PSC Issue 30

The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association
PROFESSIONAL
STRENGTH & CONDITIONING
30
issue
september
2013
HIGH-INTENSITY FOOTBALL TRAINING

HAMSTRING CONDITIONING
AVOIDING CONFLICT AS A S&C COACH
UKSCA Events
UKSCA Workshops
These are just a selection of the dates planned for the next six months. Please see our website
for the latest dates and availability, as demand is high and new dates/venues are being added
every week.
Foundation Workshop in Strength and Conditioning
The Foundation workshop is aimed at anyone looking to enter the profession and wanting
a clear and progressive development pathway. Also to anyone wishing to add best practice
strength and conditioning to their existing roles e.g. PE teachers, sports specific coaches,
personal trainers, undergraduate students etc.
19-20 October 2013 London
19-20 October 2013 Pitreavie, Scotland
23-24 November 2013 Belfast
7-8 December 2013 - Sheffield
25-26 January 2104 Loughborough
1-2 February 2014 Newcastle

22-23 February 2014 Pitreavie, Scotland
1-2 March 2014 Belfast
22-23 March 2014 - Loughborough
Planning Effective Programmes Workshop

This two-day workshop is designed as preparation for those looking to become UKSCA
Accredited and for those looking to improve their skills in enhancing their planning and
programming skills in strength & conditioning. The content is based on best practice supported
by scientific evidence and will provide you with the knowledge and understanding to create
effective programmes to improve sports performance.
26-27 October 2013 Heathrow, London
2-3 November 1013 Leeds
30 Nov 1 Dec Heathrow, London
18-19 January 2014 Leeds
1-2 February 2014 Belfast

15-15 February 2014 Heathrow, London
29-30 March 2014 Birmingham
Plyometrics, Agility and Speed Workshop

This two-day, practical workshop is designed as preparation for those looking to become
UKSCA Accredited and for those looking to introduce plyo, agility and speed exercises into their
strength & conditioning programmes. It covers key technical and coaching points as well as
providing the knowledge to plan into training programmes to improve sports performance.
12-13 October 2013 Sheffield
19-20 October 2012 Sheffield
2-3 November 2013 London
26-26 January 2014 Sheffield

Tbc February 2014 London
Weight Lifting for Sports Performance Workshop

This two-day, practical workshop is designed as preparation for those looking to become
UKSCA Accredited and for those looking to introduce Olympic lifts into their strength &
conditioning programmes. It covers key technical and coaching points of the lifts and their
derivatives, teaching you to be a better lifter, how to coach lifts and also how to incorporate
them into training programmes.
5-6 October 2013 Bath
12-13 October 2013 Belfast
23-24 November 2013 London
7-8 December 2013 Leeds
18-19 January 2014 London

8-9 February 2014 Leeds
29-30 March 2014 Belfast
UKSCAs tutors are selected from the UKs top S&C Coaches
ISSUE 30 / SEPTEMBER 2013
UK S CA
CONTRIBUTORS
Contents
EDITOR
Ian Jeffreys PhD, FNSCA, ASCC, CSCS*D
EDITORIAL PANEL
Raphael Brandon MSc, ASCC
Clive Brewer MSc, BSc(Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Marco Cardinale PhD, ASCC
Dave Clark MSc, ASCC
Paul Comfort MSc, ASCC
Audrey Duncan PhD, ASCC
Mike Favre MSc, ASCC
Duncan French PhD, ASCC
Jon Goodwin MSc, PGCHE, ASCC, CSCS
Greg Haff PhD, ASCC, FNSCA, CSCS
Liam Kilduff PhD
Rhodri Lloyd PhD, CSCS*D, ASCC
Jeremy Moody PhD, ASCC
Phil Moreland BAppSci, AssocDip, ASCC
Jeremy Sheppard PhD, CSCS
Narelle Sibte BAppSci, Grad Dip, ASCC
Alan Sinclair MSc, ASCC, CSCS
Gil Stevenson BEd (Hons), ASCC
Margaret Stone MSc, ASCC
Michael Stone PhD, ASCC
Mark Simpson MSc, ASCC
Graham Turner MSc, BEd (Hons), ASCC
COLUMN EDITORS
Graeme Close PhD, ASCC
Nick Ward MSc, CSCS, ASCC
Dan Cleather PhD
04
EDITORS LETTER
05
NEWS
09
HIGH-INTENSITY FOOTBALL TRAINING
15
COACHING: AVOIDING CONFLICT
19
THE HAMSTRINGS
27
COMPLEX AND CONTRAST TRAINING
MANAGING EDITOR
Mary Fogarty
GRAPHIC DESIGN
Olivia Holborn
ISSN 1757-5834
www.uksca.org.uk
P R O F E SS I O N A L S T R E N GT H & C O N D I T I O N I N G / W W W. U K S CA . O R G . U K
03
EDITORS LETTER
Letter from the Editor

Preparing the editorial for this
edition of Professional Strength &
Conditioning I reflect on the words of
the French writer Alphonse Carr, who
said that the more things change the
more they stay the same. So, although
this issue of the journal looks
reasonably similar to the previous
issue, processes behind the scenes
have changed considerably. Whereas
previously the editorship of the
journal was a role within the Board of
Directors of the UKSCA, this role has
now become a separate appointment.
The idea was that this would provide
a level of continuity for the journal as
it moves forward. In being selected
as the first independent editor of
Professional Strength & Conditioning,
I would like to thank the Board of the
UKSCA for their trust in my ability to
deliver a quality journal that reflects
the full breadth of the strength and
conditioning industry in the UK.
Over the years, what has always struck
me is the incredible diversity covered
by the term strength and conditioning,
and how expertise in one single area
cannot always guarantee success
in the coaching arena. Similarly,
although there are always tried and
tested methods, new methods and
technologies are constantly emerging
in the field. Hence, it remains a critical
skill to be able to stay abreast of and
evaluate developments and where
appropriate to integrate these into
effective programmes, without losing
sight of the coachs key philosophy.
Articles in this edition reflect all of
these trends, expressing innovative
thinking, scientific rigour, and the
application of new technologies.
The pure and applied science of
strength and conditioning can be
clearly seen in the second part of
the article on complex and contrast
training on page 27, by Paul Jones,
Theodoros Bampouras and Paul
04
Comfort. Here the scientific principles

underpinning the methods outlined
in part one are used to guide applied
practice. The team have rigorously
searched and analysed the literature
to produce an outstanding review of
the whole topic area, which provides
an excellent base for anyone wishing
to exploit these training methods.
provides an excellent overview of

the work that they currently do, its
theoretical basis, and an explanation
of how technology has allowed them
to validate their approaches, and also
constantly to monitor the work that
they do.
In a similar vein, Graham Turner and

Alex Goodrich have addressed an
issue that continues to be the scourge
of many professional sports stars,
that of hamstring function and injury.
Taking a detailed anatomical and
functional approach of the hamstring
muscles, they have examined
common issues regarding injury and
performance and used this to design
common sense approaches to the
training of hamstring function.
It is often said that innovation lies

at the edges of disciplines. Although
focus in strength and conditioning is
normally on what we do, less focus is
placed on how we do it. What must
always be remembered is that, in the
majority of cases, our coaching does
not occur in isolation. Instead we are
often part of a wider performance
team of diverse individuals, delivering
a range of performance inputs. We
may have a huge expertise in our own
specialism, but unless we can work
effectively within a team, we will never
be as effective as we should be.
We may have a huge

expertise in our own
specialism, but
unless we can work
effectively within
a team, we will never
be as effective as
we should be
In the coaching column of this

issue on page 15, Mark Williams
utilises the work of Dale Carnegie
amongst others to examine the role
of interpersonal relationships in
strength and conditioning. Although
not traditionally associated with this
field, Marks article highlights some
real opportunities to improve our
practice through the enhancement of
our interpersonal abilities.
A key element of effective strength

and conditioning is that it is part of a
total performance team and, as such,
often has to fit in with numerous
demands for training time. This often
requires innovative approaches to the
development of fitness capacities.
Carl Wells and Chris Hattersley
outline the approach they take with
Sheffield Wednesday Football Club,
which integrates conditioning work
with skill development. This article
I hope this edition of Professional

Strength & Conditioning will be
of interest to all our coaches. I am
looking forward to the continued
development of the journal in the
coming years; Im also hoping that
members will be able to contribute
with suggestions as to how they wish
to see the journal evolve, and with
articles that can continue to develop
the level of strength and conditioning
provision in the UK.
Ian Jeffreys, PhD, FNSCA, ASCC, CSCS*D
NEWS
CONFERENCE NEWS
At the UKSCA Annual General Meeting , held this year at the end of August in the East
Midlands Conference Centre, the following new appointments were made to the Board:
Crofton Alexander,
Sam Bradley,
BSc (Hons), MSc, ASCC
BA (Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Crofton has been accredited as a strength

and conditioning coach since 2008; he is also
a UKSCA workshop tutor and CPD panel
member monitoring the CPD activities of the
associations accredited members. Crofton is also a level 2
qualified British weightlifting coach.
Sam has 10 years full time experience as a

strength and conditioning coach in Olympic
and professional sport. He has spent the last
four years working for England Cricket as a
S&C coach, his role covering all England squads.
Crofton joined London Wasps in 2006, assisting with the

physical development of the first team and also taking
responsibility for the elite academy players. He became head
of strength and conditioning at an LTA-accredited High
Performance Centre in 2012 and has recently been appointed
as head of strength and conditioning at Edinburgh Rugby,
taking charge of the teams physical development.
Before this, Sam worked with Lancashire County Cricket, and

The English Institute of Sport since its inception (working
in multi-sports with hockey, triathlon, badminton, cricket,
wheelchair basketball and paralympic powerlifting), as well
as Loughborough University. Sam is a founder and accredited
member of the UKSCA, for whom he is also an assessor and
tutor. He is also a certified S&C specialist with the NSCA.
Crofton obtained his BSc (Hons) in sports science at Anglia

Ruskin University in Cambridge, and his Masters degree in
strength and conditioning at St Marys University College,
Twickenham.
Sam is currently completing a Masters degree in exercise

science (S&C) from Edith Cowan University in Perth, Australia.
His main interests are in the monitoring and preparation of
team sports athletes.
WINNING ISNT
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IN FIRST PLACE
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To find out more about our courses and flexible payment plans, call us today on
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05
NEWS
NEWS
Excellence in S&C Award winners

During the UKSCA Annual General Meeting, the Excellence in S&C Awards were
presented to six well-deserving coaches. Summaries of their work and achievements are
presented below.
S&C Coach of the Year in Elite Sport:
This Award is given to a UKSCA member
whose work and contributions have
significantly impacted elite sport and/or
athletes.
Adam Beard, winner of this award, is
Welsh Rugby Unions head of physical
performance. He oversees all aspects of
planning and preparation for the Wales senior rugby union
team for the Six Nations championship, as well as tours and
World Cup campaigns. He directs a team of five full-time
staff at the Welsh Rugby Unions (WRU) National Centre of
Excellence.
Adam has also performed the same role for the Lions rugby
team this season for their tour to Australia, coordinating all
elements of the physical development programme.
Adams achievements with the Wales national team speak for
themselves in the last two seasons: a Six Nations Grand Slam,
a Six Nations championship and a top four rugby World Cup
S&C Coach of the Year in Development
Sport:
whose work and contributions have
significantly impacted on non-professional
or non-elite sport and athletes.
John McEwan, winner of this award, is
assistant high performance S&C coach
at the Glasgow School of Sport. Here he is responsible for
leading the development and delivery of the S&C programmes
for hockey and athletics. John plans and delivers a variety of
S&C sessions, including strength, fitness, core, plyometrics
and recovery across both sports, and he also assists with
S&C delivery for badminton, gymnastics and swimming. He
works closely with the sport-specific coaches in each sport to
maximise the effectiveness of the S&C programme.
In spite of over 20 years experience as an Olympic weightlifter,
John is a relative newcomer to the field of S&C. However, his
06
finish. These spectacular on-field results were achieved as a

result of his constant endeavour to increase the programmes
S&C department, with numbers rising to six full-time staff
from three when he first began there.
Adam has also developed innovative and cutting edge
training approaches to ensure the Welsh team are the best
physically prepared team in world rugby.
The WRU National Centre of Excellence bears testimony to
Adams drive to innovate and break new ground in physical
preparation, with the addition under his direction of
bespoke cryotherapy and altitude chambers in the last six
months.
In addition to his direct work with the national team, Adam
has worked tirelessly to forge professional charters between
the WRU and professional Welsh rugby regions. This work
has seen teams - during times of extreme budgetary pressure
sign up to guarantee the protection of the post of S&C coach,
now enshrined in the world of professional rugby in Wales.
willingness to learn, develop and try new ideas has enabled
him to develop the aspects of the job in which he lacked
experience. In addition, he has mentored less experienced
S&C coaches within the Glasgow School of Sport as well as
interns. He has also delivered one-on-one coaching sessions
to coaches, teaching them how to use the S&C-appropriate
Olympic weightlifting movements.
In hockey, the first opportunity for selection to national
squads is at the under-16 age level. Given the age range of
pupils in the School of Sport (11-18), this limits the number of
pupils open to selection to those aged 15. Out of the 13 players
eligible this year, 11 were selected a considerably higher
number than in previous years, when only 5 or 6 made it.
John leads by example and still trains competitively in the
sport of Olympic weightlifting: he recently took a bronze
medal in the European Masters Weightlifting Championship.
In this sense he is an excellent role model for the young,
aspiring athletes he coaches.
NEWS
NEWS
S&C Coach of the Year in Education:

who has made significant contributions
in the education of S&C coaches, or who
has progressed the profession through
research.
Jon Goodwin, the winner of this award,
is programme director of the distancelearning MSc in strength and conditioning at St Marys
University College in London, the largest Masters degree
programme of its kind in the world. He also delivers
lectures and practical seminars across a number of other
undergraduate and postgraduate programmes at St Marys
and is a guest lecturer at several other academic institutions
in the UK.
In addition to his academic roles, Jon is currently head of
strength and conditioning for the Wales womens lacrosse
team and provides coaching support to several other national
and international athletes based in south-west London.
In 2007, Jon successfully launched the first undergraduate

degree programme in the world in strength and conditioning.
Closely mapped to the UKSCA competency document, the
degree is currently the largest of its kind in the UK and has
produced over 120 graduates who are now working as coaches
in the industry. In 2009, he went on to launch a distance
learning Masters degree, also in S&C, which has allowed
full-time coaches and practitioners to study under a flexible
part-time online format in order to enhance their professional
practice.
From 2006-2008, Jon held the position of director for
education development for the UKSCA: during this time he
was part of the team that established the UKSCA workshop
syllabus and accreditation process, and in 2007 he developed
a professional development model for accredited coaches,
which the UKSCA subsequently implemented. Jon still tutors
and assesses regularly for the UKSCA.
Jon has been accredited with the UKSCA since its inception
in 2004 and is also certified as a strength and conditioning
specialist with the National Strength and Conditioning
Association (NSCA). He is a UKSCA workshop tutor and
assessor and also delivers Level 1 and 2 workshops for the
British Weightlifting Association.
Over the last three years Jon has become widely regarded as
a leading authority on the biomechanics of sprinting and how
strength training can be used to enhance sprint performance.
Driven by his passion for this area of S&C and his exceptional
ability to communicate complex scientific concepts in a
manner readily understandable by the applied practitioner,
Jon has been invited to speak at several international and
national conferences.
S&C Coach of the Year in Youth Sport:

who has made significant contributions to
the development of young athletes.
In addition, Kevin also writes the syllabus and manages a

team of tutors, who deliver a well rounded sport education
and sport leaders programme, as well as sport first aid courses
for both pupils and staff.
Kevin Watson, winner of this award, is

the head strength and conditioning coach
at Glasgow School of Sport. His role
requires him to plan, design and deliver a
periodised sports-specific SC programme across five sports:
athletics, badminton, gymnastics, hockey and swimming,
with pupils ranging in age from 1218 years. There is very
little research into performance sport at these ages, and what
Kevin plans and delivers can often be classed as original
and innovative work, potentially breaking new boundaries in
youth high performance strength development.
Kevin and his team have a direct impact on the successful

outcome of the athletes from the School of Sport. All five sports
that Kevin is responsible for are now producing a steady flow
of youth internationalists. In fact, over the last 10 years that
Kevin has worked in the School he has seen an increasing
number of these youth internationalists competing on the
world stage. At the Commonwealth Games in Delhi 2010,
seven of the Schools graduates represented Team Scotland.
Kevin also has a staff of two assistant coaches whom he

mentors and manages, in terms of personal development
and daily work load. Kevin is also the link between the school
and external service providers, specifically medical, physio,
prehab and rehab, and nutrition staff.
A further example is that 80% of the Schools badminton and

hockey pupils are currently representing Scotland at youth
level. This validates the technical expertise of Kevins S&C
team as each of these sports has varied and totally different
requirements. Both programmes work on different periodised
plans, managed by Kevin, to fit in with their competition year.
NEWS
NEWS
Emerging S&C Coach of the Year:
who has shown outstanding promise,
dedication and passion to their new career
in S&C.
mere four days after open brain surgery to attempt to remove

the tumour.
This award was given posthumously at

the Meeting to Richard Holmes, who sadly
passed away on July 3 this year. Because
Richards total dedication to his profession totally epitomises
the characteristics of this Award, the Board have decided to
name the Award in his honour henceforth.
More recently, he had secured an internship position working

with the first team at Durham County Cricket Club, and he
was loving the fact that he was actually acting on a daily basis
as an applied practitioner. All the feedback and reports from
his internship were hugely positive about his professionalism
and his dedication. S&C was such a huge part of his life and
he truly was an emerging star in the profession.
Richard worked constantly to establish himself within the

field of strength and conditioning. He was totally committed
to gaining full time employment as S&C coach. He struggled
long and hard for six whole years against illness brought
on from a brain tumour, an illness which never affected his
passion or desire to achieve his dream of becoming a fulltime S&C coach and of gaining his UKSCA accreditation.
He valued it so much, and he went beyond the boundaries of
what was probably required to make sure his illness did not
prevent him from achieving his goals.
He had recently completed his MSc in sport coaching from
Northumbria University, for which he received a Distinction.
This year he also passed the ASCC, a special achievement in
itself, as Richards first sitting of the exam was only five days
after receiving chemotherapy. Further, his re-sit took place a
Honorary Fellowship of the UKSCA:
An Honorary Fellowship can be granted
to anyone who the Association feels has
made a significant contribution towards
developing S&C in the UK. This award is
in recognition of their body of work and
contributions over time.
This year the Fellowship was granted to
Gil Stevenson, who is widely recognised as one of the top S&C
coach educators in the UK. With over 30 years of experience
of working within elite sport, Gil was invited to serve as chair
of the S&C Steering Group in 2003. He was subsequently
elected as chairman of the newly constituted independent
professional body (UKSCA) in 2004.
In Northumbria, Richard was also acting as S&C coach to the

university rugby team, as well as helping junior county teams
with their physical preparations.
An exceptionally gifted coach, Richard not only built up a

strong technical know how, but possessed the ability to
communicate with all levels of people. He could just as easily
talk to management as he could the athletes.
An outstanding young man, Richard was a person who lit up
a room and brought joy to his peers, friends and the athletes
who had the pleasure of sharing his company. Anyone who met
him would testify that he always left people feeling happier
and better. He parted from this world doing what many never
do: making an impact that people will always remember. It is
telling that even in his final weeks most people did not know
how ill he was. He just did not tell people; he did not want
special treatment.
Gil lectures internationally on a variety of S&C topics and
through his own performance company, he works with a
number of national and international teams and sports
governing bodies. He also coaches individual athletes across
a range of sports to help them optimise their performance
potential.
Since its inception, the UKSCA has enjoyed a rate of
development which has grown impressively year by year
far exceeding initial expectations. As the Association
has expanded and membership has grown from a diverse
number of interest groups, Gil has played a fundamental role
in ensuring that the original philosophies and mission of
the UKSCA are maintained as the profession develops and
changes.
Through re-election, Gil continued to serve as chair to the

UKSCA for the first six years of its existence. During this
time, he led the Associations Board that has developed in
many of the areas we see today. These include: the UKCSAs
accreditation system, now recognised as an industry gold
standard; the UKSCAs journal Professional Strength &
Conditioning; the Annual General Meeting; and the UKSCAs
workshop programme, which has now trained over 4500
coaches.
Gil continues to serve on the Board of Directors and the
unpaid hours he has committed to the UKSCA as well as the
time he has given to the development of the S&C profession
are impossible to count. As well as his role on the board,
Gil continues to be an active tutor and assessor for the
Association.
RUNNING TRAINING FOR FOOTBALL
High-intensity running
training for football
players
The periodised training of football-specific, high-intensity running capability within
technical and tactical coaching sessions is reviewed below. Carl Wells and Chris
Hattersley discuss the necessity for a multi-disciplinary programme design following
the introduction of the Elite Player Performance Plan.
By Carl Wells and Chris Hattersley
Introduction
Since the introduction of the Elite
Player Performance Plan into English
professional football academies, the
time to be dedicated towards a players
technical and tactical development has
been substantially increased. This heavy
focus on technical training has provided
sport scientists and conditioning coaches
with the challenge of ensuring players still
receive sufficient physical development if
they are to perform at an optimum level.
Therefore, the sport science and medicine
department at Sheffield Wednesday FC
Academy have devised a multi-disciplinary
training programme that allows for the
development of a players high-intensity
running capabilities within technical
and tactical coaching sessions. Key to
the design of such a programme is the
in-depth analysis of the physical loading
placed upon players from various game

practices. As the demands of intermittent
exercise are complex, loading data must
be collated from measures of both internal
and external stress.
This loading data has been analysed by
Sheffield Wednesday FC Academy to
classify various game formats into loading
bands based on the physical exertion they
provide. Subsequently, this knowledge
of the physical demands of different
training practices has been used to
inform the design of a multi-disciplinary
training programme that provides a
non-linear progression in training load
throughout both a training week and
phase. The efficient use of training time
to enhance both technical/tactical and
physical capabilities is fundamental if
English football academies are to produce
holistically developed players.
09
Elite Player Performance Plan

The Elite Player Performance Plan (EPPP)
is an initiative recently implemented to
enhance the calibre of players trained by
English professional football academies.
A key strategy of the EPPP has been to
increase the amount of technical and tactical
practices junior English players perform
to a level comparable to that undertaken
in other countries.15 As a result, the time
academies must allocate for technical/
tactical coaching has been increased across
all age groups, reaching a peak of 14 hours
per week for the Professional Development
Phase (PDP) squads (17- to 21-year-olds),
exclusive of game time.
Total
Player
Load
Internal
Physical
Loading
Periodised
Multi-Disciplinary
Training
Programme
Diagrammatical representation of the various physical and psychological stresses that should be
considered when assessing total player loading.
Figure 1. Interaction of the main

physical stresses that contribute
to a players overall loading
To assign this amount of training time

towards the development of a players
technical and tactical competencies
provides a challenge for applied sport
scientists, as juvenile and adolescent players
must still undertake sufficient physical
conditioning if they are to achieve their full
potential.7, 12, 17 Furthermore, it is vital that
any increase to training volume in a contact
sport that involves high levels of muscular,
metabolic and neural stress3, 13 must be
appropriately managed to minimise injury
occurrence and the manifestation of chronic
fatigue. Consequently, it is necessary to
devise time-efficient training strategies
that provide technical/tactical and physical
development.
The design of periodised, multi-disciplinary
training programmes is one feasible solution
as they allow for holistic player development.
10
To address this paucity in training

knowledge, the specific focus of this article
is the development of a football-specific
conditioning programme based on objective
measures of internal and external physical
stress.
The utilisation of such loading data to
direct the intensity and duration of various
game formats allows for the accurate nonlinear progression in training load to
aid intermittent high-intensity running
capability in synergy with technical/tactical
coaching.
Psycho-Physiological
Loading
External
Physical
Loading
At Sheffield Wednesday FC Academy, the

conditioning of the PDP players highintensity intermittent running capability
has, when appropriate, been integrated into
the technical/tactical coaching programme
through the manipulation of different game
formats. Although the combination of
physical and tactical/technical development
has previously been promoted,5,11 the
physical load provided by such an approach
to training is equivocal.
Methods of assessing training load

The intensity and volume of technical/
tactical training practices must provide
sufficient physiological overload to enable
a player to cope with the physical demands
of competitive games. As physical exertion
during games is heavily dependent upon
both a players position and style of play,2
it is necessary to make the physical stress
of training as similar as possible to that
of a game. Due to the complex exercise
pattern performed in football, an accurate
assessment of the physical load imposed
by training is challenging and can only
be achieved through in-depth analysis of
the unique physical stresses imposed by
intermittent exercise.4
The analysis of heart rate responses to
training provides a measure of the internal
or cardiovascular load.1,3 Within our PDP
squad, for instance, each player has a target
number of minutes they must spend above
85% of their maximum heart rate (MHR) per
training week and training phase, specific
to their playing position and individual
cardiovascular responses. Such close
management of cardiovascular loading
ensures that players train at sufficient
intensity and volume to augment aerobic
parameters associated with improved
football performance.8,9
Although analysis of heart rate responses
provides valuable physiological information
and is widely employed within football, it
does not quantify a players physical output
during training or games. Therefore, in
conjunction with the analysis of the internal
stress placed upon players, the external

loading must also be determined.10 This
loading relates specifically to the amount,
speed and type of physical movements a
player performs during training and games.
For example, a conditioned two versus two
game might require players to exercise for
a sustained period above 85% of their MHR;
however, it does not involve a large number
of high-speed runs due to the size of the
playing area and nature of play.16
Using GPS technology
At Sheffield Wednesday Academy, we have
utilised GPS technology to determine
the typical running speeds, distances and
muscular loading that various game formats
place upon players. The muscular loading
is calculated by the Catapult GPS software
and takes into consideration the number
of accelerations, decelerations, turns and
changes of direction a player performs.
Such a measure is extremely valuable, as
the physical stress a player endures is not
only dependent upon how far they have run,
but also on the types of actions performed
when covering a particular distance. The
in-depth information provided by GPS
technology allows for the design of training
programmes that provide appropriate levels
of external physical loading relevant to
playing position and the teams style of play.
Although data from heart rate and GPS
technology are therefore great methods of
assessing objectively a players training load,
the recording of more subjective measures
provide a valuable insight into how hard
players have perceived training to have
been.6 Rating of perceived exertion scores
multiplied by session duration provide a
global indicator of loading. In specific cases,
these psycho-physiological measures can
highlight players who have started to find
the training load too high, even though
the objective data has not picked up any
physical concerns.6
The combination of internal, external and
psycho-physiological indicators of physical
stress may well provide the clearest and
most robust measure of training load.
Such an approach allows sport scientists
and conditioning coaches to precisely
determine which aspect of loading needs
targeting to ensure a player stays in optimal
physical condition. For instance, a particular
squad might have achieved sufficient
cardiovascular responses for a training
week but needs to achieve more distance
at a high-intensity. Consequently, the
type of game format performed in training
during subsequent training days can be
adjusted accordingly to provide the desired
external load.
RPE Loading (duration x RPE Score)
Physical Load
High-intensity distance: (metres>19.8km/h)
HR (mins>85% HRM)
16
20
14
49
10
99
240
220
200
304
2v2
272
4v4
Assessment of training load provided by

different game formats
The design of a multi-disciplinary training
programme should be made in conjunction
with technical coaching staff to ensure any
physical conditioning can be married with
the technical/tactical coaching curriculum.
An effective strategy to achieve this aim is
the design of a programme that consists
of various game formats, ranging from 2 v
2 to 11 v 11. Such an approach will provide
the scope to achieve sufficient internal
and external physical loading to develop a
players high-intensity running capabilities,
while at the same time providing technical
staff with the opportunity to impart the
desired tactical information.
225
8v8
Figure 2. The influence of

small-sided game types on
internal, external and psychophysiological physical loading
It was observed at Sheffield Wednesday

FC Academy that when the different game
formats were played for the same total
duration (20 minutes game time), the smaller
sided games (2 v 2) provided the highest
cardiovascular (minutes > 85% HRM), RPE
(RPE score x session duration) and muscular
loading, while requiring players to cover the
least total or high intensity distance (Figure
2). As the number of players and pitch size
increased, the internal and muscular loading
became secondary to the requirement
for covering greater distances at a high
intensity.
Such findings are probably due to the
nature of play and pitch size involved in the
different game formats. Fewer players in a
team means that individuals are required
to perform more football-specific actions
11
Figure 3. Classification of game format with corresponding intensity bands
Loading band
Game format
Zone 5 (very hard)
1-2 players, fitness testing
Zone 4 (hard)
3-5 players
Zone 3 (hard/moderate)
7-9 players
Zone 2 (moderate)
10-11 players
Zone 1 (light)
Technical/tactical session + match preparation
on a more frequent basis.14 Also, to ensure

the technical and tactical requirements
remain realistic, pitch size must be reduced
accordingly. In contrast, as player numbers
and so pitch sizes increase, an individuals
involvement in game actions is reduced,
even though the bigger playing area
demands they cover more distance at high
intensity.11
The careful consideration of such footballspecific loading data allows sport scientists
and conditioning coaches to devise
periodised training programmes that
ensure players receive the optimum level
of physical conditioning from technical/
tactical practices. A key strategy to aid
the design of multi-disciplinary training
programmes is to classify the different
game formats into loading bands (Figure 3),
based on the internal and muscular loading
they provide.
A typical periodised multi-disciplinary

training programme
In preparation for the introduction of the
EPPP, Sheffield Wednesday FC Academy
sport science department designed a multidisciplinary training plan for the PDP
squads, incorporating the game formats
as above. The non-linear progression in
training load over the course of a season
was achieved via the strategic selection of
game format and game duration to control
intensity and volume respectively. To
comply with EPPP guidelines, the season
was divided into six-week training phases
(meso-cycles), with each phase culminating
with a comprehensive measure of the
players physical status. It is important to
note that the programme did not consume
the entire allocation of coaching hours. This
time efficiency was intentional, as it allowed
coaching to take place during dedicated
technical/tactical practices in addition to
the various game formats.
Figure 4. The non-linear progression in training load through the selection of game format. The coloured bars relate to the
loading band of the games (Figure 3) to be played during each week
6
Physical Loading Band
0
Mon Tue Wed Thur Fri
Wk 1 Moderate
12
Mon Tue Wed Thur Fri Mon Tue Wed Thur Fri
Wk 2 Moderate
Wk 3 Moderate/hard
Wk 4 Moderate/hard
Wk 5 Moderate/light
Wk 6 Hard
The EPPP has highlighted the importance of increasing

tactical and technical coaching if there are to be more
elite English football players in the future
To ensure the training plan provided
sufficient time for adaptation and
regeneration, training load was
increased non-linearly; eg, weeks one
and two of the training phase consisted
of 4 v 4 (loading band 4), 8 v 8 (loading
band 3) and 11 v 11 (Ioading band 2)
game formats. In contrast, in weeks
three and four where an increase
in training load was desired, more
training time was spent playing 2 v 2
(Ioading band 5), while the duration
of the bigger game formats was
prolonged to increase training volume.
During week five, intensity and volume
were reduced through removing game
formats from loading bands four and
five, while the duration of games from
intensity bands three and below were
reduced. Finally, in week six, training
intensity and volume were the highest
for the phase through a combination of
players performing maximally in tests
of running capacity and an increase
in game duration during all training
sessions (Figure 4).
It was also possible to adopt this nonlinear management of training load

within each training week or microcycle. Main conditioning days were
to be four and two before a game (ie,
Tuesday and Thursday for a typical
week when there is a Saturday game),
and so these two days primarily
consisted of intensity band 5 and 4
game formats (Table 1). In contrast,
training performed on a Monday
(less than 48 hours after a game) and
Friday (24 hours before a game) would
primarily consist of game formats from
intensity bands 3 and below to allow
recovery and regeneration.
Summary
Research has highlighted that the
training hours typically performed
in English football academies are
significantly less than those undertaken
to produce an elite performer in
alternative sports, such as swimming or
cycling. Although it is not possible to
achieve the same amount of coaching
Figure 5. Example of the game formats and durations employed during the main conditioning days of a periodised
multi-disciplinary training programme
Moderate Moderate Moderate/hard Moderate /hard Moderate /light
Hard
Phase 2 wk 1 Phase 2 wk 2 Phase 2 wk 3 Phase 2 wk 4 Phase 2 wk 5 Phase 2 wk 6

Day 4 before game
Day 4 before game
Day 4 before game
Day 4 before game
Day 4 before game
Day 4 before game
- 4v4 / 5v5: 4 x 4 min,
- 4v4 / 5v5: 4 x 4 min,
- 2v2: 8 x 2 min,
- 2v2: 8 x 2 min,
7v7 / 8v8: 3 x 10 min,
Fitness Testing
2 min rest
2 min rest
2 min rest
2 min rest
3 min rest
Maximum efforts
- 7v7 / 8v8: 2 x 12 min,
- 7v7 / 8v8: 2 x 12 min,
- 7v7 / 8v8: 2 x 12.30 min, - 7v7 / 8v8: 2 x 12.30 min, (one team on outside)
Speed
3 min rest +
3 min rest +
3 min rest +
Endurance
3 min rest +
Position-specific sprints: Position-specific sprints: Position-specific sprints: Position-specific sprints:

6 x 50-80 m, W:R 1:3
6 x 50-80 m, W:R 1:3
7 x 50-80 m, W:R 1:3
7 x 50-80 m, W:R 1:3

Day 2 before game
Day 2 before game
Day 2 before game
Day 2 before game
- 7v7 / 8v8: 2 x 12 min,
- 7v7 / 8v8: 2 x 12 min,
- 7v7 / 8v8: 2 x 12.30 min, - 7v7 / 8v8: 2 x 12.30 min, 7v7 / 8v8: 3 x 10 min,
Day 2 before game
Strength
Day 2 before game

7v7 / 8v8: 3 x 13 min,
3 min rest +
3 min rest +
3 min rest +
3 min rest +
3 min rest
3 min rest +
4v4 / 5v5: 2 x 4 min,
4v4 / 5v5: 2 x 4 min,
4v4 /5v5: 2 x 4.30 min,
4v4 /5v5: 2 x 4.30 min,
(one team on outside)
4v4 / 5v5: 2 x 5 min,
3 min rest
3 min rest
3 min rest
3 min rest
3 min rest
13
hours in a contact sport such as football,

the EPPP has highlighted the importance of
increasing tactical and technical coaching
if there are to be more elite English football
players in the future.
This aim can only be achieved if a multidisciplinary approach to training is embraced
across all areas of player development. The
adoption of such a training ethos is required
to safeguard certain aspects of a players
physical development while improving their
technical and tactical capabilities.
Due to the complex physical demands of
high-intensity intermittent sports such

as football, the various types of physical
load must be quantified if an appropriate
multi-disciplinary training programme is
to be formulated. Therefore, any periodised
programme must be sensitive to both the
internal and external loads placed upon
players and to how these are affected
by player numbers, pitch size and game
duration. It is only when such information
regarding physical loading in football is
clearly established that effective multidisciplinary training programmes can be
designed and implemented.
AUTHORS BIOGRAPHIES
Carl Wells, PHD, BSc (hons)
Carl is a BASES-accredited sport scientist (physiological support), as well
as academy head of sport science and medicine at Sheffield Wednesday
Football Club. Previous to his current position, he was the first team sport
scientist at Sheffield Wednesday.
Chris Hattersley, BSC, CSCS

Chris is the lead sport scientist at Sheffield Wednesday FC. He has a BSc
(hons) in sport and exercise science and is currently completing an MSc in
strength and conditioning at St Marys University College.
References
1. Achten, J and Jeukendrup, A. Heart rate
monitoring: applications and limitation. Sports
Medicine, 33: 517-538. 2003
2. Anderson, H, Roberts, M, Heiner-Moller, A,
Krustrup, P and Mohr, M. Elite female soccer
players perform more high-intensity running
when playing international games compared
with domestic league games. Journal of Strength
and Conditioning Research, 24: 912-919. 2010
3. Bangsbo, J and Mikalsik, L. Assessment of
physiological capacity of elite soccer players.
In: Science and Football II. Eds Reilly, T, Clarys,
J, Stibbe, A. E. and F.N. Spon, London, 1993. pp
53-60.
4. Casamichana, D, Castellano, J, San Roman,
J and Castagna, C. Relationship between
indicators of training load in soccer players.
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
27 (2): 369-374. 2013.
5. Dellal, A, Lago-Penas, C and Chamari, K. Effect
of the number of ball touch within of 4 vs 4 smallsided soccer games. International Journal of
Physical Performance, 6 (3): 322-333.
6. Edwards, AE and Polman, R. Pacing in Sport
14
and Exercise. Nova Science Publishes. 2012. 160167
term athletic development. Strength and

Conditioning Journal, 34 (3), 61-72. 2012.
7. Ford, P, DS Croix, M, Lloyd, R, Meyers, R,

Moosavi, M, Oliver, J, Till, K and Wiliams, C.
The long-term athlete development model:
physiological evidence and application. Journal
of Sports Sciences, 29 (4): 389-402. 2011.
13. Mohr, M, Krustrup, P and Bangsbo, J. Match

Performance of high-standard soccer players
with special reference to the development of
fatigue. Journal of Sports Sciences, 21 (2): 519528. 2003.
8. Helgerud, J, Engen, LC, Wisloff, U and Hoff,

J. (2001). Aerobic endurance training improves
soccer performance. Medicine and Science in
Sports and Exercise, 33, 1925-1993.
14. Owen, A, Twist, C and Ford, F. Small-sided

games: the physiological and technical effect of
altering pitch size and player numbers. Insight,
7 (2): 50-53
9. Hoff, J, Wisloff, U, Engen, L, Kemi, O and

Helgerud, J. Soccer-specific aerobic endurance
training. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 36:
218-221. 2002
15. Premier League. Premier League Youth Rules.

30 Gloucester Place, London, United Kingdom.
2012
10. Jennings, D, Cormarck, S, Coutts, A, Boyd,

L and Aughley, R. Validity of GPS units for
measuring distance in team sport movements.
International Journal of Sports Physiology and
Performance, 5 (5): 55-569. 2010
16. Sampio, J, Garcia, G, Macas, V, Ibanez, S,

Abrantes, C and Caixinha, P. Heart rate and
perceptual response to 2 x 2 and 3 x 3 smallsided youth soccer games. Journal of Sport
Science and Medicine, 6 (suppl. 10): 121-122. 2007
11. Jones, S and Drust, B. Physiological and

technical demands of 4 v 4 and 8 v 8 in elite
youth soccer players. Kinesiology. 39 (2): 150-156.
2007.
17. Wells, C, Edwards, A, Winter, E, Fysh, M

and Drust, B. Sport-specific fitness testing
differentiates professional from amateur soccer
players where VO2 max and VO2 kinetics do
not. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical
Fitness. 52 (3): 245-254. 2012.
12. Lloyd, R and Oliver, J. The youth physical

development model: A new approach to long-
COACHING STRATEGY
COACHING
Avoiding conflict: a
strategy for the S&C
coach to win friends
and influence people
An experienced S&C coach discusses how best to integrate the S&C coachs work with
that of the whole team, looking particularly at strategies to avoid conflict with other
team members. He emphasises the importance of gaining the trust of the team, of
communicating well by using the right kind of language, and of clearly marking out the
role of the S&C coach.
By Mark Williams
Avoiding conflict
Although fundamentally the aims of the
strength and conditioning (S&C) coach
are synonymous with those of the sports
technical coach (ie, to produce success
within the competitive realms of the sport),
one of the major challenges the S & C coach
faces involves implementing his/her ideas
and training methods in conjunction with
those of the technical coaching staff.18,31
Although there may be many reasons for
this challenge, it could possibly stem from

a lack of priority given to strength and
conditioning focused training. For this
reason, it is important for the S&C coach to
establish a strategy that increases his/her
magnitude of influence.18
Establishment of such a strategy is the
focus of Dale Carnegies book, How
to Win Friends and Influence People.5
First published in 1936, Carnegies book
describes numerous communicative and
behavioural guidelines
to help in influencing
others and ultimately
to achieve success in
the workplace. Central to
this is the need to avoid
conflict with others: a
strategy which could
be advantageous to the
newly appointed S&C
coach in order to gain
success in the role.
The S&C coach is
part of a team, which
is
characterised
by
its members working
AUTHORS BIO
Mark
Williams,
BSc, PGCE, ASCC, CSCS
Mark Williams
is the head of
strength and
conditioning for Southend
United Football Club. His
role includes overseeing the
physical preparation of the
first team playing squad.
Mark is an accredited UKSCA
member and is currently
completing his MSc in
strength and conditioning
at St Marys University
College, Twickenham. Prior
to working in football, Mark
was in charge of strength
and conditioning for student
athletes at Seevic College,
Essex, where he also works
as a part-time degree lecturer
in sports and coaching
science.
15
Another aim
of the newly
appointed
S&C coach
related to the
avoidance of
conflict should
be to build
trust with
the technical
coaching staff
COACHING STRATEGY
interdependently toward common goals.17

Carnegies book would seem to suggest that
avoidance of conflict within this team would
be advisable for the newly appointed S&C
coach, in order to create a more harmonious
working environment.10 The avoidance of
conflict as a strategic approach is consistent
with basic theories of altruism, where being
nice or complimentary allows the altruist to
gain personally.27
Schmidt and Kochran28 define conflict as
deliberate interference with others goals,
which conveys a negative connotation of
conflict that is in agreement with Carnegies
view. Carnegie proposes that conflict
triggers defensive mechanisms from the
individual who perceives this interference
with his/her goals as negative: possibly
related to the need to defend ones selfesteem.16 Individuals with these traits may
initiate a defensive strategy including
persistently stronger attitudes and a greater
resistance to change, which in the case of
the S&C coach would lead to potentially
weakened opportunities to expand his/her
level of influence.
Two types of conflict
The alternative viewpoint is that the
newly appointed S&C coach may benefit
from conflict with other coaching staff, as
opposed to accepting a weaker compromise
in relation to the training content.10 De
Dreu and Weingart11 suggest that an
absence of conflict within teams may mask
inadequacies. To this end, it is important
to distinguish the two types of conflict that
are observed within the literature: task
conflict, that occurs through team members
differing in opinions relating to a specific
task or outcome; and relationship conflict,
which is emotive unrelated to the task
and associated with feelings of resentment
towards other group members.4
Although the relationship conflict is
seemingly personalised and damaging to
relationships, task conflict could be viewed
as productive in encouraging exploration
of the optimal solution.23,20 Moreover, task
conflict has been reported to improve the
quality of the task outcome through greater
critical thought in decision-making.7 When
applied practically, this would suggest that
it might not be damaging for the newly
appointed S&C coach to disagree with the
opinions of technical coaching staff; indeed,
such task conflict might lead to a higher
quality programme being delivered to their
players.
However, task conflict and team
performance is still not fully understood and
16
in contrast to the notion that it is beneficial,

a meta-analysis by De Dreu and Weingart11
suggests that the correlation between
task conflict and performance is negative
and significant.6 In addition, positive
correlations appear to exist between task
conflict and relationship conflict, where task
conflict can lead to relationship conflict.7,30
Consequently, in keeping with Carnegies
principle, avoiding conflict would perhaps
be the most warranted approach for the
newly appointed S&C coach.
The S&C coach should be mindful of the
pitfalls of being perceived as interfering,
and instead initially opt to shape S&C
content around the goals of the technical
coaching staff. Equally, he or she should
also try to be flexible to changes in the
content of a planned microcycle in order
to accommodate changes in the technical
content that have altered due to a result in a
previous competitive fixture.
Although not stated in Carnegies book,
another aim of the newly appointed S&C
coach related to the avoidance of conflict
should be to build trust with the technical
coaching staff. De Dreu and Weingart11
suggest that within-team trust might
reduce the negative effects of task conflict,
thereby permitting the constructive effects.
Likewise, Simons and Randall30 found
trust to be a moderator in the relationship
between task conflict and relationship
conflict; ie, that high levels of task conflict
coupled with low levels of trust led to high
levels of relationship conflict.
The basis for this notion is the supposition
that trust provides a sense of shared
responsibility and improved decisionmaking.12 Trust has been defined as a
willingness to accept vulnerability based
upon positive expectations of interactions
or behaviour of another.22 Therefore, if trust
exists between team members, it may give
rise to greater interaction and cooperation:
conditions that can lead to enhanced
decision-making and potentially greater
team success.26
In essence, Carnegies book offers a set
of rules on how to communicate more
appropriately with those whom a person
wishes to influence. When attempting to
build trust, effective communication is
thought to play an important role.1 Conchie
and Burns8 found trust scores in nursing
teams to be higher with increased levels
of open communication. Moreover, their
study showed that the absence of open
communication has a more resounding
negative effect on reducing trust than the
positive effect of open communication does
COACHING STRATEGY
Interdisciplinary teams that communicated

informally and regularly had a greater sense
of shared responsibility to achieve their goal
in building trust.8 Although this study

lacks external validity for strength and
conditioning, it does provide evidence that
demonstrates the importance of trust and
the role of communication in developing it.
It is, however, also important to note that
differences in education may make it
difficult for the S&C coach to communicate
his/her ideas, and further for these ideas to
be understood by the technical coaching
staff.31 Crucially therefore, the S&C coach
should develop differentiation skills, such
as adapting the language used to convey
ideas to those they are attempting to
influence.3,12 And although terminologies
used by technical coaches may be
inaccurate, it can be to the advantage of
the S&C coach to use these same terms
in order to improve communication with
the technical coaches. This approach thus
potentially leads to greater unity and better
team performance.8,29 For example, Sheehan
et al29 observed that interdisciplinary
teams that communicated informally and
regularly had a greater sense of shared
responsibility to achieve their goal.
Establishing the role
Related to the importance of communicating
effectively with other coaching staff is the
essential need to establish the S&C coachs
own individual role and expectations.
Dierdorff et al13 suggest that during team
formation each member must develop a
clear understanding of where individual
roles match with the goals of the team.
In support, Hu and Liden17 found team
member role clarity to be significantly and
positively related to team performance
through increased levels of confidence
in the teams potential for success.
Furthermore, this process may serve to
reduce the development of role conflict a
third type of conflict.32
Role conflict describes the simultaneous
contradictory expectations of colleagues
that interfere with one another and make
it difficult to complete work tasks;21 it
can therefore be harmful to the working
environment.14 From the perspective of the

S&C coach, this can lead to discrepancies
between their own perceived aims and
objectives and those of the other coaching
staff. Moreover, such lack of clarity may
lead to the more dysfunctional forms of
conflict.18
Clearly this will be deleterious to the aims
of enhancing the S&C coachs magnitude
of influence. The newly appointed S&C
coach should therefore ascertain his/
her role within the coaching team, and
the overall goals of the team as early as
possible. Failure to achieve this outcome
may hinder the trust-building process and
ultimately limit the level of influence that
the S&C coach possesses. This powerful
but seemingly simple outcome can be
achieved with little more than a single
meeting with all coaching staff, and yet
time constraints often mean that the
process is unintentionally neglected. This
can then lead to a mistaken assumption by
team members that the goals of the team
and the individual members roles are
already understood.
Conclusion
In summary, the S&C coachs role is diverse,
but fundamentally aims are synonymous
with those of the technical sports coach,25
ie, success within the competitive sport.
Clearly, the S&C coach can play a pivotal role
in this;18 however, a common challenge that
he/she faces is to expand his/her influence
over the training of the athletes they work
with.31 Dale Carnegies (1936) famous book,
How to Win Friends and Influence People,
does provide some important guidelines
that the newly appointed S&C coach can
utilise in order to achieve greater success
in the role. Specifically, the S&C coachs
strategy should be to avoid conflict
with other coaching staff members, and
aim instead to develop trust within the
coaching team through informal and
regular communication.8,29 In addition, the
language used should be differentiated so
that it is understood by the other coaching
staff.3
17
COACHING STRATEGY
Finally, through effective communication,

the individual roles of the S&C coach should
be defined so as to avoid role-conflict. Once
trust has been developed, task conflict that
can lead to optimal decision-making may
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18
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the S&C coach to express a greater level of
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physical preparation of their athletes
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Jessop,
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2009.
26. Randall, K and Resick, C. Building team adaptive
capacity: the roles of sensegiving and team
composition. Journal of applied psychology 96, 525540. 2011.
27. Rotemburg, JJ. Human relations in the workplace.
Journal of political economy 202, 684-718. 1994.
28. Schmidt, SM and Kochan, TA. Conflict: toward
conceptual clarity. Administrative science quarterly
17, 359-370. 1972.
29. Sheehan, D, Robertson, L and Ormond, T.
Comparison of language used and patterns of
communication in interprofessional teams. Journal
of interprofessional care 21, 17-30. 2007.
30. Simons, TL and Peterson, RS. Task conflict and
relationship conflict in top management teams: the
pivotal role of intragroup trust. Journal of applied
psychology 85, 102-111. 2000.
31. Vanderbush, K and Nikita, M. Working with the
sport coach. Strength and conditioning journal 29, 4344. 2007.
32. Wiley, DL. The relationship between work/nonwork role conflict and job related outcomes: Some
unanticipated findings. Journal of management 13,
467-472. 1987.
HAMSTRINGS
The hamstrings: protection, preparation and

conditioning for sports performance
Graham Turner, MSc, BEd (Hons), ASCC, BWL / Leeds Trinity University
Alexander Goodrich, BSc. (Hons) / University of Essex
INTRODUCTION
Joint stabilisation during athletic performance requires cocontraction of agonist and antagonist muscles to maintain
optimal joint position.19 During sprinting, muscle injury may
occur as the hamstrings rapidly alter between concentric and
eccentric contractions during high velocity hip extension.71,12
Injury may also occur during rapid knee extension when the
hamstrings fail to generate effective eccentric counteraction to
decelerate closed kinetic chain movements, such as landing,
step, cut or pivot.12,19,88
Despite the advent of the physical preparation specialist,
hamstring injury remains the most prevalent non-contact
injury in football, rugby union, sprinting, and in American and
Australian football.67 Furthermore, in the last three decades
injury rates have not improved.61
A factor that may underpin this record of incidence is the lack
of a clearly defined set of terms to promote understanding of
the aetiology of muscular injury. The recently published Munich
consensus paper on terminology and classification of muscle
injury in sport aims to standardise definitions and terms
and distinguishes between two classifications of muscular
dysfunction:65
Muscle disorders:
Type 1A Fatigue induced muscle disorder
Type 1B Delayed onset muscle soreness
Type 2A Spine related neuromuscular muscle disorder
Type 2B Muscle related neuromuscular muscle disorder
and
Structural injuries:
Type 3A Minor partial muscle tear
Type 3B Moderate partial muscle tear
Type 4 (Sub) total muscle tear / tendinous avulsion
Contusion Direct injury65
The Munich consensus paper therefore provides a scientific
source of reference to enable practitioners to understand
aetiology, share diagnoses and develop systematic treatment
strategies.
The role of the S&C coach is to optimise athletic performance
and in this article we identify the essential knowledge and
understanding necessary in order to guide protection,
preparation and conditioning for hamstring injury risk reduction.
Functional anatomy
The hamstring complex consists of
the biceps femoris, semimembranosus
and semitendinosus, with injury being
most commonly sustained by the biceps
femoris.13,37,44,81
Biceps femoris
The biceps femoris is unique because

it has two heads: a long head which
originates on the ischial tuberosity; and
a short head which originates from the
linea aspera of the femur. The long head
is innervated by the tibial nerve and the
short head has an innervation from the
common peroneal nerve.6 The muscle
crosses the hip and knee joint, and
inserts into the lateral side of the head
of the fibula.23 In the quadriceps, rectus
femoris works in opposition to biceps
femoris. It too has a biarticular structure
but in comparison has a lower incidence
of injury.70 During knee extension, the
rectus femoris (a muscle that is larger
and stronger than the biceps femoris)
is assisted by three muscles: vastus
lateralis, vastus medialis, and vastus
intermedius. During knee flexion, the
biceps femoris is assisted by only two
muscles: the semimembranosus and
semitendinosus.29
Semimembranosus
The semimembranosus originates from

the ischial tuberosity, coursing in an
inferomedial direction, inserting on the
medial condyle of the tibia opposite the
biceps femoris.23 The semimembranosus
is the second most commonly injured
muscle of the hamstrings. Not only can
the semimembranosus become torn, but
because of its tendon-like physiology
it can also suffer from tendinitis and
bursitis.76
The semimembranosus is most
vulnerable to injury when the
hamstrings overstretch during the
eccentric contraction of a kicking
motion.3 Longitudinal studies have
found a positive correlation between
pre-season lack of flexibility and inseason injury.9 ,45
19
SEMITENDINOSUS
The semitendinosus is extremely long;

it originates from the ischial tuberosity
in conjunction with the long head of
the biceps femoris and inserts into
the upper part of the medial surface of
the body of the tibia.23 It lies along the
middle of the thigh and forms around
the medial side of the popliteal fossa.55
The literature reveals that compared to
biceps femoris and semimembranosus,
semitendinosus suffers a far smaller
incidence of injury. Kouloris and
Connell55 recorded semitendinosus
for 9 out of 154 hamstring injuries
and in Ekstrand et als study,27 the
semitendinosus accounted for only 5%
of all hamstring injuries. Ekstrand et al27
examined hamstring muscle injuries at
23 professional European football teams
between 2007-2011. Although incidence
of re-injury to the hamstrings was high
at 16%, for semitendinosus no re-injury
was recorded. Drake et al suggest that
the length of semitendinosus could
predispose athletes to a rupture of
this muscle during kicking however
case reports of this type of injury are
extremely uncommon.6
HAMSTRINGS
development: pre-puberty, puberty and

adolescence, and technical competence
can differ markedly at each stage.
The Youth Physical Development
Model60 provides S&C coaches with
an overview to guide total physical
development, identifying when and
why each fitness component should
be emphasised to complement
the development of fundamental
movement
(FMS)
and
sport
specific skill (SSS). Evidence-based
recommendations support integrative
neuromuscular
training
during
prepubertal development and FMS,
strength, speed and agility should be
emphasised.66 Power and hypertrophy
should be targeted only after the athlete
has reached adolescence.60
Posture
The relationship between lumbar
lordosis and associated factors,
including abdominal, erector spinae,
hip flexors and hamstring strength has
presented a focus of investigation for
a number of researchers.7,35,39,59 Lumbar
angle is used as a measure of the curve
of the lumbar spine and is the angle
between the superior surface of the
second lumbar vertebra and the inferior
surface of the fifth lumbar vertebra.
The evidence identifies an association
between short hamstrings and
decreased flexion range of motion at the
lumbar angle,35 and reveals a significant
correlation between increasing levels of
lordosis and hamstring tension.7
Methodological design of published

studies
has
limited
current
understanding and future research
needs to explore aetiology through
examination of mechanism of injury in
relation to the structure and function of
each individual hamstring muscle.
Age
Acquisition of sport-specific skills
combined with the onset of physical
maturation contributes to an increased
injury rate, as athletes practise and
perform with greater volume and
intensity.83 Increasing age has been
implicated in injury risk for hamstring
strain, and as age increases tissues
also heal at a slower rate.30,34,62 The
protein HSP70 has been shown to
protect against and facilitate successful
recovery from muscular damage.15,95
HSP70 serum levels increase between
the ages of 15 and 30, then decline
significantly from 30 onwards. 31,36,82
Age and stage of development must
inform exercise prescription and
needs analysis should take account
of growth, maturation, training
history and training status. Prepubertal participants do not possess
the same physiological capability to
adapt to training; therefore athletic
programmes must be designed with the
appropriate emphasis. Developmental
age is associated with three stages of
20
HAMSTRINGS
During normal gait the hamstrings

work in opposition so as to
stabilise the pelvis,22 but if an athlete becomes quadriceps-dominant,
then muscular imbalance may result.19
Postural realignment through muscle
strengthening exercises relies upon
the theory of adaptive shortening of
the agonist muscle tendon length in
conjunction with stretching of the
short antagonist, to reposition skeletal
segments.50 For resistance training,
exercises should be performed with
a moderately arched, lordotic back
to minimise compressive forces and
protect from injury.4
Flexibility
Hamstring strain is associated with
limitation in range of movement at the
hip;45,91 however, rotation of the pelvis
may be restricted by tightness in the
hamstrings and/or hip flexors, and
lumbar flexion may also be restricted
by tight low back muscles.1 Although
muscle lengthening exercise should
be considered for inclusion within
conditioning, preparation and recovery
sessions, each intervention should
evidence independent justification,
individualised rationale, and bespoke
protocol.
The prevalence of muscular tightness
and hamstring strain in football has
been attributed in part to insufficient
attention to cool-down exercises after
playing.25,43,58 This suggestion serves
as context-specific justification for the
usefulness of lengthening exercise time
during the recovery setting in order to
restore and maintain range of movement
as opposed to more mobilisation time
for performance preparation.
Coaches working with young children
have an opportunity to optimise
flexibility and mobility and this is
especially important for athletes
who specialise early in sports such
as gymnastics and diving. From the
age of 11 onwards, girls demonstrate
accelerated improvement in trunk
forward flexibility; however, with boys,
between the ages of 9 to 12 years, this
flexibility actually reduces.60 Gambetta
and Benton recommend the use of
hurdle dynamic hip mobility exercises
as part of a systematic approach
to hamstring injury prevention,
rehabilitation and strengthening.38
The use of hurdle exercises (both
walking under and over the hurdles
to use the full range of motion at the
hip) is advocated in training sessions
either during warm-up or cool-down to
optimise movement mechanics. This
can be incorporated into the RAMP

method of optimising performance
preparation through activation of key
muscle groups and mobilisation at the
hip preceding sporting performance.52
Warm-up
Research to support the use of warm-up
to prevent injury has demonstrated how
physical preparation can increase the
elasticity of the muscle tendon unit,75
and increase the range of movement
at the hip, knee and ankle.89,90 Safran et
al75 measured the force and the increase
in length needed to tear stimulated as
opposed to non-stimulated muscle. They
found that isometrically pre-conditioned
muscle required a greater force to tear:
40.00 + 3.55N on average, compared to
38.45 + 3.26N for non-stimulated muscle.
This suggests that physiological
preparation helps to prevent muscular
injury by increasing the time period to
failure of the muscle tendon unit.
Multiple authors have shown that
ineffective warm-up increases the
likelihood of hamstring injury.1,64,93,94
Hawkins and Fuller surveyed players
from five English professional football
clubs on injury prevention practice.
Their findings suggested that although
players claimed to appreciate the
benefits of a range of preventative
strategies including warm-up, in
practice there were deficiencies in both
their knowledge of, and implementation
of, injury reduction measures. 42 This
highlights the multi-dimensional role
of the S&C coach, who when sitting on
the substitutes bench is well placed
to ensure that the player who enters
competition as a replacement is not
put at risk by compromised warm-up. It
is, however, of paramount importance
for the S&C coach to assume the role
of educator to ensure that his athletes
learn to adopt responsibility, to be
proactive and act independently.
It is now not unusual to see an athlete
on the sidelines cycling prior to
entering a competitive invasion game.
However, used in isolation this method
of warm-up fails to prepare the athlete
for the subsequent demands of games
performance and it is imperative that
s/he is taught to understand why and
how to potentiate movement. For
the hamstrings, optimal preparation
relies upon the execution of patterns
of movement that increase the
intensity of exercise to produce
amplitudes and speeds of movement that facilitate sprinting and
multidirectional movement at game
pace.74
In training, targeted sections of warmups represent a time-efficient method

for coaches to train the athlete to
form drills to enable biomechanically
good posture in the sprinting cycle.
Mach Drills, (developed by Gerard
Mach, former National Sprint and
Hurdle Coach of Canada) break the
sprint stride into three components: A
Drills work knee lift, B Drills foreleg
extension and clawing action, and C
Drills push off.56 Although fore leg
extension with pawing back bears little
relationship to sprinting technique, B
drills are effective because they develop
hamstring muscle stiffness during
the skipping aspect of the movement
and hamstring muscle strength via
deceleration of the foreleg.38
Strength
Muscle strength is a key factor in
successful sports performance and
is used as an indicator to identify
susceptibility for hamstring or knee
injury/re-injury.51 Hamstring strength
deficit is associated with hamstring
strain, and is also used to monitor
rehabilitation.18,69,77 Strength differences
between hamstrings and quadriceps
of the same leg are calculated by the
ratio between peak torque produced
concentrically during isokinetic tests.51
Hamstring to quadriceps (H:Q) peak
torque ratio uses velocity dependent
movements to determine function,
stability and muscle balance at the
knee.10 Normally, typical concentric
H:Q ratios range from 0.5 to 0.8;12
however, there is no clear consensus
on the optimal H:Q ratio.19 Researchers
suggest that a concentric H:Q ratio
lower than 0.6 may represent a risk
factor and advise that athletes should
be routinely assessed.12,19,51 If a ratio of
less than 0.6 is identified (calculated
as the maximal concentric hamstrings
strength divided by the maximal
concentric quadriceps strength), then
the S&C coach should prescribe a
hamstring-specific resistance training
programme.12
Movement execution should emphasise
timing and co-ordination to enhance
intermuscular co-ordination.38 Studies
have been published that include
hamstring strengthening exercises
such as straight leg dead lifts, leg
curls, trunk hyperextensions and
good mornings;48 however, multi-joint
exercises, and those that utilise closed
kinetic chain and eccentric contraction
are preferable for their conformity to the
principles of dynamic correspondence:
21
1. Amplitude and direction of

movement
2. Accentuated region of force
production
3. Dynamics of the effort
4. Rate and time of maximum force
production
5. Regime of muscular work62
Gambetta and Benton advocate the
use of an exercise continuum to allow
selection of exercises that progress
from low speed, high force to high
speed, high force, to improve functional
strength, intermuscular co-ordination
and sprinting mechanics. Double
leg Romanian dead lifts, single leg
Romanian dead lifts, low step-ups with
posterior resistance, lunge and reach
using three planes and walking lunge
into high knee are all recommended
as exercises to enhance hamstring
performance and prevent injury.38
Dynamic control ratio represents
synergistic action and knee joint
stabilisation capacity and calculates
the ratio between peak torque produced
eccentrically by the hamstrings, and
concentrically by the quadriceps.42
Eccentric hamstring contraction utilises
the elastic component of the muscle to
generate increased force compared to
concentric quadriceps action; this ratio
must therefore be greater (1:1 or 1.00) to
reduce both the risk of hamstring strain
and knee injury.48,59
Training should use activities that
require agonist and antagonist to
work simultaneously to strengthen the
hamstrings, to support performance
and to help avoid injury.46,49 Dynamic
control ratio should be targeted with
functional exercises such as resisted
sled walking, plyometric, agility, speed
and sport specific drills.10 Where an
athlete needs to correct quadricepsdominant technique, it is essential that
the S & C coach model and coach the
optimal movement pattern.
Jump training should emphasise
landing mechanics that place the
centre of gravity over the bodys base of
support.4 The hamstrings utilise muscle
stiffness to absorb shock and rebound
and this capability can be developed
with low amplitude straight leg bounds,
ankle bounces and low hurdle hops.38
The athlete must bounce with minimal
flexion at the knee and the coach
should emphasise short ground contact
time. When the athlete lands on their
toes, this will activate the quadriceps
ahead of the hip flexors to stabilise
22
HAMSTRINGS
the knee. Activation of the hip flexors

will reduce the stress on the knee and
further activate the gluteals.79 Landing
technique is particularly important for
the female athlete who is at greater risk
of knee injury than her male counterpart
due to a wider Q angle.19
The Q angle is an abbreviation for
the quadriceps femoris angle and
is calculated from an intersection
of two lines. The first line is drawn
from the anterior superior iliac spine
to the middle of the patella and the
second dissects the middle of the
patella.73 Anatomically, a wider Q angle
predisposes the female to greater stress
due to the torsion applied through the
knee. For this reason it is even more
essential for the female athlete not to
progress to higher intensity speed work
until a solid foundation of movement
mechanics has been established.38
After periods of repeat eccentric
exercise, the hamstrings undergo an
adaptation process of morphological
change.72 The relatively low incidence of hamstring injuries in
squash demonstrates a sport-specific
protective training effect, attributable
to repeat dynamic movements in
the lunge position.14 Acceleration,
deceleration and multidimensional
movements are critical for games
performance and the ability to change
velocity relies upon the development
of eccentric strength.39 This knowledge
has encouraged practitioners to coach
single joint training exercises that train
eccentric strength in non-functional
positions. Biomechanical studies have
demonstrated that the hamstring curl,
kneeling Russian hamstring exercise,
Roman chair hamstring/gluteal raise
and Swiss ball bridging exercises all
put the hamstrings at a mechanical
disadvantage and are therefore
contraindicated.38
The S&C coach should target functional
strength, rather than strength training
that isolates the muscle, and focus on
force time characteristics to develop
programmes that develop good
mechanics and improve intermuscular
co-ordination and thus transfer to
athletic performance.49
Running
When running, athletes use two basic
styles to generate and control speed.
With a stiff legged action, impact
time on the ground is short, thereby
increasing the force going through the
knee.14 Lack of muscle stiffness (the
ability to absorb force and rebound)
and eccentric control predisposes

the athlete using this style to overuse
injury.47 With a compliant bent-knee,
the impact time is longer and increased
flexion reduces the shock transferred to
the joint. 54
Sprinting
Sprinting is a common cause of
hamstring strain,18 and athletes
involved in repeat sprint performance
have a higher incidence of hamstring
injury.71 Biomechanical investigation
into the mechanism of hamstring injury
specific to sprinting reveals that during
the swing phase injury is preceded
by increased knee extension and
longer muscle length during eccentric
contraction.3,18,47
Studies
have
shown
that
at
85% of maximum velocity the
semimembranosus is more dominant
in force absorption and co-activation.85
At maximum velocity (95%) there
is a significant shift and biceps
femoris becomes more vulnerable
as it dominates in neuromuscular
responsibility.63,96 For the performance
athlete movement mechanics must be
coached to reflect task specificity and
when working on top speed optimal
form is essential. Overspeed training
using elastic cords can encourage
an athlete to overstride and produce
braking steps when anticipating a fall.
Fifteen degree hill sprinting can be used
to eradicate overstriding and safely
develop good top speed mechanics.38
Fatigue
Hamstring
injury
susceptibility
increases with fatigue.17,53,90 Ekstrand et
al analysed the injury characteristics
of 23 elite football teams over multiple
seasons and found that injuries were
more likely to occur as players tired
towards the end of each half. They also
reported that hamstring strains were
more frequent during the competitive
season and more likely to occur during
matches rather than during training.26
During a 90-minute competition,
muscle glycogen levels are reduced
by 40%-90%.5 Glycogen is metabolised
by the body to provide energy in the
form of ATP for muscle contraction.
When glycogen levels are depleted,
blood insulin levels fall and fat
oxidation occurs in order to provide
further glucose for continued muscle
contraction.11 Towards the end of a
performance these changes contribute
to increasing levels of fatigue, increase
inefficient, uncoordinated movements
HAMSTRINGS
The hamstrings are at their most vulnerable when placed under

high stress and activated in an eccentric, lengthened position
and increase the risk of injury.26,80
When using high-velocity sprinting
and multidirectional acceleration, in
training desynergistic neuromuscular
activation results in suboptimal
absorption of eccentric forces, and if
hamstring activation is delayed, knee
control becomes compromised during
landing.24,28
During breaks in play, the athlete has
the opportunity to begin to replenish
glycogen stores using isotonic glucose
drinks.9 Glucose is used via oxidative
phosphorylation to produce ATP,8
which is then utilised as an energy
source.86 The S&C coach should ensure
that this is just a short term tactic that
forms part of a long term nutritional
strategy.
Periodised
conditioning
should gradually develop high intensity
speed endurance work to prepare the
athlete to cope with the demands of
performance during competition.24
High speed work should be introduced
early in the training session, as
close to the warm-up as possible.4
The hamstrings fatigue quickly, and
therefore inappropriate training session
design has the potential to predispose
the athlete to hamstring injury.17
the concept of functional requirement

as a determinant of injury, recording an
incidence of strain for hamstrings three
times higher for the dominant leg.58
Susceptibility to strain for biceps
femoris is increased by biarticular
structure;81 discordant contraction from
dual innervations;2 and, in comparison
to rectus femoris, less resistance to
fatigue because of a higher amount
of Type II muscle fibres.41 Muscle
behaves visceolastically and is strain
rate dependent.87 Strain refers to the
amount of deformation experienced by
the tissue in response to load.41
There is a limit to the amount of strain
a muscle tendon unit can sustain and
failure results in injury to the musculoskeletal system. The myotendinous
junction has been identified as the
site most susceptible to strain due to
a structural propensity for mechanical
loading.43,88 Examination of the
biomechanical effects of stretch has
demonstrated statistically significant

differences (P=0.01) in peak tension and
energy absorption at different stretch
rates.84 This suggests that a critical
mechanism of injury for hamstring
strain is stretch velocity and reflects the
significance of the higher stretch rate
experienced by athletes performing at
higher speeds during competition.
Re-injury
Previous injury is a major risk factor
in repeated tears of the hamstrings.20,40
This is partly because athletes return
to training and competition before the
muscle has fully recovered.16,32 Orchard
reviewed 2,255 matches of Australian
Rules football and demonstrated that
previous injury was the most significant
risk factor for further hamstring injury.
Orchard calculated a 9% risk of re-injury
in the first three weeks after the initial
injury occurred; however, there is also
evidence to show that predisposition to
re-injury may then persist.68 De Visser
The muscles involved in abduction

and adduction act to stabilise the
hamstrings and if these muscles
lack the strength or conditioning to
cope with stress induced by running
curves or angles this may also leave
the hamstrings vulnerable to injury.38
Programming should therefore also
include exercises for hip abduction
and adduction and muscles can be
conditioned by the execution of
multidirectional movement patterns
with resistance applied by an elastic
band placed above the ankles.38
Hamstring injury
The hamstrings are at their most
vulnerable when placed under high
stress and activated in an eccentric,
lengthened position.33 This occurs when
the knee extends and the hip flexes,
concomitantly causing a lengthening of
the hamstrings.86 Specific lengthening
and eccentric contractions of muscles
are dependent on the velocity, the phase
of gait, and neuromuscular coordination
patterns.47 Research examining strain
in relation to limb dominance supports
23
HAMSTRINGS
and Reijman reported that soccer players

with previous hamstring, groin, and knee
injuries were two to three times more likely
to suffer the same injury in the next season.21
In January this year, during a rugby union
match, Tongan backrower Steve Mafi
returned to the starting line-up for Leicester
Tigers following a knee injury. Sixteen
days later, playing against Toulouse in the
Heineken Cup and fifteen minutes into the
game, he pulled up with a hamstring injury
and was forced to retire from the snow
covered pitch.57 Hamstring injury risk is
increased by a wet surface that causes the
athlete to slip.38 This example demonstrates
that for Mafi, the combination of recent
injury, a snow-covered pitch and a sprint
to chase a kick represented a threat that
took him beyond the threshold capability
of his muscle. This evidence highlights the
importance of collaboration between the
S & C coach and the physiotherapist when
working with an athlete who is returning to
training and competition, and underlines
the importance of regular testing and good
decision-making.
Conclusion
The biceps femoris is the most commonly
injured muscle of the hamstrings, with
some studies suggesting it accounts for
over half of all hamstring injuries.17,44,92
Hamstring strength is a modifiable factor
and strength training and functional
conditioning can reduce fatigue and prevent
injury.18,74 Hamstring injury is related to
the structural and functional differences
between biceps femoris, semimembranosus
and semitendinosus and can be traced
back to the specificity of the conditioning
demands placed upon the athlete.47 Sports
performance relies upon movements that
are specific and functional in relation to
motor and metabolic demand; therefore
special physical preparedness (SPP) must
attend to motor qualities and utilise methods
of strength training that conform to the
principles of dynamic correspondence.62
The examples in this article use the
principles of dynamic correspondence to
underpin strengthening and conditioning
for the hamstrings. Emphasis should always
be placed upon intermuscular co-ordination
to develop sprinting and multidirectional
movement. Exercises should be multi-joint,
eccentric in nature and utilise a closed
kinetic chain.38
AUTHORS BIOGRAPHIES
Graham Turner, MSc, BEd (Hons), ASCC, BWL
Graham Turner is a senior lecturer in the department of sport, health and
nutrition at Leeds Trinity University, and currently studying for a PhD in
talent development at Leeds Metropolitan University. He has over 20 years
experience in participant development and specialises in the coaching of
physical preparation and strength and conditioning. Graham has worked
across a range of sports, but most extensively within professional football,
developing additional expertise in prehabilitation, injury management and rehabilitation.
Graham was a founder member of the UKSCA and elected to serve as a director of the
inaugural board of the Association. Graham continues to serve the UKSCA as a coach
assessor and as a member of the Professional Strength & Conditioning editorial panel.
Alexander Goodrich, BSc (Hons)

Alexander is a British International and former Commonwealth Judo
Champion. As a UK Lottery-funded athlete Alex lived and trained at
the prestigious Bisham Abbey National Centre, home of the national
programme for judo for eight years. During this time he travelled and
competed all over the world in international competition. Alex became
interested in sports injury after suffering multiple cruciate ligament tears,
and cartilage damage, injuries that prematurely ended his promising career. Alex has
since studied injury and rehabilitation at the University of Bath, and Leeds Metropolitan
University. He is now studying for an MSc in nursing at the University of Essex and his
specific research interest is the relationship between lower chain mechanics, GAIT and
knee injury.
24
HAMSTRINGS
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A review of complex and contrast training:

implications for current practice. Part 2
Paul Jones, BSc (Hons), MSc, CSCS / University of Salford
Theodoros M Bampouras, BSc (Hons), MSc / University of Cumbria
Paul Comfort, BSc (Hons), MSc, CSCS*D, ASCC / University of Salford
INTRODUCTION
Part 1 of this review has revealed that both contrast
and complex training have been shown to be effective in
acutely enhancing power output of the subsequent lighter
load exercise, with load, volume, recovery and training
status all influencing the potentiating effect. Athletes with
higher training status or greater strength levels are more
likely to benefit from post-activation potentiation (PAP)
and take advantage of this phenomenon through complex
or contrast training. For traditional exercises (ie, back
squat, bench press), heavy loads should be used (87%
1-RM) to induce PAP; in contrast, with ballistic exercises
(loaded jump squats, bench press throws) lower loads
(<60% 1-RM) should be used as the stimulating resistance.
At least four minutes should be allowed for inter-set
recovery for contrast pairs, whereas eight minutes should
be used for complex routines due to the extra volume
used with the resistance training exercise component.
However, as research is conflicting, it is strongly advisable
to test these recommendations with individual athletes
before designing sessions.
Although these acute effects are potentially beneficial
for enhancing power output and athletic performance,
it is not easy to implement such heavy load activities in
the appropriate time period prior to competition, due to
lack of access to appropriate equipment. Strength and
conditioning professionals therefore regularly implement
such methods in their training regimes to take advantage
of PAP to enhance subsequent activity (eg, increase
power output); the hope is that this will induce sufficient
overload to result in an enhanced training effect, when
performed regularly in training (usually across a mesocycle).
Part 2 will explore the findings of training studies which
have used these methods in an attempt to enhance
athletic performance.
Training studies
Few studies have examined the efficacy
of complex (COM) or contrast (CON)
training, despite its popularity among
strength coaches. There is some
evidence that performing COM may
be just as effective as a combined
training programme. Burger, BoyerKendrick and Dolney3 compared the
effects of combined resistance training
and plyometrics with COM over seven
weeks. The COM group performed
the plyometric exercises in a super
set (little or no rest between) with
biomechanically similar (in terms of
agonist muscles used) core resistance
exercises. The combined group
performed the plyometric exercises
separately following the core resistance
training exercises.
The COM group found an increase
in vertical jump performance, which
was significantly different with the
combined group (2.8 vs 0.1 cm).
The value of 2.8 cm is of practical
significance, since values above 2 cm
are both statistically and significantly
important.15 The COM group showed
improvements in % body fat, 1RM bench
press, 1RM back squat, 1RM power clean,
medicine ball throw, standing long jump
and an agility test. The combined group
also showed improvements in these
tests with a significant difference with
the COM group in 1RM bench press.
However, this study is only available in
abstract form and therefore, provides
no information on the exact details of
each training programme in particular
whether volume was equated and
the protocol used to elicit PAP in the
COM sessions. There was no mention
of a control group: the improvements
could therefore also be a result of other
extraneous factors.
27
Several studies have reported similar

findings over various programme
lengths.6,10,18 Dodd and Alvar6 compared
COM with heavy resistance training
and plyometric training in a 15-week
counter-balanced rotational design,
whereby all subjects performed a
four-week block of each training
intervention. The COM involved
squats, lunges, split squats, box jumps,
depth jumps and split squat jumps
in exercise pairs with greater than 10
seconds rest between exercises and 3-4
minutes between sets. No details were
given as to which resistance training
and plyometric exercises were paired
together. Four sets of six repetitions
for each exercise were performed for
the resistance training and plyometric
training groups, while the COM group
halved the number of sets for each
modality in an attempt to equate
volume between the three groups.
Although no significant differences
were found between groups, the COM
group showed greater percentage
improvements in 20, 40 and 60 yard
sprint, T-agility and standing long jump.
Unfortunately, the speed and agility
tests were measured by stopwatches.
The plyometric group showed greater
percentage improvements in vertical
jump height.
Mihalik et al18 reported similar findings
to Burger et al3 over four weeks (twice
per week) of COM. In his study, a total
of 31 (11 male and 20 female) volleyball
players were divided into COM
and compound (resistance training
and plyometric training exercises
performed on separate days) training
groups. Vertical jump height and power
was assessed at the end of each week.
After three weeks of COM, vertical
jump height and power significantly
improved and continued to do so
in week 4; however, no significant
differences were observed between
groups.
Juarez et al10 found similar improvements in squat and countermovement
jump heights, 1RM back squat and 5, 10,
15 and 20m sprint times following eight
weeks of COM in eight sports science
students. No significant differences
were observed between this COM group
with a combined training group (four
weeks weight training followed by four
weeks plyometric training, equated
for volume), that revealed significant
improvements in 1RM back squat, squat
jump height, 5 and 10 m sprint. These
results taken in combination illustrate
28
that COM can be just as effective as

other training modalities for strength
and power over a four- to eight-week
period in untrained subjects in terms of
strength training experience.
One study has examined CON
over a longer period: Walker et al25
investigated the effects of 11 weeks
CON in recreationally strength
trained men. The CON protocol used
a protocol involving three to five sets
of three repetitions at 80% 1RM for the
heavy resistance training exercise with
similar volume for the high velocity/
low load exercise. The exercise pairs
involved back squats followed by
CMJs and leg presses followed by 50%
1RM explosive leg presses. The results
revealed significant improvements in
1RM, 80% 1RM load, squat jump height
and isometric force and RFD over
the 11-week programme; however, no
control condition was incorporated into
the study.
Two other training studies have been
performed on adolescent athletes
using the term COM and showing
positive effects, but without actually
using specific exercise combinations
just resistance training followed
by plyometric exercises in the same
sessions.9,22 Ingle et al9 reported no
details of the COM programme involved
in their study, thus making it difficult
to draw any conclusions. Interestingly,
in a follow-up study, Santos and
Janeira23 found no differences from
16 weeks of detraining and a reduced
(once per week) COM programme
in a range of upper and lower body
power tests, suggesting that regular
basketball practice can sustain physical

performance in young players during
the in-season. It might be expected
that COM could be a useful training
strategy to prevent in-season deconditioning, as both ends of the forcevelocity curve are trained in the same
session. Further studies are required to
see if COM can prevent detraining in
older, well-trained, sports performers to
substantiate such an application.
One other study has examined the
efficacy of differing frequency of
COM over six weeks for pre-season
conditioning of football players.14 In
this, 23 football players were divided
into two experimental groups that
performed COM either once or twice
per week or a control condition, after
two weeks of resistance training.
Complexes involved squats (6 reps),
followed by 5 metre high skips (1 rep)
and sprints (1 rep), calf raises (6 reps)
followed by vertical jumps (8 reps) and
vertical jumps to head a ball (3 reps) and
finally, leg extensions (6 reps) followed
by seated vertical jumps (6 reps) and
60 cm depth jumps (3 reps). All heavy
resistance training exercises involved
80 to 90% of 1RM but no precise details
were given about inter-set recovery
other than performed in continuation.
The results showed that both
experimental groups significantly
enhanced squat jump height, as well
as 5 and 15 metre sprint performance.
However, no significant differences were
observed between experimental groups:
this observation serves to illustrate
that performance improvements can
be observed from COM irrespective of
training frequency. It should be noted

that these were young players, probably
with little strength training experience,
which may be the reason why such a low
volume of training led to performance
benefits.
COM summary
To summarise, the literature consistently
shows that, in novice and moderately
strength-trained individuals, COM
can be just as effective as combined
resistance training and plyometrics
over a four- to eight-week period. More
research is required to see if COM
can be as effective in well trained
subjects as an alternative strategy for
power development or for in-season
maintenance of strength and power.
Future studies should also more clearly
document the COM/CON routines
involved.
Key point:
Complex training seems just as effective
as combined resistance and plyometric
training programmes over a 4 to 8 week
period in novice and moderately strength
trained individuals.
Other approaches to contrast

training
Traditionally, CON should involve
a heavy resistance training exercise
set followed by a lighter plyometric
or ballistic resistance exercise set.7
Some research suggests that a reverse
to this order can achieve positive
effects on the performance of heavy
resistance training exercise. Masamoto
et al16 examined the acute effects of
plyometric exercise on 1RM back squat
performance in trained male athletes.
In this study, subjects performed three
1RM testing sessions, with the first
session performing sets of increasing
load until 1RM was reached. During
the second and third testing sessions
subjects performed either three doubleleg tuck jumps or two drop jumps 30
seconds before each 1RM attempt. The
average 1RM lifts after each session
were 139.6 29.3 kg, 140.5 25.6 kg
and 144.5 30.2 kg, respectively. The
differences between the traditional and
the prior drop jump testing session
were significant (p<0.05), suggesting
enhanced performance from the prior
drop jump repetitions. Similarly,
Bullock and Comfort2 found that a set
of two, four and six repetitions of drop
jumps, performed four minutes prior to
a maximal lift, significantly enhanced

1RM back squat performance, although
there was no significant differences
in performances between each of the
three conditions.
The
mechanisms
behind
such
an improvement could be due to
increased motor unit excitability,16 but
this is purely speculative. Lloyd and
Deutsch13 found no differences in squat
performance between loaded squats
followed by CMJs and vice versa.
However, back squat performance
was enhanced following performance
of prior CMJs compared to squats
performed in isolation, supporting the
abovementioned studies.2,16
In the light of these results, it may be that
an alternative order could be beneficial,
but no studies have evaluated whether
a set of heavy resistance training
exercises could be enhanced by the
lighter load exercise performed 1-2
minutes preceding ie, whether during
a back squat/drop jump exercise pair
with four minutes inter-set recovery,
the back squat in the second set is
enhanced by the previous drop jump
set. Future research should investigate
the performance of both the plyometric
and heavy resistance training exercises
29
throughout multiple sets of contrast

pairs to support this idea.
regarding training session variables

can be made:
Contrasting muscle actions
A volume of two to three sets per exercise

pair should be used
Although the traditional method

of CON has involved contrasting
resistances in exercises involving
similar agonist muscles (ie, back squats
followed by drop jumps), many authors
have suggested using contrasting
muscle actions (ie, bench pulls followed
by bench press throws) as a form of
CON. Evidence as to whether such
a method acutely enhances power
remains limited and equivocal.1,21
Furthermore, this method should not
be referred to as COM or CON, because
biomechanically similar exercises are
not used and it does not take advantage
of PAP.20 We prefer the term agonistantagonist paired set training and thus
this should be considered as a separate
training strategy to COM/CON.20
Practical implications
Based on the reviewed literature in parts
1 and 2, the following recommendations
References
1. Baker D and Newton RU. Acute effect on power
output of altering an agonist and antagonist
muscle exercise during complex training.
J Strength Cond Res 19: 202-205, 2005.
2. Bullock N and Comfort P. An investigation
into the acute effects of depth jumps on maximal
strength performance. J Strength Cond Res 25:
3137-3141, 2011.
3. Burger T, Boyer-Kendrick T, and Dolney D.
Complex training compared to a combined weight
training and plyometric training programme.
J Strength Cond Res 14: S360, 2000.
4. Comyns TM, Harrison AJ, Hennessy L, and
Jensen RL. Identifying the optimal resistive
load for complex training in male rugby players.
Sports Biomech 6: 59-70, 2007.
5. Comyns TM, Harrison AJ, Hennessy LK,
and Jensen RL. The optimal complex training
rest interval for athletes from anaerobic sports.
6. Dodd DJ and Alvar BA. Analysis of acute
explosive training modalities to improve lowerbody power in baseball players. J Strength Cond
Res 21: 1177-1182, 2007.
7. Ebben WP and Watts PB. A review of combined
weight training and plyometric training modes:
Complex Training. Strength & Conditioning
Journal 20: 18-27, 1998.
8. Esformes JI, Cameron N, and Bampouras TM.
Post-activation potentiation following different
modes of exercise. J Strength Cond Res 24: 19111916, 2010.
9. Ingle L, Sleap M, and Tolfrey K. The effect of
a complex training and detraining programme
on selected strength and power variables in early
pubertal boys. J Sports Sci 24: 987-997, 2006.
30
No extra benefit to power performance

has been observed beyond three sets of
complexes8,24
At least four minutes should be allowed for
inter-set recovery for contrast pairs (see
Table 1 in Part 1 of this review)
If using COM, then at least eight minutes
should be used due to the extra volume
used with the resistance training exercise
component.12
As research is conflicting, it is strongly

advisable to test these recommendations
with individual athletes before
designing the sessions.5,17 However,
given that longer recoveries (8 min)
may be required, it might be more time
efficient to incorporate COM routines
or CON using the same exercises and
different loads, as opposed to CON
using different exercises, if the goal is
to elicit PAP in training.
10. Juarez D, Gonzalez-Raver JM, and Navarro
F. Effect of complex vs. non-complex training
programs on lower body strength and power.
Isokinetics in Exercise Science 17: 233-242, 2009.
11. Kilduff LP, Bevan HR, Kingsley MI, Owen NJ,
Bennett MA, Bunce PJ, Hore AM, Maw JR, and
Cunningham DJ. Postactivation potentiation
in professional rugby players: optimal recovery.
12. Kilduff LP, Owen N, Bevan H, Bennett M,
Kingsley MI, and Cunningham D. Influence of
recovery time on post-activation potentiation in
professional rugby players. J Sports Sci 26: 795802, 2008.
13. Lloyd R and Deutsch M. Effect of order of
exercise on performance during a complex
training session in rugby players. J Sports Sci 26:
803-809, 2008.
14. Maio Alves JM, Rebelo AN, Abrantes C, and
Sampaio J. Short-term effects of complex and
contrast training in soccer players vertical jump,
sprint, and agility abilities. J Strength Cond Res
24: 936-941, 2010.
15. Markovic G, Simek S, and Bradic A. Are acute
effects of maximal dynamic contractions on
upper-body ballistic performance load specific?
16. Masamoto N, Larson R, Gates T, and
Faigenbaum A. Acute effects of plyometric
exercise on maximum squat performance in
male athletes. J Strength Cond Res 17: 68-71, 2003.
17. McCann MR and Flanagan SP. The effects
of exercise selection and rest interval on
postactivation potentiation of vertical jump
performance. J Strength Cond Res 24: 1285-1291,
2010.
18. Mihalik JP, Libby JJ, Battaglini CL, and
McMurray RG. Comparing short-term complex
Heavy loads should be used (87%

1RM) for traditional resistance training
exercise (ie, back squat, bench press)
components for both COM and CON
routines.4,11,12 When using ballistic
exercises (loaded jump squats, bench
press throws) as the stimulating
resistance, then lower loads should be
used (< 60% 1RM). There is not much
research which has used weightlifting
exercises to suggest an optimal load.
A one-month power cycle involving
these methods should be beneficial as
an alternative power training method
and for organisational benefits for elite
and well-trained athletes.3,6
Conclusion
COM/CON, in summary, therefore
provides an option for in-season
programmes to allow plyometric
training to be integrated into strength
training sessions and help maintain
the different strength qualities (force
production and power output) during
the season.
and compound training programs on vertical
jump height and power output. J Strength Cond
Res 22: 47-53, 2008.
19. Robbins DW, Young WB, Behm DG, and
Payne WR. Effects of agonist-antagonist complex
resistance training on upper body strength and
power development. J Sports Sci 27: 1617-1625,
2009.
Payne WR. Agonist-antagonist paired set
resistance training: a brief review. J Strength
Cond Res 24: 2873-2882, 2010.
Payne WR. The effect of a complex agonist
and antagonist resistance training protocol on
volume load, power output, electromyographic
responses, and efficiency. J Strength Cond Res
24: 1782-1789, 2010.
22. Santos EJ and Janeira MA. Effects of complex
training on explosive strength in adolescent
male basketball players. J Strength Cond Res 22:
903-909, 2008.
23. Santos EJ and Janeira MA. Effects of reduced
training and detraining on upper and lower body
explosive strength in adolescent male basketball
players. J Strength Cond Res 23: 1737-1744, 2009.
24. Smilios I, Pilianidis T, Sotiropoulos K,
Antonakis M, and Tokmakidis SP. Short-term
effects of selected exercise and load in contrast
training on vertical jump performance. J Strength
Cond Res 19: 135-139, 2005.
25. Walker S, Ahtiainen JP, and Hakkinen K.
Acute neuromuscular and hormonal responses
during contrast loading: effect of 11 weeks of
contrast training. Scand J Med Sci Sports 20: 226234, 2010.
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The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association

HIGH-INTENSITY FOOTBALL TRAINING

1-2 February 2014 Newcastle

Planning Effective Programmes Workshop

1-2 February 2014 Belfast

Plyometrics, Agility and Speed Workshop

26-26 January 2014 Sheffield

Weight Lifting for Sports Performance Workshop

18-19 January 2014 London

ISSUE 30 / SEPTEMBER 2013

HIGH-INTENSITY FOOTBALL TRAINING

COACHING: AVOIDING CONFLICT

COMPLEX AND CONTRAST TRAINING

ISSUE 30 / SEPTEMBER 2013

Letter from the Editor

Comfort. Here the scientific principles

provides an excellent overview of

In a similar vein, Graham Turner and

It is often said that innovation lies

We may have a huge

In the coaching column of this

A key element of effective strength

I hope this edition of Professional

ISSUE 30 / SEPTEMBER 2013

BSc (Hons), MSc, ASCC

BA (Hons), ASCC, CSCS

Crofton has been accredited as a strength

Sam has 10 years full time experience as a

Crofton joined London Wasps in 2006, assisting with the

Before this, Sam worked with Lancashire County Cricket, and

Crofton obtained his BSc (Hons) in sports science at Anglia

Sam is currently completing a Masters degree in exercise

ISSUE 30 / SEPTEMBER 2013

Excellence in S&C Award winners

finish. These spectacular on-field results were achieved as a

ISSUE 30 / SEPTEMBER 2013

S&C Coach of the Year in Education:

In 2007, Jon successfully launched the first undergraduate

S&C Coach of the Year in Youth Sport:

In addition, Kevin also writes the syllabus and manages a

Kevin Watson, winner of this award, is

Kevin and his team have a direct impact on the successful

Kevin also has a staff of two assistant coaches whom he

A further example is that 80% of the Schools badminton and

ISSUE 30 / SEPTEMBER 2013

mere four days after open brain surgery to attempt to remove

This award was given posthumously at

More recently, he had secured an internship position working

Richard worked constantly to establish himself within the

In Northumbria, Richard was also acting as S&C coach to the

An exceptionally gifted coach, Richard not only built up a

Through re-election, Gil continued to serve as chair to the

RUNNING TRAINING FOR FOOTBALL

ISSUE 30 / SEPTEMBER 2013

placed upon players from various game

ISSUE 30 / SEPTEMBER 2013

RUNNING TRAINING FOR FOOTBALL

Elite Player Performance Plan

Figure 1. Interaction of the main

To assign this amount of training time

To address this paucity in training

At Sheffield Wednesday FC Academy, the

Methods of assessing training load

RUNNING TRAINING FOR FOOTBALL