PSC Issue 31

The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association
PROFESSIONAL
STRENGTH & CONDITIONING
31
issue
december
2013
Overtraining and fatigue

CONCURRENT TRAINING
ON-ICE AGILITY test
ISCHAEMIC PRECONDITIONING
UKSCA Events
UKSCA Assessment Days

Please see our website for the latest dates and availability, as demand is high and new
dates/venues are being added every week.
In order to become UKSCA Accredited, members must prove their competence as an S&C
coach on one of our assessment days. Places are available on each day below for those coming
for their first assessment day, as well as those looking to retake one or more elements.
12 Jan 2014 Bisham Abbey
27 Apr 2014 Bisham Abbey
23 Feb 2014 Bisham Abbey
24 May 2014 Loughborough Uni.
01 Mar 2014 Loughborough Uni.
01 Jun 2014 Bisham Abbey
08 Mar 2014 Uni. of Ulster, Belfast
14 Jun 2014 Forthbank, Stirling
23 Mar 2014 Uni. of Gloucester
www.uksca.org.uk
Enhance Your Career Prospects

At Coventry University Sport & Exercise Science courses focus on
the application of scientific principles to the promotion, maintenance
and enhancement of sport and exercise related behaviours.
Our courses have a practical component and to support this we have a suite of sport science
laboratories, along with a specialist strength and conditioning suite, therapy rooms and on site
sports therapy clinic, as well as using track and sports centre facilities.
Courses include:
Sports Therapy BSc
Sport and Exercise Science BSc
Exercise Nutrition and Health BSc
Strength and Conditioning MSc
Applied Sport and Exercise Science MSc
Or for all courses look on Course Finder on our website
www.coventry.ac.uk
ISSUE 31 / DECEMBER 2013
UKSCA
CONTRIBUTORS
Contents
EDITOR
Ian Jeffreys PhD, FNSCA, ASCC, CSCS*D
EDITORIAL PANEL
Raphael Brandon MSc, ASCC
Clive Brewer MSc, BSc(Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Marco Cardinale PhD, ASCC
Dave Clark MSc, ASCC
Paul Comfort MSc, ASCC
Audrey Duncan PhD, ASCC
Mike Favre MSc, ASCC
Duncan French PhD, ASCC
Jon Goodwin MSc, PGCHE, ASCC, CSCS
Greg Haff PhD, ASCC, FNSCA, CSCS
Liam Kilduff PhD
Rhodri Lloyd PhD, CSCS*D, ASCC
Jeremy Moody PhD, ASCC
Phil Moreland BAppSci, AssocDip, ASCC
Jeremy Sheppard PhD, CSCS
Narelle Sibte BAppSci, Grad Dip, ASCC
Alan Sinclair MSc, ASCC, CSCS
Gil Stevenson BEd (Hons), ASCC
Margaret Stone MSc, ASCC
Michael Stone PhD, ASCC
Mark Simpson MSc, ASCC
Graham Turner MSc, BEd (Hons), ASCC
COLUMN EDITORS
Graeme Close PhD, ASCC
Nick Ward MSc, CSCS, ASCC
Dan Cleather PhD
04
EDITORS LETTER
05
NEWS
09
CONCURRENT TRAINING
15
ON-ICE AGILITY TEST
19
OVERTRAINING AND FATIGUE
28
MANAGING EDITOR
Mary Fogarty
GRAPHIC DESIGN
Olivia Holborn
ISSN 1757-5834
www.uksca.org.uk
P R O F E SS I O N A L S T R E N GT H & C O N D I T I O N I N G / W W W. U K S CA . O R G . U K
03
EDITORS LETTER
Letter from the Editor

Looking at the current issue of
Professional Strength & Conditioning,
what has again struck me is the sheer
diversity of knowledge and application
that comes under the broad title of
strength and conditioning. Our aim
as coaches is always to provide our
athletes with the most efficacious
training methods available within
the logistical restraints of our
training situation. However, the field
is constantly evolving and indeed,
it could be argued that the volume
of knowledge being produced can
at times seem overwhelming. This
highlights the importance of the
systematic mind to an effective
strength and conditioning coach:
he or she needs to be able to source
and effectively evaluate information,
something which will become even
more important as the volume of
information continues to increase.
However, knowledge in itself is
useless unless it can be put to good
effect within the training arena.
Therefore, combined with the ability
to source and evaluate information,
the coach needs to be able to integrate
new methods, while at the same time
maintaining a consistency of tried and
trusted methodologies. In attempting
to do this, our role may seem at times
like that of the alchemist, constantly
experimenting for that elusive
combination that provides training
gold. The search for this has to be
relentless and it also requires that
while we are always open to new
approaches, we must also be alert
not to chase this at the expense of
previously tried and trusted training
formulae. The search for a better way
is both the beauty and the challenge of
the profession, as we will simply never
be in a position where we know it all.
A further challenge is that we simply
do not know where our next inspiration
may lie. Often, it comes from
unexpected sources and even from
disciplines or training methodologies
04
completely different from our current

specialisms or approaches. This requires a degree of generalism to our
development and study: indeed, too
narrow a specialism may not provide
us with the multi-disciplinary view
required to fully address an issue.
This generalist approach allows
us to explore multiple solutions to
any training problem and the way
in which we view this is crucial. Of
course, we must never take anything
at face value and always evaluate
training innovations based on our
The search for a

better way is both the
beauty and the challenge
of the profession, as we
will simply never be
in a position where we
know it all
acquired knowledge. However, even
when we may not agree totally with
an approach, there may be something
there that has value and warrants
further investigation. Hence, the way
in which we view potential innovation
is crucial; as poet and novelist
Frederick Langbridge wrote: two men
look out of the same bars, one sees the
mud and one the stars.
of agility and the question of whether

this can be effectively tested. Typically,
agility is closely associated with
locomotor-based sports. However,
in an article on page 15, Stephen
Nightingale looks at the concept of
agility from an ice hockey perspective
and produces a piece of research that
looks at the validity and reliability of
an on-ice test of agility.
Adaptation to training is always a
balance between the potentiation
elements of training stimulus and
its fatiguing elements. Clearly, the
monitoring of fatigue and potential
overtraining is a crucial role of the
strength and conditioning coach and
Anthony Turner and co-authors have
written an insightful piece about
challenge (pp19-27).
Finally, an approach originally
developed in the medical field but now
gaining greater exposure within the
strength and conditioning field is the
topic of ischaemic preconditioning
and restricted blood flow. On page
28, Neil Gibson of Heriot-Watt
University and Andrew Murray of
the sportscotland Scottish Institute
of Sport have provided an excellent
overview of this topic and especially
of how the information impacts upon
the coach.
The articles in this current issue are an

excellent example of innovation and
systematic scientific review. One of
the great challenges for the S&C coach
is how best to programme an athletes
training: approaches to periodisation
are often hotly debated. Starting on
page 7, Richard Blagrove, from St
Marys University in Twickenham, has
written the first part of an excellent
review on concurrent training.
These articles clearly demonstrate how

the field of S&C is constantly evolving
and how scientific review remains at
the heart of the profession. As always,
our aim is to provide members with
insightful information that addresses
the whole spectrum from primary
research to applied application. The
journal has to address the needs of
UKSCA members, and help move the
profession forward: to help us in this
aim, we encourage members to more
actively take part in this process by
submitting articles and providing
suggestions for future directions.
Another hotly debated topic is that
Ian Jeffreys, PhD, FNSCA, ASCC, CSCS*D
NEWS
NEWS
UKSCA Accredited members CPD model

All Accredited members of the UKSCA are required to re-accredit every two years through the Continued Professional
Development (CPD) process. CPD is a well recognised and valued component of maintaining and developing knowledge
and skills within a profession. As an association keen to support its members and generate a culture of development within
our professional sphere, the UKSCAs CPD Model for Accredited members contributes to maintaining a high professional
standard in the UK and also raises the level of importance of CPD to employers who wish to maintain the professional status of
their staff. The strength of the UKSCA CPD model is that it encourages Accredited members to develop a broad range of skills
and abilities within the profession by awarding points for a wide range of activities.
The UKSCAs CPD model is based on a credits scheme, whereby credits are awarded for activities that will develop the specific
coaching skills, knowledge and understanding of the professional, as well as for those which will further the professional field
or support its representative body in the UK (the UKSCA).
As well as subscription renewal, in order to retain membership status, each accredited member has to attain 100 CPD credits
over the two years from the date on which they first became accredited. The model is not intended to remove autonomy
from strength and conditioning coaches, who are still responsible for identifying their own professional development needs.
However, it is intended as a guidance framework for rating CPD activities that professionals choose to undertake.
Unlike other professions CPD schemes, the UKSCAs model is not simply geared towards formal learning activities are
grouped into five categories to form a comprehensive model that supports our members working in a variety of different
environments and with differing personal needs. Members are encouraged to undertake a range of activities and there is a cap
of 60 credits that members can accrue from each of the following five categories: A strength and conditioning employment;
B formal learning; C progression of the professional field; D progression of the UKSCA; E - mentoring S&C coaches.
The UKSCA scheme is largely self-certifying; therefore, all accredited members will submit their logs and the UKSCA will
randomly audit 20% of them. Those chosen for audit will be required to submit all the evidence required for each entry on their
CPD log. Members are encouraged to log into the UKSCAs website and complete their logs online.
CPD model updates

As the profession develops, the CPD
model has also developed to recognise
the different professional development
activities available to and undertaken by
our members.
The latest review has recognised the
following: lecturing on S&C degrees;
specific recognition of S&C and related
conferences; running an on-line blog
in S&C; and developing short courses
in S&C. Details of the credits for these
activities will be confirmed in 2014.
FORTHCOMING DEADLINES
For those who first became
accredited between 01/04/09 and
30/09/09:
End date of next cycle - 30/09/13
Submission date: 31/12/13

31/03/10:

30/09/11:

31/03/12:
05
CHAIRS COLUMN
NEWS
New chairman
of the UKSCA
At the last UKSCA Board meeting,
Duncan French stepped down as
director and chairman of the UKSCA,
and Pete McKnight was elected to take
over as the new chair. The Board would
like to take this opportunity to thank
Duncan for his enormous contribution
to the UKSCA as director for the last
six years and chair for the last two
years.
Stepping down was a difficult
decision for Duncan, and although his
achievements in running the last five,
highly acclaimed, annual conferences
are legend and visible to all, his huge
LETTER FROM PETE
Since its inception, the UKSCA
has grown and evolved, while still
maintaining its core values of
upholding the promotion of good
practice in strength and conditioning
across the industry. Over the past few
years, the Board has worked hard to
put systems in place to ensure that the
UKSCA operates with a high level of
accountability and transparency. As the
Association grows, so does its need to
engage the increasing numbers of its
members, and provide the best possible
services.
My vision for the next few years is to see
a team of directors working together
effectively on key areas by mobilising
its vibrant community of members, and
utilising the skills and abilities of all
those wanting to be involved. This is a
key step in the ongoing growth of the
Association.
One of the current realities is that
there are more individuals becoming
Accredited members and less jobs
available. I am passionate about
encouraging and helping members
to take the initiative and create new
06
Pete McKnight
enthusiasm, leadership skills and

intense commitment to the Association
are also all deeply appreciated.
The new chairman, Pete McKnight,
was recently re-elected to the Board
and has served as a director of the
UKSCA for four years. He has also
been involved in a number of projects,
including chair of the CPD panel and
taking responsibility for the process
of re-accrediting accredited members.
Pete works as a full-time strength and
conditioning coach for the French Ski
team and also supports a number of
elite track and field athletes.
roles in the increasingly competitive
work environment. These growing
opportunities lie in clubs, universities
and schools across the country, where
members can be instrumental in
bringing good practice.
I am currently based in France and make
regular trips back to the UK to attend
Board meetings as well as to perform
my duties as a tutor and assessor.
These duties, along with attending
conferences and workshops, allow
me to maintain my involvement and
influence with the UKSCA, as well as
my relationships with many individuals
in the UK.
Previously, Pete worked for UK

Athletics,
Leicestershire
County
Cricket, and the English Institute of
Sport, where he worked with a number
of sports including British triathlon,
rowing and the ECB. Pete started his
career as a strength and conditioning
coach at Loughborough University,
then moved to work in India and
Thailand.
Pete is also a qualified athletics
coach and is doing a PhD in the
monitoring and evaluation of strength
characteristics in elite track and field
athletes.
coach at the highest level of sports for
the last 12 years and I am passionate
about the development of the field.
I feel that I am able to align my skills
alongside a number of the different
areas of development outlined by the
Board. Its been a great privilege to
serve for the last four years on the Board
of directors, and I feel I am well placed
to continue to deliver its vision over the
next phase.
Following the first meeting of the
new Board, we are already working to
bring members more opportunities to
develop and are looking to launch a
number of additional benefits in early
2014 including online resources,
CPD workshops, higher levels of
accreditation, research opportunities,
and the continually developing journal.
One of the great advantages of being

based in mainland Europe, however,
is the ability to see the potential for
accredited members to go further
afield to ply their trade and also to
improve practices in those parts of the
world where S&C is less developed. I
envisage multiple opportunities for the
Association to grow in Europe and feel
I am strategically placed to facilitate
these.
I am committed to upholding the

credibility of the UKSCA, and playing
my part towards its becoming the
leading professional body in strength
and conditioning worldwide. It is an
honour and privilege to be elected as
chair during these exciting times.
From a personal point of view, I have

worked as a strength and conditioning
Pete McKnight
pete@uksca.org.uk
CONCURRENT STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE TRAINING
Programmes of concurrent strength and

endurance training: how to minimise the
interference effect. Part 1: Evidence and
mechanisms of interference
Richard Blagrove, BSc, MSc, PGCE, ASCC, CSCS / St Marys University College, Twickenham
OVERVIEW
Concurrent training typically describes an attempt to combine both strength
and endurance training within the same physical preparation programme.
Evidence to date indicates that concurrent regimens of training can produce
an interference effect which compromises strength gains but augments
qualities developed with endurance training. Although it is extremely likely
that residual fatigue from endurance training sessions will acutely impact
upon an athletes ability to produce force during subsequent bouts of strength
training, another explanation could be interactions between signalling
responses at a molecular level. Therefore, understanding the physiological
mechanisms which are likely to underpin this interference phenomenon will
enable coaches to develop effective strategies to minimise interference with
strength adaptation during cycles of concurrent training.
AUTHORS BIO
RICHARD BLAGROVE, BSc, MSc,

PGCE, ASCC, CSCS
Richard is currently programme director for the BSc

in strength and conditioning
science at St Marys University
College and a senior strength
and conditioning coach with
The St Marys Clinic. He has
over ten years experience of
providing S&C support for elite
athletes across a wide range of
sports including several who
competed at the Olympic and
Paralympic Games in 2012
Introduction
Successful sports performance requires
an optimal development of a broad range
of physical qualities, which therefore
demands a thoughtful approach to the
planning of training. For many sports, a
training regimen which aims to enhance
both strength- and endurance-related
qualities is essential. Endurance sports
such as long distance running, rowing
and triathlon traditionally use a high
frequency and volume of training at
lower intensities to develop aerobic
qualities, but the potential for strength
training to enhance performance is also
apparent.1,51,54,87,94,95
The benefit of including strength
training for athletes who partake in
invasion games, racket sports and
the martial arts all sports which are
characterised by intermittent bursts of
high intensity activity is perhaps more
obvious. However, these sports also
require the development of endurancetype qualities to optimise performance.
In addition, athletes from intermittent
sports often engage in technical and

tactical practices for long durations
which have a significant aerobic
contribution. It is therefore inevitable
that for significant portions of an athletes
training year, strength and endurance
training will be conducted concurrently.
The incompatibility between strength
and endurance training has long been
recognised,16,24,25,40 with many studies
over the last few decades demonstrating
an
interference
effect.10,34,39,46,49,52,55,66
It appears that concurrent training,
when compared to solely strength
training, compromises strength-related
adaptations.38,59,70,92
Figure 1 illustrates this concept, showing
that concurrent training blunts the
adaptive response to strength training
but may also augment endurance
performance above that which is possible
when exclusively following an endurance
training programme. Ultimately, this
presents a conundrum for the strength
and conditioning coach who attempts
to design training interventions aimed
at maximising specific adaptations and
sequence and recovery between training

bouts and the dependent variables
selected for measurement. The training
background and characteristics of
participants used in the studies also
appears to be an important factor and
should influence how a coach interprets
findings when working with athletes
from different sports.53,61,90
100
Endurance sports
Strength training only
Endurance training only

Strength adaptation
Concurrent training
Endurance adaptation
Figure 1. Typical relative adaptive responses to regimes of strength-only training,

endurance-only training and concurrent training. Figure assumes concurrent training
includes same dosages of training as strength-only and endurance-only training
scenarios
minimising the interference effects

associated with concurrent training.
Although a plethora of experimental
data has been published on the practical
and mechanistic impact of concurrent
training, few authors have attempted
to provide applied guidelines which
help coaches to make more informed
programming decisions during periods
of concurrent training.29,59 Therefore,
this two-part article aims to elucidate
the potential mechanisms which may
contribute towards the interference
effect (in part I); and then to provide
recommendations for minimising the
negative effects experienced during
cycles of concurrent training (in part II).
The interference effect
Since the seminal study published by
Hickson and co-workers,40 which first
established that strength improvements
were compromised during regimens
of concurrent training, follow-up
investigations have largely confirmed
these early findings. Others, however,
have refuted the very existence of
an interference phenomena.(4,8,20,22,3
3,60,62,64,65,79,81
) However, it seems that
the conflicting findings can in part
be explained by differences in study
design, including the stimuli used to
develop strength and endurance, the
The benefits of strength training for the

endurance athlete are well documented
and include an improvement in
economy of movement,36,42,48,67,68,71,72,85,86
power output at various points on a
lactate curve63,72 and performance over
a given distance or time.1,2,41,63,71,72,76,86
Short-term studies in trained athletes
tend to reveal strength training has
little influence on VO2max,1,2,48,71 although
this is considered to be a less important
discriminator of performance in a
population of well-trained endurance
athletes.26,28,50,80 The improvements
seen in endurance-related parameters
as a result of introducing strength
training to a programme can be
explained by neural-based adaptations,
as indicated by improvements
in maximum strength43,48,85,86 and
explosive power71,85,86,87 in the absence
of alterations to body weight.
It seems clear that when strength
training is added to an endurance
athletes programme, it results in
a positive impact upon several
key determinants of endurance
performance. Taken in isolation, these
findings suggest concurrent training
causes no interference with either
strength or endurance adaptations.
However, in the aforementioned
studies, participants tended to have
little background in strength training,
suggesting that the enhancement in
performance is simply a reflection of
the novel stimulus imposed by strength
training. Certainly, more longitudinal
studies are required to investigate
the impact of strength training in the
endurance athlete as the response
inevitably begins to plateau and greater
levels of overload are required in order
to drive further adaptation.
Another caveat surrounding literature
in this area is that studies have
only either replaced a proportion of
endurance training with strength
training,
or
supplemented
the
programme with additional strength
training sessions. To the authors
knowledge, only one study77 has used
well-trained endurance athletes to
examine whether strength adaptations
are in fact negated under a concurrent
regimen. In agreement with findings
from other populations, strengthrelated qualities showed an attenuated
adaptation in well-trained endurance
athletes compared to a strength-only
training group.77
It is perhaps unsurprising that more

papers have not adopted this type of
design given the qualities which are
important for an endurance athlete.
However, for athletes from other
sports, maximising strength-related
adaptations may be of higher priority.
Therefore, literature which compares a
concurrent regimen against exclusive
use of strength training needs to be
scrutinised so consideration can be
given to the environment in which the
interference effect might be minimised.
practice or metabolic conditioning

sessions targeting specific physiological outcomes. Studies which have
examined the effect of concurrent
training, compared to strength training
alone, have shown compromised
improvements
in
maximal
strength,30,34,39,40,49 hypertrophy40,49,52,73
and
power.24,34,39,46,52,58,66 Conversely,
but similar to studies in well-trained
endurance athletes, aerobic qualities
in the aforementioned studies
remain well preserved and often
show improvements. Several reviews
have also concluded that although
strength adaptations appear to be
hampered during concurrent training,
crucially certain qualities appear to
be more susceptible to interference
than others.24,59,92 The magnitude of
interference experienced in strength
qualities is likely to be influenced by
the mode and frequency of endurance
training, the nature of the work within
sessions, the sequence of training
bouts and the recovery periods between
these bouts.
Intermittent sports
Mechanisms of interference
Typically, intermittent sports performers will complete between 1-4

strength training sessions per week,
while also striving to improve or
maintain sport-specific endurance
adaptations through technical skills
Strength training utilises activities

which demand close to maximal force
generation for short durations driving
adaptations in the neuromuscular
system. Contrastingly, endurance
training requires relatively low force
when strength
training is added
to an endurance
athletes
programme,
it results in a
positive impact
upon several key
determinants
of endurance
performance
09
outputs, but they are sustained for

prolonged durations which places
stress on the cardiorespiratory and
metabolic systems. These markedly
different stimuli result in a set of
divergent adaptations which ultimately
lead to conflict when both types of
training are included in the same
regimen. The root of this interference
has been attributed to a number of
mechanisms:
Impaired force generation (acute
fatigue)
Fatigue incurred by high volumes of

muscular contraction associated with
endurance training has been shown to
compromise motor unit recruitment
and rapid generation of force.3,34,58,70
This is likely to result in sub-optimal
performance during strength training
sessions, thus negating long-term
adaptation.
Providing
sufficient
recovery following endurance training
sessions should therefore be a primary
consideration.
Chronic fatigue
A persistent imbalance between

training and recovery is often
manifested by a chronic plateau or
decline in performance.14 Although
this is a conceivable hypothesis to
explain the interference effect, this
mechanism has been refuted by
others.24,25,70 They base their hypothesis
upon the observation that chronic
fatigue is usually associated with
adding more volume to training,15,56,57,84
and as endurance qualities appear to be
uncompromised by concurrent training
it is unlikely this mechanism underpins
the interference effect.24 In any case,
cycles of intentional overreaching
followed by appropriate periods of
regeneration are a normal part of the
training process; therefore, careful
planning and management of training
loads should overcome this issue.
Glycogen depletion
Multiple training sessions in a short

space of time are likely to result in a
depletion of muscle glycogen stores,18
a situation which has been shown to
hamper adaptive responses to strength
training, particularly when the goal is
to increase muscle mass.19,89 Ensuring
sufficient and well-timed replenishment
of carbohydrate following training
sessions
should
contribute
to
minimising the interference when
hypertrophy is the primary objective.
10
Transformation of fibre phenotype
Several authors have suggested that

imposing endurance training on
already
strength-trained
athletes
results in changes to the characteristics
and properties of muscle fibres.16,25,70,73
This may be a contributing factor over a
prolonged period of time, particularly if
athletes bias their programmes towards
endurance training, but evidence for
a shift from type II to type I fibres in
the short-term is weak.27 The superior
improvements observed with strengthonly training could be attributed to
greater hypertrophy of type I fibres and
a shift towards type IIa characteristics
in hybrid fibres91 which is not observed
with concurrent training.73
Reduction in protein synthesis
Endurance training bouts have been

shown to bring about a reduction
in protein synthesis during and for
several hours following exercise.23,32,74
Long duration endurance sessions in
particular are likely to cause a catabolic
environment within the muscle which
appears to disrupt protein synthesis
mechanisms if insufficient recovery
is allowed between sessions.70 Again,
maximising recovery and nutritional
interventions during these interim
periods between training sessions
appears key to minimising interference.
Insights from molecular signalling
Recent advances in biotechnology

have enabled scientists to identify the
potential mechanisms responsible
for the interference effect at a cellular
level. Following a bout of exercise, a
number of primary and secondary
signalling messengers are upregulated
for 3-12 hours,11,96 which initiates a
series of molecular events that serve
to activate or suppress specific genes.
The signalling messengers which are
activated relate to the specific stress
which is imposed on the physiological
systems involved in an exercise bout.
Strength training causes mechanical
perturbation to the muscle cell, which
elicits a multitude of signalling
pathways which lead to a hypertrophy
response.13,17,83
In particular, the secretion of insulinlike growth factor-1 (IGF-1) as a result
of intense muscular contraction is
likely to cause a cascade of signalling
events which increase activity of
phosphoinositide-3-dependent
kinase (Pl-3k) and the mammalian
Stimulus
Strength training
Endurance training
Signalling
regulators
Tension, stretch,
damage, androgens
Energy depletion
Ca2+ homeostasis
Secondary
activator
IGF-1
AMPK
Ca2+ CaM
Pi-3K
Signalling
pathway
TSC2
PGC-_
mTOR
Functional
product
Outcome
Protein synthesis
Mitochondrial biogenesis
Hypertrophy
Increased aerobic capacity
Figure 2. Molecular signalling pathways activated in response to strength and endurance training. Black circle indicates likely
source of interference from the interaction between the pathways. IGF-1 = insulin growth factor-1; Pl-3k = phosphoinositide3-dependent kinase; mTOR = mammalian target of Rapamycin; Ca2+CaM = calcium-calmodulin-dependent kinases; AMPK =
adenosine monophosphate activated kinase; PGC-1 = peroxisome proliferator co-activator-1; TSC2 = tuberous sclerosis complex
target of Rapamycin (mTOR).31,82,88

There is strong evidence that mTOR
is responsible for mediating skeletal
muscle hypertrophy via activation of
ribosome proteins which upregulate
protein synthesis.12,35,69,75 Prolonged
exercise bouts, such as those associated
with endurance training, activate
metabolic signals related to energy
depletion, uptake and release of calcium
ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
and oxidative stress in cells.9,17,47
Adenosine monophosphate-activated
kinase (AMPK) is a potent secondary
messenger which functions to monitor
energy homeostasis.5,37 When activated,
AMPK modulates the release of
peroxisome proliferator co-activator1
(PGC-1), which along with
calcium-calmodulin-dependent kinases
(Ca2+CaM) increase mitochondrial
function
to
enhance
aerobic
capacity.44,47,78,93 Crucially though, AMPK
also acts to inhibit the Pl-3k/mTOR
stage of the pathway via activation of
the tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC2),
thereby suppressing the strength
training induced upregulation of protein
synthesis.6,7,70
11
Prolonged
exercise
bouts activate
metabolic signals
related to energy
depletion, uptake
and release of
calcium ions from
the sarcoplasmic
reticulum and
oxidative stress
in cells
Although a somewhat oversimplified

representation, Figure 2 provides
a visual schematic of the putative
molecular
signalling
processes
described
here.
Several
other
antagonistic pathways have also been
implicated, with inhibition of signalling
responses associated with strength
training;6,17,45 however, the AMPK-TSC2
pathway currently provides the most
compelling explanation.
Summary
During programmes where strength
and endurance training are combined
concurrently, endurance-related adaptations appear to predominate over
improvements in strength qualities.
Although a large number of studies
have observed this phenomenon,
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12
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ON-ICE AGILITY TEST
Ice hockey: the validity and reliability of a novel

on-ice test for ice hockey players
Steve Nightingale, MSc, CSCS / South Essex College
OVERVIEW
Previous on-ice agility testing protocols have demonstrated questionable
reliability. The aim of this study was to investigate the validity and reliability of
a novel on-ice agility test for ice hockey players.
Methods: A total of 24 male ice hockey players (mean SD: age = 25.9 7.3
years; height = 179.8 6.9 cm; weight = 81.6 11.0 kg; playing experience =
10.4 6.5 years) took part in the study. Three trials of the on-ice Pro-agility
test were conducted to establish same-day test-retest reliability.
Results: The on-ice Pro-agility test had an ICC of 0.817. A small, significant
correlation (r=0.413, r2=0.17; p0.05) existed between the mean agility skate
time and playing experience in years.
Conclusion: These data indicate that the new test is highly reliable and could
be used to measure on-ice agility performance with ice hockey players.
Key words:
Ice skating; Pro-agility; Cornering S Test; change of direction
AUTHORS BIO
Introduction
Steve Nightingale,
MSc, CSCS
Steve is a lecturer at South

Essex College, specialising
in strength and conditioning
and research methods. He
has worked as a strength and
conditioning coach for several
ice hockey teams, and has
worked with junior and senior
national and international
players.
Ice hockey is a high intensity, intermittent,

contact team sport. Participants are
required to perform explosive efforts of
maximal skating, which vary in duration,3
and involve acceleration, changes of
direction and the execution of many
different skilled manoeuvres.7
with a strong focus in the literature

on acceleration,5 speed,5,21 anaerobic
power,5,8,23,24 aerobic power,5,21,23 muscular
endurance,8,21,23,24 strength,8,19,21,23,24 and
flexibility.8 The results of these tests can
be a factor influencing the amount of
time each player is used in a season,10 and
can also be used as a predictive factor of
short term13 and long term success.8
The ability to repeatedly produce bursts

of maximal intensity skating has been
highlighted as a key determinant of
being well-conditioned for hockey.20
The contribution of the anaerobic energy
systems to game play is demonstrated
by reported in-game heart rate values
of 90% heart rate maximum26 and mean
in-game blood-lactate concentrations of
8.15 (0.46) mmol.L-1.20
Due to the physical characteristics of ice

hockey, it has been suggested that agility
should be considered an important fitness
component.2, 5, 6 Agility tests combine
high speed movements and changes of
direction without losing balance,27 which
is also an important aspect of skating
ability, due to the combination of a
small surface area (skate blade) being in
contact with a low friction surface.2
Physical fitness testing has regularly

been used and assessed in ice hockey,
In the past, the National Hockey League

Entry Draft Combine has used the
15
ON-ICE AGILITY TEST
Hexagon agility test to measure agility

in potential draft athletes. The Hexagon
test requires athletes to perform double
foot hops from the centre of a hexagon
over each side and back to the centre, in
a continuous clockwise direction until
all six sides are covered three times.15
This is routinely used as a measure of
agility and has demonstrated excellent
test-retest reliability values (ICC= 0.938)
in moderately trained men and women.1
However, Farlinger, Kruisselbrink and
Fowles11 found the Hexagon test to
have no correlation with an on-ice test
of agility (n=36). In addition, in order to
be specific2 and therefore valid, testing
should replicate movement patterns of
game play. An agility test with some
element of forward striding could be
considered more specific to ice hockey
than the Hexagon test. Therefore,
further research is required to develop
ice-skating specific agility tests.11
The most popular method of testing onice agility found within the literature
is the cornering S test (CST), first
developed by Greer, Serfass, Picconatto
& Blatherwick.14 However, although two
studies11,14 have reported a high testretest reliability (r=0.95 and r=0.96)
of this test, both these studies used
experienced athletes.
Bracko and George,6 meanwhile,
reported a much lower value (r=0.64)
when using female ice hockey players
of mixed age and ability. A possible
rationale for this finding may be due
to the complexity of the CST, as it
is suggested that less experienced
players may find it quite challenging
to maintain balance at full speed,11
especially during cornering. The within
subject variability this creates may
make this test unreliable for less able
skaters, therefore rendering it an invalid
testing method for players with limited
experience.
In support, Gilenstam et al12 found that
a greater degree of complexity in an onice test resulted in a larger difference
in performance between skill levels.
Furthermore, in addition, Farlinger et
al11 reported agility test time having
a moderate (r=-0.59) correlation with
playing league standard, and Bracko
and George5 reported a moderate
correlation (r=-0.53) between agility
test time and playing experience (years
played).
16
10m
5m
= Timing gate
= Cone
Figure 1. On-Ice Pro-Agility Test
Finally, it has been reported in several

studies that CST times are strongly
correlated to on-ice sprint performance
with reported intraclass correlation
coefficients of 0.70. 4,11 This suggests
that the CST does not differ enough
from a straight sprint to be a true
measure of on-ice agility, and therefore
a test more closely matching movement
patterns (including starts and stops) is
warranted.11
PAT Pro-agility test
The 5-10-5, or Pro-agility test (PAT),

is an agility test with an established
intraclass correlation coefficient of
0.80 in field tests on artificial turf and
natural grass.18 It is popular in team
sports which require rapid changes
of direction, and has been used in
studies of sports sharing similar game
characteristics to ice hockey, such
as lacrosse,16 soccer,17 and American
football.25 Although anecdotal evidence
suggests the PAT is used on-ice with
ice hockey teams, to date the authors
cannot find any literature outlining the
reliability of the test, nor any normative
data for coaches to use as a comparison.
Therefore, the aim of this study was
to investigate and establish the testretest reliability of an on-ice PAT in ice
hockey players.
Methods
To examine the reliability of the on-ice
agility test, ice hockey players from
recreational and professional teams

completed three repeated trials of the
test, with 10 minutes rest between trials.
The study was approved in accordance
with the Declaration of Helsinki by
the Health Studies Sub-Committee
of Middlesex University, UK, and
informed consent was obtained from all
participants.
Subjects
Recruitment posters were distributed in

changing rooms at a local ice rink. A total
of 24 (N=24) ice hockey players (age:
25.9 (7.3) years, height: 179.8 (6.9) cms,
weight: 81.6 (11.0) kg, experience 10.4
(6.5) years) volunteered to participate
in the study. Two goaltenders were
excluded from the testing because of
the unique skating demands of the
position.
The playing level of the participants
varied from recreational athletes with
limited experience to professional
athletes with international and Olympic
experience. All of the volunteers were
male. All participants received an
information sheet explaining the nature
of the study and gave informed consent.
Methodology
Anthropometrics: Height was recorded

to the nearest centimetre with a
stadiometer (Harpenden stadiometer,
Harpenden, Crymmych, Wales) while
participants were standing in bare feet.
Body weight was recorded to a tenth
of a kilogram using portable SECA
digital electronic weighing scales
ON-ICE AGILITY TEST
(SECA, Germany) with participants in

underwear.
On-ice testing
The on-ice pro-agility test (PAT)

required participants to start straddling
the start line, turn to the left or right and
skate 5m, stop at a cone, skate 10m in
the opposite direction, stop at another
cone, and skate 5m back to the middle
(Figure 1). Participants were free to
choose the direction in which they
skated first.
During the PAT, participants had to
stop facing the same direction both
times, and scores were recorded from
three trials. The tests were timed
using infra-red electronic timing gates
(Brower Timing Systems, Utah) set at
1 metre above ice level, and all times

were recorded to 0.10 of a second. All
participants received at least 10 minutes
of recovery between the trials.
Statistical analysis
Data were analysed using IBM SPSS
Statistics 19.0 (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL,
USA). Two-way mixed model ICC with
consistency was calculated to examine
the same day reliability of the tests.
ICC values of 0.75 and above were
considered to indicate good reliability.22
A repeated measures ANOVA was
calculated to investigate any change in
mean times during the same day testretest sessions. A Pearsons Correlation
Table 1. Data by subject for playing experience and agility performance
Coefficient was also calculated to

investigate the relationship between
player experience in years and mean
agility test times.
The strength of the relationship was
classified in accordance with Cohen9 as:
small = 0.2-0.4; moderate = 0.5-0.7; and
large = > 0.7.
Results
The two-way mixed model ICC was
reported at 0.817. A repeated measures
ANOVA demonstrated there was no
significant difference in the mean
agility test times between the three
trials (p = 0.511).
A significant, small correlation was
observed between mean agility test
time and playing experience in years
(r = -0.413, r2 = -0.17, p 0.05).
In the absence of published normative
data for this test, Table 1 displays
the average PAT time (s) and hockey
playing experience (years) for the 24
subjects in this study.
Subject
Experience (yrs)
Average PAT time (s)
5.68
5.72
18
5.75
6.47
5.3
Discussion
6.42
17
5.18
5.01
19
4.92
10
5.5
11
5.98
12
5.15
13
5.43
14
12
5.77
The aim of this study was to investigate

and establish the test-retest reliability
of an on-ice PAT in ice hockey players.
The PAT demonstrated high testretest reliability, with an intraclass
correlation coefficient (ICC) of 0.817.
This ICC value is similar to an off-ice
pro-agility test previously presented,18
but lower to different on-ice agility tests
as previously reported.11 This may be
attributed to the more homogeneous
sample used in the earlier study.
15
16
6.2
16
16
5.37
17
27
5.02
18
5.06
19
10
5.09
20
11
5.14
21
15
5.11
22
4.95
23
14
5.13
24
5.53
Mean
10.4
5.45
6.5
0.46
Standard Deviation
Although the subjects in the current

study had similar playing experience
(10.4 years) to the sample used by
Farlinger et al (10.3 years),11 the current
study presented a much larger standard
deviation (6.5 compared to 3.0),
suggesting a wider range in playing
experience. As agility test times have
been shown to correlate with playing
experience in the current study and in
previous studies, these results are not
unexpected.
As mentioned, agility test times in
the current study were significantly
correlated with playing experience
17
ON-ICE AGILITY TEST
(p 0.05), although this correlation

(r=-0.413) was classified as small.9 This
correlation is slightly smaller than the
value presented by Bracko and George.5
There are several reasons why this may
be the case: in the study by Bracko and
George, the sample size was larger (n
= 64); the subjects were all females;
they were younger (12.18 2.05 years);
they had less playing experience (4.68
2.69 years); and the agility test used
was a different protocol. Therefore, any
conclusions drawn should be made
with caution.
References
1. Beekhuizen, K, Davis, M, Kolber, M, and Cheng,
M. Test-retest reliability and minimal detectable
change of the Hexagon Agility Test. J Strength
Cond Res, 23, 2167-2171. 2009.
2. Behm, DG, Wahl, MJ, Button, DC, Power, KE,
and Anderson, KG. Relationship between
hockey skating speed and selected performance
measures. J Strength Cond Res, 19, 326-331. 2005.
3. Bishop, S, Lawrence, S, and Spencer, M. Predictors
of repeated-sprint ability in elite female hockey
players. J Sci Med Sport, 6, 199-209. 2003.
4. Blatherwick, J. A physiological profile of an elite
ice hockey player: The importance of skating
speed and acceleration. Doctoral dissertation,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 1989.
5. Bracko, MR. On-ice performance characteristics
of elite and non-elite womens ice hockey players.
J Strength Cond Res, 15, 4247. 2001.
6. Bracko, MR, and George, JD. Prediction of ice
skating performance with off-ice testing in
womens ice hockey players. J Strength Cond Res,
15, 116122. 2001.
7. Buchheit, M, Lefebvre, B, Laursen, P, and Ahmaidi,
S. Reliability, usefulness, and validity of the 3015 intermittent ice test in young elite ice hockey
players. J Strength Cond Res, 25, 1457-1464. 2011.
8. Burr, JF, Jamnik, RK, Baker, J, Macpherson, A,
Gledhill, N, and McGuire, EJ. Relationship of
physical fitness test results and hockey playing
potential in elite-level ice hockey players.
9. Cohen, J. Statistical power of analysis for the
behavioural sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence ERLbaum Associates. 1988.
10. Durocher, JJ, Leetun, DT, and Carter, JR. Sportspecific assessment of lactate threshold and
18
players for a range of reasons. To

get meaningful results to inform
goal setting, future strength and
conditioning
programming
or
normative comparisons, fitness tests
need to be valid and reliable.
This study reports the reliability of
a novel on-ice agility test within a
mixed ice hockey population, and
demonstrates the test to be valid.
Physiological testing can now take
place to determine normative data for
this specific ice hockey agility test.
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
Many ice hockey teams may wish

to perform fitness testing with their
No funding was received at any time

during the completion of this project.
aerobic capacity throughout a collegiate hockey

season. Appl Phys Nut Met, 33, 11651171. 2008.
11.
Farlinger, CM, Kruisselbrink, LD, and Fowles,
JR. Relationships to skating performance in
competitive hockey players. J Strength Cond Res,
21, 915922. 2007.
12.
Gilenstam, KM, Thorsen, K, and HenrikssonLarsen, KB. Physiological correlates of skating
performance in womens and mens ice hockey.
13. Green, MR, Pivarnik, JM, Carrier, DP, and Womack,
CJ. Relationship between physiological profiles
and on-ice performance of a National Collegiate
Athletic Association Division I hockey team.
14.
Greer, N, Serfass, R, Picconatto, W, and
Blatherwick, J. The effects of a hockey-specific
training program on performance of Bantam
players. Can J Sport Sci, 17, 6569. 1992.
15. Harman, E, and Garhammer, J. Administration,
scoring and interpretation of selected tests In:
Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning.
T R Baechle and RW Earle Eds. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics, 2000. pp 249-292.
16.
Hoffman, J, Ratamess, N, Neese, K, Ross,
R, Kang, J, Magrelli, J, and Faigenbaum, A.
Physical performance characteristics in National
Collegiate Athletic Association Division III
champion female lacrosse athletes. J Strength
Cond Res, 23, 1524-1529. 2009.
17. Magal, M, Smith, R, Dyer, J, and Hoffman, J.
Season variation in physical performance-related
variables in male NCAA Division III Soccer
Players. J Strength Cond Res, 23, 2555-2559. 2009.
18. Mayhew, J, Gaines, G, Swedenhjelm, A, Cooper,
J, Bird, M, and Houser, J. Abstract: Difference in
40-YD and pro-agility times on artificial turf and
natural grass. J Strength Cond Res, 24, 1. 2010.
19.
Montgomery, DL. Physiological profile of
professional hockey players a longitudinal
study. Appl Phys Nut Met, 31, 181-185. 2006.
20.
Noonan, BC. Intragame blood-lactate values
during ice hockey and their relationships to
commonly used hockey testing protocols.
J Strength Cond Res, 24, 2290-2295. 2010.
21.
Peyer, KL, Pivarnik, JM, Eisenmann, JC, and
Vorkapich, M. Physiological characteristics of
NCAA Division I ice hockey players and their
relation to game performance. J Strength Cond
Res, 25, 1183-1192. 2011.
22.
Portney, G, and Watkins, M. Foundation of
clinical research: applications to practice.
London: Appleton and Lange. 1993.
23. Quinney, HA, Dewart, R, Game, A, Snydmiller,
G, Warburton, D, and Bell, G. A 26-year
physiological description of a National Hockey
League team. Appl Phys Nut Met, 33, 753-760.
2008.
24. Ransdell, LB, and Murray, T. A physical profile
of elite female ice hockey players from the USA.
J Strength Cond Res, 25, 2358-2363. 2011.
25.
Sierer, P, Battaglini, C, Mihalik, J, Shields, E,
and Tomasini, N. The National Football League
Combine: performance differences between
drafted and non-drafted players entering the
2004 and 2005 drafts. J Strength Cond Res, 22,
6-12. 2008.
26. Spiering, BA, Wilson, MH, Judelson, DA, and
Rundell, KW. Evaluation of cardiovascular
demands of game play and practice in womens
ice hockey. J Strength Cond Res, 17, 329-333.
2003.
27. Turner, A, Walker, S, Stembridge, M, Coneyworth,
P, Reed, G, Birdsey, L, Barter, P, and Moody, J. A
testing battery for the assessment of fitness in
soccer players. Strength Cond J, 33, 29-39. 2011.
Avoid overtraining and

monitor fatigue
By Anthony Turner, Perry Stewart, Chris Bishop, Shyam Chavda, Mike Edwards and Paul Read
INTRODUCTION
(S&C) is designed to improve sports performance, which it aims to do by
using physical adaptations such as increasing speed, power and agility. These
physical characteristics are targeted through various exercise and volume-load
prescriptions, all integrated into a well-designed training programme.
However, what is perhaps given less consideration during these programmes is
time for recovery periods, designed to reduce fatigue and enable adaptations to
take place.
Fatigue is also associated with increased risk of injury18 and illness,27 as well as
reductions in both competition and training performance.13 As such, fatigue should
be monitored, noting that its excessive accumulation may result in overtraining
(OT) and several weeks or months of recovery. Readers should also note that ~70%
of high-level athletes have or will have, experienced OT during their career.26
With the ever increasing pressures faced by athletes, including competing for
places on a team that are highly prestigious and ultimately financially lucrative, it
is likely that at some point, all S&C coaches will have to face the issue of avoiding
OT in their athletes. All S&C coaches should therefore be aware of this syndrome
and able to programme their sessions in such a way as to reduce its occurrence.
Providing this insight is the aim of this article.
In the first half of this paper, we will review

the pathophysiology of OT (specifically
the chronic overwork form) and in the
second half, we will discuss methods by
which fatigue can be monitored (and thus
performance heightened, incidence of
injury reduced and OT avoided). Of note,
we will focus solely on validated, reliable
and costless questionnaires, thus making
the suggestions herein applicable to all
levels of athlete and available to all S&C
coaches, regardless of club resources,
funding and squad size.
Overtraining and its pathophysiology
Overtraining (OT) may be described as
a plateau or decrease in performance
consequent to a failure to tolerate or adapt

to the training load.32 Simply put: OT is a
stress response to training too often, too
long or too hard, and not resting enough
between training bouts.12 However, this
response should not be confused with
overreaching (OR), where the planned
sharp increase in training load and the
inevitable failure to tolerate it, is followed
(~5 days) by supercompensation once the
load is reduced again. It should be noted
that OR is a tactic adopted for athletes with
a high training age and reduced windows
for adaptation.
Supercompensation
P
Overtraining
Alarm
T
Stone et al32 describe two forms of OT:

1) monotonous programme OT, and 2) Figure 1. The General
chronic overwork. The former results from Adaptation Syndrome (GAS).
a lack of variety in the training stimulus, P = performance; T = time
19
leading to a lack of movement overload for

the central nervous system to contend with.
The latter occurs when the duration and/
or intensity of training is sustained for too
long or repeated too frequently, leaving the
athlete unable to recover and adapt.
Chronic overwork OT can be described
using Seyles general adaptation syndrome

(GAS) (see Figure 1). The GAS describes the
bodys three-phase physiological response to
stress, which, for the following example, will
be an exercise training session. The alarm
phase (phase 1) represents the recognition
and initial response to the session: this may
be in the form of fatigue, stiffness, or muscle
Table 1: Signs and pathophysiology of overtraining as described by Stone et al32

Sign/symptom

Pathophysiology
Negative psychology such Stress placed on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis,

as lack of motivation and which is the part of the neuroendocrine system that controls
self-confidence, anxiety, reactions to stress, mood and emotions.
depression and irritability.
Insomnia
Heightened stress or a state of hyperarousal causing a sustained

release of the catecholamines and cortisol.
Changes in body
composition such as loss
of body mass including
lean tissue. Where the
latter occurs, body fat
percentage of the athlete
actually increases
Excessive work (but also anxiety, depression etc) and inadequate

recovery ensures energy expenditure is high. Lean body mass
may drop as the body uses its protein stores for energy. This
is caused by elevated catecholamines (leading to low glycogen
stores) and subsequent elevation in cortisol (catabolic hormone);
it is exacerbated by inadequate nutrition. The now insufficient
protein will also effect enzyme and antibody production affecting
susceptibility to (and/or recovery from) injury and illness.
Reduced aerobic capacity

Low glycogen levels make performing anaerobic work difficult

and thus the attainment of VO2 peak. It is also affected by
changes in enzyme concentrations (due to low protein
availability) and chronic dehydration. The latter would reduce
cardiac output (Q).
Dehydration (a possible symptom of OT) would reduce blood

volume and thus cardiac output; HR would have to compensate.
Also, increases in catecholamine release due to the prolonged
physical and psychological (such as anxiety and depression)
stress. HR may also remain elevated as the body is having to
work harder for longer in order to recover.
Increased heart rate (HR)

and blood pressure (BP)
across exercise intensities.
Also, HR remains

elevated after exercise for
a prolonged period of time
Reduced HR and BP
under the conditions
mentioned above
Although the above would be a sympathetic form of OT, this

would be parasympathetic. The reduced HR and BP could be the
result of exhaustion of the adrenal glands.
Reduced blood lactate

(BLAC) concentration at
various training intensities

BLAC concentration describes the contribution to work made

by the anaerobic system with lactate forming from anaerobic
glycolysis. In the absence of muscle glycogen, lower BLAC values
would be recorded; this is despite ratings of perceived exertion
still being high (and thus suggestive of anaerobic training/work
zones).
Increased susceptibility to Overwork and training stress releases cortisol (a primary stress
hormone). Cortisol suppresses the immune system and has
illness
anti-inflammatory properties which leads to the suppression of
histamine. Such a response, designed to reduce tissue damage
(ie, prevent the overshoot phenomena), leaves us susceptible to
illness and diseases.
Chronic fatigue
20
As described by the GAS, exercise causes stress and the

release of catecholamines. These hormones (adrenaline and
noradrenaline) have profound effects on the rate of glycogenlysis.
As glycogen stores diminish, fatigue and the recovery from it is
affected.
soreness for example. The resistance phase

(phase 2) is then initiated, during which the
body is returned to either its pre-exercise
session homeostasis or its new adapted
higher state (ie, supercompensation occurs).
Finally, and assuming the accumulation
of stress is too great (eg, the absence of an
unloading week), the exhaustion phase
(phase 3) occurs. This phase may be
considered synonymous with OT.33
The chronic overwork arm of OT has been
divided into two types: 1) sympathetic and
2) parasympathetic OT.24 Symptoms of the
former suggest a prolonged stress response
with sustained high heart rates (HR),
blood pressure and insomnia for example.
However, parasympathetic OR suggests the
opposite and is thus hard to recognise, as
reduced HR and blood pressure for example
are also symptoms of training adaptations.
This stage may be a late form of OT where
exhaustion of the endocrine glands has
occurred.
Table 1 identifies some of the symptoms
of
overtraining
along
with
their
pathophysiology. A more detailed analysis
of these is available in Stone et al.32 Eichner12
provides ten simple features of OT which
can help the athlete recognise it: heavy
legs, sore muscles, rise in resting HR, lack
of motivation, sleep problems, low sex drive,
frequent infections, weight loss, depression
and perceiving that the usual workout
is harder than normal. Eichner12 further
suggests simply asking the underperforming
athlete if they feel tired, sore or sad.
As noted in Table 1, many of the symptoms
share pathophysiological foundations. For
example, psychological (causing anxiety
for example) and physiological stress cause
an increased release of catecholamines. In
the absence of appropriate recovery, this
will affect sleep and general mood, and
also raise HR, blood pressure and reduce
muscle glycogen content. Cortisol will
also be secreted, further affecting sleep
and increasing susceptibility to infection
and causing gluconeogenesis. Cortisol
may interfere with testosterones anabolic
reducing
protein
processes31 further
accretion and the formation of structural
and enzymatic proteins. Tissue repair would
be compromised, possibly affecting muscle
glycogen uptake (due to reduced GLUT-4
content) 9, 23 even in the event of appropriate
nutrition. Collectively, these will affect
performance across strength, power and
endurance tasks and exacerbate the stress
response further.
Methods for preventing overtraining

Prevention of OT is key. Appropriate
periodisation should be used whereby
variation is employed (reducing monotonous
OT) and volume and intensity are inversely
altered and cycled with recovery sessions
and periods (reducing overwork OT). Also,
appropriate nutrition should be ensured as
muscle glycogen concentration is linked
to work output and the sparing of proteins.
Where carbohydrate consumption is low
(<55% of calories), signs and symptoms of
overwork may surface earlier; adequate
calorific intake is badly affected by the loss
of appetite that accompanies OT.
Of course, recovery is affected by many
other variables such as sleep, social
life, psychological factors, travel and
employment or school. Athletes need to
be educated about the implications of all
these factors for their recovery process and,
ultimately, adaptation to training; details of
this however, are beyond the scope of this
text.
Monitoring fatigue using questionnaires
The second half of this article will focus on
ways in which fatigue can be monitored
using questionnaires. The suggestions that
follow can be implemented at all levels,
regardless of funding, resources and athlete
numbers. This is in contrast to monitoring
training stress/fatigue through changes in
salivary testosterone, cortisol8,25, IgA27, rate
RR time interval
P
Q
P
Q
Figure 2. Schematic representation of an RR time interval. The P wave represents

atrial depolarisation, the QRS complex represents ventricular depolarisation and
the T-wave represents ventricular repolarisation. The RR time intervals (measured
in milliseconds) will continually change due to the influence of respiration
21
Table 2: The Borg category ration scale (Borg5) and session RPE scale (Foster et al15)
Category Ratio Scale
Session RPE
Nothing at all
Rest
Very weak
Really easy
Weak
Easy
Moderate
Moderate
Somewhat strong
Sort of hard
Strong
Hard
Really, really hard
10
Just like my hardest race
Very strong
Very, very strong
Really hard
of force development and jump height,25

which are all successful techniques but
which all require equipment that may make
it unfeasible. Monitoring residual fatigue
with heart rate (HR) monitors can prove
troublesome both from a perspective of time
and cost, but also from that of validity and
reliability. For example, resting and sleeping
HR show an individual variation of up to 8
beats/min, which is likely to be too high to
be of any diagnostic value.34 HR recovery
ie, the absolute difference between HR at the
completion of exercise and HR following 60s
of recovery, requires the implementation of a
testing protocol which usually takes ~10mins
and in itself may incur unnecessary fatigue
(as well as time issues beyond analyses).
Furthermore, although HR variability
is effective in the diagnosis of varying
diseases, its use with athletes still requires
more research.3 Its effectiveness is based
on using ECG (measuring at 1000Hz) to
measure the RR time intervals (see Figure 2).
For sport, this has been replaced by simply
measuring the time difference between
pulses using HR monitors which record data
at far lower frequencies. So, although it may
be a promising tool, more research needs to
be done to determine the accuracy of this
crude form of HRV assessment.
Finally, even the Profile of Mood States
(POMS) questionnaire will not feature in this
review as it was not designed specifically for
sport and can be quite time-consuming; this
appears to have hampered its widespread
use in recent times. Also, this questionnaire
must be purchased.
22
Session rating of perceived exertion

The first step in monitoring fatigue and OT is
quantifying the actual stress of each session.
This is affected by volume and intensity,
so both must be measured. Originally, fieldbased assessment was via training impulse
or TRIMP, which involves monitoring
average HR during a session and multiplying
this by the duration of the session.3 Although
this is suitable for steady state, aerobic
endurance type training, it fails to reflect
the physiological demands of intermittent
sport due to the averaging of HR.28,29 There
are also cost and time constraints.
A simpler method of assessing physical effort
can instead be obtained by multiplying total
exercise duration (in minutes) by the exercise
sessions rating of perceived exertion (using
an adapted Borg Category Ratio; CR-10),
referred to as session rating of perceived
exertion (sRPE).14,15 The sRPE translates the
athletes perception of effort into a numerical
score between 0 and 10 (Table 2), enabling
training load (TL) to also be calculated for
anaerobic training including plyometrics
and resistance training.10,11,16 With respect to
the latter, the sessions TL is defined as the
number of repetitions performed (rather
than session duration) multiplied by the
sRPE. Scores are always obtained 30 minutes
after exercise, following the question How
was your workout? This time frame ensures
that the score is reflective of the entire
session rather than just the final part.
Using TL, Gabbett19 found significant
relationships between the incidence of
Table 3: Schematic evaluation of the load and monotony associated with a training programme in an elite soccer player

Day
Mon (am)
Training Type
Coaching
Duration/Reps
120
RPE
8
Session TL
960
Mon (pm)
S&C
100
700
Tue (am)
Coaching
120
720
Tue (pm)
Rest
Wed (am)
Rest
Wed (pm)
Match
90
720
Thu (am)
Coaching
90
270
Thu (pm)
Rest
Fri (am)
Coaching
120
600
Fri (pm)
S&C
80
480
Sat (am)
Match
90
630
Sat (pm)
Rest
Sun (am)
Rest
Sun (pm)
Rest
720
270
1660
720
Daily TL
1080
630
0
Total TL:
Daily mean TL (=total TL/No. of training days):
Daily SD of TL:
Training monotony (=Daily mean TL/Daily SD of TL):
Having identified intensity, the next step is

to identify its effects or at least the athletes
perception of these. The Daily Analysis of
Life Demands for Athletes (DALDA) is a
sport-specific questionnaire to monitor an
athletes training stress,31 aiming to identify
25
20
Excessive Fatigue
15
Window
10
5
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19/02/2013
17/02/2013
15/02/2013
13/02/2013
11/02/2013
09/02/2013
07/02/2013
23/02/2013
Peaking
0
05/02/2013
Daily Analysis of Life Demands for

Athletes
It is important to establish the training

response window, described as the baseline
set of responses against which training
assessments are compared (Figure 3). This
requires the assessment of training-stress
symptoms over a period of ~10days, which
03/02/2013
In addition to TL, a score for training

monotony (TM) can also be calculated.17
TM is indicative of a lack of variability
in training load. For example, alternating
hard and easy training days would have
high variability; however, if the same total
training load was equally divided into
several consecutive medium training days,
the score for monotony would be high and
the athletes would be put at risk of OT.14
TM is calculated from the average daily TL
divided by the standard deviation of the
daily training load calculated over a week.
Table 3 identifies a training log where TL
and TM have been calculated.
both its cause (Part A) and symptoms (Part

B) (Table 4). Each question is scored with
either a worse than normal, normal, or
better than normal response, and designed
to assess the changes made within an athlete
over a season.
01/02/2013
injuries (match and practice) and the

intensity, duration and load of training
sessions and matches (r~0.8). Both Foster14
and Brink et al6 have also used TL (Foster
also used training monotony which is
described later) to predict the occurrence
of injury and illness. These may occur when
an athletes individual threshold for training
tolerance has been breached (see Figure 3
and Foster et al14).
5080
726
539
1.35
Figure 3. Graphed scores of daily DALDA (Part B). The first 10 days were used to
define the training response window; the red line represents the upper boundary
while the green line represents the lower boundary. Scores that go above the
upper boundary indicate excessive fatigue, whereas scores below the lower
boundary suggest the athlete is optimally prepared for competition
23
Training Load (arbituary units)
6500
6000
should therefore be done during a relatively

constant period of training. Establishing
this window enables coaches to identify
periods of excessive fatigue when training
load should be reduced, as well as peaking
phases through which fatigue has been
diminished and performance is likely to be
heightened (see Figure 4).
5500
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
Weeks
Figure 4. Hypothetical schematic of weekly training load for an individual athlete.
Also plotted is the threshold for training for this athlete (identified as 5500 units);
going above this appears correlated to injury or illness (as represented by *)
Several studies report the DALDAs

sensitivity to TL1,20,30 with increases in the
symptoms of stress also being indicative of
an impending reduction in immune system
functioning.30 As well as providing valuable
information to the coach, it may also be a
useful daily tool for developing an athletes
self-awareness of sources and symptoms
of physical and psychological stressors
from both the sporting and non-sporting
environment.
The Short Questionnaire of Fatigue
Chatard et al7 have developed a shorter,
quicker-to-complete questionnaire, which
consists of only eight questions and it is
titled the short questionnaire of fatigue
(SQF) (see Table 5); anecdotally, it can be
difficult to complete large questionnaires
with big squads, eg, soccer teams. This
questionnaire has been validated as a
sensitive tool to the variations of TL and
Table 4: The Daily Analysis of Life Demands for Athletes (DALDA) questionnaire which aims to identify both the cause
(Part A) and symptoms (Part B) of stress (Rushall31)
DALDA stress sources (Part A)
Source

24
Diet
Home life
School/College/work
Friends
Training and exercise
Climate
Sleep
Recreation
Health
Worse than normal Normal

Better than normal
DALDA stress sources (Part A)
Symptom

Worse than normal Normal Better than normal
Muscle pains
Techniques
Tiredness
Need for rest
Supplementary work
Boredom
Recovery time
Irritability
Weight
Throat
Internal
Unexplained arches
Technique power
Enough sleep
Between session recovery
General weakness
Interest
Arguments
Skin rashes
Congestion
Training effort
Temper
Swellings
Likeability
Running nose
Table 5: The short questionnaire of fatigue by Chatard et al7
During the preceding week
I found training more difficult than usual
I slept more
My legs felt heavy
I caught a cold/infection/flu
My concentration was poorer than usual
I worked less efficiently than usual
I felt more anxious or irritable than usual
I had more stress at home/school/training/work
performances in swimmers2 and rugby

sevens players (Elloumi et al13).
Each question is assessed on a 7-point scale,
from not at all (1 point) to very much (7
points), with responses added together to
obtain the total score of fatigue (TSF). The
lower the score, the better the perception of
general well-being; the higher the score, the
higher the perception of fatigue.
For a period of eight weeks training
involving 16 elite rugby sevens players,
Elloumi et al13 compared the SQF to the
sRPE, where TL was calculated for each
athlete as described by Foster et al.17 Results
were also compared with sport-specific
performance tests such as speed (30-m
sprints), agility (Illinois agility run), power
(five-jump test) and aerobic endurance
(Yo-Yo). The study demonstrated that TL
increased significantly during the intense
training period and was associated with
an increasing TSF. This also resulted in a
decrease of all sport-specific performance
tests. Similarly, as TL decreased during
the reduced training period, so too did the
TSF, with increases recorded in the physical
performance tests. The changes in TL
and TSF correlated significantly over the
training period (r~0.7) and changes in TSF
were also correlated to agility scores (r~0.6).
Total Quality of Recovery Questionaire
Having identified perceived training stress,
the athlete and coach must now address the
recovery interventions aimed at alleviating
it. The Total Quality of Recovery questionaire
(TQR) by Kentta and Hassmen22 (also see
Kentta and Hassmen21) is a well-regarded
tool for monitoring behaviours that may
lead to fatigue and eventually OT.
Not at all
Normal Very much
The questionnaire is divided into four

sections: nutrition and hydration; sleep
and rest; relaxation and emotional support;
stretching and active rest (Table 6 on
next page). The athlete scores points on
each section, with the amount available
per section dependent on its assumed
significance to the recovery process; in total,
they can score up to 20 points. Athletes fill
out the guide before bed each evening and
the total score reveals whether they are
paying adequate attention to their physical
and mental recovery needs. Kentta and
Hassmen22 advise that 17-20 daily points is
optimal, 15-16 points is good and 12 points or
fewer means the athlete needs an individual
evaluation of recovery behaviours.
Like the DALDA, the TQR may also be
a useful daily tool for developing an
athletes self-awareness of his/her recovery
process. Our anecdotal advice is to adapt
the TQR, including the points available
and the individual components of each
section, based on the demands and realistic
expectations of the athletes in question.
This alteration should be carried out by a
multidisciplinary team; we have provided
an example used in British fencing. It may
only be necessary to collect TQR data once
a month, over a period of one week.
Conclusion
It is estimated that approximately
70% of high-level athletes have or will
have, experienced OT. This figure not
only highlights the rewards of being a
professional sportsman, but also that the
training load and manifestations of fatigue
may not be well monitored or understood.
This percentage of occurrence also infers
(continued on page 27)
25
Table 6. Total Quality of Recovery questionaire (TQR) by Kentta and Hassmen21,22 adapted for athletes of the British
Fencing National Academy. The sections, components of, and scoring allocation can be changed to suit the needs
and realistic expectations of different athletes
AUTHORS BIOGRAPHIES
Anthony Turner, MSc, PGCE, ASCC, CSCS*D
Anthony Turner is the programme leader
for the MSc in strength and conditioning
at the London Sport Institute, Middlesex
University. Anthony is the lead strength
and conditioning coach for British
Fencing, a consultant to the Royal Army
Physical Training Corps and to to various
professional football clubs.
Perry Stewart, MSc, ASCC, CSCS
Perry Stewart is the lead Academy strength
and conditioning coach and sport scientist
at Queens Park Rangers Football Club
and is a sessional lecturer in strength and
conditioning at Middlesex University.
Chris Bishop, MSc, ASCC
Chris completed his MSc in strength and
conditioning at Middlesex University where
he is currently a strength and conditioning
coach and sessional lecturer. Chris is also
the lead strength and conditioning coach
for Optimum Healthcare Solutions and
Harpenden Lawn Tennis Club.
26
Shyam Chavda MSc, ASCC, CSCS, CES, BWL2

Shyam is an accredited UKSCA coach and
has a Masters from Middlesex University.
He is currently a strength and conditioning
coach for the British Fencing Academy and
QPR foundation, as well as a sessional lecturer
and head weightlifting coach at Middlesex
University.
Mike Edwards MSc, ASCC
Mike Edwards has completed a Masters
degree in strength and conditioning and
is currently working in education. He has
supplied sport science and strength and
conditioning services to British Fencing,
professional footballers, Muay Thai fighters
and recreational youth athletes.
Paul Read, MSc, ASCC, CSCS
Paul Read is a senior lecturer in strength and
conditioning at St Marys University. He is
also an accredited strength and conditioning
coach consulting with professional MMA
fighters and international combat athletes in
a range of disciplines and various professional
football clubs.
that at some point, all S&C coaches

will have to work with athletes who are,
or at risk of, OT. It is thus important
to recognize its symptoms and
interventions to alleviate this. These
symptoms have been discussed and are
broadly speaking sore muscles, lack of
motivation, sleep problems, frequent
infections, weight loss, depression and
perceiving that the usual workout is
harder than normal.
Clearly, OT should be avoided and
the questionnaires identified herein
present some possible solutions.
Moreover, the simplicity and cost-free
mode of questionnaires make them
References
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Casey, A and Jeukendrup, AE. Higher dietary
carbohydrate content during intensified running
training results in better maintenance of
performance and mood state. J Appl Physiol 96:
13311340, 2004.
2. Atlaoui D, Duclos M, Gouarne C. The 24-h urinary
cortisol/cortisone ratio for monitoring training in
elite swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exer. 36:218-24,
2004
3. Aubert, A E, Seps, B. and Beckers, F. Heart Rate
Variability in Athletes, Sports Med, 33: 889919,
2003.
4. Bannister, EW. Modeling athletic performance. In
McDougall, JD, Wenger, HA and Green HJ (Eds.),
Physiological testing of the elite athlete (pp. 403
424). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1991.
5.
Borg, GA, Psychophysical bases of perceived
exertion. Med Sci Sport Exer, 14: 377381, 1982.
6. Brink, MS, Visscher, C, Arends, S, Zwerver, J, Post,
WJ, Lemmick, K. Monitoring stress and recovery:
new insights for the prevention of injuries and
illnesses in elite youth soccer players. Br J Sports
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7.
Chatard JC, Atlaoui D, Pichot V, Gourne, C,
Duclos, Mand Guezennec, Y. Training follow up
by questionnaire fatigue, hormones and heart
rate variability measurements. Sci Sports 18:302-4,
2003.
8. Cormack, SJ, Newton, RU, and McGuigan, MR.
Neuromuscular and endocrine responses of elite
players to an Australian rules football match. Int J
Sports Physiol Perform 3: 359374, 2008.
9. Costill, DL, Pascoe, DD and Fink, WJ. Impaired
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exercise. J Appl Physiol, 69: 46-5, 1990.
10. Coutts, AJ, Reaburn, PRJ, Murphy, AJ, Pine, MJ,
and Impellizzeri, FM. Validity of the session-RPE
method for determining training load in team
sport athletes. J Sci Med Sport 6: 525, 2003.
available to all clubs and make regular

monitoring feasible.
In closing, we suggest the following
tests be used:
1.
To quantify the sessions intensity,
use the sRPE after each session.
2.
To assess the cumulative stress
of training, use the DALDA
questionnaire. Some may prefer the
SQF to the DALDA due to its speed
and simplicity, but this would mean
removing the source of stress, which
may provide useful information. This
test should also be completed daily if
11. Day, ML, McGuigan, MR, Brice, G and Foster, C.
Monitoring exercise intensity during resistance
training using the session RPE scale. J Strength
Cond Res, 18: 353358. 2004.
12.
Eichner, ER. Overtraining: Consequences and
prevention. J Sports Sci, 13: 41-48, 1995.
13.
Elloumi, M, Makni, E, Moalla, W, Bouaziz, T,
Tabka, Z, Chamari, K. Monitoring training load
and fatigue in rugby sevens players. Asian J
Sports Med, 3: 175-184, 2012.
14. Foster, C. Monitoring training in athletes with
reference to overtraining syndrome. Med Sci
Sports Exerc, 30: 11641168, 1998.
15. Foster, C, Daines, E, Hector, L, Snyder, AC and
Welsh, R. Athletic performance in relation to
training load. Wisc Med J, 95: 370-374, 1996.
16. Foster, C, Florhaug, JA, Franklin, J, Gottschall, L,
Hrovatin, LA, Parker, S, Doleshal, P and Dodge,
CA. New approach to monitoring exercise
training. J Strength Cond Res, 15: 109115, 2001.
17.
Foster, C, Hector, LL, Welsh, R, Schrager, M,
Green, MA and Snyder, AC. Effects of specific
versus cross training on running performance.
Eur J Appl Physiol. 70:367-372, 1995.
18. Foster, C, Helmann, KM, Esten, PL, Brice, G, and
Porcari, JP. Differences in perceptions of training
by coaches and athletes. SASMA 8: 37, 2001b
19.
Gabbett, TJ. Influence of training and match
intensity on injuries in rugby league. J Sports Sci,
22: 409-417, 2004.
20. Halson, SL, Bridge, MW, Meeusen, R, Busschaert,
B, Gleeson, M, Jones, DA and Jeukendrup,
AE. Time course of performance changes and
fatigue markers during intensified training in
trained cyclists. J Appl Physiol, 93: 947956, 2002.
21.
Kentt, G and Hassmn, P. Overtraining
and recovery a conceptual model.
In
Kellman, K. Enhancing recovery: Preventing
underperformance in athletes, Human Kinetics,
57-79, 2002.
22.
Kentt, G and Hassmn, P. Overtraining and
recovery a conceptual model. Sports Med, 26:
1-16, 1998.
possible.
3. To measure the efficacy of recovery
practices the TQR questionnaire is
used. This need only be completed
for one week per month.
4. Dont be afraid to adapt the
questionnaires. Experience with large
squads shows players will answer
only ~10 questions. If you believe
important information is missing
then try adding it and assessing
the results to check its validity.
Remember, assessing fatigue and
recovery is not one size fits all.
23.
Kirwan, JP, Hickner, RC, and Yarasheski, KE.
Eccentric exercise induces transient insulin
resistance in healthy individuals. J Appl Physiol,
72: 2197-2202, 1992.
24. Kuipers, H and Keizer, HA. Overtraining in elite
athletes. Sports Med, 6: 79-92, 1998.
25.
Mclellan, C, and Lovell, D. Creatine kinase
and endocrine responses of elite players pre,
during, and post rugby league match play.
J Strength Cond Res, 24: 29082919, 2010.
26. Morgan, WP, Brown, DR, Raglin, JS, OConnor,
PJ, Ellickson, KA. Psychological monitoring of
overtraining and staleness. Br J Sport Med, 21:
107-12, 1987.
27. Neville, V, Gleeson, M and Folland, JP. Salivary
IgA as a risk factor for upper respiratory
infections in elite professional athletes. Med Sci
Sports 40: 12281236, 2008.
28. Padilla, S, Mujika, J, Orbananos, J, and Angulo,
F. Exercise intensity during competition time
trials in professional road cycling. Med Sci Sports
Exerc, 32: 850 856, 2000.
29. Padilla, S, Mujika, J, Orbananos, J, Santisteban,
J, Angulo, F, and Goiriena, JJ. Exercise intensity
and load during mass- start stage races in
professional road cycling. Med Sci Sports and
Exerc, 33: 796802, 2001.
30.
Robson-Ansley, PJ, Gleeson, M and Ansley,
L. Fatigue management in the preparation of
Olympic athletes. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27:
14091420, 2009.
31. Rushall, BS. A tool for measuring stress tolerance
in elite athletes. J Appl Sports Psychol, 2: 51-66,
1990.
32. Stone, M, Keith, R and Kearney, J. Overtraining:
A review of the signs, symptoms and possible
causes. JASSR, 5: 3550, 1991.
33. Stone, M, Stone, M, and Sands, W. Principles and
practice or resistance Training. USA: Human
Kinetics, 2007.
34. Waldeck, MR, and Lambert, MI. Heart rate during
sleep: Implications for monitoring training
status. JSSM, 3: 133138, 2003.
27
Ischaemic preconditioning and blood flow

restriction: what does the strength and
conditioning coach need to know?
Neil Gibson, MSc, BASES, BSc / Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh
Andrew Murray, BASES HPSA, MSc, BSc / sportscotland, Scottish Institute of Sport
INTRODUCTION
This article provides a review of recent research surrounding the use
of ischaemic preconditioning (IPC) and blood flow restriction (BFR)
techniques within a sport and exercise setting. IPC is a manoeuvre
which involves applying intermittent periods of ischaemia followed by
reperfusion to the musculature of the lower and/or upper limbs. The
manoeuvre has been shown to be effective in improving performance
within tasks involving land-based sprinting, swimming and cycling
particularly when the exercise requires a maximal or near maximal
effort. Within the present review, the term IPC will be used to describe
occlusion techniques utilised prior to exercise challenges.
BFR training refers to the practise of performing low intensity resistance
work in combination with restricted blood flow. This technique has
been shown to be effective in inducing positive changes in strength and
hypertrophy and will, in the present review, refer to BFR techniques
utilised in concurrence with exercise challenges. After reading this
article, the strength and conditioning coach will understand the
underlying mechanisms associated with IPC, its effectiveness in different
populations and exercise challenges and areas for development in the
future.
Ischaemic preconditioning
Ischaemic
preconditioning
(IPC)
has its roots in medicine: it was first
utilised to reduce susceptibility
within the myocardium to ischaemiainduced infarction6 by subjecting the
heart muscle to periods of ischaemia
followed by reperfusion. Since this
early research, the effectiveness of IPC
as a priming agent for the myocardium
prior to subsequent bouts of ischemia
has been well documented.21
More recent investigation, however,
has suggested IPC may have a
beneficial effect on other tissues within
28
the body, including skeletal muscle,

with potential implications for athletic
performance. When used prior to
an exercise challenge, IPC has been
shown to improve cycling performance
in a well trained population, with
improvements in power output, total
work and total exercise time.3 In a
separate study the manoeuvre was
found to improve VO2 and peak power
output, during an incremental cycle
assessment to volitional exhaustion.4
In a group of well-trained swimmers
it had the effect of improving 100m
swim time by 0.7s,14 a statistically and
practically significant change. To
put that in perspective, at the Beijing
Olympic Games, the gold and silver

medal positions in the mens freestyle
100m final were separated by 0.11s.
Beneficial effects have also been found
when using IPC prior to land-based
sprints of much shorter durations
(30m),10 as well as when used as a
recovery tool following fatiguing
exercise of a strength/power nature.1
Caveats exist, however, regarding
the assertion that IPC may be a
performance enhancer, or as one
author described it, a natural form
of doping3 as results appear to be
highly participant/population-specific.
This article will detail current research
investigating IPC as a performance
enhancer and highlight directions for
future study, enabling a more detailed
understanding of its mechanisms and
efficacy within athletic populations.
Physiological underpinning and
protocol development
The beneficial effects of IPC appear
to be linked to certain metabolites
reaching a critical level, in particular
adenosine.6 Research has demonstrated
that the protective effect of IPC can be
removed by the use of an adenosine
receptor antagonist, whilst an infusion
of adenosine elicited a similar response
to IPC itself.17 It has been suggested
that one of the potential mechanisms
by which IPC exerts a beneficial
impact is via ATP sparing,23 linked to
greater levels of adenosine and its role
within energy transfer. In addition to
adenosine, opioids and bradykinins
appear to be crucial in the beneficial
and/or protective effects of IPC. Where
one of these metabolite receptors was
inhibited, a single preconditioning
cycle provided no beneficial or
protective effect. This effect, however,
was reversed when the number of
IPC cycles was increased. Multiple
cycles of IPC have been the preferred
methodology in recent research
investigating its effects on exercise
performance: three cycles of five-minute
occlusion followed by five minutes
of reperfusion. The additive effect of
the aforementioned metabolites has
prompted the theory that a critical
threshold of accumulation is required
before any advantageous effects of IPC
are achieved.11
Once the critical threshold has

been realised, it is postulated
that mitochondrial ATP sensitive
potassium channels open, leading
to the production of reactive oxygen
species (ROS), inferring a benefit in
tasks relying on aerobic metabolism. In
research conducted on the myocardium,
it has been shown that following IPC
the protective effects last for around
one hour.6 Such findings, if replicated
in skeletal muscle, would mean IPC
could be used prior to an event warmup and still exert a beneficial effect
on performance. Indeed, when used
in a group of well-trained swimmers,
the IPC manoeuvre was used some 45
minutes prior to the performance test
measure.14
Figure 1 details a common protocol
used in the administration of IPC,
whereby three cycles of occlusion
and reperfusion are utilised on the
musculature of the thigh. To elicit
occlusion, a blood pressure cuff is placed
around the proximal portion of the
upper thigh and inflated to 220mmHg,
a pressure shown to infer significant
reductions in arterial blood flow and
cessation of venous return.13 After five
minutes of occlusion the pressure is
IPC
Warm up
30m sprints
LL
RL
Time, min
0
10
20
30
35
45 +1
+1
+1
Figure 1. Common protocol for the administration of IPC
29
of sub-maximal performance in the

latter study, improvements were noted
in maximal power output, assessed
during an incremental assessment
to exhaustion, increasing from 366
to 372W. In the same incremental
protocol, maximal oxygen consumption increased from 56.8 to 58.4 ml.kg-1.
min 1.
These data suggest the beneficial
effects of IPC are only realised when
exercise is maximal in nature and
lend support to the contention that
its use is linked to ATP sparing. The
decline in arterial oxygen pressure and
haemoglobin saturation which occur
during exercise at maximal intensities
may be ameliorated by IPC. However,
these changes are not apparent in
all athletes.5 This may explain why
large inter-individual differences have
been observed between participants
following the manoeuvre.1,10
released and the cuff transferred to

the contralateral leg. The manoeuvre,
utilising the aforementioned protocol,
takes 30 minutes in total.
IPC and exercise performance
Research investigating the effects

of IPC on performance in tasks of a
physical nature have to date largely
focused on the modality of cycling and
produced equivocal findings. In a group
of competitive cyclists, IPC consisting
of 3 x 5 minute periods of occlusion
administered to each leg had no effect
on measured variables during submaximal rides at 30, 50 and 70% of the
participants maximal power output.2
Variables measured included heart
rate, oxygen consumption, ventilation,
blood lactate and respiratory exchange
ratio.
Additionally, no effect of IPC was
observed when the cyclists performed
a test to exhaustion at 90% of their
maximal power output. These findings
led the authors to conclude that an
acute bout of IPC had no benefit to
performance of a sub-maximal nature.2
Similar results for performance during
sub-maximal exercise were observed
in a separate study, again utilising
cycling as the test modality.4 Despite no
observable benefit of IPC on markers
30
Further research conducted using male

participants and a cycling modality
provided
confounding
results.
Participants were found to improve
total exercise time, total work and
maximal power output when exercise
was preceded by IPC, despite no
increase in measured maximal aerobic
capacity, stroke volume or cardiac
output.3
The authors suggested that this
improvement without augmentation
of maximal aerobic capacity may
have been a result of enhanced
anaerobic capacity. This, however,
was not corroborated when a subset
of participants (n=10) were assessed
on time to exhaustion at 130% of their
maximal power output both with and
without preceding IPC.3
These findings appeared to suggest
that the beneficial effects of IPC may
only be realised when performance
is maximal in nature and when the
exercise challenge is of a duration
above an as yet undetermined length.
It is also apparent that improvements
in performance may not be paralleled
by changes in traditionally measured
physiological variables such as heart
rate, ventilation and maximal aerobic
capacity.
Results obtained within a swimming
population
corroborate
results
suggesting IPC to have no benefit
when used prior to sub-maximal

efforts, although a significant change
in performance was reported during a
maximal effort 100m swim.14 Following
the IPC manoeuvre, swimmers
reduced the 100m swim time for their
preferred stroke by 0.7s, a value both
statistically and practically significant.
Interestingly, swim time in the pool
when compared to the anaerobic cycle
challenge cited above3 was shorter in
duration by approximately 60s.
These results would appear to question
the validity of theories proposing the
existence of a duration threshold for
IPC and exercise performance. A recent
article investigating the effect of IPC
on land-based sprinting has suggested
that the manoeuvre may be effective
in enhancing sprint performance over
30m (exercise time <5s), but emphasises
that this response is highly individual.10
Interestingly, the swimmers were found
to increase their number of strokes
during the maximal exercise challenge.
Such an increase may be a function
of an IPC-activated increase in the
recruitment reserve22 and parallel
desensitising of the afferent III and IV
groups, with the result of increasing
neural drive and force output.3 This
mechanism of action was cited as
a potential cause of improvement
in maximal performance within a
cycling population.3 It should also
be noted that the IPC manoeuvre
within the swimming population was
administered via the upper rather than
the lower limbs.
IPC may also have a function in
the restoration of power following
fatiguing exercise when used as a
recovery modality. Research has shown
that when used immediately after
exercise, IPC had a positive effect on the
restoration of concentric and eccentric
velocity in a countermovement jump
test, jump height in the squat jump test
and running velocity over distances of
10 and 40m when assessed 24 and 48
hour post exercise.1
administered during exercise can

have further positive effects particularly
with respect to measures associated
with strength and hypertrophy.
Strength and rehabilitation
When performing resistance training

the size principle states that motor
units with a smaller cell size are
recruited first, especially during low
intensity exercise or those utilising low
load patterns.7,12 At higher intensities
however, it is the larger motor units
and their corresponding type II fibres
which are preferentially recruited.8,19,20
It has been observed that type II fibres
respond to high intensity exercise with
greater levels of hypertrophy than
type I fibres, prompting the assertion
that resistance training should be
conducted above 70% of the individuals
1RM where hypertrophy is the goal.15
However, although such an approach
to training is appropriate when dealing
with fit and healthy populations, this is
not the case when working with elderly,
frail or injured populations. In these
circumstances, methods which increase
Blood flow restriction

Although IPC has been shown
to enhance performance when
administered prior to an exercise
challenge in some studies, there is
evidence to suggest the practice of BFR
31
reductions in myostatin within the

blood flow restriction group.16
In a separate study, muscle protein
synthesis was found to increase by
46% following BFR whilst remaining
unchanged in the control group.8 The
authors suggest that activation of
the mTOR signalling pathway may
contribute to the enhanced muscle
protein synthesis observed when low
level resistance exercise is combined
with restricted blood flow.8
strength and hypertrophy without high
loads may be warranted.
A recent meta-analysis18 investigating
low level resistance work combined
with blood flow restriction has shown
it to be more beneficial in promoting
markers of strength and hypertrophy
than low intensity resistance training
alone. Although this effect was most
apparent in untrained populations, it
also persisted albeit at a lower level
when assessed in trained populations.
A similar relationship was found when
hypertrophy was considered.
For both outcome variables it was
suggested that 15-30% 1RM provided
the
optimal
stimulus.18
When
practitioners are working with athletes
recovering from injury and/or surgery
of the lower limbs, this may provide a
viable alternative to promote strength
and hypertrophy gains while utilising
relatively low loads. There is also data
suggesting BFR to be advantageous
when compared to more traditional high
intensity resistance work.8,16 Research
conducted with physically active male
participants found that following an
eight week training programme, 1RM
strength in a knee extension task
increased in all three training groups:
low intensity, low intensity with BFR
and high intensity resistance work.
The magnitude of the change, however,
was largest within the group who had
used low level resistance training
combined with restricted blood flow:
1RM in this group increased by 40.1%
in comparison to 36.2% in the high
intensity training group.16 Changes
in hypertrophy (measured via cross
sectional area) were of a similar
magnitude between the high intensity
and BFR groups. Furthermore, the
authors related these findings to
32
It should be noted that in research

combining resistance work with BFR,
occlusion is applied during loading
rather than prior to the exercise
challenge as is the case with IPC. As
such, and similarly to when utilising
IPC protocols, participants should
be screened prior to training for any
contraindications including high blood
pressure and or history of compartment
syndrome.
Individual differences
From the available literature it is

apparent that a reasonably large amount
of inter-participant and between-group
variability exists in the response to IPC,
with the manoeuvre having been found
to be detrimental to performance when
assessed by gender in two separate
studies.1,10 When IPC was used as a
recovery tool prior to tasks requiring
the expression of strength and power,
in female participants the intervention
was found to be detrimental to the
restoration of variables associated
with power production.1 In addition,
when IPC was utilised prior to the
performance of 30m land-based sprints
it was again found to elicit a detrimental
effect on performance amongst female
participants.10
Data
collected
within
the
aforementioned studies, however,
were not able to elucidate why these
gender differences were apparent. A
potential explanation for the difference
is the appropriateness of the occlusion
pressure. For female participants who
could be said to carry less muscle
mass especially on the lower limbs
a pressure of 220mmHg may have
been too severe, thus inducing adverse
impact on motivation for subsequent
tasks.
Individualising
occlusion
pressure for use in female participants
may represent a potential avenue
for future research within the area.
Meanwhile, however, practitioners

should exercise caution when using the
intervention with female participants.
In addition to gender differences,
a pattern of responders and nonresponders has been identified in the
literature amongst male participants.
It has been suggested that the type of
training which participants do regularly
may explain some of the differences
in response.25 Research investigating
BFR during the performance of a
plantar flexor exercise suggested that
the effects of the intervention may be
more pronounced in aerobically trained
participants than in those who were
strength trained, mediated by aerobic
capacity.25 It should be noted, however,
that in this study resistance exercise
was performed for an extended period
of time: two and three minutes.
Despite this, evidence exists to suggest
a positive effect of BFR on strength
parameters in active populations,18
albeit to a lesser degree than in
untrained groups. Unfortunately, there
was insufficient data to analyse the effect
of BFR within athletic populations, a
potential area for further research. It
may be argued that aerobically trained
individuals, through an elevated
capillary network and mitochondrial
density, are better equipped to make
use of augmented oxygen and blood
flow levels as a result of the adenosine
mediated
vasodilation
following
IPC and/or BFR.1,17 Furthermore,
the constrained ventilation pattern
associated with swimming has been
cited as a possible explanation for the
positive effects within this group of
athletes as it induces a greater degree
of arterial hypoxaemia.14
Results demonstrating a positive effect
on other activities including cycling,3
power production,1 and land-based
sprinting10 would suggest that although
ventilation patterns may explain some
of the variability there are clearly
other mechanisms at play. Clearly,
more research is needed to further
investigate the underlying mechanisms
which predispose certain individuals or
groups to the effects of IPC and/or BFR.
Treatment length
The majority of studies that have

investigated the effect of IPC have
utilised a similar protocol for its
application: three bouts of five minutes
occlusion applied to each leg followed

by five minutes of reperfusion.2,3,4,10
Variations exist, however, in protocol
design. Among elite level swimmers
where occlusion was applied to the
upper and not lower limbs, four periods
of five minutes restricted blood flow
were utilised. Interestingly, it was within
this group that the most practically
significant findings were observed, a
0.7s reduction in 100m swim time.14
Lengthening treatment exposure time
may appear to be warranted, especially
given evidence linking the beneficial
effects of IPC to critical levels of
metabolite accumulation (adenosine,
bradykinins and opioids).6
It may also be the case that a prolonged
period of occlusion is necessary given
the smaller mass of the upper limb
musculature. An investigation into
the effects of IPC on the restitution of
variables associated with strength and
power following fatiguing exercise
utilised three minute periods of
occlusion repeated twice per limb.1
Despite the shortened protocol, IPC
was shown to be effective in improving
the restoration of markers associated
with strength and power production
when compared to a control group.
Further research and applied use of the
intervention is required to elucidate
whether for those identified as
responders a shorter protocol can
elicit the same advantageous results.
If this was found to be the case, it
may make the applicability of the
intervention much more efficacious
within the applied setting. Additionally,
it would be useful to know whether,
in non-responding populations, an
extended IPC manoeuvre, as was used
in the swimming group, was able to
effect positive changes in performance.
Applicability to sports now
With any intervention of this nature,

practitioners must question how it
may impact upon the performance
of their athletes. It would appear that
there is a strong evidence base for
the use of BFR within a rehabilitative
setting amongst populations unable
to perform traditional, high intensity,
high
load
resistance
training.
Employing the manoeuvre may lead to
improved strength and/or hypertrophy
during periods where atrophy and/
or decrements in strength would
otherwise be apparent. IPC, used as a
priming agent prior to exercise, may aid
in the expression of power as a result of

enhanced neural drive3 and recruitment
reserve,22 with associated benefits for
athletes returning to power-type events
following injury.
The effect of IPC on sporting
performance,
however,
may
be
more difficult to ascertain. Within
a swimming population it has been
shown to have a significant effect on
performance, at least in sprint type
events. It is also noteworthy that the
IPC manoeuvre was administered some
45 minutes prior to the event, during
which time the swimmers warmed up in
the pool. If the same effect was found
to be the case in land-based activities
such as running and cycling, the use of
IPC may be warranted before time trial
events in cycling and speed endurance
track events such as the 400 and 800m
races. Although it is unrealistic to expect
an athlete to administer a bout of IPC
track side, it could be used as part of the
preparation routine within the medical
room. Further research is required to
elucidate whether the treatment is
relevant within these specific athletic
groups and events.
The finding that IPC may improve
land-based sprinting over distances
commonly associated with field-based
games such as soccer26 and rugby9
in certain individuals at any rate is
certainly an interesting one. The next
step would appear to be elucidating
whether such improvements are
apparent in repeated sprint activities,
the likes of which have been shown
to discriminate between successful
performances in rugby league.9
Preliminary, and as yet unpublished,
data collected within our laboratory
would appear to support the use of IPC
as a tool for improving repeated sprint
ability, albeit when performed on a
cycle ergometer.
Given that IPC has already been shown
to positively influence the restitution
of parameters associated with strength
and power,1 along with a potential
role in ATP sparing23 and elevated
delivery of oxygen, there would appear
to be a strong rationale for its use
within repeated sprint type activities:
if research is borne out, there could be a
role for IPC in the preparation of players
for team sport competition either
before the warm up or, alternatively,
prior to an interchange.
This is currently allowed in sports

such as Australian rules football, field
hockey and rugby league. If we take
rugby league as an example, there are
currently 12 interchanges permitted
per team per game. Commonly, front
row players will play for a period of 20
minutes at the start of the game before
being interchanged and reintroduced
at the start of the second half. This
would allow a 30-minute period
(including the ten-minute half time
intermission) to reinvigorate the player
prior to returning to the field of play,
a time frame commensurate with the
IPC manoeuvre utilised in a number of
recent research studies.
An added benefit of this approach
would be the passive nature of the
treatment and attenuation of any further
energy expenditure via active recovery
protocols. It also has the benefit of
allowing the player to remain seated
and in a position where they can watch
the game they are to be reintroduced
to. In addition to invasion games,
racquet sports (which involve repeated
high intensity efforts over a prolonged
playing time) may also benefit from IPC
if it is found definitely to have positive
effect on repeated sprint ability.
Future directions
Research within the area of IPC and its
effect on exercise performance, along
with BRF on markers of strength and
hypertrophy, would suggest that the
manoeuvres have at least some value in
the preparation of athletic populations.
There are, however, areas of conjecture
within the literature which require
greater clarification before consensus
can be reached regarding the efficacy of
both IPC and BFR training.
Conclusion
IPC is a technique which has its roots
in myocardial medicine. However, in
recent times it has been proffered as
a manoeuvre which carries potential
benefits within a sport and exercise
setting. Current evidence would
support the use of IPC in events which
require maximal effort over a prolonged
period of time, such as 100m swimming
and/or tasks requiring the attainment
of maximal aerobic capacity. However,
there is little supportive evidence that
33
the treatment improves performance in

sub-maximal tasks and as such it would
not appear to be a viable tool within
activities of this nature.
BFR within a strength training
scenario has also received attention,
with positive results published in the
literature. Evidence exists to suggest
that low intensity resistance training, in
combination with restricted blood flow,
may be an effective tool in improving
strength and hypertrophy within
populations who cannot engage in
high intensity resistance exercise, such
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Crisafulli A, Tangianu F, Tocco T, Concu A,
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de Groot PCE, Thijssen DHJ, Sanchez M,
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Volpi, E. and Rasmussen, BB. Resistance exercise
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as injured athletes. The manoeuvre,

however, does not appear to work for
everyone and studies have hitherto
reported a pattern of responders and
non-responders.
Currently, available data would seem

to support the use of IPC within an
applied sport and exercise setting and
therefore, it may be a useful tool for the
strength and conditioning coach.
A supportive rationale for these

differences remains elusive and as
such, practitioners interested in
incorporating IPC into the training
programmes should keep this in mind.
Responsiveness to the manoeuvre
appears to be gender-sensitive with two
studies showing the effects of IPC to be
detrimental to female participants.
However, further research is required to

elucidate the underlying mechanisms
in order to understand why some
people respond to the treatment and
some do not.
Conditioning Research, 26(1):121-130. 2011.

10. Gibson, N, Cook, J, Neish, M. and Murray, A.
Effect of ischemic preconditioning on land based
sprinting in team sport athletes. International
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11. Goto M, Liu Y, Yang X-M, Ardell JL, Cohen MV,
Downey JM. Role of bradykinin in protection
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12. Henneman, E, Somjen, G. and Carpenter, DO.
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Iida H, Kurano M, Takano H, Kubota N,
Morita T, Meguro K, Sato Y, Abe T, Yamazaki
Y, Uno K, Takenaka K, Hirose K, Nakajima T.
Hemodynamic and neurohumoral responses to
the restriction of femoral blood flow by KAATSU
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Physiology, 100:275285. 2007.
14. Jean-St-Michel E, Manlhiot C, Li J, Tropak M,
Michelsen M, SchmidtM, McCrindle B, Wells G,
Redington A. Remote preconditioning improves
maximal performance in highly trained athletes.
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15. Kraemer, WJ, Adams, K, Cafarelli, E, Dudley, GA,
Dooly, C, Feigenbaum, MS, Fleck, SJ, Franklin, B,
Fry, AC, Hoffman, JR, Newton, RU, Potteiger, J,
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AW, Olsson RA and Downey JM. Protection
Research also needs to establish

whether its use is beneficial to team
sport athletes.
against infarction afforded by preconditioning

is mediated by A1 adenosine receptors in rabbit
heart. Circulation, 84(1): 350-356. 1991.
18. Loenneke, JP, Wilson, JM, Marin, PJ, Zourdos,
MC. and Bemben, MG. Low intensity blood flow
restriction training: a meta-analysis. European
Journal of Applied Physiology, 112 (5): 1849-1859.
2012.
19.
MacDougall, JD, Elder, GC, Sale, DG, Moroz,
JR. and Sutton, JR. Effects of strength training
and immobilization on human muscle fibres.
European Journal of Applied Physiology and
Occupational Physiology, 43: 25-34. 1980.
20. McCall, GE, Byrnes, WC, Dickinson, A, Pattany,
PM. and Fleck SJ. Muscle fibre hypertrophy,
hyperplasia, and capillary density in college
men after resistance training. Journal of Applied
Physiology. 81:2004-2012. 1996.
21.
Murry CE, Jennings RB, Reimer KA.
Preconditioning with ischemia: a delay of lethal
cell injury in ischemic myocardium. Circulation,
74(5):11241136. 1986.
22. Noakes TD. Is it time to retire the AV Hill
model? A rebuttal to the article by Professor Roy
Shephard. Sports Medicine, 41(4): 263-277. 2011.
23. Pang C, Yang R, Zhong A, Xu N, Body B, Forrest
C. Acute ischemic preconditioning protects
against skeletal muscle infarction in the pig.
Cardiovascular Research, 29(6):782788. 1995.
24. Pasupathy S, Homer-Vanniasinkam S. Ischaemic
preconditioning protects against ischaemia/
reperfusion injury: emerging concepts. European
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29(2):106115. 2005.
25.
Takada, S, Okita, K, Suga, T, Omokawa, M,
Morita, N, Horiuchi, M, Kadoguchi, T, Takahashi,
M, Hirabayashi, K, Yokota, T, Kinugawa, S. and
Tsutsui, H. Blood flow restriction exercise in
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26. Weston M, Drust, B and Gregson W. Intensities
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League referees and players. Journal of Sport
Science, 29(5): 527-532. 2011.
UKSCA Events
UKSCA Workshops
These are just a selection of the dates planned for the next six months. Please see our website
for the latest dates and availability, as demand is high and new dates/venues are being added
every week.
Foundation Workshop in Strength and Conditioning
The Foundation workshop is aimed at anyone looking to enter the profession and wanting
a clear and progressive development pathway. Also to anyone wishing to add best practice
strength and conditioning to their existing roles e.g. PE teachers, sports specific coaches,
personal trainers, undergraduate students etc.
25-26 January 2014 Loughborough
1-2 February 2014 Newcastle
15-16 February 2014 Cheltenham
22-23 February 2014 Pitreavie, Scotland
1-2 March 2014 Belfast
22-23 March 2014 Loughborough

3-4 May 2014 London
17-18 May 2014 Loughborough
7-8 June 2014 Gloucester
21-22 June 2014 Belfast
Planning Effective Programmes Workshop

This two-day workshop is designed as preparation for those looking to become UKSCA
Accredited and for those looking to improve their skills in enhancing their planning and
programming skills in strength & conditioning. The content is based on best practice supported
by scientific evidence and will provide you with the knowledge and understanding to create
effective programmes to improve sports performance.
1-2 February 2014 Belfast
15-16 February 2014 London
29-30 March 2014 Birmingham
5-6 April 2014 Leeds
12-13 April 2014 Glasgow

26-27 April 2014 London
31-1 May/June 2014 London
Plyometrics, Agility and Speed Workshop

This two-day, practical workshop is designed as preparation for those looking to become
UKSCA Accredited and for those looking to introduce plyo, agility and speed exercises into their
strength & conditioning programmes. It covers key technical and coaching points as well as
providing the knowledge to plan into training programmes to improve sports performance.
24-25 January 2014 Sheffield
5-6 April 2014 Stirling
26-27 April 2014 Newcastle
3-4 May 2014 Bath

10-11 May 2014 Belfast
28-29 June 2014 Sheffield
Weight Lifting for Sports Performance Workshop

This two-day, practical workshop is designed as preparation for those looking to become
UKSCA Accredited and for those looking to introduce Olympic lifts into their strength &
conditioning programmes. It covers key technical and coaching points of the lifts and their
derivatives, teaching you to be a better lifter, how to coach lifts and also how to incorporate
them into training programmes.
19-20 January 2014 London
8-9 February 2014 Leeds
8-9 March 2014 Gloucester
29-20 March 2014 Belfast

10-11 May 2014 Leeds
17-18 May 2014 Edinburgh
UKSCAs tutors are selected from the UKs top S&C Coaches
HELP for HEROES, Tidworth Recovery

Centre-Power Lift with Infinity Flooring
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B
A Commonwealth Arena,
Glasgow,
B Ospreys Rugby,
C NOC, Papendal,
D Newcastle University,
E Aberdeen University,
F UEL-USA Olympic
Training Camp
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Integrated Racks & Platforms
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The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association

Overtraining and fatigue

UKSCA Assessment Days

12 Jan 2014 Bisham Abbey

27 Apr 2014 Bisham Abbey

23 Feb 2014 Bisham Abbey

24 May 2014 Loughborough Uni.

01 Mar 2014 Loughborough Uni.

01 Jun 2014 Bisham Abbey

08 Mar 2014 Uni. of Ulster, Belfast

14 Jun 2014 Forthbank, Stirling

23 Mar 2014 Uni. of Gloucester

Enhance Your Career Prospects

Or for all courses look on Course Finder on our website

ISSUE 31 / DECEMBER 2013

ISSUE 31 / DECEMBER 2013

ON-ICE AGILITY TEST

OVERTRAINING AND FATIGUE

ISSUE 31 / DECEMBER 2013

Letter from the Editor

completely different from our current

The search for a

of agility and the question of whether

The articles in this current issue are an

These articles clearly demonstrate how

Another hotly debated topic is that

Ian Jeffreys, PhD, FNSCA, ASCC, CSCS*D

ISSUE 31 / DECEMBER 2013

UKSCA Accredited members CPD model

CPD model updates

For those who first became

For those who first became

For those who first became

ISSUE 31 / DECEMBER 2013

enthusiasm, leadership skills and

Previously, Pete worked for UK

One of the great advantages of being

I am committed to upholding the

From a personal point of view, I have

CONCURRENT STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE TRAINING

ISSUE 31 / DECEMBER 2013

Programmes of concurrent strength and

RICHARD BLAGROVE, BSc, MSc,

Richard is currently programme director for the BSc

sports often engage in technical and

CONCURRENT STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE TRAINING

ISSUE 31 / DECEMBER 2013

sequence and recovery between training

Strength training only

Endurance training only

Figure 1. Typical relative adaptive responses to regimes of strength-only training,

minimising the interference effects

The benefits of strength training for the

ISSUE 31 / DECEMBER 2013

CONCURRENT STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE TRAINING

It is perhaps unsurprising that more

practice or metabolic conditioning

Typically, intermittent sports performers will complete between 1-4

Strength training utilises activities

CONCURRENT STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE TRAINING

ISSUE 31 / DECEMBER 2013

outputs, but they are sustained for

Fatigue incurred by high volumes of

A persistent imbalance between

Transformation of fibre phenotype