PSC 14 Jul 2009

ISSN 1757-5834
PROFESSIONAL
strength & conditioning
The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association
No. 14 SUMMER 2009

EDITOR
Ian Jeffreys MSc, ASCC, CSCS*D
EDITORIAL PANEL
Raphael Brandon MSc, ASCC
Clive Brewer MSc, BSc(Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Marco Cardinale PhD, ASCC
Dave Clark MSc, ASCC
Daniel Cleather MA, ASCC, CSCS
Paul Comfort MSc, ASCC
Audrey Duncan PhD, ASCC
Mike Favre MSc, ASCC
Duncan French PhD, ASCC
Jon Goodwin MSc, PGCHE, ASCC
Greg Haff PhD, ASCC, FNSCA, CSCS
Liam Kilduff PhD
Jeremy Moody PhD, ASCC
Phil Moreland BAppSci, AssocDip, ASCC
Narelle Sibte BAppSci, Grad Dip, ASCC
Alan Sinclair BSc (Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Gil Stevenson BEd (Hons), ASCC
Margaret Stone MSc, ASCC
Michael Stone PhD, ASCC
Mark Simpson MSc, ASCC
Graham Turner MSc, BEd (Hons), ASCC
COLUMN EDITORS
Graeme Close PhD, ASCC
Nick Ward MSc, CSCS
Stuart Yule BSc (Physio), ASCC
INSIDE
NEWS
page 2
EXERCISE OF THE MONTH THE PULL

page 3
ANALYSIS OF BODY COMPOSITION

page 9
ANNUAL CONFERENCE REVIEW

page 14
FLEXIBILITY - THE MISSING LINK

IN THE POWER JIGSAW?
page 16
TRAINING FOR POWER: PRINCIPLES

AND PRACTICE
page 20
THE FIVE PEOPLE YOU MEET IN

HEAVEN
page 33
1 Woodville Terrace, Lytham,

Lancashire FY8 5QB.
t: 0870 116 1566
f: 0870 116 1233
e: info@uksca.org.uk
ver the last few months, I have been fortunate to sit on a

number of validation events for strength and conditioning based
courses at undergraduate and masters level around the UK.
Whilst at these events, a number of themes have shone
through, and which illustrate how strength and conditioning is
burgeoning in the UK.
Firstly, the demand for these courses emphasise the great growth in
interest in strength and conditioning in the UK. Additionally, the
development of specific S&C courses in themselves, rather than as a
subset of larger sport science courses, emphasises its development as a
distinct discipline of sport science, with its own unique knowledge and
skill set. This recognition of S&C as a specific are of application is vital in
developing the area as a profession. Hopefully, this distinction that S&C
coaches possess critical skills and knowledge that make them distinct
within the sport science based community, will help develop S&C as a
unique area of application, and increase the appreciation of the benefits
that specialised S&C coaches can bring to any organisation involved in
sports performance. Hopefully, this distinction will continue to evolve,
and the importance of hiring strength and conditioning coaches, and
specifically accredited S&C coaches, becomes a priority for all sports
organisations involved in enhancing performance.
Secondly, and very encouragingly, the role the UKSCA has played in
shaping the profession, and the way academic courses are being shaped
by the UKSCAs accreditation procedures, is clearly evident. The
accreditation has become the credential to hold within the field in the
UK, and courses are being designed with an eye on our accreditation
procedures, and the underpinning knowledge required for accreditation.
While the accreditation will always remain a distinct and separate entity
from any academic course, it would be hoped that the next few years
will see the development of highly skilled and knowledgeable individuals
able to continue the development of the profession. An associated key
role of the Association in the next year or so is to ensure that all
advertised strength and conditioning posts stress the importance of
employing UKSCA accredited coaches.
One of the great challenges of this profession lies in constantly evaluating practice and being open to new means
and methods of achieving our goals. This involves constantly evaluating practice and being aware of, and
analysing different approaches to a problem. This issue contains two articles that focus on a topic that plays a
key role in strength and conditioning practice, namely the development of power, but which take two very
different approaches. Anthony Turner from Middlesex University has produced an excellent review paper on the
nature of power performance, and methods of developing power. This provides an excellent overview of the more
traditional approaches to developing power, as well as some more recent developments from these approaches.
The issue also contains an article by Michael Massis, an experienced strength and conditioning practitioner from
San Diego, California, in which he makes a case for flexibility as a missing ingredient in power development.
Using physiological and biomechanical principles he argues that, in certain situations, increasing flexibility can
provide an effective means of increasing power output.
The Performance Nutrition column this month looks at a topic which plays an important role for a strength and
conditioning coach, namely the assessment of body fat levels. Written by Professor Tom Reilly and Laura Sutton
from Liverpool John Moores University, it provides an excellent review on the options available to coaches, and
produces an excellent summary on the challenges of assessing body fat levels.
This months exercise of the month feature is by two highly experienced practitioners, Column Editor Stuart Yule
and Paul Coyle of the Scottish Institute. Stuart and Paul look at the Pull, an exercise that can be used as a
development exercise within the progressions towards the Olympic lifts or as an exercise in itself.
Nick Wards, The Five People you meet in Heaven column this month, features an interview with Brian Ashton.
A hugely experienced coach at the highest level, Brian, in conversation with Kate Eddy of Team Bath, stresses the
importance of the coaching process in developing performance, and outlines some of the lessons he has learned
from a lifetime in coaching.
Ian Jeffreys
Editor
UKSCA NEWS
BOARD MEMBER ELECTION RESULTS
This years Board election process saw 8 candidates nominated for 5 places on the UKSCAs Board of Directors,
with the following being voted onto the Board at the AGM held on 5 June: Ian Jeffreys, Pete McKnight, Alex Wolf,
Stuart Yule and Douglas Bryce.
They join the remaining Board members Gilmour Stevenson, Clive Brewer and Duncan French. Ian Jeffreys
retired by rotation and was re-elected. On behalf of the Board, I would like to thank the outgoing Board members
for their time and support over the last few years Narelle Sibte, Phil Moreland, Dan Cleather as well as the
three other nominees for this years election.
Full details of the new Board can be found under the About section of our website and the first meeting of the
new Board will be held on 28 July where specific roles for each will be agreed.
MEMBER CONSULTATION
The Board of Directors wish to consult with members to gather their views and ideas to help shape the future
direction of the UKSCA. As a member, we value your opinions and ideas and would appreciate any time you have
to complete the consultation sheets which were emailed to all members in the middle of June. Members views
will be collated and reviewed and will then be used by the new Board to develop their plans for the remainder of
2009 and the years ahead. If you wish to take part in the consultation and do not have the documentation then
please contact sarah@uksca.org.uk or call the office .
UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

2
UKSCA | Issue 14 | Summer 2009 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk
EXERCISE OF THE MONTH
The Pull the development

of explosive strength
qualities in the knee and
hip extensors
Paul Coyle, BSc (Hons), ASCC and Stuart Yule, BSc (Physio), ASCC
Paul Coyle was a competitive weightlifter,

competing for Scotland at the
Commonwealth Games in 1998. Paul is
currently the lead strength and conditioning
coach for the Scottish Institute of Sport West
region. With a wide range of strength and
conditioning coaching experience he is
currently working with athletes from
swimming, athletics, hockey, sailing and
badminton.
Stuart is the current English Institute of

Sport Strength and Conditioning coach for
Judo. He is responsible for delivering
National S&C services to world class
funded players across the UK.
Stuart previously worked for the Scottish
Institute of Sport, where he had the role of
leading the S&C service to athletes in the
West of Scotland as well as leading and
coordinating S&C nationally for the Judo
and Badminton programmes.
Stuart is a physiotherapy graduate and his
sporting background lies in Olympic
Weightlifting, where he represented
Scotland at two Commonwealth Games.
Stuart Yule is the column editor for the
Exercise of the Month section.
The Olympic lifts, the snatch and clean, are a common and popular
exercise prescribed by S&C coaches to develop force and power
qualities in athletes. As with any exercise, the mere inclusion of the
exercise in a strength training programme will not result in the
desired adaptations, unless it is performed with correct technique
and with appropriate loadings etc. In terms of developing technical
mastery of the Olympic lifts, it is vital that the technique of the pull
is mastered to ensure successful execution of the snatch and clean,
and so produce the desired training effect.
The aim of this article, is to discuss the technical aspects of the pull,
to ensure the intent of this explosive exercise and the Olympic lifts
are fully realised. The intent of the exercise is to develop explosive
strength qualities in knee, hip and back extensors. There have been
various discussions over the years with regards to the merits of
teaching or not teaching the double knee bend. This article will not
discuss the pros or cons of teaching a double knee bend, but will
emphasise the key body positions to increase the potential of
achieving a successful pulling movement. It is also beyond the scope
of this article to discuss the research associated with the mechanical
specificity of the exercise and its transfer to sporting performance.
It is assumed therefore that the reader has prior knowledge of the
benefits of the pulling exercise and/or the Olympic lifts.
There are several errors with the execution of the pull that are
commonly observed, which the authors believe will significantly
reduce the training effect. The pull is a complex, coordinated
explosive movement. The synchronous action of the hip, knee and
back musculature, plus the summation effect of the forces produced
from the knee and hip are vital in ensuring a successful pull. The
common faults, which typically start as the bar is raised towards the
knees, will be described within this article. The purpose of
highlighting these faults, is to enable coaches to identify common
errors and subsequent corrective strategies. This will allow athletes
to fully realise their force producing capabilities, and in turn
maximise the adaptive response to the exercise, helping them
achieve the desired long term adaptation.
This article will focus on the pull executed with a clean grip.
The technique
The pull itself is one technique, but one which involves several
movements of the knee, hip and back. As with any complex multi
joint technique, the pull technique must be efficient and ensure a
continual fluid motion of the barbell.
The fluid nature of the pulling movement will be described in 5
stages. The various sections of the pull have been traditionally
termed the first pull, transition and second pull. There is debate as
to where each part of the pull phase starts and finishes; therefore
this article will aim to discuss the technique based on 5 critical areas
that can determine the success of execution.

UKSCA | Issue 14 | Summer 2009 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk 3
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
The 5 stages that will be described are:
moves up the line of the shin the following occurs:
Stage 1 start position get set
1) The athlete will drive forcefully into the floor
Stage 2 moving the weight from floor to below

knees
2) The knees will begin to extend
Stage 3 as the bar passes the knees
4) The angle of the torso will remain constant
Stage 4 as the bar moves to mid thigh
5) The distribution of weight through the foot will begin

to move towards the rear
Stage 5 Explode!!
Stage 1 Start Position

This is the set up position prior to the bar being lifted
off the platform. This may vary depending on the
athletes limb length and levels of mobility.
Figure 1, (above), highlights a correct position that
must be adopted at stage 1:
1) Back straight; maintain lordotic curve
3) As the knees extend the hips move back
6) Lumbar lordosis and thoracic extension will remain

7) The path of the bar will be in a slightly backward
motion
8) As the knees extend, the bar moves up
See Table 2.
Figure 3.
2) Thoracic spine extended and tight

3) Bar close to shins
4) Hips higher than knees
5) Shoulders in front of the bar
6) Eyes looking out and head up
7) Shoulders slightly pinched, scapula fixed, chest high
8) Weight distributed through mid foot
9) Grip tight, but arms relaxed.
See Table 1.
Stage 2 Floor to below knees

From a solid start position, the athlete will take a
breath and hold immediately prior to lift off. As the bar
Table 1 - Stage 1 Faults
Observation
Why are these problems?
Solutions/ corrections
Loss of lumbar lordosis kyphotic
1) This position will increase the

potential for injury
Thoracic extension exercises with foam roller
through thoracic spine (Figure 2)
Shoulders protracted second pause 2) If poor posture is maintained the

x6
ability to utilise the posterior chain

musculature will be reduced
Scapula retraction strength assistance

exercises rows (seated/ bent over), thumbs
up prone d/b raise, hyper and plate row- all
aiming for maximum scapula retraction
Hip mobility flexibility around gluteus

maximus, hamstrings and hip internal and
external rotators.
Raise height of bar with use of blocks

Ensure complexity of overhead work is
graduated into programme aiming for
overhead squats
Full range squats

Coach appropriate technique at all times

4

Observation
Knees extend but the bar (Figure 3) 1) Inefficient- major loss of force transference Effective coaching
does not move upwards
from knee extensors
Clean deadlifts
Hips shoot up into the air
2) Highlights weaknesses in knee extensors
Partial deadlift floor to knees
3) Increases activity of hip extensors too soon Increase leg strength squats
4) Increases load through lumbar spine
Torso angle changes and hips begin 1) Increases load through spine when bar at
to extend (see Figure 5)
knees
As above
2) Results in bar being too far away from body

at stage 4
3) Body in a poor position to utilise hip
extensor force capabilities and eliminates
athletes ability to utilise stretch shortening
cycle during stage 4
Figure 5.
Figure 4.
It is vital the faults highlighted in table 2 are corrected.

These faults are central to an ineffective pull, snatch or
clean. Although examples of strength exercises are
given, the faults observed can generally be rectified
through coaching.
Stage 3 Bar passes knees

After executing stage 1 and 2 correctly, the bar is now
at the knees and the athletes body position is similar
to that seen in a Romanian deadlift or stiff leg deadlift
(Figure 4). This is the weakest position that the athlete
will be in during the lift and therefore a strong back
and hip extensors are vital.
Stage 4 Bar moves to mid thigh

The action of the knees during this section is rapid.
This is the stage where the double knee bend will occur
and it will precede a 2nd knee extension. This section
of the pull is typically illustrated as an un-weighting
phase. The fast action of the knees moving forwards,
underneath and in front of the bar has been described
as producing a stretch shortening cycle, which the
athlete will be able to utilise during the second pull.
As the bar rises up the line of the thigh to mid thigh:
1 The hips begin to extend and move forwards
1) Knees are slightly flexed
2. The weight distribution through the foot begins to

move from the heel towards mid foot
2) Shoulder line is in front of the bar
3. The shoulders remain in front of bar
3) Weight distribution is through the heel
4. The knees begin to move forward from behind the

bar to in front of the bar
4) Back is flat and torso angle has been maintained

through stage 2
See Table 3.
5. As knees move forward, the degree of flexion

increases rapidly

Observation
Shoulders behind bar
1. Not in a position to utilise hip

extensor rate of force production
potential
Hamstring and gluteus maximus strengthening
Extension of hips too soon

Weight through the front of the
foot
Inefficient use of knee
extensors during 1st pull (see
Figure 5)
2. Will not develop hip extensor

strength or power effectively
3. Will not develop thoracic and
scapula musculature effectively
Clean deadlifts
First pull deadlifts
Stiff leg deadlifts/ Romanian deadlifts
Good mornings
Hip extensor flexibility
4. Increases risk of injury around

lumbar spine

Figure 7.
Figure 6.
The coordinated actions of the 5 points outlined above,

ensures the bar continues to rise.
See Table 4.
Figure 8.
Stage 5 Explode
This stage is commonly referred to as the 2nd pull. It
is the position an athlete should be aiming to master if
they are to fully realise their force and power
producing capabilities in a pull, snatch or clean.
Figure 7 highlights the correct body position when the
bar is at mid thigh. This is a critical and priority
position that must be achieved in order to maximise
the triple extension:
1) Weight distribution through mid foot (feel balanced)
2) Shoulders in line with, or slightly in front of, the bar
3) Bar touching thighs
4) Knees flexed
5) Hip flexed
6) Arms straight
Figure 9 illustrates the end of the pull.
Figure 9.
1) Drive hard into floor with feet

2) Violently and simultaneously extend knees and
extend and lift hips
3) Extend fully onto the balls of the feet
4) Shrug shoulders
5) Triple extension
See Table 5.
Practical application
Variations
There are many variation and derivatives of the pull
which can be utilised as either teaching tools or as
Observation
Shoulders move behind bar
The athlete is not putting

themselves in a position to
maximise their explosive
strength potential from hip and
knee extensors. Shrugging or
bending the arms at this stage
will result in a loss of transfer of
forces from the hips and knees
to the bar
Coaching - do not over coach. Ensure athlete

can maintain correct position as the bar
passes the knees
Weight moves to balls of feet too quickly

Arms bend (Figure 8)
Shoulder shrug
Knees do not move under and in front of
bar (Figure 8)
Bar too far away from body (Figure 8)
This is very often the biggest problem

Increase grip strength utilise hook grip
Use lifting straps for the pull
Increase thoracic extensor strength

6

Observation
Athlete pushes hips forward without

maximal intent to lift hips
The athlete is not coordinating knee and Pulls from mid thigh
hip extension resulting in poor transfer Teach them to stand up from mid thigh
of forces to bar. As a result they feel
position, not just push hips forward
they are utilising hips but they are
Utilise lifting straps from mid thigh will

merely rocking onto balls of feet and
eliminate relative grip weakness
pushing the bar away from their body
with their hips.
Bar moves away from body

Shrugs too soon
Arms bend too soon
Use of arms and shrugging too soon will

reduce the force transference from leg
and hip extensors
difference would occur at Stage 1 where the hip

position would be slightly lower than that adopted with
the clean grip pull.
Figure 10.
Lifting straps
An argument put across by some S&C coaches is that
in many sports, grip development is vital, such as
judo; therefore straps are not used during pulls. It is
important to prioritise an athletes training and to
maximise the adaptive response from the pull, and the
authors recommend the use of lifting straps. If the
priority is to develop grip strength, other exercises
more related to mechanical specificity of the grip
should be utilised.
During the snatch and clean, a hook grip should be
learnt and implemented (Figure 10). Similarly, the use
of lifting straps with the hook grip will provide a
stronger link between the body and the bar, therefore
increasing the transfer of forces from the hip, knee and
back extensors to the bar.
exercises in their own right.

1) Pull from block
a. Mid thigh
b. Knees
Example of weekly variation and exercise

sequencing
c. Below knees
2) Pull from hang
Due to the muscle groups involved with pulls and

squatting, it is important to ensure there is appropriate
microcycle planning to maximise the training stimuli and
optimise recovery. The table below illustrates an
example of pulls and squats sequencing within the week.
a. Mid thigh
b. Knees
c. Below knees
3) Clean deadlift
4) Snatch deadlift
5) Romanian deadlift/ stiff leg deadlift
6) First pull pull
5) Shrugs
All of these can be performed with a clean grip or
snatch grip. The article has focused on a clean grip.
Adopting the snatch grip will change the extent of
musculature involved at each stage, but the basic
premise of the technique is very similar. The major
Mon
Tue
This article has highlighted the main components of

successfully achieving an effective pull. Finer details of
coaching need further discussion in conjunction with
this article. Also, the subtle individual technical needs
of the athlete will require a thorough understanding of
the intricacies of the pull, which can only be achieved
through several years of coaching and practice.
Wed
Thu
Medium
Daily relative intensity (RI)
Heavy
Heavy
Exercise
Clean Pulls
Back squats Clean pulls

(mid thigh)
Clean pulls
(knee)
Fri
Sat
Sun
Medium
Back squat
Romanian
Deadlift

PERFORMANCE NUTRITION
Analysis of body
composition
Tom Reilly, PhD and Laura Sutton, MSc, PhD
Professor Thomas Reilly is Director
of the Research Institute for Sport
and Exercise Sciences at Liverpool
John Moores University. He was a
founder member of the Society of
Sports Sciences in 1977 (later to
become the British Association for
Sport and Exercise Sciences) and
the European College of Sport
Science in 1995. He chairs the
International Steering Group on
Science and Football and has written
or edited over 30 books and over 600
original research publications.
Thomas holds a DSc from Liverpool
John Moores University (1998) and is
a former athlete, fastest marathon
2:37:22 and slowest 2:38:50.
Introduction
Athletes often do not feel at their best unless they are satisfied with their
body weight, and control of body weight can therefore be an important
aspect of preparing for competitive sport. However, body weight alone
provides limited information, since an increase may be due to a gain in
muscle mass caused by strength training or increased deposition of fat
when energy intake exceeds energy output. In this article we describe
various techniques for measuring body composition in athletes and refer to
their applications to sports.
In body composition analysis, the body is divided into different
compartments, representing a conceptual more than an anatomical
separation. The traditional two-compartmental model consists of fat mass
and fat-free mass; if one of these components is determined, the other can
be obtained by subtraction from total body mass. A typical threecompartmental model consists of fat mass, bone mineral mass, and fatfree plus mineral-free mass. The focus of attention has been on estimates
of the fat mass and expressing the result as percentage body fat (%BF).
This figure is highly relevant in many sports, since excess fat constitutes
dead weight when the body is lifted against gravity as in jumping or
moved repeatedly as in running.1 It is also important for the general
population, as overweight and obesity are related to a range of
cardiovascular and other morbidities.
Laura Sutton completed a PhD under

the supervision of Professor Reilly.
Her research interests include
different methods and applications of
body composition analysis. She has
conducted assessments for a
number of elite athletes, including
Premier League soccer players,
England Ladies FC, Rugby League
and Rugby Union athletes, and
Paralympic squads.
Graeme Close is the column editor for
the Performance Nutrition section.
Figure 1. Underwater weighing
Graeme is a lecturer at The University of Liverpool in cellular and metabolic medicine.

His current research is focused upon investigating cellular mechanisms responsible for
muscle damage and repair. Graeme regularly presents at international conferences and
has given keynote presentations on skeletal muscle damage and repair. Graeme is a
former professional rugby league player and currently works with Munster RUFC as the
performance nutritionist. He is also an accredited UKSCA member and a BASES
accredited physiologist.
Methods of body composition

analysis
Hydrodensitometry or underwater weighing is the
classical method used in body composition analysis. The
loss of body weight in water, is determined according to
the principles of Archimedes and body density is
calculated. The density of fat is assumed to be 0.9 g.cm3 and the corresponding value for fat-free mass is 1.1
g.cm-3. Once density is determined, the fat mass can be
obtained by means of a formula.2,3 Residual lung volume
is also measured to indicate the air in the respiratory
tract underwater, and air trapped in the gastrointestinal
tract is assumed to be 100 ml. The main limitation of
this method when applied to elite athletes is the
assumption of constant densities for the specific tissues.
Underwater weighing facilities have traditionally been
used for research purposes rather than applications to
sport in the United Kingdom laboratory, with laboratory
facilities being available in a number of Universities,
such as Liverpool John Moores University (Figure 1).
Archimedes principle is also applied to air
displacement and incorporated in commercial systems
such as BODPOD. These devices have been installed in
some professional football clubs. However, they are not
sensitive enough to detect the small changes in body
fat that occurs during the competitive season.4
Fat is a source of energy for the body, and the term
constitutes a chemical expression. Adiposity refers to a
structural or anatomical view, referring to adipose
tissue cells. The lean body mass, as opposed to fatfree mass, includes essential lipids in cell membranes
and nervous tissue. Various chemical techniques have
been used in research contexts and include whole-body
potassium counting, potassium gamma rays being
proportional to skeletal muscle mass. To utilsise these
methods, a special scintillation chamber is needed, and
which is available in many hospitals. An alternative
approach is to measure body water using dilution
techniques and assume that body fat is anhydrous.
This principle is incorporated in the bioelectric
impedance (BIA) machines used in some public
gymnasia. A low voltage is passed through the body
and the resistance provided by anhydrous tissue is
quantified. The body water content is derived and %BF
computed using algorithms in the software of the
machines. Multifrequency BIA separates body water
into its cellular and extracellular compartments.
However, detailed care is needed to control conditions
when this method is used since the measurement is
easily influenced by hydration status.
Figure 2. Multifrequency hand-foot bioelectric

impedance analysis
Figure 3. Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry
Imaging systems provide an anatomical view of the

bodys layers from which body composition can be
estimated. These methods include computed
tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI). Scanning, using CT systems, entails a radiation
dose that would be unacceptable for routine monitoring
and sophisticated imaging systems are too expensive
to use for this purpose. Dual-energy x-ray
absorptiometry (DXA), provides a scanned picture of
the body but represents a chemical approach. It has
begun to replace hydrodensitometry as the reference
method for body composition analysis. This method
may be contrasted with the more commonly adopted
anthropometric means of estimating body fat in
practical settings via the assessment of skinfold
thicknesses at different sites of the body.
Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry

Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry is a chemical
technique that entails a three-compartmental model
comprising fat mass, bone mineral mass and lean (fatfree, mineral-free) mass. Although originally developed
in a clinical context to assess risk of osteoporosis, the
facility to quantify body fat was quickly recognised and
the technique has found many applications in exercise
contexts. Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry does not
rely on the assumptions of constant body densities and
competency in water of the participant, and so this
method has gradually replaced hydrodensitometry as
the reference method in studies of body composition. A
limitation of the technique is its expense and exposure
to low-dose ionising radiation. The equipment is not
portable and is restricted to laboratory and clinical
settings. Whole-body scan time is short (~3 min),
during which the patient lies supine on the scan bed
while dual-energy x-ray beams pass through the body
from a source beneath to a detector above the bed
(Figure 3).
The one direct approach to body composition analysis
is by dissection of cadavers. We have found good
agreement between DXA and dissection data derived
from porcine carcasses (unpublished data). The DXA
method has proved useful in analysis of body
composition changes in professional soccer players
over a complete season5 and in monitoring changes in
body fat and bone mineral density with training. It is
the preferred method when monitoring professional
athletes in a laboratory-based service.

10
Table 1. Different methods of body composition assessment.
Underwater weighing
The participant is weighed underwater in a tank and his/her body density is

determined. Body density is proportional to %BF. The higher the body density the
less the body fat.
Potassium counting
The amount of naturally occurring potassium-40 (40K) in muscles is measured in a

special whole-body counter. The amount of 40K is proportional to the lean body mass
(LBM). Body fat is determined by subtraction (BW LBM = Fat).
Isotopic dilution
Total body water (TBW) is measured by dilution procedures. Blood or urine samples
are collected for analysis after introduction of the dilutent in the body. Lean body
mass contains 73.2% water, and body fat is determined by subtractions.
Medical imaging
Ultrasound, X-ray, MRI A picture of either fat, muscle and/or bone is obtained.
These regional pictures (or estimates) of fat and muscle thickness are converted to
estimates of total body fat using statistical and mathematical relationships.
Anthropometry
Regional measurements (girths, skinfolds, body widths) are taken at specific body
sites. Site location and measurement technique are very important. Conversion of
regional measurements to estimates of total body fat and LBM are done using
statistical and mathematical relationships.
Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry
Measurements are made for bone mineral content and %BF. Regional measures relate
to arms, trunk, legs and head. The residual is described as lean mass but is not
equivalent to muscle mass.
Skinfold thicknesses
The simplest method of estimating body fat is to record
skinfold thicknesses at different sites and use an
established formula to derive a predicted %BF value.
There are over one hundred such formula in the
scientific literature, although only one of those
commonly used was based on a population in the
United Kingdom.6 It is assumed that the thickness of
the subcutaneous layer of adipose tissue reflects
internal depots also. A criticism of the approach is that
the method has been validated using
hydrodensitometry and so is said to be doubly
indirect. The sites recorded by Durnin and Womersley6
do not account for fat patterning since all the sites
used are in the upper body biceps, triceps,
subscapular and suprailiac sites (Figure 4).
Eston et al.7 found lower-body skinfold sites to have
higher correlations with DXA and explain more variance
in %BF than the traditional four sites of Durnin and
Womersley. In a recent study of Premier League soccer
players we have shown that the prediction of %BF can
be improved if values for the anterior thigh and medial
calf are included. In this case, DXA was chosen as the
reference method.8 The new formula may be applied to
other games players as follows:%BF = 5.174 + (0.124 x thigh) + (0.147 x abdominal)
+ (0.196 x triceps) + (0.130 x calf).
An alternative approach to monitoring body
composition was recommended by the Steering Groups
Figure 4. Measurement of skinfold thickness at a) the

suprailiac and b) the medial calf sites
of the British Olympic Association.9 They recommended

summing the skinfold thicknesses from the sites used
by Durnin and Womersley6 and adding the anterior
thigh. The sum-of-skinfolds can be used in repeat
assessments to monitor any changes in subcutaneous
adiposity. The %BF could still be predicted for purposes
of prescribing a weight-loss programme.
Training in anthropometry is essential if skinfold
thicknesses are to be measured with accuracy and
precision. Such training is available at the annual
workshops of the British Association of Sport and
Exercise Sciences. Formal accreditation is available at
short courses offered by the International Society for
Advancement of Kinanthropometry; the basic Level 1
course is over 3 days, progressing to criterion
anthropometrist at Level 4. At each level the individual
must demonstrate competence by establishing
technical error of measurement within certain limits.
The quality of calipers is also relevant, some
commercial types being inferior.
Surrogates and alternatives

The body mass index (BMI) is calculated as body
mass (kg) divided by stature (m) squared. A value of
below 18.5 is considered underweight, between 18.5
and 24.9 is a healthy weight, 25.0 29.9 represents
overweight or pre-obese, 30.0 34.9 is Grade 1
obese, 35.0 39.9 is grade 2 obese and ?40 is
Grade 3 obese, for males and females.10 The BMI is
useful in a broad assessment for the general
population, but it can be misleading in athletes,
especially those using strength and conditioning
programmes to increase muscle mass. For example,
in a sample of Premier League soccer players, 65%
of the group would be considered overweight or preobese according to their BMI whereas the average
percent body fat of the group determined using DXA
was 10.7 %.
The emphasis in body composition analysis has been
on the fat compartment with little attention given to
muscle mass. The percent muscle mass may be
determined from anthropometric measures using limb
girths as well as skinfolds but this approach is not
routinely used. The lean mass (fat-free, mineral-free)
assessed using DXA incorporates lean skeletal muscle

within the third compartment. It is likely that more use could

be made of this measure as a lean index in the future.
The method used for assessment of body composition must
be capable of detecting small changes in athletic groups.
Generally, assessments are most informative prior to preseason training, at the end of this preparatory period, in midseason and towards the end of the competitive season.
Assessment can also be of value during rehabilitation in the
period when little strenuous training is possible and weight
gain is undesirable.
Conclusions
1. Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is the preferred
reference method for research in body composition and
is valuable for monitoring changes in elite athletes.
2. Skinfold thicknesses represent a viable practical method
for the assessment of adiposity in field conditions.
3. Training in anthropometry is essential for those working
in the assessment of body composition.
4. Regular assessments during the season are advised to
establish effects of training interventions or detraining
effects.
References
1. Reilly, T. (1996). Fitness assessment. In Science and Soccer
(edited by T. Reilly), 25-50. London: E&FN Spon.
2. Brozek, J., Grande, F., Anderson, J.T. and Keys, A. (1963).
Densitometric analysis of body composition: revision of some
quantitative assumptions. Annals of the New York Academy of
Sciences, 110, 113-140.
3. Siri, W.E. (1961). Body composition from fluid spaces and
density: analysis of methods. In Techniques for Measuring
Body Composition (edited by J. Brozek and A. Henschel),
223-244. Washington DC: National Research Council.
4. Eston, R. and Reilly, T. (2009). Kinanthropometry and
Exercise Physiology Laboratory Manual: Tests, Procedures
and Data (3rd edition). Volume 1: Anthropometry. London:
Routledge.
5. Egan, E., Wallace. J., Reilly, T., Chantler, P. and Lawlor, J.
(2006). Body composition and bone mineral density changes
during a Premier League season as measured by dual-energy
X-ray absorptiometry. International Journal of Body
Composition Research, 4, 61-66.
6. Durnin, J.V.G.A. and Womersley, J.A. (1974). Body fat
assessed from total body density and its estimation from
skinfold thicknesses; measurements on 481 men and women
aged 16 to 72 years. British Journal of Nutrition, 32, 77-97.
7. Eston, R.G., Rowlands, A.V., Charlesworth, S., Davies, A. and
Hoppitt, T. (2005). Prediction of DXA-determined whole body
fat from skinfolds: importance of including skinfolds from the
thigh and calf in young, healthy men and women. European
Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 59, 695-702.
8. Reilly, T., George, K., Marfell-Jones, M., Scott, M., Sutton, L.
and Wallace, J. (2009). How well do skinfold equations predict
percent body fat in elite soccer players? International Journal
of Sports Medicine, in press.
9. Reilly, T., Maughan, R.J. and Hardy, L. (1996). Body fat
consensus statement of the steering groups of the British
Olympic Association. Sports, Exercise and Injury, 2, 46-49.
10. World Health Organisation. (2000). Obesity: preventing and
managing the global epidemic. Report of a WHO
Consultation. WHO Technical Report Series 894. Geneva:
World Health Organisation.
Note from the

column editor
Dear Friends,
It is with the deepest sadness
that I inform you that since
writing this article, Professor Tom
Reilly has sadly passed away.
Tom was unique. He was a
distinguished scientist who was
universally respected and
admired by all. Tom applied his
bountiful energy in the realm of
academic leadership, both within
and outside Liverpool John
Moores University. He was
profoundly interested in the
development of others before
himself and this was reflected in
over 90 successful PhD
supervisions. Tom was the first
ever Professor of Sports Science
in the UK, and helped forge the
rich heritage of sport and
exercise scientific study at
Liverpool John Moores University
and beyond. As his reputation of
excellence grew, his influence
extended Nationally and
Internationally, leading many
initiatives and effecting change in
policy and practice in many
esteemed organisations.
Toms intellectual powers knew
no boundaries, providing deep
insights into the worlds of
philosophy, literature and the use
of English language. Toms main
scientific pursuits were in the
study of kinanthropometry,
chronobiology and science and
football. His dedication to
research and dissemination of
knowledge is all too readily
apparent in his publication record
where he has authored over 900
papers, book chapters and
review articles. As an
organisation, the UKSCA were
therefore honoured to have one
of the world experts in body
composition contribute such an
insightful article to our journal.
Outside of academia, Tom was a
true gentleman who always had
time and a smile for everybody.
He will be deeply missed both
professionally and personally.
The world of sport and exercise
science has lost a true legend
but I am sure his legacy will long
continue.
Graeme Close
Column Editor

12
th
The 5 UKSCA
Annual Conference
5-7th June 2009

Robinson Executive Centre, Wyboston Lakes, Bedfordshire
After a trip across the water to the Sports Institute of Northern Ireland in 2008, 2009 saw the UKSCA Annual
Conference returning to England, with the venue this year the Robinson Executive Centre at Wyboston Lakes,
Bedfordshire. Back in January-March of 2009, a significant amount of time behind the scenes was taken to try and
secure the most appropriate venue for this years event. Based on delegate feedback from previous years, it has been
noted how important delegates find having accommodation and all conference activities in the same vicinity. Further
to this, as the UKSCA conference has continued to grow year-upon-year, in 2009 we strategically identified a move
towards a more professional standard of product, a higher quality of conference experience, and accommodation,
catering, and facilities that would match the expectations of events of this calibre. Following much hard work, and a
host of venue consideration, the Robinson Executive Centre was chosen, and in hindsight it seems to have fitted our
needs very well indeed. It is now our intention to make sure such standards of venue, accommodation, and catering
are the very least that delegates can expect when they attend future annual meetings.
Central to the success and quality of any meeting is the conference schedule and the speakers who present their
research and/or rationales to the interested audience. In the past we have had some outstanding presenters, and
again this level needed to be achieved this year. For 2009, I was adamant to achieve an appropriate balance
between basic science and research, which should underpin all our work as strength and conditioning practitioners,
and applied coach practitioners who can demonstrate theories and applications aimed at improving athletic potential
in the field or the weight room. As with all things, securing speakers can be a convoluted process, but by April 2009
all the major invites had been secured, and we were happy with the mix we had achieved. Travelling from the USA
came world renowned scientists in their respective fields, including Andy Fry and Avery Faigenbaum, as well as
highly respected coach practitioners like Martin Rooney, David Sandler, and Jeremy Boone. From mainland Europe
came expert scientists Inigo Mukika and David Bishop. This year we had a representative from the Middle East in
Mark Kilgallon, and on top of that had three outstanding practitioners from here in the United Kingdom, two from
the English Institute of Sport in Tommy Yule and Mark Jarvis, as well as Ade Mafe as a representative from
professional sport. Upon reflection it was felt that all the speakers had something novel to offer to our association
delegates, and from early feedback it seems that the suitability of the speakers was appropriate
Outside of the main conference schedule, much effort was put into developing other aspects of the conference.
For the second year running, the UKSCA organised Pre-Conference events for specific populations. In a
continuation of the successful event from 2008, 2009 again saw Prof. Mike Stone spending time with some of our
accredited members in a Planning & Programming Workshop, whereby members presented examples of their own
programmes for peer and expert discussion. In a parallel session, a similar a workshop was taking place for a
population of strength and conditioning coaches working with the Talented Athlete Scholarship Scheme (TASS),
who had the opportunity to gain expert feedback from Dr. Greg Haff. Both these events proved to be a huge
success, and in speaking with delegates who attended, it became apparent just how valuable spending time
reviewing our everyday work with expert advisors such as Prof. Stone and Dr. Haff can be. As National Lead for
14
Strength and Conditioning to TASS, Nick Ward felt that the event that his
organisation had sponsored had been of great value to his TASS coaches.
The Strongest Strength and Conditioning Coach Competition was new in
2009. Proving to be a great visual spectacle and a fun event for all those
that took part, as well as the crowds that gathered to observe some
outstanding feats of strength, Tommy Yule was awarded the honourable title
of strongest coach. Plans are already afoot for the 2010 coaches
competition with speed and agility, and power and explosiveness already
being considered as possible areas of competition (watch this space and
start your training!).
The Strongest Coach Competition led nicely into the opening BBQ on Friday
night, and it was here where a real sense that the conference had begun could
be felt. With protein a-plenty in the form of sausages, burgers, and chicken,
the BBQ provided a great opportunity for friends and colleagues to network and
catch up over drinks and food. Networking holds the true value to conferences,
and I felt that 2009 gave delegates many opportunities for this to happen.
The scientific poster presentations was another area where significant efforts
were made prior to the conference, in order to give more credence to the
scientific endeavours within the field of strength and conditioning of some of
the delegates. With 21 abstract submissions in 2009, it appears that people
are truly seeing the value of using the UKSCA as a platform to present their
research findings to an audience with good understanding in the field. Plans
are in place to once again develop the poster presentations further in 2010,
and I want to thank once again those individuals who presented this year,
but also to promote that anyone considering presenting posters at the
UKSCA annual conference that they should do so, and that collectively we
can all push the boundaries of our profession forwards in this way.
I would like to acknowledge the exhibitors that attended in 2009. Its hard
to recall such a diverse group of exhibitors at any previous UKSCA annual
meeting. Many of these exhibitors were kind enough to act as sponsors to
many of the various events and competitions that were run over the course
of the conference weekend, and without their continued and ongoing
support this would not been possible.
Saturday presented a full day of events, with all our presenters overloading
delegates with some great information. The gala dinner and casino night
represented a great way to wind down the day, and sharing in some light
entertainment on the poker and roulette tables seemed the ideal way to
start to bring the 2009 annual meeting towards a close.
Only left was Sunday, and with great breakout sessions and a highly
interesting closing address from David Bishop, the 2009 annual conference
was complete. In a fitting way, that only left one last opportunity to sample
the great food and catering that was on offer to us throughout the
conference. Im sure I speak for many when I say the way to an S&C
coaches heart is through his stomach!
Upon reflection, each of us can probably pick our own respective highlights
from this years conference; Avery Faigenbaums dynamic opening keynote,
Martin Rooney taking on the best of British in the strength coach competition,
a Saturday speaker schedule jam-packed full of interests, having a flutter at
the casino whilst sharing laughs and jokes with close friends, or simply
listening to great scientists and coaches and feeling what you do in your
every day work is really making a difference. Whatever it may be, I sincerely
hope that the 2009 UKSCA annual meeting had something for you! After all,
this is your association, and your platform for learning and development.
While I hope that all the efforts made in 2009 to take the annual meeting to
another level of professionalism and quality were achieved and acknowledged
by those that attended, planning for 2010 is already underway, and if you
have any specific desires that you would like to see for next year, be they
speakers, conference schedule ideas, location, etc, please do not hesitate to
make your thoughts heard. They will be welcome. For this year however, the
comments of thanks and praise from delegates are very well received. 2009s
annual meeting looks to have been a success, and in listening to the
speakers before leaving them to return home, each of them commented on
how much they had enjoyed the conference, but notably how much they had
enjoyed speaking with the UKSCA delegates, and how much they felt that our
association was the most progressive in the world at this time.
Best wishes, and see you in 2010!
Duncan French, UKSCA Director of Conference and Member CPD

Flexibility the
missing link in the
power jigsaw?
Michael Massis MA, CSCS, CPT, CMT, LMT, CMTech
Michael Massis is an experienced

coach and educator from San Diego
California. Michael is currently a
lecturer in 4 universities and
community colleges in the San
Diego area. Michaels teaching
currently focuses on senior level
strength & conditioning, fitness
leadership, special populations and
biomechanics An avid and dedicated
martial artist he has trained in
multiple disciplines for over 35
years. Michael has been working
and teaching people in weight
training methods and techniques for
more than 25 years, working with
clients of various ages and fields of
endeavor, from professional
athletes, to recreational athletes and
special populations. Michaels future
endeavours include continuing his
education to obtain his Doctorate in
Kinesiology or Biomechanics.
Explosive power capacity is a critical element of performance in many sports,9

and therefore maximising power output has been the focus of a great deal of
research and applied practice in strength and conditioning. Power remains the
golden chalice for many strength and conditioning professionals, and today,
numerous modalities are deployed to enhance power. This has involved a variety
of methods and systems including: heavy weight training; the use of Olympic
lifts; lifting at the resistance that provides maximal power output etc, through to
increased supplementation with ergogenic aids whether natural or synthesised. A
significant number of theories and methods are proposed to increase power,
some supported by scientific evidence, others based on less objective premises.
Yet one method largely overlooked in the scientific literature regarding power
development is flexibility. While this may at first seem contradictory, for some
athletes it may be the missing link in the jigsaw, with a sound biomechanical
basis for its inclusion. This article outlines the role that adequate flexibility plays
in power performance, and proposes the addition of stretching to the training
programme of certain athletes to maximise power output.
The need for additional stretching in a programme will depend, to a large
degree, on the type of work naturally carried out within the sport, and the
training undertaken to prepare an athlete for the sport. As an example, Olympic
lifters and gymnasts require large amounts of force to successfully accomplish
their tasks, while also needing large ranges of motion about their joints, thus
demonstrating that high levels of power and flexibility are compatible. Most
Olympians in weightlifting can regularly squat well below 90 degrees, often with
loads double their body weight. Similarly, Olympic gymnasts are required to not
only be highly flexible (for example, to do the splits), but to also have large
amounts of power in order to be successful on the rings, high bar, vault etc. On
these apparatus, gymnasts not only have to show overall flexibility in the torso
and body, but also have to generate the power to maintain body movement at
high speeds and under control at all times. However, other strength based
athletes do not always demonstrate the ranges of motion present in these
sports, and some systems such as an over emphasis on hypertrophy elements,
can have the potential to reduce ranges of motion. In these cases, these
methods may reduce power output due to the physiological adaptations and
subsequent biomechanical changes in movement patterns.
All training paradigms must be supported with valid scientific evidence, and the
link between flexibility and power is no exception. To facilitate this, it is
important to understand the relationship between flexibility and human
movement. At a very basic level, sport (and indeed human life), involves
movement and movement requires work. This is demonstrated whether the
movement is geared towards activities of daily living such as driving, cooking,
typing, putting away the groceries etc., or whether the movement is geared
towards athletic endeavors of any type. The structure of the human body
facilitates movement and in very simple terms, movement requires muscle
activity to move bones. This muscle activity produces the forces which govern
motion. Muscle activity originates at the myofibrillar level of a muscles
structure, where the alignment of two key proteins (actin and myosin), within
the sarcomeres provide the mechanism by which muscle contracts.11 These two
proteins are arranged opposite each other and when connected together look
almost like railroad tracks slightly misaligned. It is this misalignment that allows
the function of muscle movement through the principle known as the sliding
filament theory.11 It is through the sliding filament theory that a muscle can
create a force which can then create motion.3 While this paper does not attempt

16
to provide a detailed account of the sliding filament

theory, it is important to look at the method in which
actin and myosin interact, especially a characteristic
known as the length tension relationship. Actin and
myosin attach via cross bridges on the myosin
filament, which when activated by an action potential,
and subsequent release of calcium into the sarcoplasm,
bind strongly with actin.6 The force producing capacity
of any muscle is closely linked to the potential number
of cross bridges available, and the maximal number of
cross-bridge sites are available when a muscle is at its
resting length. As a result, the greatest amount of
force can be generated by a muscle when it is at its
resting length (a relationship known as the length
tension relationship).3 When a muscle is stretched
beyond this, the number of potential cross bridges is
reduced. However, if the length of a muscle is
shortened, then similarly the number of potential cross
bridges can also be reduced.4
The available movement through which a body part
rotates about a joint is known as the range of motion
about that specific joint.1 To create movement, a force
must be exerted by a muscle or group of muscles on the
end of the bone that will be traveling around the joint.
This force exertion requires that the muscle(s) undergo
contraction and relaxation of their fibers, creating a virtual
shrinking and lengthening effect along the muscles
length. If a muscle has become very large due to being
overly developed, the middle section of the muscle,
known as the muscle belly, will usually be highly
contracted and generally will develop a large increase in
muscle bulk, which may adversely affect range of motion
by impeding joint movement.2 The shortened muscle
therefore has a new, yet diminished resting length. This
new, diminished resting length, is the point where this
shortened and overly developed muscle will wish to return
to after contracting during activity. In this situation, the
muscle cannot stretch back out to its natural resting
length during normal movement, thus negatively affecting
its length tension relationship. Without active stretching,
to attempt to re-establish a true resting length that is
more in line with the norms for the true range of motion
that the given joint should normally have, the muscle will
naturally assume this new, more limited, range of
motion.5 This inability for the muscle to return to its
normal resting length is mainly because the muscle
cannot fully contract and relax across its entire length to
produce the efficient movement required to move the
bones through their full range of motion.7
The most important property of all types of muscle
tissue is contractility the ability to create a pulling
force and, if necessary, a change in length (increase or
decrease), while maintaining a pulling force.10 Due to
the compromised state of the working muscle created
by this new shortened resting length, the persons
work and power generating abilities can be negatively
affected. Subsequently, their task completing abilities
can also be adversely affected, and these various tasks
can be as simple as putting on a sweater or as
complex as doing a gymnastics routine.
For example, analysis of the range of motion of a human
leg, specifically the range of motion of the knee joint,
demonstrates this effect on performance. The knee joint
allows movement mainly in a sagittal plane and its
rotational axis is a transverse axis.7 The knee has a
rather large range of motion. The total range of knee
flexion and extension is normally around 160 degrees.10
For a joint that mainly only moves in one plane of
motion, the knee has a quite large distance of travel.
The muscles providing that movement are some of the

strongest in the body, (the quadriceps and hamstrings),
along with being some of the most heavily used
muscles.5 They not only provide locomotion, but also are
heavily responsible for shock absorption and postural
maintenance. Negative repercussions on their functional
capacity, may damage several other portions of the
musculoskeletal system such as the hip and back.8
The biomechanics of work and power

The influence of flexibility on power is guided by
biomechanical principles, and the following section will
outline how the potential for flexibility to enhance
power is grounded in physics.
Work, in physics, is known as the application of a force
to displace or move an object from a starting point to
an end point.
Work = Force x displacement of mass from point a to
point b, (also known as distance travelled).7
To apply this to human movement, we can look at the
human knee joint and the muscles surrounding it
above the joint. The normal healthy person should be
capable of moving their leg from a fully flexed position,
calf touching gluteals, to a fully extended position,
thigh and leg straight with toes pointing at a 90 degree
angle relative to the knee.5 Any person who has
developed their hamstrings in the posterior thigh to a
very high level and created a large amount of
hypertrophy, but has not stretched that newly enlarged
muscle, will usually have some limited movement.5 This
limitation in their movement is caused by the fact that
the hamstrings are very much shortened and cannot
relax and return to the muscles normal resting length,
which would normally allow the leg to extend to a
straightened position around 180 degrees.
We will examine two people with the same general
parameters in height, weight, level of experience in
weight training and sports playing time, and compare
them doing the movement arc of full flexion to full
extension, (i.e. calf touching gluteals, to leg
straightened out to 180 degrees). This distance will be
considered the full movement and will be assigned the
value of 100% on the movement arc. Person A has a
movement along our movement arc of 55% and person
B has a 75% movement arc. Person B has a greater
displacement along the movement arc than person A.
Person As leg will not be capable of the same level of
extension as that of person B. Here basic physics
calculations clearly show that the same level of work is
not possible between these two people, since person A
cannot move through the same leg displacement area
as person B, even though both are exerting the same
level of force. Since person Bs leg can move a greater
distance, work being defined as force applied over a
given distance,7 the person with the capacity to move
the greater distance will accomplish a greater level of
work, (even though both people are applying the same
level of force). One person is applying the force over a
larger distance and therefore can accomplish a greater
quantity of work. An example of this is when both
people apply 10kg worth of force. One person applies
this force over a distance of 0.5m and the other applies
the force over 0.75m. The work accomplished by the
first person is 5 Newton meters (Nm), which are used
to measure work capacity, while the second person
accomplishes 7.5 Nm. This difference will have a direct
reflection on the power output, as will be covered in
the next section.

In terms of power, physics asserts that power is the

ability to do an amount of work, (which we stated before
is defined as force x distance), over a period of time.
Power = work/time.7
This means that power is the reflection of any given
work in the time period required to accomplish that
work. We can apply this definition to mass and the
movement that mass undergoes during its travel over a
distance. Something as simple as moving a 5 kilogram
grocery bag from the floor into the boot of a car is an
example of an application of power. What we need to
look at is the mass of the bag as well as the time it
took the shopper to move the bag from the floor until
the moment the bag came to rest in the boot of the
vehicle. To increase the power output of the person
moving the bag we can do three things:
1) increase the size of the force applied to the bag
while maintaining the distance traveled the same;
2) increase the distance the bag travels, while
maintaining the force applied the same;
Person B has better range of motion and since they

move through the larger arc about the legs, they will
have done more work in performing a single lift. Person
B accomplished the task in an overall shorter time
period, yet moved through a larger movement arc
about the knee joint. Person Bs legs did more work in
less time and yet moved through a larger single arc
than person As legs. Because of this fact, person B
generated more power in their single movement and
was substantially more efficient in their task
performance than person A.10 So by making the stone
move faster, we have increased the power output of
person B when they were carrying the stone. The
distance traveled by the stone is the same, but the time
taken to travel that distance is smaller. Since the time
period taken to accomplish this task is now smaller, the
work performed by B is now divided by the stones
smaller time required for the travel from floor to shelf.
If we just look at one factor, time, we can increase the
work performed by just altering time and not having to
worry about increasing the force to lift the mass.
3) decrease the amount of time it takes the bag from

going from the floor into the boot while keeping force
applied and distance traveled the same. Since the
distance our object travels will remain the same, and we
are attempting to keep force application the same, then
our key factor in this example will be time, (option 3).
Tasks of daily living example:
The shorter the time taken to accomplish the task, the

better. Thus, in this example the only distance changed
will be the range of motion of the knee joints. The
greater the distance traveled by a persons leg
segments who has full range of motion, compared to a
person with limited range of motion, will ensure that
the greater quantity of work will be carried out by the
person with the greater range of motion and therefore,
a greater output of power will be generated. If we take
our movement from our bag lifting example and apply it
to lifting Atlas stones, such as in the Worlds Strongest
Man contests, we can see how this task of daily living
example applies to athletics as well. For those
unfamiliar with the Atlas stones lift, athletes must lift a
heavy rounded stone from the floor to a shelf of a fixed
height. Once they lift one stone, they move on to
another stone of increased mass and place that stone
on a shelf and so on until all five contest stones are
raised. The athlete who completes the contest in the
shortest time frame wins. For our example, we will
focus just on lifting one stone since the example of one
lift can apply to all subsequent lifts in the contest.
Given the fact that the floor and the shelf will, under
normal circumstances, usually remain in the same
place, we will not be changing the distance traveled.
And since the mass of the stone will not instantaneously
increase or decrease between its travel time from the
floor to the shelf, we do not need to change the force
applied to lift the stone. What we can change though is
the time it takes to move the stone from the floor to
the shelf. If person A, with the smaller travel arc about
the leg, moves the stone vertically from the floor trying
to place the stone on the shelf, they will take longer to
accomplish the task since their legs cannot fully
straighten to allow for efficient biomechanical
movement and thus place the stone on the shelf with a
single attempt at the task. Person A will need to raise
the stone to the edge of the stand with the shelf prior
to making a second attempt at moving the stone onto
the shelf from the edge of the stand. So person A has
to do two lifts, each through smaller arcs than person
B, which undoubtedly will take a longer time period.
Athletic endeavor example:
As time: bag mass 5kg, time of travel 4 seconds. 5/4

= 1.25 Nm.
Bs time: bag mass 5kg, time of travel 3 seconds. 5/3
= 1.67 Nm.
As time: stones mass 50kg, time of travel 4 seconds.

5/4 = 1.25 Nm.
Bs time: stones mass 50kg, time of travel 3 seconds.
5/3 = 1.67 Nm.
If we decrease our time from 4 seconds to 3 seconds
during Bs trial, when we divide 5/3 we can now get
1.67 Nm. We now have a .42 Nm difference between
As trial and Bs trial. This amounts to an approximately
30% increase in power generated by B by just
decreasing the time taken to move the bag along its
path by 1 second. The shoppers/athletes (A & B) did
not need to gain extra mass to lift the bag/stone, or
even necessarily increase their force output, they just
needed to be more efficient in their use of their current
power generating capacity. When person B used more
of their leg capacity to travel through the larger arc of
movement, they also minimised the chance of
activating their trunk extensors.5 The legs increased
their displacement by moving through a larger arc
between knee flexion to knee extension. This
movement can aid in the prevention of the activation of
the trunk extensors, and thus maximise leg
involvement and minimise the potential for back
injury.10 Normally the trunk extensors will be activated
when the legs cannot complete a task using leg power
alone.5 The involvement of trunk extensors at the
wrong times, or when the biomechanics of the body
are not at the appropriate angle, can often lead to
strained back muscles and other joint or muscle
injuries.10 In this way, an increased range of motion
can also have a positive effect on injury potential as
well as potentially increasing power.
If we look at a sports example such as American
Football we can see how this lack of flexibility can have
adverse effects on athletes as well as the average
person engaged in tasks of daily living. If we look at an
offensive or defensive lineman we can see how the
physics and biomechanics of inhibited flexibility affect
performance. Linemen start off in a 3-point stance with

18
one hand on the floor and both feet on the ground

forming a triangular base of support. The goal of the
lineman is to stand up as quickly as possible and push
forward onto the opponent on the other side, in an
attempt to prevent them from moving forward onto the
linemans side of the scrimmage line. This means that
the lineman will be moving in a diagonal line in the
forward direction and if he is able to push the opponent
and cause the opponent to lose ground on their own
side, then he will be even more successful. If the
lineman is limited in flexibility, then he will have trouble
moving his lower leg and thigh to a straightened 180
degree position. This means that the lineman will not be
able to extend his full force directly into the opponents
body. This also means that instead of the linemans legs
doing all the work they should be capable of performing,
the linemans other body parts (namely his back), may
have to come into play and do the work the legs were
not able to finish.5 Since the back now comes into play
to compensate for the range of motion restrictions in the
leg, then the linemans trunk will go through a degree of
torso extension, thus putting the lineman into a more
vertical position instead of the linemans legs driving him
into the opponent in a diagonal position as was
intended. This means that the lineman will not stand up
diagonally and move into the opponent in a forward
push, but will instead stand up in a more vertical
fashion, and move more vertically and less horizontally
into the opponent. This means that the lineman is in
danger of being moved off his balanced position and that
the opponent could actually push the lineman into his
own territory causing him to lose ground.
If we look at the knee joint and the muscles in charge
of knee flexion and extension, the quadriceps and
hamstrings respectively, if the knee cannot move from
fully flexed to fully extended then there may be a
limitation in this persons range of motion.8 By having
hamstrings that are too tight, the quadriceps are then
restricted from doing the work they should be capable
of doing, that is extending the knee through its full
range of motion.7 It is also possible that the opposite
case may exist, where the quadriceps are preventing
the hamstrings from fully flexing the knee.8 Considering
that knee flexion is critical in shock absorption during
any airborne activity, which includes all types of
movement from walking to jumping, it is quite possible
that muscles well above the knee are experiencing
shock forces that should be attenuated at, or near the
knee joint.10 Over time, these forces can lead to an
increased injury potential that can emerge in areas
that are nowhere near the inefficient knee joint.
Practical application
While traditional methods of power development must
play a role in athlete preparation, where limits in the
range of motion are evident it can be of great benefit to
increase the range of motion about a joint, to come
more in line with accepted norms of human movement.5
The person with the limited range of motion should be
encouraged to begin a stretching regimen and, over
time, attempt to increase their range of motion around
the affected joint. Additionally, where exercises are
being carried out in a restrictive range of motion, they
should also be encouraged to ensure that full ranges of
motion are utilised within their training regimes. By
increasing the range of motion of an athlete, we can
increase the displacement of the respective limbs. If we
increase the displacement, then by definition, we have
increased the work performed. As power is work divided
by time, then by increasing the work accomplished,

this, by definition, will increase the power output
generated. By doing this through stretching we can
potentially increase the power output and work
generated. So while traditional methods are important,
for already powerful athletes, establishing a greater
range of motion about the joints of such athletes may
be the missing piece of the power jigsaw. In this
manner the athlete can use the existing mass and force
producing capacity to generate more movement about a
joint and therefore make better use of their current
capacity to produce a given force.
By stretching any muscle, and preventing the
decreased range of motion around the moving joint, we
are increasing the muscles capacity, not only to do
work but by definition, since work is part of the power
equation, we are also increasing the persons capacity
to generate a higher power output. Measuring athletes
range of motion about the joints can be considered
important for efficient performance of their chosen
endeavor, and might be an important part of a power
evaluation programme. If their ranges of motion are
limited compared to athletic norms for that sport, the
integration of a stretching regime into their training
may be warranted.5 A little bit of stretching can go a
long way into making an already strong athlete into a
more efficient and more powerful performer in their
chosen endeavor.
Conclusion
When increasing lean muscle for additional power and
force generation, stretching and ensuring a full range
of motion is used is crucial. Muscle cannot generate the
greatest amount of power and strength without moving
through full range of motion. All muscles have a
normal range of motion, and this range of motion
should not have to decrease just because muscle mass
increases. With an appropriate stretching programme
as part of a strength training and conditioning protocol,
a person should still be able to generate large amounts
of force while maintaining very good flexibility.
References
1. Baechle, T. R. & Groves, B. R. (1998.) Steps to Success:
Weight Training, 2nd ed.Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics
2. Baechle, T. R.; Earle, R.W. (2000.) NSCAs Essentials of
Strength and Conditioning, 2nd ed. Champaign, Il.: Human
Kinetics.
Personal Training, 2nd ed.Champaign, Il.: Human Kinetics.
Strength and Conditioning, 3d ed. Champaign, Il.: Human
Kinetics.
5. Kendall, F.P., McReary, E.K. and Provance, P.G.
(1983)Muscles Testing and Function. Philadelphia:
Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins.
6. Latash, M.L. (1998) Neurophysiological Basis of Movement.
Champaign Ill: Human Kinetics.
7. McGinnis, P. (2005.) Biomechanics of Sport and Exercise,
2nd ed.Champaign, Il.: Human Kinetics.
8. Sahrmann, S.A. (2002) Diagnosis and treatment of
Movement Impairment Syndromes. St Louis: Mosby.
9. Stone, M.H., Stone, M.E. and Sands, W.A. (2007) Principles
and Practice of Resistance Training. Champaign, Il.: Human
Kinetics
10. Watkins, J. (1999.) Structure and Function of the
Musculoskeletal System. Champaign, Il.: Human Kinetics
11. Wilmore, J.H. and Costill, D.L. (2004) Physiology of Sport
and Exercise 3rd Ed. Champaign, Il.: Human Kinetics.

Training For Power:

Principles And
Practice
Anthony Turner MSc, PGCE, CSCS, ASCC
Developing an athletes ability to generate power is a key goal of

periodisation. This development can be enhanced through
manipulation of the force-velocity curve, whereby athletes first
increase force output (maximum strength), and then the ability to
apply this force under progressively time constrained movement skills
specific to their sport. The first part of this article looks at the
physiological and biomechanical theories that govern the efficacy of
power training, and reviews the effect of strength training and
ballistic training on power development. The second part focuses on
training prescription.
Introduction
Since power development amongst athletes is often considered a key
component to successful sports performance (as most activities are force and
time dependent), understanding this component of physical fitness is
essential if it is to be efficiently integrated into strength and conditioning
(S&C) programmes. Successful achievement of such an outcome however, is
based on a sound understanding of the scientific principles that underpin
power. The aim of this article therefore, is to provide an overview of these
physiological and biomechanical determinates and suggest means to
manipulate them in order to increase the efficacy of such integration. The
second part of this article then discusses training theories for the
development of power.
Anthony Turner is a Strength
& Conditioning Coach and a Senior
Lecturer and Programme Leader for
the MSc in Strength & Conditioning
at Middlesex University, London,
England.
Principles of power training

Power and the force-velocity curve
Quantitatively, power can be described as work per unit of time, or often,
more specific to sport, force multiplied by velocity.72, 101 Therefore, an increase
in either variable will increase power if the other variable remains constant.
Our understanding can be further enhanced by the use of the force-velocity
(F-V) curve (Figure 1) which illustrates that maximum strength is exerted
under low velocities and maximum speed is produced under low loads. Thus,
an inverse relationship exists between these two variables.
The placement of a sports motor skill on the F-V curve generally depends on
the mass of the object to be moved, as most actions call for the movement
to be executed as quickly as possible. For example, a rugby scrum requires
relatively larger forces than those required to pitch a baseball and are hence
at opposite ends of the curve (Figure 2). Furthermore, most sports require a
variety of motor skills (e.g., jumping, tackling and kicking) that may span a
large portion of, if not the entire, F-V curve (Figure 3).
It may be prudent therefore, to ensure that training programmes equally
cover a large segment of the F-V curve rather than focusing on specific
loads/velocities. This can be achieved through manipulation of exercise
modality and/or training load and is described throughout this article. The F-

20
Figure 1. Theoretical illustration of the F-V curve.
Figure 2. Theoretical placement of various sports motor

skills on the F-V curve.
Figure 3. Theoretical placement of various sports motor

skills from the game of rugby on the F-V curve.
Figure 4. Adaptation of F-V curve with the inclusion of

terms suggested by Verkhoshansky108 (STR =Strength;
SPD = Speed).
V curve may therefore be described as the athletes

athletic journey, whereby they initially aim to increase
strength and then attempt to apply this increase in
force potential under progressively time constrained
movement skills, specific to their sport. The
significance of using multiple loads (and therefore
velocities) may be further exampled from studies
demonstrating that neuromuscular adaptations are
specific to training velocity.70, 80, 89
Table 1 for examples), and the gradual reduction in

resistance load (i.e., %1RM) as emphasis shifts from
strength, STR-SPD, SPD-STR and finally to speed. For
example, in a review by Newton & Dugan85 it is
suggested that high-load SPD-STR training be
performed at <30%1RM and that low-load SPD-STR
training be performed at >30%1RM. In line with the
use of terminology suggested by Verkoshansky,108 these
load variations may distinguish between STR-SPD and
SPD-STR respectively. A revised schematic (Figure 4)
may further enhance the application of power training
within S&C programmes.
It may be useful to note that within S&C, velocity and

force are often regarded as synonymous with speed
and strength respectively, and hence, power is often
referred to as speed-strength. Moreover,
Verkhoshansky108 distinguishes between speed-strength
(SPD-STR) and strength-speed (STR-SPD), suggesting
these are separate training modalities pertaining to
defined areas of the curve and are an important
distinction when devising S&C programmes. According
to Siff,99 SPD-STR can be defined as the ability to
quickly execute a movement against a relatively small
external resistance and is assessed in terms of speed
of movement. Conversely, STR-SPD may be considered
as the ability to quickly execute a movement against a
relatively large external resistance and is assessed in
terms of load. These terms are intended to signify a
gradual shift in training emphasis from strength to
speed as the athlete journeys along the curve. This can
be achieved through appropriate exercise selection (see
Developing power through strength

Power is largely dependent on the ability to exert the
highest possible force (i.e., maximum strength)98, 101, 102
and can be evidenced by the high and positive
correlation between peak power and maximum
strength (r=0.77-0.94)4 in both the upper-body6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
83
and lower-body.6, 13, 88, 91 For example, significant
correlations have been found between the 1RM squat
relative to body mass and countermovement jump
(CMJ) peak power, CMJ peak velocity, and CMJ height.88
This is further corroborated by Peterson et al.,91 who
found significant linear relationships between the 1RM
squat, vertical jump peak power and all explosive
performance tests (vertical jump, broad jump, agility ttest, sprint acceleration, sprint velocity). In addition,

Table 1. Example exercises based on training emphasis. It should be noted that the emphasis of an exercise can
be altered by changes in loading. As noted above, a change in intensity will inversely affect the velocity.
Strength
Strength-Speed
Speed-Strength
Speed
Bench press
Bench press throw
Push-up claps
Seated medicine ball

throws
Squat
Squat snatch (i.e., bar starts

Power snatch from hang (i.e., bar
from the floor and catch taken starts from above the knees and
in deep squat position)
catch taken in 1/4 squat position)
Box Jumps
Shoulder shrugs
Clean pull
Power clean from hang
Bounding
Shoulder press
Push press
Split Jerk
Wheelbarrow
Baker and Newton13 reported the change in lower body

strength (1RM squat) and jump squat peak power for a
group of six elite professional rugby league players
across a 4-year period. The 14% increase in strength
and 13% increase in jump squat peak power were
highly correlated (r=0.96). Similar findings were also
reported across one season in the upper body with
both 1RM bench press and bench press throw peak
power increasing by 14%.10 Finally, Asci and Acikada4
examined the power production among different sports
with similar maximum strengths and concluded that in
order to improve power, athletes should be trained with
maximum strength methods.
Siff99 suggests that it is not difficult to corroborate the
interdependence of strength and power by using v = F
x t/m (where F = force; m = mass; a = acceleration; v
= velocity; t = time). This equation represents a
rearrangement of Newton's second law of motion: F =
ma F = m x v/t v = F x t/m. The equation (v = F
x t/m) now reveals that to increase velocity (v), it is
necessary to increase the magnitude or duration of the
force applied (or both), or decrease the mass of the
body. However, not all of these are possible as the
athlete may be unable to decrease the mass of their
body or sports apparatus, or increase the duration of
movement. Consequently, only one option remains,
namely to increase force (strength). Nuzzo et al.,88 also
uses a rearrangement of Newtons second law of
motion: a = F/m. Therefore, by increasing force output,
decreasing the mass, or both, acceleration and velocity
can be improved. Finally, the impulse-momentum
equation is also an important consideration for power
activities.16 The equation, impulse = momentum =
average force x time force acts; shows that a large
impulse is needed to produce a large change of
momentum. Again, force must predominate because of
the explosive short duration of most sports movements.
It may be deduced therefore, that maximum strength
is a key factor in developing high power outputs and
that, in order to fully develop an athletes power
potential, S&C coaches should incorporate strength

training within their periodised programmes (i.e., for
athlete populations, maximal strength gains are elicited
at a mean training intensity of 85% 1RM, 6reps, 2
days training per week, and with a mean training
volume of 8 sets per muscle group).90 Moreover,
because strength levels may only be maintained for 2
weeks,67 it is advisable to include strength sessions
throughout the entirety of a periodised programme so
as to optimise and maintain high levels of power
output.
Effect of muscle imbalances on

power output
It has also been suggested that athletes that wish to
develop power should develop and maintain strength in
the antagonists, as this may increase both limb speed
and accuracy of movement.68, 112 Athletes that display
an agonist-antagonist imbalance may exhibit
alterations in neural firing patterns leading to increased
braking times and inaccurate movement mechanics
during rapid ballistic movements.11, 68 These findings,
along with a several other studies15, 39, 71 may suggest
that throwing athletes and boxers for example, would
benefit from training pulling movements at the
shoulder joint (emphasising scapular retraction,
depression and downward rotation)71 along with the
external rotators of the rotator cuff. Moreover, the
problem of upper body muscular imbalances may be
exacerbated when athletes of this type overemphasise
the function of the pectorals.71 However, the athlete
should note that power for these movements is
generated via the powerful extension of the ankle,
knee and hip (triple extension).17, 43, 107 It appears
prudent therefore, to train the antagonist for the
purposes of power production (and not just injury
prevention); however, this concept requires additional
investigation and the development of sport specific,
dynamic testing protocols to identify any imbalances.
Table 2. Resistance exercises and training loads that elicit Pmax

Resistance Exercise
Resistance Load
Reference
Elbow flexors
30% 1RM
Kaneko et al.,70
Power cleans
80% 1RM
Cormie et al.,29
Jump squats
0% 1RM
Cormie et al.,29
Bench press throw
55% 1RM
Baker et al.,8

22
Training load to optimise power Pmax and its carryover to

performance
development
Almost 30 years ago, Kaneko et al.,70 documented the
significance of calculating and training at maximal
power output (Pmax). The authors concluded that for
the elbow flexors, Pmax occurred at 30% of maximal
isometric strength and that following 12 weeks training
at this load, maximal power output increased by 26%.
This was higher than the result of training with 0, 60 or
100% of maximal isometric force. This study likely
contributed to the common assumption that identifying
and training at Pmax is critical to performance.
Moreover, this study along with classical
experiments41, 63 that identified loading parameters for
Pmax in individual muscle fibres, likely compounded the
generalisation that loads of 30% 1RM will elicit Pmax
across all movements. However, as illustrated in
Table 2, there are exercise-specific differences in the
load where Pmax occurs and the S&C coach should be
cognizant of this.
Cormie et al.,28 suggest that S&C coaches use exercises
that produce Pmax at sport-specific loads. For example,
they suggest that the jump squat may be the most
specific mode for athletes required to produce high
velocities with light loads, such as sprinters, jumpers
and basketball and volleyball players. In contrast, the
power clean is ideal for athletes whose on field
demands dictate the need to move heavy loads as
quickly as possible, for instance, Olympic weightlifters
and football linemen. The latter point is corroborated
by Stone et al.,103 who report that weightlifters spend a
considerable amount of time training using loads of 7580% 1RM as this may optimise gains in power
production. Finally, because of the plateauing of power
output around Pmax,8, 29 the use of loads within +/- 10%
of the resistance used to attain Pmax will usually result
in the athlete training at or very close to Pmax.
Calculating Pmax: methodological

concerns
When considering the research to identify the optimal
load to develop power, the reader must be aware of
the methodology and calculations used within each
study. For example, Cormie et al.,27, 28 advise that a
force plate in combination with 2 linear transducers
should be used when measuring power output in
multidimensional, free weight movements, as this
enables the investigators to track both the vertical and
horizontal displacement of the bar. Moreover, using
both linear transducers and a force plate is preferred
as this requires fewer data manipulations.35 In addition,
for jump squats, the total system mass must be
included (i.e., external load + body mass), however, as
Pmax occurs just before take-off (normally when the
athlete reaches the 2nd pull position), shank mass
(equivalent to 12% of body mass)92 must be excluded
from the system mass.27, 28 Using this formula for
calculation, the subjects body mass corresponds to
30% of their 1RM back squat.
In summary, whilst only using one linear transducer is
invalid for determination of kinetic and kinematic
variables within research, its convenience to monitor
athlete training status in a practical setting is
acceptable.27
It may be contested that optimal power development

(i.e., carryover to competition) requires training at
loads that span the full journey of the F-V curve.
Evidence for this may be illustrated in Figures 5 to 7,
whereby focused load training is reported to produce
results specific to defined areas of the F-V curve.72, 69, 70,
80, 83
In summary of these investigations, strength
training has been shown to shift the curve upwards
with the greatest improvements at the high force end
of the F-V curve (Figure 5) and high-velocity training
shifts the maximum velocity value to the right, with
greater improvements toward the high velocity end of
the curve (Figure 6). Training at maximum power
output however, flattens the curve (Figure 7).
Based on these findings, and the fact that most sports
involve motor skills covering the entire F-V curve
(Figure 3), it may be hypothesised that to substantially
achieve improvements in power, less sport specificity is
required by using non-specific loads. This may be
further corroborated when one considers the external
loads experienced whilst tackling in a game of rugby.
For example, the ability to tackle an opponent will
depend on the opponents body position. When the
opponent is supported by only one leg such as while
running, their resistance to being tackled will be
smaller than when stationary (with a good base of
support) or running towards the tackle. The latter
examples would therefore require greater power
outputs to overcome the opponents inertia and
successfully complete the tackle and therefore support
the use of the power clean. The former example
however, may support the use of jump squats to
develop optimal power. In addition and using additional
movement skill examples, power requirements will vary
according to whether they are jumping, kicking the ball
or running (Figure 3). As previously stated, it is
evidently prudent to cover a large portion (if not all) of
the resistance loads and training velocities of the F-V
curve. This is in agreement with Harris et al.,60 who
suggest that the preoccupation of training at Pmax
may be misplaced and instead, biomechanical
specificity to the functional task should be considered
the fundamental tenet to training adaptations.
Identification of Pmax therefore, may have a greater
theoretical significance than practical relevance.
Combination training (strengthpower training)

As described by the principle of diminishing returns,
the positive effects of strength training on power
development may decline as the athletes S&C age
advances (due to diminished neuromuscular and/or
hypertrophic responses).13, 60 The addition of ballistic
training therefore may prove beneficial as it enables
the S&C coach to also target the velocity component of
the power equation (P = F x V). Ballistic exercises can
best be described as explosive movements (rapid
acceleration against resistance), whereby the body or
object is explosively subjected to full acceleration.
Essentially, these exercises manipulate the load in
order to train the velocity (and acceleration)
component of the movement skill. For example, it is
theorised that ballistic training (which emphasises the
velocity component) produces a higher rate of force

Figure 5-7. Hypothetical change in F-V curve based on training load. Figure 5 = strength training; Figure 6 =
high-velocity training; Figure 7 = training at Pmax.
development (RFD) and may therefore provide a
superior stimulus for enhancing intra- and
intermuscular coordination during sport specific
movements.51, 53, 59, 98 This is also of significance because,
while strength training may simultaneously increase
maximum strength and RFD in untrained individuals,2, 18,
19
it may have less of an effect in highly trained
athletes.73
Bompa & Carrera22 effectively summate the role and
interrelationship between strength training and
ballistics. They suggest that power is developed
through a physiological strategy involving two phases.
The first phase involves the recruitment of fast-twitch
fibres, (transformation of IIx to IIa) through strength
training as described by the size principle of motor unit
recruitment.61 This phase may be considered
fundamental due to the high correlation (r=0.75)
between the percentage of type II fibres and peak
power output and their significant contribution as
velocity increases.30 The second phase involves
increasing the discharge rates of these fibres (which
are now of a greater quantity) through ballistics and
training at loads resulting in high power outputs and
high rates of force development.
Combination training is further corroborated by Toji et
al.,105 who concluded that training the elbow flexors
using combined loads of 30 and 100% of maximal
isometric strength improved power output to a greater
extent than training with 30 and 0% of isometric
strength (this may therefore be seen as a follow-up
study to Kaneko et al.,).70 It was hypothesised that this
combined approach (i.e., strength-power training) was
more effective because of significant improvements in
both maximal force and maximal velocity, in
comparison to maximal velocity only (i.e., Pmax
training only). Similarly, Cormie et al.,28 Harris et al.,59
and Nuzzo et al.,88 concluded that when considering the
improvement of a wide variety of athletic performance
variables requiring strength, power and speed,
combination training produces superior results. The
premise of this approach is thought to result from the
additive improvements in both maximum force
(through strength training) and maximum velocity
(through power training), thus leading to a greater
enhancements in power output across the entire F-V
curve.105
Finally, Cronin et al.,31 investigated the role of maximal
strength and load in the initial 200ms of a bench press
throw. However, one movement involved the stretch
shortening cycle (SSC) and the other involved
concentric only motion. They found that while maximal
strength was important when producing power during

SSC activities across a range of external loads, there
was no relationship with concentric only motions. They
therefore suggest methods that improve the RFD for
motor performances of short duration. Similarly,
Winchester et al.,113 found significant increases in
muscle power and RFD as result of ballistic training and
these were independent of increases in strength. Whilst
many more studies are required to validate these
findings, the conclusions again support the need for
combination training as RFD seems best developed
through ballistic training methods.
It again appears apparent that high levels of strength
are the prerequisite to optimal power development and
while strength training can increase power output, it
may begin to plateau if used in isolation. At this point,
ballistics must be utilised to target the velocity
component of the power equation. These studies
further support the periodised model in line with the FV curve which illustrates that the athlete progresses
from strength training to explosive training in a logical
sequence so as to optimise power output. It should
also be noted however, that the model suggests a
training emphasis for either strength training or power
training and does not suggest that either should be
used in isolation.
Perhaps the best example of athletes involved in
combination training is Olympic Weightlifters. These
athletes are reported to produce the highest values for
isometric RFD,54, 59 power output and weighted and unweighted vertical jumps.54, 59
Explosive strength deficit

An additional concept to ensure the optimal
development of power is the explosive strength deficit
(ESD). It has become apparent that the S&C coach must
logically decipher the most appropriate training
emphasis for their athlete, i.e., strength training or
ballistics. The ESD may assist in this decision. The ESD
describes the difference between an athletes maximum
force and the peak force they attain during execution of
a movement.119 This strength deficit reflects the
percentage of maximal strength potential which is not
being used within a given motor task.99 In general, the
difference increases as time of motion decreases, as less
force can be produced.119 In movements such as takeoffs
and delivery phases in throwing, ESD is estimated to be
about 50%.119 When the ESD exceeds 50%, it is
recommended that the athlete engage in ballistic
training.119 Using Figure 8 as an example, If the athlete
had performed a countermovement jump (CMJ)

24
corresponding to trace A, then he should train ballistics.

Conversely, had the CMJ corresponded to performance
tracing B, he should train maximum strength.
The ESD concept, i.e., the identification of a deficit in
either strength or ballistic qualities of an athlete, can
be approximated and applied within the field without
the need for expensive equipment. For example,
calculating the jump height difference between the
squat jump (measure of lower body dynamic strength)
and the counter-movement jump (measure of lower
body power) may provide significant data to determine
athlete training emphasis. In general, if the difference
is large, train RFD through the use of ballistics such as
plyometrics; if the deficit is small, train strength (and
hypertrophy if applicable).99 A review by Hori et al.,65
suggests examining the 1RM power clean for high-load
SPD-STR and vertical jump for low-load SPD-STR. If
jump height is good but 1RM power clean is low, aim to
improve high-load SPD-STR for which they suggest the
use of weightlifting exercises. In the case of vice versa,
train low-load SPD-STR through the use of plyometrics.
Similar conclusions may be drawn through examining
the load difference between the 1RM squat (for
maximum strength) and the 1RM power clean. These
values may determine an increased need and
programme emphasis for either strength or high-load
SPD-STR (i.e., STR-SPD).
While the ESD concept appears attractive, readers are
advised to interpret its theory with prudence as it
seems to be largely born from empiricism. Primary
research is therefore required to address this
hypothesis with scientific rigour and provide normative
data from which S&C coaches can seek guidance.
However, the need to identify training emphasis has
been previously highlighted by Newton & Dugan.85 They
identified 7 independent qualities that contribute to an
athletes power capacity: maximum strength, high-load
SPD-STR, low load SPD-STR, RFD, reactive strength,
skill performance and power endurance. Newton and
Kraemer87 hypothesise that power development will be
optimised if the S&C coach implements programmes
that target the athletes weakest component.
Training prescription
Quality not quantity
Power production is very much a consequence of
efficient neuromuscular processes and as such,
quality should be stressed at all times. Therefore,
the effectiveness of a power programme may be
related to the quality of each repetition. It has
been hypothesised that each repetition should
achieve 90% of maximum power output or
velocity45 and that this, anecdotally, is best
achieved with the use of 3 repetitions per set, at
least 3 minutes rest between sets12, 45 and a
maximum of 5 sets.45
An additional method to ensure the quality of
repetitions is through the use of cluster training.52
This form of training involves inter-repetition rest
intervals of between 10 and 30s (interval length
depends on exercise complexity) whereby the
quality of performance is enhanced through
decreases in repetition induced fatigue. It has
been reported that following 5-9 maximal
isometric contractions (single leg), RFD, maximal
force production and rate of relaxation all
decrease.109 As an example, this deterioration
could be reduced by performing 9 repetitions as 3
clusters of 3 repetitions, with a 10 second rest
between clusters.
Continued maximal contractions result in
significant reductions of ATP and phosphocreatine
(PCr) stores, increases in lactate concentrations
and concurrent reductions in force output.95 Interrepetition rest intervals may result in some
replenishment of PCr stores and therefore a delay
in the use of muscle glycogen and subsequent
production of lactic acid and lactate.52 It is
therefore hypothesised that quality of exercise
performance is enhanced through decreases in
repetition induced fatigue, and that cluster
training may be regarded as a valid method to
reduce the deterioration in power output across a
set.12, 50
In addition, cluster sets can be utilised in
exercises in which maintenance of power and/or
velocity is considered a critical factor during
ballistic movements. For this purpose, the set can
be undulated whereby during the inter-repetition
rest period, the load is reduced to compensate for
fatigue and subsequent loss of power output.52
Figure 8. Hypothetical schematic illustrating the ESD

between 1RM back squat and CMJ A and B. If the
athlete had performed a CMJ corresponding to trace A,
then he should train ballistics. Conversely, had the CMJ
corresponded to performance tracing B, he should train
maximum strength.
For the reasons mentioned above, it is generally

advised to perform power training in a nonfatigued state, whereby neural adaptations can be
enhanced via a more optimal training stimulus.
Many high-power sports motor skills however, are
required to be executed under fatigued conditions
and thus power-training whilst fatigued may hold
some sport specificity. However, through a review
conducted by Wilson and Flanagan,111 it was
concluded that safety may be compromised due
to a diminished capacity of the neuromuscular
system to deal with impact loadings during
activities such as plyometrics and power cleans.
They further speculate that S&C coaches should
be aware that despite the possible sport
specificity afforded by performing power activities
in the fatigued state, more research in this area is
required to establish precise adaptations.

motor units.1 Because RFD is a function of

neuromuscular activation97 and is representative of an
individuals ability to accelerate objects,98 many
authors recommend ballistic (explosive) training to
improve this quality.19, 51, 55, 56, 113 Moreover, the force
generated in the first 30ms has been termed the
starting strength while the peak RFD has been termed
explosive strength98 (Figure 10). Both qualities are
necessary to accelerate light loads, with explosive
strength becoming increasingly significant as the load
increases.82 In addition, it is generally recognised that
while heavy resistance training improves the final
height of the force-time (F-T) curve, ballistic training
improves the slope of the initial portion of the F-T
curve, specifically within the first 200ms55 to 300ms86
(Figure 10).
Ballistic exercises can best be described as explosive
movements, (rapid acceleration against resistance)
whereby the body or object is explosively subjected to
full acceleration. Full acceleration is an important term
within this definition as athletes often perform speed
repetitions under the illusion that they are improving
RFD. However, using the example of speed repetitions
performed on a bench press, this misconception can be
dispelled through the study conducted by Newton et
al.87 These researchers revealed that during the final
half of the repetition, power decreased significantly in
order to decelerate the bar and reach zero velocity. This
is to enable the athlete to maintain a hold of the bar
without injury to the shoulder and/or arm joints. It has
been reported that deceleration accounts for 24% of the
movement with a heavy weight and 52% of the
movement with a light weight.40 When the weight could
be released however, (through the use of a smith
machine or vertical chest press for example) power and
acceleration could be enhanced throughout the entire
range of motion.87 Newton et al.,87 reported that ballistic
movements therefore produce significantly higher
outputs for average velocity, peak velocity, average
force, average power and peak power throughout the
lift, especially during the later stages. Moreover,
according to Clark et al.,26 ballistic bench press throws,
even under loading conditions that would severely
restrict the ability to propel the barbell, are superior to
the traditional bench press in terms of force production.
Rate of force development and

ballistic training
Table 3 illustrates that S&C coaches must also be
aware of the time available within a sports motor skill
to produce maximum force. It has been hypothesised
that maximum force takes 0.25 0.4s to develop1, 119
but may require up to 0.6 to 0.8 s.38, 75 The time delay
in reaching peak force is in part due to the finite rate
of increase of muscle stimulation by the central
nervous system, the propagation of the action potential
on the muscle membrane, time constraints of calcium
release and cross-bridge formation and the interaction
between the contractile elements and the series elastic
components.21, 84, 117 This delay in reactivity is known as
the electromechanical delay (EMD) and describes the
interval between the time of onset of muscle activity
and the time of onset of mechanical output.24, 84 The
EMD is consequential to commencing movement from
zero to low muscular tension and its negative effects
can reduced by enabling the muscle to build up tension
(e.g., through preloading or a countermovement) prior
to the initiation of movement.21, 117
The vast majority of athletic movements however, occur
within 0.251,103 to 0.3s117 and therefore the opportunity
to develop peak force is not a time luxury afforded to
most athletes. This data suggests that during quickly
executed motor skills, the strongest athletes are not
necessarily at an advantage but rather those who can
produce the greatest force (strength) in the shortest
time. Using the example illustrated in Figure 9, athlete
A would be at an advantage if the sports movement
was time dependent (e.g. a jab in boxing) whereas
athlete B would be at an advantage if maximum
strength values were the objective within a non-time
constrained movement task (e.g. powerlifting).
It is hypothesised that if the time available for force
development is less than 0.3s, training should focus on
improving RFD1, 86, 98, 119 as this makes it possible to
reach higher forces and velocities during fast
movements.1 RFD may be defined as the change in
force development divided by the change in time104 and
is enhanced with an increase in efferent neural drive,
particularly by increases in the firing frequency of
Table 3. Duration of explosive force production in various athletic movements (M = males F = females)
(adapted from Zatsiorsky)117.
Sport and Motion
Resistance Load
Reference
Take-off
Sprint running
0.101 (M)
Mero and Komi81
0.108 (F)
Long jump
0.105 0.125 (M)
High Jump
0.15-0.23 (M)
Zatsiorsky118
Dapena32
0.14-0.14 (F)
Platform diving
1.33 (standing take-off)
Miller82
0.15 (Running dives)

Ski jumping
0.25-0.30
Komi and Virmavirta76
Delivery
Shot putting
0.22-0.27 (M)

26
Lanka78
Figure 9. Athlete A vs. Athlete B. Athlete A would be at

an advantage if the sports movement was time
dependent, whereas athlete B would be at an
advantage if maximum strength values were the
objective.
In essence, unless full acceleration is ensured, the
athlete is merely training the neuromuscular system to
decelerate the barbell to ensure zero outputs for
velocity, force and power at the end range of motion
when arguably the highest of these values should be
attained. It should also be noted that deceleration is
often an inherent issue with single-joint exercises when
training for power development and therefore exercise
selection requires careful scrutiny.
Reviews by Flanagan and Comyns44 and Hori et al.,66
recommended the use of plyometric training and
Olympic lifts respectively to train RFD, as in addition to
their ability to be adapted to the specifics of the sport,
they encourage full acceleration with zero velocity
achieved only by the effects of gravity. For example,
weightlifting exercises allow the athlete to accelerate
the barbell through the entire range of motion and
does not actively require the athlete to decelerate the
barbell velocity. Instead, the barbells upward
movement is controlled by the influence of gravity. In
addition, Olympic lifts produce some of the highest
power outputs of any exercise modality. For example,
Garhammer47 reported that the snatch and clean andjerk exhibit much greater power outputs compared
with the squat and deadlift. For example, the relatively
slow velocities involved in powerlifting (i.e., back squat,
deadlift and bench press) produce approximately 12
watts per kiliogram of body weight.47 However, during
the second pull phase of both the clean and snatch, an
average of 52 watts per kiliogram of body weight is
produced.47 Because of these characteristics, it has
been speculated that weightlifting exercises are
beneficial in improving an athletes capability of power
production.25, 66, 86
Figure 10. Hypothetical isometric F-T curve.
These studies however, used subjects with no

resistance training experience and adaptations were
likely to be predominantly neural in nature.
Contradictory research from Kaneko et al.,70 and
McBride et al.,80 suggests that training adaptations are
velocity dependent and Pereira and Gomes89 suggest
that training adaptations are greatest at or near the
training velocity. In support, Blazevich et al.,20 reported
that training with light loads (e.g., body weight jumps
and sprints) decreased the fascicle angle
demonstrating an architectural adaptation favouring
speed of movement. Conversely, concurrent body
weight power exercises and heavy resistance training
increased the fascicle angle, thus favouring force
production. This is in agreement with Duchateau and
Hainaut34 who reported that RFD explained the speed of
movement for small loads, and maximal strength
explained the speed of movement for heavy loads. The
investigators further reported that the latter may be
explained by changes in cross sectional area whereas
the former maybe due to increased myosin ATPase
activity and/or calcium release from the sarcoplasmic
reticulum. In addition, the quality and/or quantity of
sarcoplasmic reticulum may have been improved.
Kawakormi and Newton73 speculate that both neural
and muscular adaptations contribute to the forcevelocity-power relationship and it remains unclear
whether these adaptations are consequential to the
shortening velocity of muscle fibres or the frequency of
neural input.
Finally, it is important to note that the intention to
move explosively is important regardless of the load
and that this should therefore be stressed when
training athletes.3, 42, 115
Velocity specificity
Post activation potentiation
Velocity specificity is an essential consideration when

designing S&C programmes. It was previously
suggested that the intention to move explosively is
more important than the actual velocity.18, 19 The
researchers hypothesised that because rapid ballistic
movements utilise feed-forward mechanisms (i.e., they
are pre-programmed and therefore do not rely on
proprioceptive feedback), the stimulus for adaption is
the same between differing loads and velocities.18
Pre-competition warm-up
Recently, investigators have researched the inclusion of
S&C type exercises within a warm-up routine such as
half squats,48 drop jumps62 and plyometrics.79 This
modern warm-up protocol has provided successful
results in enhancing power output during the
subsequent event or practice session and is likely due
to improvements in acceleration, RFD and force

production.62 Mechanisms for this enhanced

performance have been attributed to the phenomenon
known as post activation potentiation (PAP)114 which
describes an increased twitch contraction force
following maximal or near maximal contractions62
generally of 3-5RM.33 In addition, if PAP is to be
optimised, the movement in which the potentiation
effect is to be realised should be biomechanically
similar to the exercise it followed.33, 49, 116 An example
would be 3 repetitions of the squat at 3RM followed by
a vertical jump, or 5 repetitions of the bench press at
5RM followed by a bench press throw. The exact
mechanism of PAP remains unclear but may be due to
an enhanced neuromuscular drive64 or muscular factors
such as increased phosphorylation of myosin regulatory
light chains62, 95, 114 and increased activity of myosin light
chain kinase.96 Despite the mechanisms involved, the
end result is likely greater and faster cross-bridge
attachments allowing the muscle to generate more
force.96
A study by Chatzopoulos et al.,23 demonstrated the
benefits of using PAP prior to a sports event. In their
investigation, 10 single repetitions of the back squat
performed at 90%1RM, followed by a 5 minute rest
period significantly (p<0.05) improved 10 and 30m
sprint times. They concluded that heavy resistance
training could be used to enhance running speed and
acceleration during training or competition. Similar
results were reported by Yetter and Moir114 who
suggested that heavy back squats performed 4 minutes
before multiple sprint trials can significantly increase
speed. The use of PAP prior to sports competitions is
therefore an exciting prospect that may provide the
athlete with an ergogenic advantage.
The conclusion can therefore be made that the
contractile history of skeletal muscle affects
subsequent performance. However, careful programme
design is required as the contractile history may
present itself as a decrease in performance due to the
effects of fatigue (neurologic and metabolic) or an
increase in performance due to the effects of
potentiation.93, 94 For example, research suggests that
total contraction time should be less than 10s to avoid
fatigue which would reduce the positive effect of PAP.46,
106
In addition, the dominant effect will likely be
determined by the rest period, whereby there must be
adequate time to dissipate fatigue but not so much as
to decrease the potentiation effect.14, 74, 110 Rest periods
have varied from 15s to 18.5mins, but are generally
recommend at 3-4mins rest between the preload
activity and the performance measure.33 The optimal
point however, appears very individualistic and subject
to much debate. Kilduff et al.,74 concluded that
potentiation resulting from heavy strength repetitions
are realised following 8 to 12 minutes for lower body
exercises and 12 minutes for upper body exercises.
This was measured in elite rugby players however, and
its applicability to other athletes is debateable.
Furthermore, the efficacy of PAP may be dependent on
training experience, strength levels, repeated exposure
to potentiation training33 and the muscles
concentrations of type IIa/x fibres.30, 58, 62 In addition, it
is in the opinion of the author that sufficient strength
training experience is needed to allow for adaptation of
the endocrine system, whereby increases in
testosterone (TST) are noted. This may allow for
increased TST-nervous interactions thus further
facilitating PAP. The former hypothesis is yet to be
elucidated but if it were true, it would suggest that PAP
would be most effective following 2years strength

training when increases in TST concentrations are most
significant.57, 77
It may therefore be advisable that in order to capitalise
on the benefits of PAP, S&C coaches need to determine
this data separately for each athlete and for each
exercise. In addition, athletes need to first be
accustomed to strength training, enabling them to
recruit sufficient type II fibres and have an
appropriately developed neuromuscular system with
respect to the involved exercises/movement patterns.
Moreover, even if PAP were effective, the question
arises of whether it could be logistically included into
S&C sessions, i.e. the S&C coach would have to
implement rest periods of up to 8-12 minutes. This
may suggest that it is best utilised as an ergogenic
warm-up intervention.
Complex training
PAP may also be utilised within the S&C session and is
termed complex training. In a review by Ebben,36 it was
concluded that this method was at least as effective if
not superior to additional combinations of resistance
training and plyometric training. Mixed results however,
have been reported as complex training usually infers
the use of a heavy loaded exercise (1-5RM) quickly
followed by a biomechanically similar plyometric
exercise in a set-for-set combination.33, 49, 116 As discussed
above, this may not allow for the dissipation of fatigue
and consequently mask any potentiation effect.
However, if rest intervals are appropriately determined,
and exercises logically sequenced (to further manage
fatigue and potentiation) its inclusion within S&C
programmes may be an effective method for enhancing
power.49, 116 For example, Stone et al.,104 presents the use
of complex pairs such as shoulder shrugs followed by
power snatches and clean pulls and 1/3 squats followed
by speed squats. These complexes however, are not
performed as a set for set combination but as a single
strength set prior to each ballistic exercise.
It is also worth noting that, assuming complex training
is not effective, then at worst it is not reported to be
detrimental and at least provides organisational
advantages.37 This is of particular significance to S&C
coaches who are limited to one or two S&C sessions
per week with their athlete. They must therefore
manage their time efficiently to allow the inclusion of
strength training methods and ballistics such as
weightlifting and plyometrics. Complex training can
effectively utilise the rest period with exercises such as
plyometrics. Moreover, a strength training set may
precede weightlifting or plyometric exercises allowing
not only for a possible potentiation affect, but for the
maintenance of athlete strength levels (the importance
of which, was highlighted earlier in this article).
Conclusion
The F-V curve may be used to describe the changing
emphasis of S&C programmes, whereby the athletes
initial focus (following achievement of a sufficient work
capacity, usually through the strength-endurance
phase) is on strength development. From this phase
the athlete should see positive adaptations in
neuromuscular programming and an increase in type
IIa fibres. These adaptations can then be exploited to
further enhance power and velocity through ballistic
exercises utilising full acceleration. Furthermore,
because strength is seen as the prerequisite of power,
and as performance levels may only be maintained for

28
2 weeks, strength training should be incorporated

throughout the entire cycle, albeit with a regression in
frequency. In addition, antagonistic muscle strength
should be progressed in line with agonist adaptations
to ensure optimal neuromuscular programming and
reductions in injury potential.
Rather than focusing on an athletes Pmax, it may be
prudent to cover a larger range of loads to
accommodate the ever changing resistance and
velocities experienced during competition. This is also
important as adaptations appear specific to training
load (i.e., %1RM) and velocity. Towards the peaking
phase however, resistance loads can be concentrated at
that which is most frequently experienced during
competition. For single event sports such as shot put,
javelin and weightlifting, it may be appropriate to train
within narrow loads of the sports implement, focusing
just above and below the load (to train type IIa
recruitment and neural discharge respectively).
However, strength training and plyometric drills are
often part of their programme which inevitably entails

training the full curve.
When training strength and power, cluster sets are
recommended as they better maintain output values of
all key variables, e.g., force, velocity and power, and
can be manipulated to ensure output is 90%
maximum. This can be further ensured with repetitions
of 3, 5 sets and rest periods of 3 minutes. It is also
important to note that the intention to move
explosively at a given load is important regardless of
the load and that this should therefore be stressed
when training athletes.
Finally, complex training utilising PAP may be an
efficient means to enhancing power output providing
fatigue is well managed. At worst it provides
organisational advantages when time efficiency
becomes paramount. In such a scenario, the heavy
preload set may serve to maintain strength levels and
the rest period may provide the opportunity to
integrate plyometric drills.
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32
The Five People

you Meet in
Heaven
Nick Ward is the series Editor for The
Five People you Meet in Heaven
Significant stops on a journey to becoming an

S&C coach
Nick Ward MSc, CSCS
Overview
Mitch Alboms book, The Five People you Meet in Heaven,
inspires the theme for this short series of articles. Based on
interesting, inspiring and challenging people we meet on our
journey, the purpose is to share experiences that people have
had along the way, and which hold some significance for their
own development.
Kate Eddy interviews Brian Ashton

Background
Brian Ashton (below) joined Team Bath in 2008 as a consultant
Director of Coaching. He works alongside Team Bath's coaches and
support staff, in the areas of coach development and education,
applying his expertise in the principals of high level performance.
Kate Eddy is the head strength and

conditioning coach for the University of
Bath where she currently works with a
range of TASS athletes and leads strength
and conditioning support for British Beach
Volleyball. Kates first experience within
strength and conditioning was a part time
role assisting with the Bath Rugby
Academy in the 2003/04 season. Kate
went on to work with a range of sports and
athletes at the University of Bath
developing a particular interest and
expertise in strength and conditioning
coaching for judo, and has been involved
in the preparation of several international
judoka for major championships. She
achieved UKSCA accreditation in 2005
and is currently studying for a professional
doctorate in health. In addition to strength
and conditioning coaching Kate is a
practicing Level 3 RFU coach
Lancastrian Ashton was born in Leigh, and went to school in Leigh

and Lancaster before studying History and Education at Leicester
University. He went on to become a teacher and then rugby coach
after a playing career which included an England touring side
selection. Ashton coached Bath Rugby either as Assistant or Head
Coach between 1989 and 1997. He also coached Ireland before
moving on to an assistant role with England and then shouldered the
main role when England reached the World Cup final in 2007 and
2008. He was England National Academy Manager from 2002 2006
where he had unparalleled success in identifying and nurturing young
players who have since gone on to full England or Saxons
representation.
Brian Ashton

Over the past few months, Team Baths strength and

conditioning coaches have been able to benefit from
working with Brian in the discussion and analysis of
coaching approaches and skills in strength and
conditioning. During these sessions, Brian has
challenged the team and individuals within the team,
to explore a range of methods and approaches in
coaching strength and conditioning sessions, reflect
upon their skills and performances and integrate
strength and conditioning within high performance
training environments. The following interview was
conducted in May this year, and I hope it will promote
the importance of the coaching process within the
S&C profession, as well as offering a fascinating
insight into Brains approach and philosophy towards
high performance sports coaching.
KE: How would you describe your philosophy or
approach to coaching? And can you explain how it
developed?
BA: Ill start with the second part of your question.
Its taken me a long period of time to arrive at my
present position. Ive been coaching since 1969 when
I started teaching, which is 40 years ago. I like to
think of myself as a facilitative coach, someone who
facilitates learning environments in which players
and teams can improve. I very much buy into the
principle that players and management take a joint
ownership of what theyre doing, and that coaches
who only dictate to players are missing a trick. So I
think thats probably where I stand at the moment,
but its taken quite a while to get there because I
actually began, as most school teachers do and
unfortunately most of them stay, (as indeed do a lot
of coaches) on the dictatorial side of things where
they say: I want to be in control, this is the way
you do it, its my way or the highway, if you dont
like it then tough luck. The bizarre thing that Ive
discovered in professional rugby is that a lot of
professional players prefer to be told what to do
because its a fantastic fall back position for them if
things go wrong. They then have someone to blame
rather than accept any responsibility themselves. I
find this very sad as I feel these players never even
remotely achieve their full potential.
KE: I think it can be similar in S&C coaching which is
what we will be getting on to. So how did you get to
this approach?
BA: I suppose really its been hidden away inside me
for years. I was brought up in a south Lancashire
terraced coal mining community which was my
background to actually learning to play games. I
wasnt coached at all. We used to play 4-a-side, 4v3,
5v4 touch rugby league on a cobbled street, where
there was no referee and no coaches. We picked our
own teams, had pretty poor equipment, but we had
the most fantastic fun. I played in 3 rugby league
challenge cup finals before the age of 7! We had
complete responsibility for everything that went on
and I am pretty sure that philosophy stuck with me
and has surfaced during my coaching development. I
firmly believe that coaches must involve players in
planning and implementation of strategy and tactics,
so when they actually get into the arena of
competition they are comfortable in implementing a
game in which they have had an input.
KE: Do you think its confidence or bravery to

actually take the step to coaching like that, or did it
just evolve?
BA: Well it did evolve, but I think there is an
element of courage in it. A coach needs to have the
courage to fail. It can be a great springboard for
future success. Ive been down blind alleys, and I
think its the way that my sort of coaching evolves.
The authoritative coach who likes to be in total
control actually very often has a weak personality
because he or she doesnt like to be challenged and
will just continue to coach in the same way all the
way through their careers. How dull and boring must
that be?
KE: Youve obviously had a lot of success developing
other coaches through the RFU national academy and
in the work that you are doing now. Can you
describe the approach that you take when working
with other coaches?
BA: Yes, well bizarrely enough, Ive just come off the
back of an hour and a half working with one of the
netball coaches here, Jo Binns, and weve done what
I call the blank paper exercise. This is something
that should be done on a regular basis. All that is
required is a blank sheet of A4 and an hour to
discuss past, future and creative ways of coaching in
whatever sport. Effectively, we are trying to change
the nature of how we coach and how any game is
played. It is very important to be reflective and
futuristic at the same time, otherwise a coach can
very easily sit in the comfort zone and remain there.
So I think being critical is very important, having
someone, and not necessarily someone whos
involved in your sport, to reflect with and challenge
you is essential. I have a mentor, who challenges me
on a regular basis, Im actually seeing him
tomorrow, an ex-commander from the special forces,
(Special Boat Services). He challenges me in a
developmental questioning sort of way: Why did you
do that? Could you have found a better way? Are you
still coaching as you did last year? If so, why? Is
your coaching style the same as the last person who
coached you? The last question I think is very
pertinent, because many coaches adopt the method
of their own coach, which means that it is very
difficult to make any progress in developing the
sport.
So its a case of constantly challenging coaches. I
learned a lot from John Buchanan, the Australian test
cricket coach. He was appointed never having played
International Cricket, having a spell without great
success at Middlesex, but he got the top job in World
Cricket. I asked him what was your opening remark
to the Australian squad when you first met them? He
said I asked them to change the nature of test
match cricket; to score four and a half runs an over
from the very first ball of the next test The players
accepted the challenge and succeeded with it!
KE: Why do you think coaching style or coaching
approach could be important in strength and
conditioning coaching?
BA: Well, Im not an expert in strength and
conditioning coaching, although Ive worked with
some very good ones in the sphere of rugby, but I

34
obviously know other strength and conditioning

coaches like yourself who Ive worked with in different
ways. Its always struck me, and I may be completely
wide of the mark here, no doubt youll tell me, but
actually strength and conditioning probably lends
itself to a fairly disciplined approach, because of the
nature of the work involved. However my thoughts
are that there is still an element in strength and
conditioning coaching where the athlete can play a
significant role. Only through this do I feel that the
coach and the athlete can have the sort of working
relationship where both can achieve their full
potential.
consider the coaching side to be very important and

that it is maybe the most important part.
KE: So, from what you know having worked with

other strength and conditioning coaches, can you
think of an example of how the strength and
conditioning profession would improve by developing
coaching skills?
BA: Precisely, yes.
BA: Yes, Ive seen it in action. I worked with Dave

Reddin, who was the strength and conditioning coach
for England rugby for a number of years. He came
from a football background, but was very proactive in
discovering as much as he could about the game of
rugby. It was really important that he was the main
figure in team warm ups before training sessions and
games. Over the years we developed warm ups that
combined Physiology, Neurology and Technical and
Game Understanding elements. These let to a natural
progression into the sessions or matches.
KE: In which case, how expert do you think an S&C
coach has to be in the sport that theyre involved in?
BA: I do think its important, and I do get concerned

about the number of specialists operating in top level
sport especially in technical areas. It still does not
seem to stop them pontificating about how the overall
game should be played, even though their role often
means they dont see the bigger picture.
KE: Which potentially could be a dangerous route that
S&C coaches could get caught up in if they dont
become part of the team and they just focus in on
strength or power or whichever part.
KE: Ok, finally, do you have some specific examples can you describe a best practice or ground breaking
example of coaching that youve seen within strength
and conditioning practice or with someone youve
worked with or heard about?
BA: Yes, during the preparation phase for the 2007
World Cup, a knee specialist from America, Bill
Knowles, did some unique work with three of our
players. All three were recovering from serious leg
injuries. In the normal course of events none of the
three should have been fit for selection. Ultimately all
three were. He did a lot of field and games based
rehab work allied to the strength work he was doing
in the gym. Certainly I had never seen anyone
operate and push players to their limits in this way
before.
BA: Obviously it is very difficult to become an

expert, but I think that it is important for S&C
coaches to integrate closely with the coaching staff so
that conditioning and warm ups are relevant to the
demands of the game that the players are going to
play.
I definitely think there is the capacity for

inventiveness in every coach, be it technical, tactical
or strength and conditioning. But because many
coaches like to sit in control in a comfort zone they
never push themselves nor the people around them.
They do not have the courage to fail and so inevitably
limit their own and their players success.
KE: As a rugby coach, when youve worked with

strength and conditioning professionals, do you see
them as a support service or as part of the coaching
team?
He who does not dare to take risks achieves

nothing in life. Muhammad Ali
BA: I think its very important that they are both seen
as a support service and also an integral part of the
management team. Just like any other element of the
team e.g. medical, the work that they do needs to
push players towards achieving the vision of the
coach. What is vital, is that the strength and
conditioning coaches dovetail with the technical staff
to make sure that their work is in line with how the
players are going to play, i.e. a conditioning
programme that is predominantly strength and power
based does not necessarily suit a game that is CV
based and vice versa.
KE: But again they need to have that link with the
coach to understand the outcome and the game plan.
BA: Well precisely yes. They need to be part and
parcel of what the coaches thoughts are. This is how I
want to play, this is why I want to play like it, and
this is the sort of player Id like to produce if possible.
KE: In some areas of the S&C profession, the terms
specialist and scientist are sometimes used rather
than coach, so I find it quite interesting that you
With thanks to Brian Ashton
If you have an interesting individual

you would like us to meet, why not
submit a similar article for the next
edition? Additionally, anybody wishing
to discuss any of the issues raised in
this column should initially contact the
column editor, Nick Ward, who will
forward your comments to Brian
Ashton.


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ISSN 1757-5834

The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association

No. 14 SUMMER 2009

EXERCISE OF THE MONTH THE PULL

ANALYSIS OF BODY COMPOSITION

ANNUAL CONFERENCE REVIEW

FLEXIBILITY - THE MISSING LINK

TRAINING FOR POWER: PRINCIPLES

THE FIVE PEOPLE YOU MEET IN

1 Woodville Terrace, Lytham,

ver the last few months, I have been fortunate to sit on a

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

UKSCA | Issue 14 | Summer 2009 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

EXERCISE OF THE MONTH

The Pull the development

Paul Coyle was a competitive weightlifter,

Stuart is the current English Institute of

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

The 5 stages that will be described are:

moves up the line of the shin the following occurs:

Stage 1 start position get set

1) The athlete will drive forcefully into the floor

Stage 2 moving the weight from floor to below

2) The knees will begin to extend

Stage 3 as the bar passes the knees

4) The angle of the torso will remain constant

Stage 4 as the bar moves to mid thigh

5) The distribution of weight through the foot will begin

Stage 1 Start Position

3) As the knees extend the hips move back

6) Lumbar lordosis and thoracic extension will remain

2) Thoracic spine extended and tight

Stage 2 Floor to below knees

Why are these problems?

Loss of lumbar lordosis kyphotic

1) This position will increase the

Thoracic extension exercises with foam roller

through thoracic spine (Figure 2)

Shoulders protracted second pause 2) If poor posture is maintained the

ability to utilise the posterior chain

Scapula retraction strength assistance

Hip mobility flexibility around gluteus

Raise height of bar with use of blocks

Full range squats

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

UKSCA | Issue 14 | Summer 2009 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

Table 2 - Stage 2 Faults

Why are these problems?

2) Results in bar being too far away from body

It is vital the faults highlighted in table 2 are corrected.

Stage 3 Bar passes knees

Stage 4 Bar moves to mid thigh

1) Knees are slightly flexed

2. The weight distribution through the foot begins to

2) Shoulder line is in front of the bar

3. The shoulders remain in front of bar

3) Weight distribution is through the heel

4. The knees begin to move forward from behind the

4) Back is flat and torso angle has been maintained

5. As knees move forward, the degree of flexion

Table 3 - Stage 3 Faults

Why are these problems?

Shoulders behind bar