synthesis and protein degradation
Insulin also has a second major function in the human
body that is particularly important for strength and
conditioning. As well as facilitating the storage of
glucose as glycogen, insulin is also one of the bodys
major anabolic hormones. Once insulin binds to its
receptor, it activates a series of phosphorylation
(activation) reactions, eventually resulting in the
activation of a protein kinase called AKT. Once AKT has
been activated, it promotes protein synthesis through
the mTOR pathways whilst also preventing protein
breakdown,13 (see Figure 4). Therefore, insulin has the
ability to promote skeletal muscle hypertrophy by
Figure 4. Insulin binds to its receptor (IR) and results in a

series of activation reactions. This ultimately activates AKT
resulting in increased protein synthesis and decreased protein
degradation (adapted from Close et al., 2009, paper in press).

Effect of carbohydrate timing and

GI on muscle glycogen restoration
after exercise.
It is now generally accepted that the highest rates of
muscle glycogen storage occur immediately after
exercise (within the first hour), due to the
activation of glycogen synthase activated by
glycogen depletion, 16 together with exercise-induced
insulin sensitivity 17 and enhanced permeability of
the muscle cell membrane to glucose.6 Studies by
Ivy et. al., 18 have shown that glycogen storage
rates can reach 7.7mmol per kg wet weight per
hour during the first 2 hours, compared with
4.3mmol per kg wet weight thereafter. Moreover,
failure to consume carbohydrate immediately post
exercise leads to low rates of glycogen restoration
until feeding occurs. These findings are especially
important when there is a short space of time
between exercises, for example during a
tournament.
It is also of interest as to whether the GI of the
food affects muscle glycogen restoration after
exercise. Early investigations into this question
unfortunately used the classification of simple
versus complex carbohydrates,19 and thus these
data cannot provide the answers.6 The first reported
study investigating the effects of low and high GI
foods was by Burke et. al. 20 These authors reported
a 30% increase in glycogen storage within 24h post
recovery following the consumption of high GI
carbohydrates compared with an identical amount of
low GI carbohydrates. Interestingly, the authors
went on to suggest that the mechanisms
responsible for this greater glycogen storage were
not purely a consequence of the enhanced glucose
and insulin response, and recent studies have
suggested that a large amount of the carbohydrates
in low GI carbohydrate meals may be malabsorbed
and that indigestible carbohydrates provides a poor
substrate for muscle glycogen resynthesis.21 Based
on this data it would appear that giving low GI
carbohydrates post-exercise may lead to
overestimation of the amount of carbohydrate
provided to restore muscle glycogen, and therefore
emphasis should be placed on medium to high GI
carbohydrates to restore muscle glycogen following
exercise.
Glycemic Load
The concept of GI has at least one weakness, and this
relates to the fact that GI is determined by ingesting
50g of carbohydrate from the food source and
comparing it with 50g of glucose. In effect, it may well
be that to get 50g of carbohydrate from (say) an apple
requires an individual to eat 3-4 whole apples. Some
foods have a very high GI but actually do not contain
much carbohydrates e.g. watermelon has a high GI,
but there is very little carbohydrate in a watermelon
(most of it being water). So, GI does not account for
the amount of carbohydrate in a particular food. This
has given rise to the concept of Glycemic Load (GL),
which takes into account the GI value of the food, as
well as the carbohydrate content of that food. The GL
is calculated by multiplying the amount of carbohydrate
contained in a normal portion for the food in question
by its GI, then diving this by 100. Glycemic Load is
usually expressed as low, medium or high:
Low GL = 1-10
Medium GL = 11-19
High GL = 20+
An example of the GI/GL paradox occurs when
considering our previous example of the watermelon.
Watermelon has a GI of 72 which would give it a high
GI rating. However, one 20g serving of watermelon
only contains 6g of carbohydrate which gives it a GL of
4, i.e. a low GL (72*6/100=4.32).
Some important considerations

about GI and GL
While the GI has significant advantages over the
previous classifications of simple and complex
carbohydrates there are some consideration to be
aware of:
There is a wide variation in GI measurements.
While the GI table shows a single value of GI for
each food, in reality, the measurements are not so
precise. Reported values are generally averages of
several tests and so can vary significantly in
individuals. For example, baked Russet potatoes have
been tested with a GI as low as 56 and as high as
111! The GI for fruits such as the banana increase as
the fruit ripens, and so can add to a degree of
uncertainty when examining GI data.
GI values are affected by the preparation
method. The GI varies in response to differences in
food preparation. Generally, any significant food
processing, such as grinding or cooking, will elevate
GI values for certain foods, because it makes those
food quicker and easier to digest. This type of change
is even seen with subtle alterations of the
preparation, such as boiling pasta for 15 minutes
instead of 10.
GI values are affected by combination with
other foods. While tests for GI are usually done on
individual foods, most individuals eat meals with
combinations of foods. The addition of other foods
that contain fibre, protein, or fat will generally
reduce the GI of the meal. The GI of this "mixed
meal" can be estimated by taking a weighted
average of the GI's of the individual foods in the
meal. However, this averaging method may become
less accurate as the total percentage of
carbohydrate decreases. Therefore, foods like pizza
often create a higher glycemic response than the
simple weighted average of the ingredient GI's
would predict.
There are individual differences in glycemic
response. The rate at which different people digest
carbohydrates also varies, so there are some
individual differences in glycemic response from
person to person. In addition, it has been shown that
one person's glycemic response may vary from one
time of day to another. And finally, different people
have different insulin responses (i.e. produce
different levels of insulin), even with an identical
glycemic response.
The reliance on GI and GL can lead to
overconsumption. It is important to remember that
the GI is only a rating of a food's carbohydrate
content. Use of GI and GL values as the sole factor
for determining diet can result in overconsumption of
fat and total energy.

10
Table 1. GI and GL of various foods. Green indicates low GL, orange indicates medium GL whilst red indicates high GL.
Data sourced from (22) and (23).

Conclusions and recommendations

There is no doubt that much more research is required
investigating how best to utilise the GI/GL of foods to
maximise performance and enhance recovery, but
based on the existing literature the following
recommendations can be made:
The majority of carbohydrates for athletes should
come from low GI/GL sources.
Try to eat a breakfast consisting of low GI/GL
carbohydrates such as oat based cereals and
wholemeal bread.
Focus upon medium to high GI/GL carbohydrates
post exercise to optimise the replenishment of
muscle glycogen. Since fat lowers the GL of a meal
ensure that this post exercise meal does not contain
large amounts of fat.
If there is a need to lose body fat, ensure that most
of the ingested carbohydrates are low GI/GL,
especially during the evening when muscle and liver
glycogen stores are likely to be full. The exception to
this is if training late in the evening following which
muscle and liver glycogen stores will need to be
replenished.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Try to avoid late night high GI/GL snacks and choose

low GI/GL alternatives.
The evidence for high or low GI/GL foods preexercise is still confusing and may be due to interindividual variations. During short duration exercise,
there does not appear to be any advantage of
choosing one form over the other, although during
longer term exercise consuming low GI/GL foods may
prolong performance, especially if no carbohydrates
are ingested during the exercise. Furthermore, if
body fat reduction is an aim, then low GI/GL foods
pre-exercise may promote greater fatty acid
oxidation and help with weight loss. In addition, any
individuals who are prone to fluctuations in blood
sugar would be advised to consume low GI foods
pre-exercise to prevent any rebound hypoglycaemia.
Try to include some medium to high GI/GL foods
immediately after resistance training to promote
muscle protein synthesis and prevent muscle protein
degradation. Ideally this should be with
approximately 20g of high quality protein to
maximise net protein synthesis.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Maughan RJ, Greenhaff PL, Leiper JB, Ball D, Lambert

CP, Gleeson M: Diet composition and the performance of
high-intensity exercise. J Sports Sci 15:265-275, 1997
Williams C, Serratosa L: Nutrition on match day. J Sports
Sci 24:687-697, 2006
Stevenson EJ, Williams C, Mash LE, Phillips B, Nute ML:
Influence of high-carbohydrate mixed meals with different
glycemic indexes on substrate utilization during
subsequent exercise in women. Am J Clin Nutr 84:354360, 2006
Williams C: Carbohydrate as an energy source for sport
and exercise. In Nutrition and Sport MacLaren D, Ed.
London, Elsevier, 2007
Costill DL, Sherman WM, Fink WJ, Maresh C, Witten M,
20.
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Miller JM: The role of dietary carbohydrates in muscle

glycogen resynthesis after strenuous running. Am J Clin
Nutr 34:1831-1836, 1981
Burke L, Kiens B, Ivy J: Carbohydrates and fat for training
and recovery. In Food, nutrition and sports performance
Maughan RJ, Burke LM, Coyle EF, Eds. London,
Routledge, 2004
Jenkins DJ, Wolever TM, Taylor RH, Barker H, Fielden H,
Baldwin JM, Bowling AC, Newman HC, Jenkins AL, Goff
DV: Glycemic index of foods: a physiological basis for
carbohydrate exchange. Am J Clin Nutr 34:362-366, 1981
Burke LM, Collier GR, Hargreaves M: Glycemic index--a
new tool in sport nutrition? Int J Sport Nutr 8:401-415,
1998
Nantel G: Glycemic carbohydrate: an international
perspective. Nutr Rev 61:S34-39, 2003
Wu CL, Nicholas C, Williams C, Took A, Hardy L: The
influence of high-carbohydrate meals with different
glycaemic indices on substrate utilisation during
subsequent exercise. Br J Nutr 90:1049-1056, 2003
Roberts SB: Glycemic index and satiety. Nutr Clin Care
6:20-26, 2003
McMillan-Price J, Petocz P, Atkinson F, O'Neill K, Samman
S, Steinbeck K, Caterson I, Brand-Miller J: Comparison of
4 diets of varying glycemic load on weight loss and
cardiovascular risk reduction in overweight and obese
young adults: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Intern
Med 166:1466-1475, 2006
Sandri M: Signaling in muscle atrophy and hypertrophy.
Physiology (Bethesda) 23:160-170, 2008
Rennie MJ: Exercise- and nutrient-controlled mechanisms
involved in maintenance of the musculoskeletal mass.
Biochem Soc Trans 35:1302-1305, 2007
Kumar V, Atherton P, Smith K, Rennie MJ: Human muscle
protein synthesis and breakdown during and after
exercise. J Appl Physiol, 2009
Wojtaszewski JF, Nielsen P, Kiens B, Richter EA:
Regulation of glycogen synthase kinase-3 in human
skeletal muscle: effects of food intake and bicycle
exercise. Diabetes 50:265-269, 2001
Richter EA, Mikines KJ, Galbo H, Kiens B: Effect of
exercise on insulin action in human skeletal muscle. J Appl
Physiol 66:876-885, 1989
Ivy JL, Katz AL, Cutler CL, Sherman WM, Coyle EF:
Muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise: effect of time of
carbohydrate ingestion. J Appl Physiol 64:1480-1485,
1988
Roberts KM, Noble EG, Hayden DB, Taylor AW: Simple
and complex carbohydrate-rich diets and muscle glycogen
content of marathon runners. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup
Physiol 57:70-74, 1988
Burke LM, Collier GR, Hargreaves M: Muscle glycogen
storage after prolonged exercise: effect of the glycemic
index of carbohydrate feedings. J Appl Physiol 75:10191023, 1993
Jozsi AC, Trappe TA, Starling RD, Goodpaster B, Trappe
SW, Fink WJ, Costill DL: The influence of starch structure
on glycogen resynthesis and subsequent cycling
performance. Int J Sports Med 17:373-378, 1996
Jeukendrup A, Gleeson M: Sport Nutrition. Leeds, Human
Kinetics, 2004
Thompson AW, Blades M, Suthreing J: GL diet made
simple. London, Kyle Cathie Ltd, 2006.

12
A model of periodisation:
optimising performance and
recovery in the elite 100m
sprinter
Nick C Winkelman, CSCS, NSCA-CPT
Summary: A systemised approach to developing a periodised
program with the elite 100m sprinter as an example. Developing a
periodised model to fit the needs analysis and athletes abilities is
critical to the success of any training model.
Introduction
In the field of strength and conditioning, we are constantly exposed to new ideas
and methods. The focus of this manuscript is to take a step back and look at a
systemised way to develop a scientifically sound model of periodisation for the elite
level 100m sprinter. In developing this model of periodisation, we will review the
current science that surrounds the study of yearly planning, the sport demands and
needs of the 100m sprinter, as well as a look at a practical model for immediate
application. It is important to note, that while this paper is specifically about
sprinting, it is also about the thought process that goes into developing a sound
yearly plan, and many of the concepts can be applied to other sports.
Nick is currently the Performance
Education Manager at Athletes'
Performance in Tempe, AZ,
where he oversees all continuing
education courses, and is a fulltime strength and conditioning
coach. He designs and
implements performance training
programs for elite and
professional athletes with a main
focus in hockey, baseball,
together with military and fire
fighter based groups. Nick has
previously implemented the
strength and conditioning
program for the Oregon State
University 2006 College World
Series Champions and has been
the Strength and Conditioning
coach for the Pittsburgh Pirates
Rookie League team in
Bradenton, Florida. Nick is in the
process of pursuing a Masters in
Strength and Conditioning
through Edith Cowan University,
and has dual certifications with
Distinction through the National
Strength and Conditioning
Association (CSCS, *D and
NSCA-CPT, *D).
Periodisation Review
Despite the many variations of periodisation that have been applied in sports
training, periodisation is a concept that can be defined as a programmed variation
in the training stimuli with the use of planned rest periods to augment recovery and
restoration of an athletes potential.12
When looking at any model of periodisation, it is critical to understand the theory
and physiology underpinning it. It was in 1956 that Dr. Hans Selye first described a
model that would be the frame work for what we consider modern day
periodisation.7 Selyes model was termed the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS),
and was a model meant to describe the non-specific response of the body to
stress.19 The GAS model is physiologically broken up into three phases that include:
Alarm Stage, Resistance Stage, and Exhaustion Stage.5,7,19-21,23 The alarm stage
results in a short term decrease in physiologic performance, and this response is
said to be the same for all types of stress.7,19 If the body has the adaptive capacity,
then it will enter into the next stage, termed the resistance stage. In modern day
terms, we can look at the resistance stage as the bodys ability to
supercompensate.7 The exhaustion stage is the product of built-up fatigue and
micro-trauma that results in overtraining due to the bodys inability to fully recover.
Selyes model, while it set the framework for periodisation, did not account for the
specific adaptive capacity of the human system (i.e. The Law of Specificity).
In the early 80s, a modified theoretical basis for periodisation was proposed by
Bannister.7 The fitness-fatigue (FF) model presented an argument that different
training stressors resulted in different training effects, and that these effects were
due to the interplay of fatigue and fitness.7 The FF model proposed that adaptation
was more than a cause and effect relationship, and that there were more than one
after effect as a result of training stressors.21 Chiu and Barnes7 describe that the
bodys initial response to training is a fatigue effect (similar to the alarm stage in the
GAS principle), which is a short-term decrement in performance.21 Following this
fatigue effect, there is a sustained fitness effect that causes specific adaptation,
(similar to the resistance stage in the GAS model), beyond baseline levels.7,21 It is
important to note, that different types of training have different fatigue effects (i.e.
Author contact detail: 925 N
Metabolic and Neural), and that these effects result in different degrees of
College Ave. Unit: B208, Tempe,
performance degradation. To best understand the FF model in practice, we can look
AZ 85281, 503-730-5972,
21
nwinkelman@athletesperforman at what Stone refers to as a potentiation complex. This is where an athlete may
perform a squat with 90% 1RM for 1-3 repetitions and follow it with a high powered
ce.com
14
movement. The acute fitness affect following the squat

is hypothesised to increase neural drive and enhance
performance. Simultaneously, the squat also results in
fatigue, which can reduce subsequent performance,
with the resultant level of performance being the
interaction between these two processes.
Understanding this interaction is not only important for
the design of a periodisation model, but also for
understanding daily training prescription. To date, the
FF model is the best theoretical basis behind
periodisation, and for an in depth review please
reference Chiu et al.7
From a theoretical basis we can now start looking at
different models of periodisation, but first it is
important to define the following terms:
Macrocycle
Mesocycle
Microcycle
Blocks (Phases)
Volume and Intensity
Extensive and Intensive
A macrocycle represents a yearly model and is divided

into multiple mesocycles. The macrocyle represents 1
year of training, but classically may have represented 4
years of training as athletes prepare for the
Olympics.4,12,15 A mesocycle represents a series of
microcyles that can be broken down into blocks
(phases).12,21 Each mesocycle will last 3 weeks to 3
months and will often include an unloading period
before moving to the next mesocycle. A microcycle is
the smallest component of periodisation, as it
represents 1 week. Blocks or Phases are a series of
microcycles within a mesocycle. For example, there
may be 2 blocks composed of 3 microcycles each
within a mesocycle. Each block represents a training
theme and/or focuses on a specific training quality.21
Volume and intensity in terms of periodisation are
inversely related, as an athlete may face highvolume/low-intensity early in the off-season and highintensity/low-volume during a competition phase. In
terms of strength training, volume is the product of
total reps and total sets for a given time period, and
intensity is the %1RM for a given movement. Finally,
extensive and intensive are terms used to describe the
types of training carried out during a block of training,
where extensive describes a block of training that has
higher volume and intensive describes a block of
training that has higher intensity.17 It is important to
note that there are many other variables that go into
designing a periodised model, but the above terms will
be the primary focus of this discussion.
In past years, there have been many different
periodisation models presented in the literature. Some
of these models include: Classical Periodisation, NonLinear Periodisation, Conjugate Sequence System, and
the Undulating System.3,4,17,20,21 Each of these systems
can be effective when applied to the correct training
environment, sport, and athlete. Stone et al.21 breaks
the above training strategies into the following three
categories: Basic Strategies, Intermediate Strategies,
and Advanced Strategies.
The Basic Strategy represents a classical or linear
model of periodisation.20,21,25 This model is characterised
by wave like loading, that results in initial levels of
volume being very high and a progressive decrease in
volume, as intensity increases towards the competitive
season.25 The lack of variation in training stimuli allows
for wide range application in athletes with a low
training age, but makes for a monotonous environment

for intermediate and advanced athletes.12,20-21
The Intermediate Strategy is characterised by a nonlinear periodisation model.21,12 This model encourages a
multitude of training stimuli through variation within
and between mesocycles. Stone et al.21 refers to this
type of training as Summated Microcycles, or what
others may refer to as concurrent training methods.12,21
This involves 4 week blocks that focus on a different
strength quality during each microcycle, followed by a
planned unload week. The development of concurrent
strength qualities is beneficial, in that it will decrease
the likelihood of accommodation and allows for greater
volume loads to be achieved.12,21 This strategy is
supported by the tremendous need for variation in the
intermediate athlete.
The Advanced Strategy is a step beyond the previous
models, allowing for greater focus on specific strength
qualities, greater volume loads achieved, and training
closer to their overtraining threshold.12,21 This strategy
can be represented by two models in the literature: the
Conjugate Sequence System (CSS) and the Undulating
Method (UM). Both models are represented by
oscillating blocks of focused high volume work, followed
by focused high intensity work.17,20-22 The CSS will have
blocks of accumulation followed by blocks of
restitution.12,21 The accumulation block will have a focus
on high volume loads, and the restitution block may
focus on higher intensity technical or speed-strength
work.12,21 It should be noted that an unloading period
separates each of these blocks, allowing for optimal
recovery and preparation for the next training cycle.
The UM is broken down into Extensive and Intensive
phases of training.17 Extensive phases will be two weeks
of increased volume followed by an unload week,
whereas an intensive phase of training will increase
intensity for two weeks before unloading.7 Phases will
undulate in this fashion until the competitive season
begins. Both models allow for continued focus on
specific strength qualities and it can be noted that each
phase subsequently builds on capacities developed in
the previous phase, causing a potentiation due to the
delayed transformation effect.12,21,25
The focus of this manuscript is on training the elite
level 100m sprinter, and for that reason, we will be
focusing on the undulating model of periodisation that
was originally conceptualised by Charles Poliquin in
1988.17 Baker et al.1 found that when compared to
other non-linear periodisation models, the UM was just
as effective in developing strength and power
qualities.1 This was confirmed by Buford et al.,6 where
they looked at multiple undulating methods compared
to traditional methods and found no difference in
strength response in an early-phase periodised
program. This model represents a paradigm shift in
periodisation, and will provide strong groundwork for
the training of elite level sprinters. It should be noted
that while this model will enhance adaptation and
performance, it also facilitates the groundwork for
optimal recovery and the development of sustainable
strength qualities throughout a training off-season.
Physiological Basis of Sprinting

To understand what model of periodisation best fits the
elite level 100m sprinter, it is vital to fully evaluate the
requirements of both the sport and the individual
athlete, which necessitates an effective needs analysis.
It is important to understand that an athletes abilities,
(as they relate to the sports requirements), will always

be a limiting factor to any structured training program.

In the following sections we will focus on the strength
qualities of the 100m sprint and specifically break
these qualities down for the start, acceleration phase,
and maximal velocity phase of the run. At the same
time, we will examine the muscle physiology
underpinning these strength qualities and discuss the
energy systems that drive these processes. Finally, we
will present a proposed model of periodisation for the
elite level 100m sprinter.
Muscle Physiology
Many a great strength coach has said that speed
cannot be taught and that it is truly a genetic quality in
the field of performance training. This genetic
predisposition to speed is seen when we examine the
muscle physiology of the elite level sprinter. This
understanding is critical as it will give insight into how
one can optimize an athletes speed.
The 100m sprinter will have an average fibre type
distribution of 70-80% Type II, and 20-30% Type I.5,8,21
The greater percent of Type II fibres is logical, as
sprinting is a high velocity and high powered sport.
Types II a/x fibres have greater shortening and
relaxation velocities and also have a higher capacity for
force production.5,14 The Type II or Fast Twitch fibres
are characterised by a higher level of myosin-ATPase
activity, which directly affects shortening velocities (i.e.
Very Fast Shortening Velocities).5 Understanding the
importance of a large distribution of Fast Twitch fibre
types is only one part of the equation. The
development and utilisation of elastic energy is
paramount to a sprinters ability to generate force and
speed. Stone et al.21 define elasticity as the muscles
resistance to elongation and its ability to return to its
original position after passive or active elongation.
Elastic structures in the muscular tissue are considered
to be passive structures, and have no neurally
controlled contractile ability.5 The elastic components
are said to be in series with (Series Elastic
Component), or in parallel to (Parallel Elastic
Component), the contractile elements of the muscle.5
Of the two elastic components, it is the series elastic
component (SEC) that stores the majority of energy
used in human movement. It should be noted that the
SEC is composed of the following elements: Tendons,
Fascias, Aponeorses, and structures within the
contractile element (i.e. Titin that attaches to Z-Discs).5
To further understand how a sprinter uses elastic
energy, we can look at the achilles tendon and the way
it reacts during maximal velocity running. As the foot
strikes the ground, the tissues of the ankle complex
are already pre-loaded, as the foot is in a neutral to
dorsiflexed position. Upon contact there will be a
moment of active elongation as the contractile element
eccentrically decelerates the body. Following this
deceleration, there is a momentary isometric
contraction where there is no change in muscle length.
It is during this isometric contraction that the muscle
will continue to stretch passively, and during this
passive stretch, the SEC will become stretched. Once
these passive structures have stopped lengthening,
they will very rapidly shorten back to their original
length, and therefore facilitate an increase in energy
efficiency and the velocity at which the contractile
element shortens. It can be noted that the achilles
tendon has the capacity to return up to 93% of the
energy it stores when stretched.5 It is this elastic
return which conserves metabolic energy that would
otherwise be used by the contractile element. It should

also be noted that the contractile element will be able
to shorten at slower velocities, and therefore produce a
greater amount of force, due to the fact that the elastic
structures facilitate a greater shortening velocity.5 This
is why the development of reactivity, as we see in the
next section, is critical to the success of a sprinter.
Before we examine the necessary strength qualities
needed in sprinting, it is important to understand what
muscles are in play at specific times in the 100m
sprint. The 100m sprint is characterised by the start,
acceleration phase, transition phase, and
absolute/maximum velocity phase.11 Each phase
demands different strength qualities from different
muscle groups. The start and acceleration phase of
running will use the following muscle groups as
primary movers: Quadriceps, Gluteals, Calf
Complex/Achilles tendon, and Hamstrings (written in
order of importance).7,11,24 The transition and more
importantly the maximum velocity phase will use the
following primary movers: Hamstrings, Gluteals,
Calf/Achilles tendon, and Quadriceps (written in order
of importance).11,24
To understand the demands of a sport and how to
correctly train the athletes involved, we must first
address the underlying fibre types and the primary
muscles involved. From here we can start to develop
athlete and sport specific strategies around what
strength qualities need to be developed during training.
Strength Qualities
With different phases of running, come different
strength quality demands.2,11,24 The strength qualities
that are predominantly used during sprinting can be
categorised as a multi-variable strength quality, that
we will refer to as Speed-Strength. Poliquin18 describes
speed-strength as the ability of the neuromuscular
system to produce the greatest possible force in the
shortest amount of time; the capacity of the
neuromuscular system to overcome resistance with the
greatest contraction speed possible. In this definition
we can see that the words speed and force are used
multiple times. As a strength coach, we understand
that the way we train the body to produce force is not
always the same way we teach it to develop speed. In
Poliquins definition of Speed-Strength, he continues by
breaking it into three different strength qualities18:
Starting Strength
Explosive Strength
Reactive Strength
Starting Strength is the ability to generate as much
force as possible at the beginning of a movement.18,20
This is the bodys ability to generate force from a static
position, and essentially overcome the inertia of our
own body mass. Explosive Strength is the ability to
continually increase force per unit of time, once
movement has been initiated.18,20 Since it is force per
unit time, then the term explosive power may be a
better term when discussing sprinting ability. Reactive
Strength is the bodys ability to transition quickly from
an eccentric contraction to a concentric contraction.18,20
This is driven by the efficiency of the nervous system
and the ability to maximise the stretch-shortening
response of the muscle (i.e. Decrease Coupling Time).
Reactive Strength will also be maximised as the
stiffness of the muscle increases, and greater elastic
capabilities are developed.5 From a training standpoint,
we can look at each of these strength qualities further

16
as we break down the eccentric, concentric, and

isometric components of each quality.
From here we must apply each strength quality to the
appropriate phase of sprinting, which will give us the
understanding of what we need to do in the weight
room to support what happens on the track. During the
start and acceleration phase of the sprint, the body will
be challenged to produce a tremendous amount of
force from a static position and continue to apply force
as the body accelerates towards maximal velocity
running. This phase of sprinting is logically
characterised by a need for starting strength, explosive
strength and power, and relative strength. In reviewing
the effects of maximal strength on sprint performance,
Cronin et al.10 stated that the single best predictor of
starting performance over 2.5m was concentric peak
force relative to body weight. Baker et al.2 supports this
with their study on the relationship between strength
and power and sprinting. They found that there is no
significant relationship between maximal strength and
the 10m and 40m sprint times, but when you factor in
body weight, there is a significant relationship.2 In that
same study, they addressed the fact that the 10m and
40m sprint times were related to different strength
qualities.2 The 10m sprint was related to relative power
and strength and concentric force capabilities.2 This
defends the reason for developing starting, explosive,
and relative strength in the weight room. This also
explains why the use of pure concentric force
development when training these strength qualities
may be more beneficial, as there is no significant
stretch or elastic load prior to ground contact during
the start and acceleration phase of running.23
Maximal velocity running is characterised by an upright
position that maximises stride length, frequency, and
ground contact times. This position puts the runner in a
position to develop absolute speed and sustain it as
long as possible. The running mechanics used during
maximal velocity running, perpetuate greater vertical
and deceleration forces when compared to
acceleration.11 These forces develop greater stretch
loads on the muscles involved and therefore create
greater demand on the stretch-shortening capabilities
of the muscles.11,24 To manage these stretch loads,
developing reactive or elastic strength is critical to the
success of the sprinter. This will teach the body to
become efficient in storing energy in the elastic
structures (i.e. SEC), and develop the nervous
response to run at top end speeds. Baker et al.2 reenforce this point with their finding that maximal force
and power development during stretch-shortening
activities is related to sprinting ability at 40m. Bosch
and Klomp5 would also argue that the development of
isometric and eccentric braking strength is critically
important for the development of tissue stiffness and
elasticity during maximal velocity running. The ability
for the muscle to control high forces during eccentric
contractions and transition to an isometric state (i.e.
Amortisation) is paramount in the development of
reactive strength.5
Energy System Demands

There are multiple energy systems in the body, and in
most sports there is an interplay between all of them.
Sprinting involves a maximal intensity effort over the
course of 9.69, (male world record as of 2008), to 11s
in elite level male sprinters.16 Sprinting is composed of
5-10% aerobic ability and 90-95% anaerobic ability.3,16
The anaerobic system can be further broken down into
the Phosphagen System or Alactic and the Glycolytic

System or Lactic.3,16,20-21 The Phosphagen System will be
the system utilised within the first 1.3s of maximal
intensity exercise and this system will reach maximum
ATP production 2-3s into the race (i.e. Highest Power
Output).16 The Phosphagen System is driven by the
bodys ability to use intramuscular phosphocreatine or
PCr. The phosphagen system allows for immediate resynthesis of ATP at the onset of exercise, which is
critical as there is only enough intramuscular ATP to
last for 2s of maximal intensity work.16 The system will
play a primary role in ATP production for maximal
activities lasting 0-20s and anything beyond that will be
driven by alternate energy systems.16 As the
Phosphagen System begins peaking at 2-3s, the
glycolytic system begins assisting in the production of
ATP.16 The Glycolytic System breaks down intramuscular
glycogen and re-synthesizes ATP through a series of
reactions involved in the degradation of glucose 1phosphate to lactate.16 At 5s of maximal intensity
exercise, the glycolytic system will be producing its
highest amount of ATP and can also be considered the
primary energy system in events lasting 20s-2min.16 It
should be noted that Type II a/x fibre types use the
phosphagen and glycolytic systems as their primary
source of energy.14,16 This is why there is greater PCr
degradation in Type II fibres compared to Type I.16 It is
critical to understand that Type II fibres are the
primary fibre type in sprinters, and that these muscles
will incur the greatest degradation of PCr during
maximal intensity exercise, as this plays a large role in
addressing the work to rest ratios required during the
sprinters energy system development training. A coach
should expect that 50% of the PCr utilised will be resynthesised within the first 30s of recovery, and further
re-synthesis will depend on the intensity of the
preceding exercise.3,16
Practical Model of Periodisation

When developing any strong model, there needs to be
a systematic process in the development of a training
program. In the discussion surrounding the elite level
100m sprinter, we presented different periodisation
models that could be applied to such a sport. The
review led us to the Conjugate Sequence and
Undulating model of periodisation, which are considered
to be advanced models by Stone et al.21 Choosing a
model that allows for focused development of specific
strength qualities is critical in developing the focused
skill sets of a sprinter. From here we were able to do a
needs analysis of strength qualities and energy systems
needed in the 100m sprint. In this final component of
the planning process we have formatted our needs
analysis to our periodisation model of choice. In Table 1
you will find an example periodisation model using the
Undulating Method. The model presented shows how an
athlete can use a traditional model of periodisation
during foundation phases, and transition into an
advanced periodisation model during special
preparation. The reader will notice that each phase is
labeled with focused energy system development goals,
and specific strength quality focuses. Additionally, there
is an example microcycle that explains how this system
would be executed over the course of a training week.
This model can serve as an example for an advanced
sprinter, but also as the thought process one would go
through in developing any sport training program.
If we seek to understand the best periodisation model
for the sport and training age of the athlete, develop a

Table 1. Example Tri-Mesocycle Undulating Periodisation Model for the Elite 100m Sprinter
scientifically and practically supported needs analysis,

and factor in the athletes abilities, then we will
continually have success in the development of our
training programs.
Reference List
1.
Baker, D., Wilson, G., and Carolyn, R. Periodisation: The

Effect on Strength of Manipulating Volume and Intensity. J.
Strength Cond. Res. 8(4): 235-242, 1994.
2. Baker, D., and Nance, S. The Relation Between Running
Speed and Measures of Strength and Power in
Professional Rugby League Players. J. Strength Cond.
Res.13(3): 230-235, 1999.
3. Bompa, T. Periodisation: Theory and methodology.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1999.
4. Bompa, T., Carrera, M. Periodisation Training for Sports.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2005.
5. Bosch, F., and Klomp, R. Running: Biomechanics and
Exercise Physiology Applied in Practice. Philadelphia, PA:
Elsevier, 2005.
6. Buford, B., Rossi, S/, Smith, D., and Warren, A. A
Comparison of Periodized Models During Nine Weeks with
Equated Volume and Intensity. J. Strength Cond. Res.
21(4): 1245-1250, 2007.
7. Chiu, L., and Barnes, J. The Fitness-Fatigue Model
Revisited: Implications for Planning Short- and Long-Term
Training. Strength Conditioning J. 25: 42-51, 2003.
8. Cissik, J., Means and Methods of Speed Training, Part I.
Strength Conditioning J. 26(4): 24-29, 2004.
9. Cissik, J., Means and Methods of Speed Training, Part II.
Strength Conditioning J. 27(1): 18-25, 2005. Strength
Conditioning J. 29(1): 18-25, 2005.
10. Cronin, J., Ogden, T., Lawton, T., and Brughelli, M. Does
Increasing Maximum Strength Improve Sprint Running
Performance. 29(3): 86-95, 2007.
11. Cronin, J., and Hansen, K. Resisted Sprint Training for the
Acceleration Phase of Sprinting. Strength Conditioning J.
28(4): 42-51, 2006.

12. Haff, GG. Roundtable Discussion: Periodisation of
Training-Part 1. Strength Conditioning J. 26(1): 50-69,
2004.
13. Haff, GG. Roundtable Discussion: Periodization of
Training-Part 2. Strength Conditioning J. 26(2): 56-70,
2004.
14. Karp, J. Muscle Fibre Types and Training. Strength
Conditioning J. 23(5) 21-26, 2001.
15. Kirksey, B., and Stone, M. Periodizing a College Sprint
Program: Theory and Practice. Strength Conditioning J.
20: 42-50, 1998.
16. Maughan, G., and Gleeson, M. The Biochemical Basis of
Sports Performance. New York, NY: Oxford University
Press, 2004. pp. 67-90.
17. Poliquin, C. Football: Five Steps to Increasing the
Effectiveness of Your Strength Training Program. Strength
Conditioning J. 10: 34-39, 1988.
18. Poliquin, C., Patterson, Paul. Terminology: Classification of
Strength Qualities. Strength Conditioning J. 11(6):48-52, 1989.
19. Selye, H. Stress without Distress. New York NY: New
American Library, 1974.
20. Siff, MC. Supertraining. Denver, CO: Supertraining
Institute, 2003.
21. Stone, MH., Stone, M, and Sands, WA. Principles and
Practice of Resistance Training. Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics, 2007.
22. Verkhoshansky, YV. Programming and Organization of
Training. Livonia, MI: Sportivny Press, 1988.
23. Wilson, J., and Wilson, G. A Practical Approach to the
Taper. Strength Conditioning J. 30: 10-17, 2008.
24. Young, W., and Pryor, J. Resistance Training for Short
Sprints and Maximum-speed Sprints. Strength
Conditioning J. 23(2): 7-13, 2001.
25. Zatsiorsky, VM., and Kraemer, WJ. Science and Practice
of Strength Training (2ed.). Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics, 2006.

18
Getting to the
bottom of
locomotor control
Clive Brewer BAppSci, Grad Dip, ASCC, and Clare Pettigrew (MCSP)
Over the last 10 years, much of the focus of physical conditioning work has been on
developing postural control (often referred to as the mythical Core Stability).13 Often,
the focus of this work has been on the athletes ability to control the pelvis position, using
isolated recruitment of muscles within the deep abdominal area of the trunk.4 All too
often, however, little thought is given to the overall postural integrity of an athlete, or to
the fact that, in reality, muscles such as multifidus or transverses abdominus (muscles
deep within the abdominal area focused on within classical Core stability work) do not
act in isolation, but are in fact phasic / sequential in their recruitment.17 Indeed, just
because in healthy subjects it activates before all other anterior muscles in certain
movements does not mean it is important in any way: it just means that it is the first in a
sequence of events.5
The neuro-muscular & musculo-skeletal systems of the body are complex, and rather
than focusing upon isolated muscle groups, a more effective strategy for a coach to
adopt is to ensure that there is correct positioning of the shoulder girdle, lumbar spine,
pelvis, hip, knee and ankle through all of the athletes movements.15,16 This will enable
the athlete to recruit the appropriate muscles to generate and absorb forces more
strongly and efficiently,6 through their movement repertoire. For example, Figures 1 and
2 demonstrate how the position of the ankle joint, determines muscle recruitment
pattern in the running action. Simply speaking, coaches should be encouraged to train
the athletes movement, rather than focus on specific muscles.1,11,16 In reality, exercises
are more effective when they mirror athletic movements a cornerstone principle of
the Movement skills component of the sportscotland model for athlete development.
This is because neuro-muscular activation (muscle function) can vary according to the
demands of the task10 and the joint positioning undertaken to execute the task.3
Clive Brewer (right) is a board member of the UK Strength & Conditioning
Association, is accredited by the UKSCA, the NSCA and the British
Association of Sport & Exercise Sciences as a support scientist. He has
been on the BOA register of strength & conditioning coaches for a number
of years, is the IAAF strength and conditioning editor, national strength &
conditioning coach for Scottish athletics & coaches at the West of Scotland
Institute of Sport. He has worked with sports as diverse as athletics,
bobsleigh, tennis, soccer and rugby at professional & International level &
published 2 books on training methods for coaches.
Clare Pettigrew (left) is a Chartered Physiotherapist registered with the Health

Professional Council who is a co-founding partner of Physiotherapy Scotland. This
facility is well established as a client-focused centre for the assessment, treatment and
rehabilitation of neuro-musculoskeletal and sports injuries, and is a service provider to
Scottish Institute of Sport and Scottish Disability Sport athletes. She is a Member of
the Association of Chartered Physiotherapists in Sports Medicine (ACPSM), Physio
First and the Acupuncture Association of Chartered Physiotherapists (AACP).

Figures 1 and 2. Ankle joint position determines muscle recruitment pattern in running actions (from Brewer, 2008; p.133).
Dorsiflexion at the
ankle:
Plantarflexion at the
ankle:
Gluts extend hip

rapidly & accelerate
centre of mass
forward:
Lower leg
myotendinous
structures reflex &
accelerate knee
flexion.
Forces absorbed upon

landing, longer contact
time, hip flexor
dominant motor pattern
pulls centre of mass
forward, lower leg
myotendinous structures
plantarflex ankle to toeoff, hamstring complex
flexes knee.
The purpose of this article is to give coaches an idea of how to progress simple postural control exercises and
functional (related to normal motor-pattern repertoire) movements that enable the athlete to effectively recruit
and hence develop the gluteal muscles. This muscle group is essential in all sports, and collectively enables the
athlete to absorb forces through the hip joint,14 correctly position the lumbar-pelvic complex in defined movement
ranges17 and create significant power in athletic movement.19
What are the gluteals?

The major gluteal muscles are shown in figure 3 and the following tables outline the role of these muscles and
give examples of how problems arise / injuries present when these muscles are not working optimally.
Figure 3. Muscles of the Buttock

20
Table 1. Gluteus Maximus
Primary Muscle Action
Key actions in athletic movements
Hip extension (pulls the leg back)
Maintains the trunk in an upright posture (especially

in running)
80% glut max inserts into ITB and so also exerts

significant influence over knee position
Controls the femur in the hip socket (reduces the

load on the hamstrings)
Outwardly rotates the femur on push-off
Injury presentation
Implication
Quick tests
Likely faulty
movement pattern
finding
Tight / painful hamstrings or

lumbar paraspinals
Glut max weakness or

delayed firing / timing
Static knee dip (see figure

4) / step up
Sore back
Lumbar and
hamstring muscles
working beyond their
normal role
Athlete has difficulty

keeping trunk and
shoulders upright and
bends forwards from
shoulders and hips
Lumbar paraspinals pull
shoulders and pelvis
upright on return to
standing
Hamstrings overwork to
control femur position
Tight / painful adductor

magnus
Reduced glut max

function on same side
Static knee dip
Trunk moves forward

Knee rolls in
Faulty hip extension

pattern adductor
magnus overworking
Excessively tight lat dorsi
muscles of upper
extensor chain
working beyond their
normal role
Static knee dip
Athlete tends to
overuse shoulder and
trunk on opposite side
to stabilize trunk on
pelvis
Static knee dip
Supporting knee rolls in

on knee dip
Reduced glut max

function on opposite
side
Figure 5: Single Knee Lift
Glut max weakness or

delayed firing / timing
Figure 4: Static Knee Dip
Tight ITB
Starting position:
Correct alignment
Stride standing
Back heel raised
Movement:
Lower back knee to floor
Observations:
Maintain pelvis level

Keep trunk/shoulders upright
Faulty movement pattern
Starting position:
Standing with feet close together
Movement:
Lift one knee and hold
Observations:
Trunk should remain vertical

over pelvis
Armpits should remain level

Table 2. Gluteus Medius and minimus
Primary Muscle Action
Key actions in athletic movements
Hip abduction (lifts leg to the side)
Prevents pelvis dropping down on one side

Controls pelvis rotation on swing through phase
Injury presentation
Implication
Quick tests
Likely faulty
movement pattern
finding
Tight quadratus lumborum

(QL)
Over-use of lateral
trunk muscles to
orientate trunk over
pelvis
Standing knee lift (see

figure 5) / single leg dip
Pelvis dips to one side

Also swagger or
pendulum gait
Weak glut med

Tight / painful piriformis
Overload of deep hip

musculature in
attempt to control
pelvis position in
single leg stance
phase
Standing knee lift
Pelvis drops to one side
Tight ITB
Faulty hip abduction

pattern
Standing knee lift / single

leg dip
See Figure 5
Figure 6: Weak glut med and max likely faulty

movement patterns (landing drills etc.)
Figure 7: Glut max faulty pattern

22
Dynamic exercises
designed to aid the
athlete to recruit the
glutes effectively
The following series of basic
exercises has been designed to
provide coaches with some ideas
that can be integrated into training
programmes, or even session
warm-ups, for their athletes. The

exercises have been presented in
an order that is competency based
for the athlete i.e. that the
previous exercise should be
mastered before introducing the
next. Motor control is needed to
maintain stability in such exercises
isolated muscle strength is rarely
important in sports,7 and indeed
training isolated muscle may in
many cases compromise stability
and function.20
We can define a stabilisation
exercise as any exercise that
repeats movement patterns that
maintain the equilibrium of a
dynamic positioning of the centre of
mass9 in a way that does not
produce excessive (abnormal)
loading of the spine.12 Stability is
important, as an athlete who is not
in balance and is having to work
hard to maintain posture cannot
achieve optimal force production or
rate of force development.16
As highlighted in the introduction, it
is important for the coaches to
ensure that due attention is given
to detail in terms of execution of
the exercise inappropriate
positioning of the joints will lead to
Figure 8: The in-line lunge
Figure 9: The lying side leg raise: start

and mid-point positions.
a different outcome than the one

that is desired.7 The descriptors
have been separated into the
following areas:
Start position
Exercise execution
Critical features
Progression
Suggested prescription (sets &
reps)
The in-line lunge

Figure 10: The bridge.
Figure 11: The single leg bridge.
The exercise starts with the

athlete standing, feet shoulder
width apart, before moving
forward with a lead leg as in a
normal lunge
The knee of the trailing leg should
contact with the ground
immediately behind the heel of
the front leg, so that there is a
straight line formed between the
toe of the front leg, the heel of
the front leg, the knee of the rear

leg, the shin of the rear leg and
the toes of the rear leg
Ensure that the hips do not twist,
and maintain the same horizontal
level. The trunk should be upright
throughout the movement, with
the shoulders positioned so that
they are down and back, with the
head up
Progressions include quickly
pushing back to standing or
walking forward, or using a
weighted bar
Perform up to 4 sets of 10
repetitions, moving both forward
and backwards
Lying side leg raise

The athlete lies on the floor on
their side, making sure that the
body is in a completely straight
line
Keeping this straight line, the
athlete raises the upper leg
vertically. As they do this, the toe
should be pulled up towards the
knee and the heel kept high,
pointing towards the ceiling
The athlete should imagine that
they are using the foot to pour
water from the toes, so that, as
the foot is raised, the toes point
downwards this causes the
gluteal muscles to raise the leg,
rather than the hip flexor muscles
in the groin. This also means that
the athlete should not lean
forwards or backwards during the
movement, but should remain on
their side throughout
Progression can be achieved by
using theraband or leg weights to
resist the movement in very
competent athletes
Perform 3 sets of 15 reps on each
leg
Bridge
The athlete lies on the floor on
their back, with feet hip to
shoulder width apart and knees
bent to 90o
From here the athlete braces the
trunk musculature and lifts their
pelvis off the floor, stopping when
their knees, hips and shoulders
form a straight line. Maintain this
for 10-15 seconds, and then
return to the floor, ensuring that
the athlete is not using the
shoulders to push off the floor
It helps to picture driving down
through the heel in order to aid
the gluts to fire (rather than the
hamstrings at the back of the
thigh). The coach also needs to

Figure 12: Wall drills straight-line body

position.
ensure that a straight line is

maintained between shoulders,
pelvis and knees throughout the
movement: The hips should not
drop or twist
If the athlete finds this easy, get
him / her to raise their arms off
the floor and point to the ceiling
(less surface area in contact with
the floor)
Further progression is to a single
leg bridge all of the above
coaching points apply, but the
athlete has only 1 foot in contact
with the floor: The other leg is
straightened (so that a straight
line is now formed between the
shoulder, pelvis, knee and ankle)
with the athlete driving down
through the heel to enable the
gluts to fire and keep the hips up
and level
Figure 13: Wall drill ready position.
with the knee punched forward.

It is a common mistake that the
knee should be brought high,
rather than forward, and the toe
dorsiflexed, so that the sole of the
foot is parallel with the floor
- The toe should now be behind
the knee, so that there is a
shin angle that is the same as
the body lean, and this angle
should be the same in both
legs (ie the shins are parallel)
- The foot that is in contact with
the floor should remain flat
(toe dorsiflexed), so that the
Figure 14: Single leg march finish

position.
coach should be able to get a

credit card under the heel of
the athlete
From here, keeping the standing
foot flat and the body angle and
straight alignment the same, the
athlete should fire the gluts on
the raised leg so that the hip
extends and the leg comes down
towards the floor, contacting the
floor in a dorsiflexed position
Progression is through increasing
speed. Although this is not
important to start with, (the key
thing is being able to maintain the
Perform 3 sets of 10-15 reps
Wall drills
Wall drill 1: Single leg
march
The athlete stands with feet flat
on the floor (ankle dorsiflexed),
with arms straight and the trunk
leaning to approximately a 45o
angle
Figure 15: Single leg drive.
- There should be a straight line

between the shoulder, pelvis
(which is in neutral, with the
trunk braced), knee and ankle
- Encourage the athlete to jam
the shoulders down towards
the hips, in order to stabilise
the back position, and ensure
that the athlete maintains a
natural lumbar curve
From here, the athlete should go
to the ready position (Figure 13),
Figure 16: The 2-step.

24
From here, the athlete contracts

the glutes, forcibly extending the
hips to a standing position
(Figure 17b), before flexing the
hip again under control
- The coach should pay particular
attention to the back position,
ensuring that the athlete
maintains a natural lumbar
curve, especially during the
lowering phase of this exercise
Progression is through an
increased range of motion under
control, followed by an increased
speed in the upwards driving
action
Perform up to 2 sets of 10 reps
per leg
Lateral single leg squats

Figure 17: Suspended step-ups using a frame
correct body position as

described), the execution can be
increasingly sped up as technique
become proficient
Perform 3-4 sets of 10 on each
leg
- Notice how, in Figure 16b,

having the toe forward of the
knee changes the shin angle,
and therefore the efficacy of
the drill as it relates to
running
Once the athlete is proficient at
this drill, sequences of three or
more repetitions can be added
together with increased
complexity the emphasis
remains on quality, as the speed
of firing the knee forward and foot
to the floor is increased
Wall drill 2: Single leg

drive
Start in the straight-line body
position (Figure 12)
From here, one knee is driven
forward (towards the wall) into
the ready position
- All technique points are
maintained (toes dorsiflexed,
positive shin/body angle, knee
forward, toe behind knee), then
the gluts are fired to drive the
leg towards the ground
The foot contacts the floor with an
active flat-foot contact (ankle
dorsiflexed, heel slightly off the
floor), and the knee is then driven
forward again the ground
impact force aiding leg drive
Speed can be added as the
technique becomes proficient
Perform 3-4 sets of 10 on each
leg
Wall drill 3: The 2-step

The athlete starts with one leg
forward in the ready position (see
above)
From here, the raised leg is
driven backwards to the floor
(initiated by a firing of the gluteal
muscles), at the same time as the
knee of the opposite leg is fired
forward. Maintaining all the
technique points (toes dorsiflexed,
positive shin/body angle, toe
behind knee) is essential
throughout this sequence
Perform up to 4 sets of 10 reps,

with sequences of between 2,
building up to 4 knee drives per
repetition
The athlete should perform the

exercise standing on a box, with
one leg on the box and the other
suspended to the side
The athlete is required to flex the
hip and knee of the standing leg
sufficiently to allow the heel of
the non-standing leg (which has
toes pulled up towards the knee)
to touch the floor
- The hips should remain level
throughout this exercise, which
can be done with or without a
bar
Progression is achieved through
increasing the height of the box,
and therefore the range of
movement required in the depth
of the squat
Perform 2 sets of 10 repetitions
on each leg
Suspended step-ups
The athlete stands on a secure
high box / frame, with both feet
off the floor. A squat rack is ideal
for this. A lead leg is placed on
the step, which should be high
enough to ensure that the hip is
flexed to an angle of less than 90o
(Figure 17a). The trail leg should
dangle (this means that the
athlete cannot push off this leg,
as often happens in a step-up
exercise)
- The height of the box / frame
can be progressed as the
athlete finds the exercise
progressively easier, so there is
a gradual build to the exercise
intensity (the key principle is
that technique and postural
control determine the rate of
progression)
- Bodyweight should be
supported on the arms,
although they should not do
unnecessary work
Figure 18: Lateral single leg squats

Figure 19: The springbok: a) The seated

position, with back upright and
displaying a normal lumbar cure b) The
drive to standing c) finishing position.
The athlete sits on the floor, with

the knees bent at 90o and back
straight (Figure 19a). The feet
should be restrained by a partner,
who could also hold the athletes
calf muscles for support
The athlete now engages the hip
extensor (glut and hamstring)
muscles to drive the athlete up
into a standing position (Figure
19b), using the support from the
partner
- The partner may need to pull
through the calf muscles, (the
less the athlete is able to move
using the gluts, the more
assistance is needed from the
partner)
The athlete finishes in the
standing position (Figure 19c)
with the hips fully extended
the athlete pulling the shoulder

blades back together (hold the
5 note) and jamming the
ribcage down into the hip joint,
both of which will cause the
chest to elevate throughout the
movement
Springboks
Coaches should ensure that the

back does not round (normal
lumbar position is maintained)
during the seated to standing
action
- The hips should also remain
level and the chest lead the
upward drive
Perform 3-4 sets of 10 repetitions
Single leg stiff-leg deadlift
The descent continues until the

hamstrings on the standing leg
become fully stretched and tight
(Figure 20)
- A good coaching point to
ensure control and levelness in
the hips is to get the athlete to
focus on reaching back with the
knee of the swinging leg (or
the foot if this leg is completely
straight) as much as possible
during the movement
- During the descent, the coach
should ensure that the hips
remain level an athlete not
controlling the movement
appropriately will tend to dip
the hip of the leg that is off the
ground below the level of the
hip in the standing leg
From the bottom position, the
trunk is returned to the start
position through hip extension
and raising the trunk. This
sequence should be repeated on
both legs
In the starting position, the

athlete should be standing upon
one leg, which should be slightly
bent (this is not, as commonly
thought, a straight-leg deadlift).
The trunk should be erect, the
head up, the shoulder blades
pulled back and the chest up
- This knee position is crucial
and, once the bent-knee
position has been established,
it should not be adjusted at all
during the movement of the lift
Maintaining the straight back (with
the shoulders pulled back) and
knee position, the hands are
lowered, under control, directly
down the front of the thigh of the
standing leg
Figure 20: Single leg stiff-leg deadlift

Note the slight bend in the leg off the
ground: this shortens the lever arm of
this leg, making the exercise easier for
the athlete to execute with control the
less the bend at the knee, the harder
the exercise becomes.
This movement is aided by flexing

the hips (move the butt upwards
and backwards) and not the
knees, as the trunk gets lower
- There should be no conscious
movement of the knee in the
standing leg as the trunk
moves forward
- It is important to maintain a
straight back (with the normal
slight inward curve in the
lumbar spine) throughout the
movement. The coach should
emphasise the importance of
Figure 21: The finish point for the

advanced version of the stiff-leg deadlift.

26
Figure 22: The single leg squat progressions a) with a swiss ball and wall b) with a medicine ball and wall and c) unsupported.
From an empty hand, progression can be

achieved by the athlete holding one or 2
dumbbells or a barbell each brings its
own challenge in terms of balancing the
athletes posture and stressing the
musculature around the hip & groin
complex
Perform 2 sets of 10 reps on each leg
When the athlete can master the above
exercise, there is an advancement in the
progression. This begins from the end
position achieved in Figure 20
Once this midpoint position has been
achieved, the athlete rotates the trunk and
unsupported leg externally (so that the
outside of the hip turns towards the sky in
this position: Figure 21)
From here, the trunk is rotated back to the
normal mid-point (Figure 20), and the
athlete returns to the start position
- The coach should ensure that the athlete
maintains the levelness of the hips and
shoulders, and the straight-line position
between the trunk and the ankle of the

raised leg
Progression can be achieved by the athlete
holding one or 2 dumbbells as they
perform the movement
Perform 2 sets of 10 reps standing on each
leg
Single leg squats

The athlete should stand with the swiss
ball level with the middle of their back,
against a wall
- The swiss ball aids the back in
maintaining a normal position
throughout the movement
- The athlete needs to ensure at the start
of the movement that the hips are level,
and that the knee of the standing leg is
in line with the toes
- The standing foot should be flat on the
floor, with the shoulders pulled back and
down (holding the 5 note) and with the
head up.
Figure 23: The overhead Squat (a) & the overhead squat with an uneven load (to really challenge
postural control (b).

Keeping the trunk muscles braced, and the knee of

the standing leg in line with the hips and ankles (if
they could look down, the athlete would be able to
see the big toe past the knee as they squat), the
athlete should roll down the wall until the hip joint
passes below the level of the knee.
They should hold the position for a count of 5 and
then return to the start position.
Progress to a single leg squat with a medicine ball
behind the athlete (Figure 22b), then to a single leg
squat without the ball for support (Figure 22c).
Perform 2 sets of 10 reps on each leg.
Coaches should note that gluteal complex activation
also occurs in the normal back squat and overhead
squat movements, where the athlete is able to:
Maintain an upright trunk posture with a naturally
straight back and a normal lumbar curve
Maintain the knee tracking along the line of the toes
Keep the weight acting towards the rear of the foot
Have the hip joint below the level of the knee joint at
the bottom of the movement
For an excellent review of these exercises, the reader
is directed to Yule.21 Uneven loadings on the bar during
movements such as the overhead squat (Figure 23b)
also challenge the lateral hip control action of the
gluteus medius & minimus muscles, in conjunction with
the hip extension actions of the gluteus maximus, as
well as other neuro-muscular and musculo-skeletal
actions within the body as a whole, to maintain a
stable overhead bar position.
Summary
This article seeks to provide coaches with some
practical guidelines for how they might use analysis of
their athletes movements to identify potential
weaknesses in the gluteal muscle group, and highlights
some potential problems that might arise from such
weakness. In order to prevent (prehabilitate for) such
problems, the authors have suggested a progressive
series of movements that a coach can utilise with
his/her athletes in order to aid athletic form, improve
performance and prevent injuries that result from poor
gluteal recruitment. A key coaching principle in
supervising these exercises is to pay attention to the
strict execution of the movements, ensuring that the
joints are correctly positioned throughout the
movement.
A theme underlying the article is that, in focusing on
providing coaches with information on the role and
development of the gluteal muscle group, this article
has also illustrated the practical importance of the
coach, strength & conditioning coach and
physiotherapist working together to develop an athlete
centred exercise prescription. Whilst each area of
expertise has clearly defined boundaries, there are
many areas where these respective professions need to
work together in an integrated manner (with
knowledge transfer and restructuring) to produce the
best results for the athlete.
References
1. Brewer, C. (2007) Athlete Development: Principles into
practice. National Strength & Conditioning Association
Annual Conference, Atlanta, July 2007
2. Brewer, C. (2008) Strength & Conditioning for Sports: A
practical guide for coaches Coachwise Publishers, Leeds,
UK
3. Buchanan, T.S., Rovai, G.P. & Rymer, W.Z. (1989)
Strategies for muscle activation during isometric torque
generation at the human elbow Journal of neurophysiology
62 pp 1201-1212
4. Cholewicki, J. & McGill, S.M. (1996) Mechanical stability in
the in vivo lumbar spine: Implications for injury and chronic
low back pain Clinical biomechanics 11(1) pp1-15
5. Cresswell, A.G., Oddsson, L. & Thorstensson, A. (1994) The
influence of sudden perturbations on trunk muscle activity
and intra-abdominal pressure while standing Exp Brain res
98 (2) pp 336-41
6. Duda, G.N., Schneider, E. & Chao, E.Y.S. (1997) Internal
forces and movements in the femur during walking Journal
of biomechanics 30 pp 933-941
7. Enoka, R.M. (2006) Muscle strength, co-ordination &
function UKSCA Annual Conference, Cardiff, June 2006
8. Floyd, R.T. & Thompson, C.W. Manual of structural
kinesiology (13th edition) Macgraw-Hill Publishers,
Singapore
9. Gallahue, D.L. & Donnelly, F.C. (2003) Developmental
Physical Education for all Children (4th edition) Human
Kinetics, Leeds, UK
10.Graves, A.E., Kornatz, K.W. & Enoka, R.M. (2000) Older
adults use a unique strategy to lift inertial loads with the
elbow flexor muscles Journal of neurophysiology 83 pp
2030-2039
11. Karst, G.M. & Willett, G.M. (2004) Effects of specific exercise
instructions on abdominal muscle activity during trunk curl
exercises. Jrn Orthop Sports Phys Ther 34 (1) pp 4-12
12.Kavcic, N., Grenier, S. & McGill, S (2004) Quantifying tissue
loads and spine stability while performing commonly
prescribed stabilisation exercises Spine 29(20) pp 23192329
13.Lederman, E. (2005) The Science & Practice of Manual
Therapy (2nd ed) Elsevier, London
14.Leinonen, V. et al., (2000) back & hip extensor activities
during trunk flexion / extension: effects of low back pain and
rehabilitation Arch. Phys. Med. Rehab. 81 (1) pp32-37
15.McGill, S.M., Hughson, R.L. & Parks, K. (2000) Changes in
lumbar lordosis modify the role of the extensor muscles
Clinical biomechanics 15(1) pp 777-780
16.McGill, S.M. (2006) Ultimate Back Fitness and Performance
(3rd edition) Wabuna Publishers, Canada
17.Palastanga, N., Field, D.& Soames, R. (2002) Anatomy and
human movement. Butterworth Heinemann, London
18.Sharmann, S. A. (2002) Diagnosis and Treatment of
Movement Impairment Syndromes Mosby Inc., London.
19.Thompson, C.W & Floyd, R.T. (1998) Manual of Structural
Kinesiology: 13th edition McGraw-Hill Publishers, Singapore
20.Vezina, M.J. & Hubley-Kozey, C.L. (2000) Muscle activation
in therapeutic exercises to improve trunk stability Arch.
Phys. Med. & Rehab. 81 pp 1370-1379
21.Yule, S. (2005) The Back Squat, UKSCA Professional
Strength & Conditioning 1

28
The Five People

you Meet in
Heaven
Nick is currently the National Lead
Strength and Conditioning Coach for the
Talented Athlete Scholarship Scheme.
He began strength and conditioning
coaching in 1994 and has since
contributed to the success of many
teams and athletes in sports including
professional football, cricket, rugby
league, netball, rowing, swimming,
sprinting, and bobsleigh / skeleton. Nick
is currently working with NGBs and
education institutes to develop strength
and conditioning programs and services
for talented athletes.
Significant stops on a journey to becoming an

S&C coach
Nick Ward MSc, CSCS
Overview
Mitch Alboms book, The Five People you Meet in Heaven, inspires
the theme for this short series of articles. Based on interesting,
inspiring and challenging people we meet on our journey, the
purpose is to share experiences that people have had along the
way, and which hold some significance for their own development.
My first person Professor Edward Winter

I began on the path of trying to become a professional S&C coach in 1995,
but my earliest interest can actually be traced to training with my PE school
teacher, Mr. Stroud, who was an ex-RAF PTI. As I continued my
development, I can recall several people who have helped me on the way.
To begin this series, I wanted to share with you a brief period of my career
when I worked at Sheffield Hallam University, and met Professor Edward
Winter. As something of a veteran of the development of sport science in
the UK, I was surprised to discover his interest in strength and
conditioning. Stimulating and challenging, here is a short interview
conducted with him in January 2009.
Nick: Can you describe how your journey in sport began and where it has
taken you?
EW: My earliest recollection is of sprinting across the playground at the
infants school I attended in Carlisle. It was a bright sunny day and I
suspect that I wasnt actually moving all that quickly, but the enjoyment I
felt has remained with me and continued unabated.
In 1969 Edward entered Loughborough College of Education where, under
the tutelage of Robbie Brightwell and George Gandy, his interest in the
scientific aspects of sport and exercise was sparked. Graduating in 1973,
he took the opportunity to undertake an MSc in Human Biology.
Edward Winter is Professor of the

Physiology of Exercise in the Centre
for Sport and Exercise Science at
Sheffield Hallam University. He
trained as a PE teacher, taught in
schools and has been in higher
education for nearly 30 years. He
has been centrally involved in the
development of sport and exercise
science in the UK and elsewhere and
is the proud possessor of Fellowships
of the British Association of Sport and
Exercise Sciences and the
Association for Physical Education.
He has extensive experience both of
theoretical and applied aspects of
sport and exercise science. He has
particular interests in ways in which
the effectiveness of training
programmes can be evaluated.
EW: This MSc. was everything I had hoped for and more. It was led by the
late Ernest Hamley, who contributed much to the development of sport and
exercise science as an academic discipline in the UK, and it was he, along
with Professor Peter Jones, who introduced me to the wonders of the
physiology of exercise. Many, now senior academics and practitioners who
are either still working or retired, owe a considerable debt to Ernest for his
initiatives and the opportunities he created.
Seven years teaching PE and science in a Leicester secondary school, was
followed in 1982 by an appointment as a lecturer in the physiology of
exercise at Bedford College of Higher Education. In 1989 he pursued his
PhD, part-time, under Ernest Hamleys supervision, during a time which he
describes as a remarkable period of change in higher education.
EW:With a young family this was tough, but it simply confirmed that sport
and exercise science, and in particular, the physiology of exercise, were
definitely for me.
Finally in 1999, he was appointed as Professor of the Physiology of Exercise
in the Centre for Sport and Exercise Science at Sheffield Hallam University,
where it is clear his enjoyment and enthusiasm remain undimmed. He has
coached in athletics and he stills plays county-standard squash (Yorkshire);
albeit coyly admitting in the Vintage category!

NW: You have been actively involved in developing

sport science in the UK. Can you tell me a little more
about this?
EW: Throughout my career in higher education, I have
been centrally involved in the British Association of
Sport and Exercise Science (BASES), and have had the
privilege to have seen the rise and rise of sport and
exercise science both here in the UK and elsewhere. I
contributed to the inception of the BASES accreditation
scheme, and remain an accreditor both of individuals
and laboratories. I have been fortunate to have
benefitted from the influences of Professors Craig Sharp
and Clyde Williams, and have been guided especially by
the latters view - with which I fully agree - that we in
sport and exercise science have two responsibilities:
first, to sport and exercise and second, to science.
Moreover, he advocates that practices should have a

firm evidence-base, with the randomised-controlled
trial (RCT) acknowledged as the gold-standard means
to provide this. Yet few training methods have been
subject to such scrutiny. Often, this is for good reason
because practical and ethical issues might prevent such
examination but advocates of a particular method, food
supplement or whatever, should have based their
advocacy on the outcome of an RCT.
If a tone of criticism is evident in the apparent
robustness of the scientific strength and conditioning
evidence-base, I wondered if there was more to come.
However, seeing himself more as a friendly critic rather
than an antagonist, Edward then offered some
interesting scientific challenges that S&C has posed to
him.
Having clearly been around for a while and very much

engaged in the academic arena, Professor Winter may
not have appeared to be the first person on your list to
whom you would go to for a discussion about strength
and conditioning. But, as he remarked the training of
athletes and what I term recreative exercisers has a
remarkably long history, and is nowhere near as new
as many often think. So, a short history lesson
ensued, where I was introduced to the significance of
Hippocrates, Galen and the Ancient Olympic Games,
and drawn to the conclusion that current home
countries sports institutes in the UK are simply
modern reinterpretations of a long-standing precedent.
Firm foundations have long been in place upon which
the profession of strength and conditioning can build a
modern interpretation of athlete training.
NW: What, in particular, are the current challenges you

think the profession faces?
Wanting to pursue Edwards thoughts and opinions on

strength and conditioning I asked:
Some activities such as bobsleigh and its variants, start

with a brief expression of highly dynamic movement at
the start, but the majority of the time spent by
participants involves attempts to hold a static
streamlined shape. Even when activities do result in
movement, what about the contributions of stabilisor
and fixator muscles that by definition, move little if at
all? Exercise cannot be equated with movement but
frequently by the unobservant, it is.
NW: Why has your interest been drawn to the

profession of strength and conditioning coaching?
EW: In essence for two main reasons: first, sheer
interest in training and all that it involves; and second,
from what is clear to me, the frequent misapplication
of science in strength and conditioning.
The latter was of clear importance and key to his
teaching, editorial and reviewer roles for journals.
Debating the extent to which coaching is an art or a
science, he continued of course it is both, and indeed,
both are important, but if principles of science are
espoused, those principles must be upheld.
Among those whom he considers he was privileged to
meet, the late Mel Siff features prominently. Admitting
to being the proud possessor of his book,
Supertraining, he adds, Mel fully understood and
appreciated the need to apply science in training to
ensure that training methods have a firm evidence
base and are not borne out of whim and whimsy.
Science is simply a way of working that contributes to
epistemology, (the study of how we acquire
knowledge). It is characterised by particular
approaches and conventions that include precision in
terms, nomenclature and measurement and
randomised-controlled trials to investigate for example,
the effectiveness of training methods.
Edward sees strength and conditioning as a
contributory element to the overall discipline of sport
and exercise science, but whose practitioners must also
display the art and craft of coaching and he extols that,
such trainers must possess and demonstrate agreed
competencies and these competencies should be
verified and continually improved under the aegis of a
governing body.
Apart from day-to-day matters such as job security

and the like, profession is a key word. I have two
main anxieties that can be considered under the
umbrella of terms and nomenclature. First, the
suggestion that exercise is movement. So, isometric
muscle activity is immediately inapplicable. Balance
and suspension in gymnastics are disregarded even
though participants actually lose marks for moving;
stillness is a prerequisite and can involve prodigious
expenditure of energy as anyone who has tried to
perform the rings-based crucifix will readily attest.
Hiking in sailing, episodes in the scrum in both codes
of rugby, shooting, archery: all exemplify little or no
movement.
My second concern is the misuse of terms and

nomenclature to describe performance in sport and
exercise. This arises from the misapplication of
principles of classical mechanics, in particular work
and power. In isometric activity for example, no
external mechanical work is done, yet energy
expenditure can be prodigious. The term workload is
more often than not simply nonsense. Work rate is
not recognised by the SI system that defines
quantities, units and symbols, so its use is not
conscionable and moreover, when applied as it
frequently is to games like soccer, to describe the
movement of players, it is again, nonsense because
the units neither of work nor power record the activity.
This leads me to probably my biggest gripe: the
infatuation with power, and a seemingly blind
devotion of practitioners. Take for instance activities
like throwing, hitting and jumping the projectile
activities. Performance in these is determined by
velocity at take off of the implement javelin, discus,
shot etc., the ball tennis, golf, hockey etc. or body
long-, high-, triple-jump etc. in athletics. From
Newtons second law, stated in his 1687 Principia, this
velocity is determined by the preceding impulse
imparted i.e. the product of the magnitude of force and
time over which that force was applied. Similarly,
changes of direction cutting and hence changes

30
in velocity, are attributable to involved muscles ability

to generate impulse. In spite of this, projectile
activities tend to be known as power events. This is
another example of nonsense.
Strength training, either wittingly (rarely), or
unwittingly (usually), is actually developing the
impulse-generating capability of muscle, not its ability
to develop power.
For anybody wanting, or willing, to debate these points
with Professor Winter, he has made himself available to
correspondence with reference to this article.
NW: Finally, what advice would you give to a student
looking to choose an appropriate degree course leading
to a career in strength and conditioning?
Choose a course that will be fun (but not frivolous),
challenging and relevant. Choose one that has
watchwords and terms such as science, evidencebased practice, randomised-controlled-trial
approaches. This indicates that the course will be on a

firm footing to prepare you for whatever follows.
Irrespective of whether or not your charges are
competitive sportspeople for whom Olympic gold
medals might be the aim, or those at the opposite of
the performance-continuum for whom the challenge is
simply survival, your involvement is important and
worthwhile. There will be contrasts in fortune, but my
overriding advice is simple: seize the opportunity and
enjoy your involvement. Good luck!
With thanks to Edward Winter

If you have an interesting individual you would like us
to meet, why not submit a similar article for the next
edition? Additionally, anybody wishing to discuss any of
the issues raised in this column should initially contact
the column editor, Nick Ward, who will forward your
comments to Professor Winter.
2009 UKSCA
Diary of Events
The 2009 schedule for workshops and assessment days has now been finalised and is shown
below. The full programme containing details of our workshops and booking forms are
available on our website www.uksca.org.uk.
Assessment days
4 April UWIC, Cardiff
2 May University of Birmingham
10 June Middlesex University
4 July Lee Valley
18 July University of Stirling
1 August SportCity, Manchester
5 September St Marys University College,
London
12 September University of Belfast
4 October UWIC, Cardiff
14 November Palace of Arts, Glasgow
31 October University of Birmingham
5 December London, venue tbc
WL Training Days
5 April UWIC, Cardiff
3 May University of Birmingham
5 July Lee Valley
19 July University of Stirling
2 August SportCity, Manchester
6 September St Marys University College,
London
1 November University of Birmingham
6 December London, venue tbc
PAS Training Day

13 September University of Belfast
WL Workshops
25/26 April St Marys University College, London
9/10 May WIS, Cardiff
13/14 June University of Birmingham
11/12 July Lee Valley
8/9 August Lee Valley
12/13 Sept Velodrome, Manchester
17/18 October St Marys University College, London
7/8 November WIS, Cardiff
12/13 December University of Birmingham
PAS Workshops
25/26
23/24
27/28
25/26
22/23
26/27
24/25
21/22
April Lee Valley

May EIS Sheffield
June St Marys University College, London
July WIS, Cardiff
August EIS Sheffield
Sept Lee Valley
October London venue tbc
November Northern region, venue tbc
Level 1
18/19 April Lee Valley
13/14 June University of Stirling
10/11 October North region, venue tbc
We are currently in the process of planning more Level 1
workshops for 2009. You will be notified of the dates as soon
as they are released.


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ISSN 1757-5834

The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association

No. 13 SPRING 2009

EXERCISE OF THE MONTH

GLYCEMIC INDEX AND GLYCEMIC

GETTING TO THE BOTTOM OF

THE FIVE PEOPLE YOU MEET IN

1 Woodville Terrace, Lytham,

elcome to the first edition of Professional Strength and

A glance at the event calendar in the news section, clearly demonstrates

UKSCA'S CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL

We are currently working with a leading

Tel: 01245 321185

Members will be required to present their CPD portfolios every

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

UKSCA | Issue 13 | Spring 2009 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

UKSCA HOSTS FIRST OVERSEAS ASSESSMENT

From left to right: Dr Larry Meadors, Ian Jeffreys, Dr

Dr Greg Haff undertaking the weightlifting

MARK SIMPSON CHOSEN TO

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

5TH ANNUAL UKSCA MEETING CONFIRMED SPEAKERS

UKSCA | Issue 13 | Spring 2009 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

EXERCISE OF THE MONTH

Andy Hudson is the England & GB Mens

The Wall Drive is an exercise that predominantly helps to develop an

Starting in an upright position, place both hands against a wall at the

Stuart is the current English Institute of

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

enhancing the skill development aspect of the exercise. When the

1 reps followed by a 3 second pause x 6 1 set

3 reps followed by a 3 second pause x 2

5 reps followed by a 3 second pause x 2

The Adaptations and Considerations

It is essential that the athlete maintains lumbar and pelvic neutral at

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

UKSCA | Issue 13 | Spring 2009 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

Glycemic Index and

Graeme Close is the column editor for

Professor Don MacLaren, Cert.Ed., BSc(Hons), MSc, PhD and

Not all carbohydrates are the same

Graeme is a lecturer at The University of Liverpool in cellular and metabolic medicine.

Figure 1. Method of calculating the glycemic index of food.

Size, texture, and ripeness of a food (e.g. ripe

Introducing the GI system of

Figure 2. Glycemic Index and its affect on gastric emptying.

The physiological consequences of eating a high or a

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

UKSCA | Issue 13 | Spring 2009 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

Carbohydrate ingestion and insulin

increasing protein synthesis and decreasing protein

Effect of GI on muscle protein

Figure 4. Insulin binds to its receptor (IR) and results in a

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

Effect of carbohydrate timing and

Some important considerations

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

UKSCA | Issue 13 | Spring 2009 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

Conclusions and recommendations

Try to avoid late night high GI/GL snacks and choose

Maughan RJ, Greenhaff PL, Leiper JB, Ball D, Lambert

Miller JM: The role of dietary carbohydrates in muscle

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION