PSC Issue 32

The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association
PROFESSIONAL
STRENGTH & CONDITIONING
32
issue
March
2014
Succeeding as a female S&C coach

CONCURRENT TRAINING
MEETING ABSTRACTS
UKSCA Events
UKSCA Assessment Days

Please see our website for the latest dates and availability, as demand is high and new
dates/venues are being added every week.
In order to become UKSCA Accredited, members must prove their competence as an S&C
coach on one of our assessment days. Places are available on each day below for those coming
for their first assessment day, as well as those looking to retake one or more elements.
27 Apr 2014 - Bisham Abbey
28 Jun 2014 - Lee Valley, London
24 May 2014 - Loughborough
03 Aug 2014 - Lee Valley, London
01 Jun 2014 - Bisham Abbey
07 Sep 2014 - Bisham Abbey
14 Jun 2014 - Stirling
20 Sep 2014 - Loughborough
www.uksca.org.uk
Enhance Your Career Prospects

At Coventry University Sport & Exercise Science courses focus on
the application of scientific principles to the promotion, maintenance
and enhancement of sport and exercise related behaviours.
Our courses have a practical component and to support this we have a suite of sport science
laboratories, along with a specialist strength and conditioning suite, therapy rooms and on site
sports therapy clinic, as well as using track and sports centre facilities.
Courses include:
Sports Therapy BSc
Sport and Exercise Science BSc
Exercise Nutrition and Health BSc
Strength and Conditioning MSc
Applied Sport and Exercise Science MSc
Or for all courses look on Course Finder on our website
www.coventry.ac.uk
ISSUE 32 / MARCH 2014
UKSCA
CONTRIBUTORS
Contents
EDITOR
Ian Jeffreys PhD, FNSCA, ASCC, CSCS*D
EDITORIAL PANEL
Raphael Brandon MSc, ASCC
Clive Brewer MSc, BSc(Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Marco Cardinale PhD, ASCC
Dave Clark MSc, ASCC
Paul Comfort MSc, ASCC
Audrey Duncan PhD, ASCC
Mike Favre MSc, ASCC
Duncan French PhD, ASCC
Jon Goodwin MSc, PGCHE, ASCC, CSCS
Greg Haff PhD, ASCC, FNSCA, CSCS
Liam Kilduff PhD
Rhodri Lloyd PhD, CSCS*D, ASCC
Jeremy Moody PhD, ASCC
Phil Moreland BAppSci, AssocDip, ASCC
Jeremy Sheppard PhD, CSCS
Narelle Sibte BAppSci, Grad Dip, ASCC
Alan Sinclair MSc, ASCC, CSCS
Gil Stevenson BEd (Hons), ASCC
Margaret Stone MSc, ASCC
Michael Stone PhD, ASCC
Mark Simpson MSc, ASCC
Graham Turner MSc, BEd (Hons), ASCC
COLUMN EDITORS
Graeme Close PhD, ASCC
Nick Ward MSc, CSCS, ASCC
Dan Cleather PhD
MANAGING EDITOR
Mary Fogarty
04
EDITORS LETTER
05
NEWS
06
CHAIRMANS COLUMN
07
A FEMALE S&C COACH
13
CONCURRENT TRAINING
21
POSTER ABSTRACTS
GRAPHIC DESIGN
Olivia Holborn
ISSN 1757-5834
www.uksca.org.uk
P R O F E SS I O N A L S T R E N GT H & C O N D I T I O N I N G / W W W. U K S CA . O R G . U K
03
EDITORS LETTER
Letter from the Editor

This year is a significant one for the
UKSCA, being the 10th anniversary
of the organisations formation. In
this short period, there has been a
remarkable transformation in strength
and conditioning in the UK. Today,
strength and conditioning (S&C) is
generally accepted as an integral
part of any sports performance
enhancement
programme,
and
employment as a S&C coach is a real
career prospect. This is quite different
to the situation back in the late 1990s
and early 2000s, where there was little
clarity in the role of a S&C coach, and
where few employment opportunities
actually existed.
At that time, S&C was predominantly a
case of individuals working in isolation
across the country. Practitioners often
went under a variety of names mostly
the ubiquitous term fitness coach
with much of this work being done
on a voluntary, unpaid basis. There
were few opportunities for coaches
to meet, exchange ideas and to learn;
furthermore there was no structure
available for them to be able to
delineate their skills and to establish
the benefits they could bring to any
sports organisation. Similarly, in the
wider community, few people were
aware of what a S&C coach actually
was and what benefits they would
bring to athletic performance. As this
was an era before social networking,
ideas and information spread much
more slowly, further adding to the
difficulty in developing the area.
However, during that time, an
awareness emerged of the potential
of S&C to grow in the UK, and the
potential power of a co-ordinated
approach to facilitate this. There were
some pioneering conferences at sport
Scotland, enabling coaches with similar
outlooks and passions to congregate,
and also for more information so
critical to the development of practice
to be presented. Slowly but surely,
a vision emerged for the formation
04
of a UK-based S&C organisation that

would oversee the development of
the profession and develop a UKbased accreditation system to set
the gold standard for accrediting
practitioners who demonstrated the
key competencies required to deliver
effective S&C. After meetings with
a number of key stakeholders the
concept of the UKSCA emerged and
a working party was put in place,
supported by UK Sport, to produce the
initial constitution of an organisation
that eventually became the UKSCA.
The first board was elected in 2004:
the start of the UKSCA adventure.
The UKSCA has

developed an
accreditation system that
is generally considered to
be foremost in the
S&C world
Initially, the outlook was challenging:
the organisation would receive some
funding for two months from UK
Sport, after which it would have to
stand on its own two feet and would
live or die by the number of members
it could generate in that time. As this
was an adventure into the unknown,
it was impossible to predict potential
member numbers and hence the long
term viability of the organisation. So it
is especially pleasing to see today how
the organisation has built to a position
where it now has 2800 members. At the
same time the UKSCA has developed
an accreditation system that is
generally considered to be foremost in
the world of S&C. To supplement this
work, the organisation has developed
an education pathway that consists of
an introductory workshop, and three
further workshops to prepare coaches
for accreditation.
This journal itself has now been
in production for eight years, and
this years annual conference will

be the UKSCAs tenth independent
annual event. What is always worth
remembering is that none of this could
have happened without the vision and
hard work of a number of dedicated
individuals. It would be impossible
in this editorial to name and thank
everybody who contributed, but the
organisation will be forever grateful
to all of them. Without this work, there
simply would not be a UKSCA.
Indeed, this edition of the journal
demonstrates the distance the UKSCA
has travelled, and the contributions
that people make behind the scenes.
The main feature this issue is the
publication of the abstracts from
the posters presented at last years
annual conference. There was a record
number of poster presentations there,
reflecting the huge increase in S&C
research being carried out in the UK,
and its growth as a key discipline
within sport science-based academia.
These abstracts have been reviewed
and those accepted are being
published in this issue. My thanks go
to the reviewing team of Paul Comfort,
Paul Read, and Iain Fletcher for their
tireless work in this process.
Our main articles in this edition are
from Richard Blagrove, and Kathryn
Gallagher Marsh, and again reflect the
diversity in the discipline of strength
and conditioning. Part II of Richards
article on concurrent training looks
at the practical application of the
theoretical issues he outlined in the
first part. Kathryns article looks
at the challenges faced by female
S&C coaches and emphasises the
importance of human interaction
in the success of a strength and
conditioning programme. Kathryn
highlights some unique challenges
and presents practical advice to help
female coaches wishing to pursue a
career in the profession.
Ian Jeffreys, PhD, FNSCA, ASCC, CSCS*D
NEWS
NEWS
UKSCA Coach
Development Model
UKSCA Re-Accreditation deadlines

A reminder of key dates for Accredited members and their
submission of the CPD logs is laid out in the table below. The
Date First Accredited can be found on your membership
certificate.
Date First Accredited

Next CPD Cycle

end date
Submission
deadline
Before 01/04/09
31/03/15
30/06/15
The UKSCA has developed a Coach Development Model,

which aims to provide a structure for the relationship between
developing coach and employer/mentor. This model was
designed to be part of the CPD framework, which involves
Accredited members claiming CPD points by guiding a less
experienced coach through specific areas of development
leading up to Accreditation (mentoring).
Between 01/04/09 and 30/09/09
30/09/15
31/12/15
Between 01/10/09 and 31/03/10
31/03/14
30/06/14
Between 01/04/10 and 30/09/10
30/09/14
31/12/14
Between 01/10/10 and 31/03/11
31/03/15
30/06/15
In order for a coach to remain UKSCA Accredited following

his/her initial assessment, they are required to amass a
minimum of 100 CPD credits every two years. Currently,
credits are awarded for activities that will develop an
Accredited coachs own personal skills and knowledge;
through the CPD model, the UKSCA also encourages
Accredited members to perform activities that will further
the professional field, and mentoring up and coming
S&C coaches is a key part of that. An Accredited member
mentoring another coach to become UKSCA Accredited
for a minimum of six months gains 15 credits per member
per year (max of two interns per year) to go towards their
re-accreditation submission.
Between 01/04/11 and 30/09/11
30/09/15
31/12/15
Between 01/10/11 and 31/03/12
31/03/14
30/06/14
Between 01/04/12 and 30/09/12
30/09/14
31/12/14
Between 01/10/12 and 31/03/13
31/03/15
30/06/15
Between 01/04/13 and 30/09/13
30/09/15
31/12/15
Between 01/10/13 and 31/03/14
31/03/16
30/06/16
We hope this model will provide the structure to encourage

more Accredited members to take on such relationships,
as this is viewed as a valuable activity, not just for the
individuals but for the profession as a whole. The model has
been piloted with professional football and tennis academies,
and universities; it is now available for all members and
employers to use.
UKSCAs 10th Annual Conference, 19-20

July 2014, Chesford Grange, Warwickshire
In relation to the UKSCA CPD process, this model will

become compulsory upon submission of CPD logs for
members claiming CPD points for mentoring. However, the
UKSCA will accept a members own development document,
if it contains sufficient information and analysis.
The UKSCA feels this Model is a vital step towards improving
the internship process in the UK. We will be encouraging all
employers to use it to provide the basis for a structure for
the personal development of aspiring S&C coaches, and to
work as a useful measure of the value of an internship. We
encourage those applying for internships to enquire whether
their employers use a model like this for their personal
development; we will also be working with employers in
the UK to make the Model a core element of each interns
engagement. For more information or to receive a copy of the
Model, please email enquiries@uksca.org.uk.
The 10th annual conference will take place over what we hope
will be a glorious weekend in July, with over 400 members in
attendance. This years line-up of speakers is worthy of this
special anniversary and they include:
Nick Winkelman of Team EXOS; Kristie Taylor of Cycling
Australia; Joe Kenn of NFLs Carolina Panthers; John Cronin
of AUT University, New Zealand; and Duncan French from
the English Institute of Sport. More names will be announced
imminently.
At 95 for a day pass or 295 for two-day passes and the
full accommodation package, this simply cannot be beaten
for great value CPD as well as being a vital networking
opportunity in the S&C calendar.
05
CHAIRMANS LETTER/NEWS
CHAIRMANS LETTER
LETTER FROM PETE
Im sure many of you would have
enjoyed watching the Sochi 2014
Winter Olympics in February and
the Paralympics after that. For me the
first were the most exciting Games
to date with the inclusion of new
sports, excellent TV coverage, and the
56 athletes representing Great Britain
being the biggest contingent of athletes
weve sent to the Winter Games for
26 years. In addition to this, the four
medals won confirmed Great Britains
most successful Winter Olympics for 90
years, equalling the medal count of the
1924 Winter Olympics. (And at the time
of going to press, six medals had been
won by GB athletes at the Paralympics).
In the Olympics, Lizzy Yarnold claimed
gold in skeleton, the mens curling
team took silver, and the women took
bronze, while snowboarder Jenny
Jones finished third in the slopestyles
Olympic debut. I would like to
congratulate those individuals from our
membership who have worked so hard
to support all the athletes who attended

the Games, as well as those who won
medals.
The Winter Olympics is a growing
movement and opportunities are
increasing, with UK Sport pledging
increased investment for the years
leading up to Pyeongchang in 2018.
This means more opportunities for
strength and conditioning within the
sports that receive funding.
As someone who works in Alpine
ski-ing, winter sports are a particular
passion of mine, and I therefore want
to encourage our members to look for
opportunities to bring their services to
these sports at all levels. There may be
opportunities lurking round the corner
at the local ice hockey club, within skiing clubs in Scotland or at many of
the winter sports clubs at universities
within the UK.
As many of these sports develop,
there is the growing need for more
strength and conditioning research
Pete McKnight
within winter sports. I was particularly

encouraged to hear from a member
who contacted me recently about some
upcoming research he is doing in
freestyle ski-ing. This suggests that the
interest in strength and conditioning
in boosting performance is filtering
through to many less mainstream
sports, thus increasing opportunities
for our coaches.
Over the last few months, our Board
of directors, plus office staff and the
teams that they coordinate, have been
working hard on a number of exciting
developments that can be read about in
the news sections. Please do not hesitate
to contact us through our website about
any areas of interest that you may have.
Pete McKnight
pete@uksca.org.uk
NEWS... continued from page 5
Excellence in
S&C Awards 2014
Following the success of our inaugural
Excellence in S&C Awards last year,
nominations are now being received for
our 2014 S&C Coaches of the Year Awards,
which will be presented at our Gala
Awards Dinner, on July 19, at the Annual
Conference. The 2014 categories are:
S&C Coach of the Year Elite Sport
S&C Coach of the Year Development
Sport
S&C Coach of the Year Education
S&C Coach of the Year Youth Sport
Richard Holmes Award for the
Emerging S&C Coach of the Year
Nomination forms can be completed via
our website.
06
Skills Active National Occupational Standards in S&C

The UKSCA has been working recently with Skills Active to develop National
Occupational Standards (NOS) in strength and conditioning, with the completed
standards planned for consultation in April. This project was developed when
it became clear that S&C was becoming an area of increasing interest to the
fitness industry. The development of the NOS in S&C was undertaken last year
under the wider fitness remit, along with other standards such as personal
training and exercise to music.
Although this original project concluded in January this year, Skills Active
have agreed to extend the timeframes for the S&C standards, to enable full
involvement of the UKSCA and the S&C profession in their development. The
Board welcomes this move, as it is vital to ensure that an alternative set of
professional standards are not created for S&C in the fitness industry standards
which do not match those already established in the UK.
CPD Events for Members

The UKSCA Board is currently talking to a number of world-renowned experts
to bring their knowledge and expertise to our membership through a series of
CPD events. These CPD events will run throughout the year, and around the
country to make them accessible to all our members, with many of them aimed
specifically at Accredited members. Some will be seminar-based, others smaller
workshop groups, but the overall aim is to bring to our membership some great
value CPD opportunities that are not typically available at the moment. We are
hoping to announce the first events in April.
HOW TO SUCCEED as a female S&C coach
How to succeed as a
female S&C coach
By Kathryn Gallagher Marsh
INTRODUCTION
It has been argued that sport is an arena which constantly promotes masculinity
by providing a platform for displays of pride, prowess and elitism, through
dominance of the strongest individual.14,15 Many of the characteristics attributed
to a successful sports person are stereotypically male: strength, power, speed,
aggression and dominance. These contrast with stereotypic female cultural roles
(homemaker, carer, nurturer) and characteristics (submissive, soft, meek), which
are not regarded as disposing to sporting success.16
Such widely held gender-related stereotypes have been viewed as significant
impediments to female recruitment into and success within sport, most
particularly as coaches.3, 5, 41 Put simply, there is a widespread view in society that
men, by their very nature, make better coaches than women. This underlying
gender bias is regarded as generating a range of social and psychological barriers
that impede aspiring female coaches,9 which may explain at least partly the
paucity of female strength and conditioning (S&C) coaches. A brief internet survey
by the author of registered S&C members across six geographic areas of the UK
revealed that out of the 172 members identified only eight (4.7%) were female.
It is unlikely that the percentage would be higher within established coaching
posts far more likely, in fact, that it would be lower. This paper therefore explores
the nature of the gender stereotype barriers faced by aspiring and novice female
coaches, and offers some thoughts on how they may be counteracted.
Women coaching men

Arguably one of the most challenging
sporting contexts for a woman to succeed
in is that of coaching male athletes. The
role of sports coach per se has been found
to be associated with stereotypical male
characteristics. This can be summed up
in the saying think coach, think male.1
This echoes a previously revealed cultural
bias in the form of think manager, think
male,50 with these related perspectives
being particularly prominent among
males, including male athletes.2, 17, 51
In short, women athletes and coaches are
not taken seriously by men in general, and
sportsmen in particular. In this context,
an expert female strength coach may be

perceived as a paradoxical role. Not only
is she adopting a stereotypically male
leadership role,17 but she is also claiming
expertise in a mans domain, where
strength and power prevail.2, 56
AUTHORS BIO
KATHRYN GALLAGHER
MARSH, BA
Kathryn works for Scottish
Rugby Union. She has a BA
in sport in the community
from the University of
Strathclyde and is currently
studying for her MSc in
strength and conditioning
at St Marys University,
Twickenham. She competed
at the 2010 Commonwealth
Games for Scotland as a
freestyle wrestler and also
has a background in mixed
martial arts. She also works
for Scottish Hockey and
Netball Scotland, as well
as other national governing
bodies.
Moreover, as commonly perceived, the

leadership position of a coach requires
taking a dominant role: as teacher, mentor
and organiser,53 over a dependant and
vulnerable, submissive learner, with
successful leadership requiring the trust
of the learner.21 Therefore, in being femaledominant with a male submissive learner, a
female strength coach working in a male
dominated sport is adopting a social
role that directly opposes the traditionally
07
The good news, though, is that other research indicates that

women leaders and coaches may possess some advantages
over their male counterparts
accepted gender role. As such, this is likely
to prove problematic. According to Lorimer
and Jowett,34 the stereotypical gender role
expectation of a male is to display some
leadership when relating to a female, but
to be submissive towards her as coach;
however, both he and his female coach will
share the gender stereotypical expectation
of her being demure and submissive as
a woman though she is dominant and
controlling as a leader. Consequently,
the conflicting role expectations within
a female coach-male athlete dyad may
generate difficulties for both the coach and
the athlete, while also interfering with the
attempts of the female coach to establish a
positive, trusting and cohesive relationship
with the male athlete. Thus, regardless of
her coaching competence, in relation to her
male counterpart the female coach is at a
distinct disadvantage in this situation.
Confirmation of the barriers facing female
S&C coaches working with male athletes
comes from a study by Magnusen and
Rhea.39 They examined the attitudes and
preferences of a variety of division one
collegiate athletes toward a hypothetical
male or female S&C coach and revealed
that male athletes strongly preferred a male
coach, and commonly displayed mistrust
of a female coach. Their findings are in
accordance with other research,30,40,47 wherein
male athletes state a preference for male
coaches. Women coaching male athletes may
well find that their coaching ability, authority
and experience are all questioned.6,60 These
disadvantageous experiences on the part of
female coaches have also been attributed
to social stereotypes about the differences
between males and females in relation to
sport and competitiveness; furthermore,
they are held responsible for the lack of
female sports coaches,9 particularly within
more masculine sports.55,60 Unfortunately
for female coaches, the think coach, think
male mentality is also apparent among
many female sport participants, with
various studies indicating that often female
athletes also express a preference for male
coaches,30,47,28 perhaps especially if they
participate in a masculine sport, such as
soccer.38
08
However, in the Magnusen & Rhea39 study

of preferences for S&C coaches, this female
bias did not emerge. This arguably more
recent trend is supported by further
evidence suggesting that, although females
still associate the coaching role with the
male gender, this bias is less evident than
in the past.2 Moreover, when women athletes
have experienced coaching by both male
and female coaches, they have sometimes
then shown a preference for female coaches46
and for a female style of communication.13
This latter style has been characterised as
understanding and caring in comparison
with the rough and tough style displayed
by male coaches.13 However, most of the
evidence cited suggests that the female
stereotype places female coaches at a
definite disadvantage in working with male
(and often also female) athletes, particularly
within male-oriented sports. This finding
is further supported by evidence from
managerial settings that aspiring female
leaders are similarly disadvantaged in
comparison with male counterparts.11
Positive and encouraging
The good news, though, is that other
research indicates that women leaders and
coaches may possess some advantages
over their male counterparts, through a
leadership style that comes more naturally
to them.10,29,46 Within the managerial realm
of leadership, it has also been noted that
the female disadvantage is gradually
being eroded, partly because increasing
recognition is being given to the value of a
female transformational style of leadership:
a style that is described as involving
mentoring and empowering followers
and as a positive, encouraging, inspiring
style.10 This style is contrasted by some
commentators with the traditional male
command-and-control style of leadership49
and is regarded as more fitting for modern
organisational contexts.10
Interestingly, a recent study has found that
athletes in general, but particularly female
athletes, feel that they are more compatible
with S&C coaches who display positive

coaching behaviours, such as supporting
athletes to be comfortable and assured while
training.29 Although not associated with the
gender of the coach, it may be argued that
this positive behaviour is a more naturally
female style. In a similar vein, women
golfers were found to be more responsive
than males to coaching that emphasised
positive reinforcement and the development
of a personal relationship.36 Women athletes
preferred a more democratic, personalised
and positive relationship with their
coaches,46 and female basketball players
reported that female coaches understood
and related to them better than male
coaches did.42 These and other findings58,12,43
have led some to suggest that women
benefit from being coached in a different
style to men, and that women coaches may
be more effective in this regard than male
coaches.42,13
Of course, forming positive relationships
with athletes has long been considered
fundamental to successful coaching,20 with
the quality of the relationship having been
shown to be related to its cohesion22 and
longevity25 and to successful performance.24
More recently, though, Jowett and colleagues
have shown that such positive relationships
are underpinned by dyadic closeness24 and
by mutual understanding, or empathy32 in
particular, with these qualities being related
to each other33 and to mutual trust.23 Of note
is Zhang and Chelladurais61 finding that
athletes trust in coaches is highly associated
with their perception of the competence
and benevolence of the coach. Thus, to
gain trust, a coach needs to exhibit task
competence but also concern for the welfare
of the athlete, with this necessarily requiring
a good understanding of the athlete. These
findings reflect the importance attached
to a coachs ability to understand his/her
athletes.8,18
As noted, capacity for empathy is crucial
to the formation of a successful coachathlete relationship. Since females (and
female coaches) have a proven superiority
in empathy over males4,31,35,52 (and male
coaches34), female coaches should have an
advantage over male coaches when forming
close, trusting relationships with (male)
athletes. The importance of this attribute for
a coach is highlighted by one finding that
male swimmers indicated that empathetic
understanding was more important than any
other coaching skill.48 In fact, an ideal coach
was regarded by the swimmers as someone
capable of listening and being empathetic,
and thereby able to tailor guidance to
them as individuals. Thus, it can be argued

that, although there may be some initial
resistance to establishing closeness with a
male (or female) athlete, the female coach
may nevertheless be able to break through
this barrier with the appropriate use of her
superior interpersonal skills.
In working with male athletes in particular,
being perceived as competent may also
assist female coaches in breaking through
the gender stereotype barrier. As noted,
Zhang and Chelladurai61 showed that an
athletes perception of coach competence
influences the level of trust within the
coach-athlete relationship. Related findings
from Jones, Paul and Erskine19 show that
reputation and past success are often used
by athletes as indicators of expected coach
competence. More recently, Manley and
colleagues37, 38 revealed that the reputation
of the coach exerted more influence than
gender on expected coach competency
level. This finding is supported by Williams
and Parkhouse,59 who found that although
male athletes held negative views of female
coaches, they were more open to a female
coach when it came to choosing between a
successful female versus an unsuccessful
male coach.
to be
successful in
leadership
roles requires
females to
evidence
extreme
competence
to overcome
gender
prejudices
Thus, demonstrating competence, or

highlighting a positive reputation, history
of sporting/coaching success, or relevant
qualifications, may enhance the female
coachs chances of success in establishing
trust and credibility within an initial
coach-athlete relationship.38 However, the
potential for success of such strategies is
placed in perspective by evidence that the
achievements of females are evaluated less
positively than the identical achievements
of male counterparts.56 This implies that,
even with a history of success, and a
correspondingly positive reputation, the
female coach may still be devalued and
struggle to establish trust and acceptance,
particularly with male athletes. The reality
of this situation is supported by the findings
of Yiamouyiannis60 and Blom et al,6 cited
earlier, and by the general experience of
women coaches that they are more under
pressure to prove themselves than are male
coaches.44 As Eagly & Carli10 suggest, to
be successful in leadership roles requires
females to evidence extreme competence
to overcome gender prejudices.
LeDrew and Zimmerman30 provide some
further reasons to be cautious about the
value of proven sporting competence in
breaking through the gender stereotyping
barriers facing women coaches. They go
09
One study demonstrated that male swimmers indicated

empathetic understanding was more important than any other
coaching skill
as far as to suggest that trust in the overall
competence of female (strength) coaches
is likely to remain low until the traditional
stigmas associated with female sport
are removed. If correct, this suggests that
women coaches may also be hampered in
their coaching careers within male sporting
domains by prejudiced social perceptions of
traditional female sports.
Many writers have challenged the simple
division of sports into male and female,
arguing that this is primarily based on
assumptions that men have greater
physical strength and performance
capability, whereas the reality is that there
are significantly overlapping spectra of
strength and skills across the genders.27, 54
Nevertheless, such assumptions continue to
be used as a basis for excluding women from
sporting participation with men7 and hence
from the opportunity to prove that they may
be the sporting equals of many men.
Adopting subtle strategies
In the absence of a radical transformation
of social attitudes, to succeed as a coach
working with potentially prejudiced
sportsmen (and sportswomen), it may prove
necessary for women to adopt more subtle
strategies. There are hints of some possible
strategies given in feedback from successful
female head coaches working with male
athletes.6 Their feedback specifically
emphasises the value of certain mind sets
and of interpersonal support. For instance,
they noted that they were helped by feeling
confident in their qualifications and in their
coaching abilities. They also generally
had intense coaching philosophies that
often emphasised discipline and high
expectations.
Additionally, they had adopted traditional
masculine characteristics within their
coaching styles (eg, emotional toughness
and assertiveness), which they viewed
as crucial to their success. Moreover,
they emphasised the value of having had
supportive networks of friends and family
who had confidence in their ability to coach
10
males; they also cited support from the

athletic administration as being important.
Although they made no mention of the
contribution of a capacity for empathy, or for
relationship formation more generally,6 the
evidence cited earlier suggests that these
relationship skills might well be appreciated
by athletes in general, and by women
athletes in particular.
Caution over masculine traits
Eagly and colleagues10,11 urge caution
against female leaders adopting masculine
traits, saying this may result in them being
rejected as too masculine. They suggest that
for women leaders to succeed, especially in
masculine environments, they are required to
walk a tightrope, balancing displays of high
task competence with female communal
qualities. Such displays of competence
could include promoting awareness of past
successes (reputation), and also awareness
of qualifications gained as an athlete and
coach, in addition to showing actual task
competence. Of course, as previously noted,
developing self-confidence in competence
and qualifications may further help the
aspiring female coach to project an aura of
competence. Likewise, adopting a strong
coaching philosophy may help to instil in
athletes a belief that the coach has a clearsighted approach to training, especially if
this is assertively promoted and maintained.
Displaying communal qualities would
include showing understanding, and care
and concern for athletes welfare, while
empowering them by giving them a voice in
their training programmes. Female coaches
should also generally promote their athletes
self-confidence through the use of positive
feedback rather than identifying mistakes
and using punishment. In addition, the
aspiring female coach would be well advised
to deploy some of her interpersonal skills
in building alliance networks within her
working environment, while also using
informal support networks outside of her
work in order to sustain her self-belief
whenever it may waver.
Conclusions
There are a number of conclusions that may
be derived from the literature reviewed here.
First, it can hardly be denied that women
coaches are at a disadvantage compared
to their male counterparts in being
accepted as coaches and in establishing
good working relationships with athletes,
especially males. Secondly, the evidence
suggests that stereotyping is an important
factor underlying these difficulties. Thirdly,
this gender stereotyping is supported by
traditional social attitudes apparent at
various levels, including societal, but also
at the levels of sports organisations and

individuals. Fourthly, it can be possible for
women to break through these barriers to
some extent, although relatively few currently
manage to do so in a significant way.
For now, it can be concluded that female
coaches will most likely continue to struggle
in working with (male) athletes, especially
within masculine sports, until significant
changes take place in traditional gender role
expectations within sports organisations
and society at large. Thankfully, however,
there are already some indications of such
change having started.
Ten tips for aspiring female S&C coaches
Recognise but do not be deterred by the reality of gender stereotype barriers in sport
Be prepared to evidence your competence more than would be expected of a male coach
Actively promote belief in your competence in others eyes (refer to past successes, etc)
Work on your self-belief in your abilities since this will help to project confidence
Develop and hold to a clear-sighted coaching philosophy and avoid vacillating
Value and display your communal qualities (being warm, interested, caring, supportive)
Value and employ your relationship skills listening, understanding and empowering
Rely upon positive feedback and reinforcement rather than criticism with athletes
Develop support networks inside and outside your work place
Do not attempt to think or act like a man would this is likely to backfire.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2012.
CONCURRENT STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE TRAINING
Minimising the interference effect during

programmes of concurrent strength and
endurance training. Part 2: Programming
recommendations
Richard Blagrove, BSc, MSc, PGCE, ASCC, CSCS / St Marys University College, Twickenham
OVERVIEW
As discussed in the last issue, attempting to train strength- and endurancerelated qualities concurrently within the same programme appears to
produce an interference effect which compromises gains in muscular
strength. This article aims to provide recommendations for the strength
and conditioning (S&C) coach to minimise the negative effects associated
with concurrent training, based on an understanding of the mechanisms
(presented in Part I) which are likely to be responsible.
Introduction
AUTHORS BIO
RICHARD BLAGROVE, BSc, MSc,

PGCE, ASCC, CSCS
Richard is currently programme director for the BSc

in strength and conditioning
science at St Marys University
College and a senior strength
and conditioning coach with
the St Marys Clinic. He has
over ten years experience of
providing S&C support for elite
athletes across a wide range of
sports including several who
competed at the Olympic and
Paralympic Games in 2012
Combining strength and endurance

training within the same programme is
unavoidable for athletes in many sports.
Many endurance athletes recognise the
performance benefits of supplementing
their
training
programme
with
strength training;1,51,56,96,97 athletes from
intermittent sports, too, will often
participate in prolonged technical or
metabolic conditioning sessions within
a programme which also includes
strength training. Concurrent training
in this manner, when compared to
strength training alone, has been
shown to compromise improvements in
strength-related qualities and augment
endurance-related adaptation.42,59,69,94
However, evidence suggests the degree of
interference with strength development
is likely to be affected by the way in which
the training is carried out. As addressed
in Part I of this article, the underlying
mechanisms which may contribute
towards the interference phenomenon
associated with concurrent training
are multifaceted. Residual fatigue from
endurance training bouts is likely to
compromise force-generating abilities
in subsequent strength training sessions

and the accumulation of training, albeit
in different forms, may prevent athletes
realising their long-term potential.69
More recent theories point to conflict
at a molecular signalling level being a
likely source of interference.41 It appears
that the signalling cascade of molecules
responsible for modulating endurance
adaptation also inhibits the pathway
activated by strength training which upregulates protein synthesis. Prior to the
implementation of training programmes,
it is therefore necessary for S&C coaches
to consider the strategies and conditions
under which the negative effects of
concurrent training can potentially be
minimised.
Programming considerations and
recommendations
Order of training sessions
Well-trained athletes will regularly

include more than one training session
in a day to provide sufficient overload
to drive adaptations associated with a
particular outcome for a training cycle.
There are conflicting recommendations
13
in current literature concerning the

most beneficial order of training
sessions when strength and endurance
training are both scheduled to take
place on the same day,5,33 and few studies
have attempted to directly address this
issue.19,22,23 In untrained individuals,
order of sessions appears to make
little difference to the extent to which
endurance and strength improve.19,23
However, in well-trained athletes it
appears that undertaking a bout of
endurance exercise after a strength
training
session
down-regulates
the
phosphoinositide-3-dependent
kinase (Pl-3k) and mammalian target
of Rapamycin (mTOR) signalling
pathway; it also accentuates protein
degradation to a greater extent than
the opposite scenario where strength
training is performed after endurance
training.22
The endurance training first, strength
training later format is also supported
by the observation that the time course
of protein synthesis in response to
activation of signalling molecules
increases from 3-12 hours following a
strength training session.15,64 Therefore,
a late afternoon strength session
provides a longer time period (>12h)
inside this anabolic window, compared
to the 6-8h recovery period which is
likely if a strength session is included
before an endurance-based session.
Other factors which may also influence
the decision-making process here
include: the specific biomotor quality
being targeted, circadian fluctuations,
the level of learning required and
hormonal status.
A compelling body of evidence exists
which indicates physical performance
across a range of measures including
muscle strength, power output,
anaerobic capacity and aerobic time
trial performance consistently peaks
around 16:00-18:00.20,24,82,93 This suggests
key sessions of the training week
should always take place later in the
day and not follow any training which
is likely to fatigue the athlete. For the
endurance athlete, there appears to be
an advantage to performing extensive
aerobic training in the morning,
particularly in warm conditions, when
body temperature is lower.77
Similarly,
tasks
which
require
prolonged attention and focus, such as
14
when performing technical and tactical

practices, appear to be better placed as
the first session of the day, 3-5 hours
after waking.7 Androgenic hormones
and the catabolic hormone cortisol
exhibit naturally high elevations
around mid-morning, resulting in raised
metabolism and protein turnover,27
which is likely to influence the activation
of the Pl-3k/mTOR pathway following a
strength training session.43,53,88 Indeed,
performing resistance training in the
evening compared to the morning has
been shown to create a more favourable
anabolic environment in the muscle
which is likely to optimise hypertrophic
adaptations to strength training.16
Therefore, to offset the likelihood
that strength performance will be
negatively affected during concurrent
programmes of training, high quality
strength training sessions should be
positioned later in the day as the second
session.
on the same day compared to different

days; however, maximum strength
was adversely affected by the double
session-a-day format. It seems likely
that the severity of endurance-related
exercise is a decisive factor influencing
the quality and resultant response to
a strength training session if it takes
place in the 24 hours following the
endurance
session.25,33,94 Therefore,
when exhaustive or high volumes of
endurance training are scheduled to
take place, 24 hours recovery should be
provided if possible.47
When two sessions take place on the
same day, it is suggested that a recovery
period of at least six hours between
training sessions is permitted.32,33,84 In
this scenario, the endurance training
session should be of a lighter volume
and intensity to avoid compromising
the quality of the strength session.
Sleep and nutrition
Recovery between training bouts
Residual fatigue carried over from

endurance-based
sessions
which
reduces the quality of subsequent
strength
training
sessions
has
been cited as a possible cause of
interference.60,69,81,84 Therefore, where
possible, it is imperative that recovery
time between sessions is maximised,
particularly after exercise which
depletes glycogen stores resulting in low
energy status in muscle cells.90 Studies
which have attempted to combine
strength and endurance training within
the same session19,50,61 have generally
found a pronounced interference effect,
which is unsurprising given the conflict
between adaptive pathways previously
described.
In order to provide sufficient overload
of a strength or endurance training
stimulus, it is necessary to perform both
during separate training units spread
out over the course of a week, allowing
for sufficient recuperation between
each. Few authors have attempted to
address directly the issue of minimum
recovery time, and this will obviously
be influenced by the nature of the work
completed within sessions.25,81,84 Several
papers have found no interference with
strength adaptations with recovery of
>6h between sessions;62,81,84 however,
others oppose these findings.14,40,55,57,79
Sale and colleagues81 found hypertrophy
was not compromised when strength
and endurance training were included
Although it is beyond the scope of

this article to discuss the efficacy
of various recovery strategies upon
performance
and
their
impact
upon adaptive processes,11,17,58 it is
essential that athletes adhere to basic
recommendations surrounding sleep
and nutrition requirements.4,49,91 Most
importantly, the timely consumption of
carbohydrate and essential amino acids
following training is likely to speed
recovery and promote a more anabolic
state in the muscle.21,74,86
Mode of endurance exercise
Previous research into concurrent

training has used a variety of different
aerobic training modalities including
running,35,44,55,83
cycling,30,40,45,65,70,83
12,13,38,57
rowing,
kayaking32 and upper
body ergometer training.2 Studies
which have found little interference
between adaptations have tended
to use non-running-based activities,
suggesting that concurrent training
programmes which utilise running
as the primary mode of endurance
training are more likely to diminish
strength adaptations.34,94
There are several possible reasons for
this observation, but importantly it has
been recognised that running involves
a higher volume of repetitive eccentric
loading: therefore, it is speculated that
this may result in a higher degree of
muscular damage when compared to
other aerobic training modalities.52
In general, it appears that studies which have used a

frequency of >3 endurance sessions per week reported a
noticeable interference with strength gain
Excessive muscular damage is likely

to decrease net protein synthesis
and is associated with the release of
muscle-specific proteins,73 which may
negatively affect performance during
subsequent strength training sessions
and thus negate adaptation. Based upon
the authors observations, this may
also explain why rowers tend to have a
higher tendency towards hypertrophy
when compared to an endurance
runner, although this is also likely to be
influenced by genetic predispositions.
Prescription of endurance training
A recent meta-analysis examining

interference
during
concurrent
training revealed that the duration
and frequency of endurance training
showed moderate but significant
negative correlations with strength
and power development.94 A paper by
Jones et al50 confirmed this relationship,
showing that higher frequencies of
endurance training exacerbated the
interference effect.
In general, it appears that studies which
have used a frequency of >3 endurance
sessions per week reported a noticeable
interference with strength gain.44,45,55,57,79
High frequency-low intensity training
in nature is likely to be adopted by
endurance athletes for large portions
of the training year in order to drive
cardiovascular-related adaptations,56,63,66
potentially
contributing
towards
promoting movement efficiency longterm,39,46,71,72 and supporting increases
in the volumes of higher intensity
training.67,87
Commonality between these types of
adaptation and those associated with
hypertrophy in particular appear to
be poor, both metabolically and at a
cellular level. Therefore, if high weekly
volumes of endurance-type training
are necessary, it is important that these
cycles of training are accompanied
with maintenance dosages of strength
training. For some endurance athletes
and less experienced athletes, it is likely

that improvements in strength will still
be possible; however adaptations are
likely to be neural in nature.1,31,54
When development of strength-related
qualities form the priority for a training
cycle, intensity of aerobic endurance
training sessions should be increased
and hence volume decreased. For
intermittent sports performers who
dont require an aerobic capacity of the
same order as athletes from endurance
sports, utilising a higher intensity style
of aerobic endurance training has been
shown to be more beneficial for the
development of aerobic capacity in
the short-term.9,10,85,95 Therefore, during
short pre-season phases for games
players in particular, a low frequency,
high intensity approach to endurancerelated conditioning is likely to offset
the interference with strength-related
qualities.
Strength training prescription
The
manipulation
of
variables
associated with strength training
is likely to impact upon the degree
of interference experienced during
concurrent regimens, and may in part
explain the disparity in findings across
the literature.28,48 The adaptation which
results from strength training is mainly
the product of training frequency,
exercise selection, set and repetition
regimen, recovery between sets and
tempo of repetitions.3 Given that acute
and chronic fatigue, low energy status
and reduced protein synthesis have
been highlighted as potential causes
of interference, the optimal dosage of
strength training for athletes should be
a key consideration.
Although the optimal volume of
training is highly individual and
progressive overload is required to bring
about improvements in strength,3,78
unnecessarily high load volumes have
been shown to provide no added benefit
and may even reduce performance.36,37,78
It has been suggested that following

programmes which utilise a moderate
volume of strength work with sets not
performed to repetition failure provide
a sufficient stimulus to enhance
strength and power during concurrent
regimens.32,48 It is therefore suggested
that in the main strength training
adopts a high quality focused approach
to avoid interference, particularly
at times when volume of endurance
training is high. For most athletes, a
prescription of 3-5 sets, performed not
to repetition failure, on 4-6 exercises
(based around weightlifting and
powerlifting exercises plus associated
derivatives) is likely to be optimal.33
During cycles of intentional overreaching, working to repetition failure
may provide additional benefits,
particularly in highly trained athletes
who are striving to overcome plateaus
in strength performance.29,80,92 Similarly,
structural adaptations necessitate
higher volumes of specific strength
training. In both of these cases,
programming in this manner during
periods containing high volumes of
endurance training should be avoided.
For highly strength trained athletes who
perform multiple resistance training
sessions each week, a split body part
routine may be adopted to augment
overload to a region of the body and
reduce the chances of interference.
Indeed, studies which have utilised
upper-body strength training alongside
lower limb endurance training (running
or cycling) have found no decrements
in upper body strength compared to a
strength-only training regimen.2,12,13,57
Similarly, isolated limb models which
used identical movement patterns
during both strength and endurance
training have shown high levels
of interference.34,50 It appears that
interference mechanisms impact upon
local tissues and are not systemic in
nature, suggesting peripheral fatigue
from endurance exercise impedes
15
WEEK
Primary focus Hypertrophy Aerobic power Explosive power
Strength focus
Hypertrophy
Maximum strength
Explosive power
Endurance focus
Maximal aerobic power
(extensive interval training)
Repeated sprint ability
(intensive interval training)
10
11
12
Repeated sprint ability
Figure 1. Example of a 12-week undulating periodised programme for an intermittent sport with a short pre-season preparatory
cycle to avoid interference associated with concurrent development of strength and endurance qualities. Blocks indicate relative
emphasis in time spent overloading each quality
strength development. It is therefore

recommended that when both
endurance and strength training
sessions take place on the same day
strength training should target regions
of the body not directly stressed by
the endurance training session, where
possible.
Organisation of the training
macrocycle
Several authors have speculated that

the diminished strength responses
observed during concurrent regimens
of training can be avoided with
thoughtful and appropriate planning
of training cycles. Indeed, the longer
athletes are exposed to concurrent
training regimens the greater the
interference appears to be.12,40 Careful
planning should certainly involve close
collaboration with the technical coach
to determine phases of the training
macrocycle which are most likely to
16
optimise the development of strength

qualities.
Of the strength-related qualities which
show diminished adaptive responses
during concurrent training, maximum
strength appears the most robust.26,61,94
This is perhaps because adaptations
associated with maximum strength are
predominantly centrally driven, which
interfere less with local responses
in the muscle.25,28 Thus, when the
primary objective for a training phase
is endurance-related, development of
maximal strength is likely to be the
most compatible goal.
Explosive power, on the other hand,
exhibits high sensitivity during
concurrent
regimens,40,44,55,68,94 and
therefore, training should be organised
in such a way that when development
of explosive power is the principle
aim, endurance-related qualities are
maintained with a low volume of work.

Both molecular and experimental
evidence suggests hypertrophy is also
highly vulnerable during concurrent
training regimens.6,50,55,68,76 Typically,
development of hypertrophy and other
structural adaptations take place early
in a training macrocycle,18,47 often
alongside the recommendation to
include extensive endurance training.33
Care should be taken here to ensure that
high volumes of endurance training are
not met with high volumes of strength
training. For an endurance athlete who
is likely to benefit from an increase in
muscle mass (eg, rower and swimmer),
early mesocycles are likely to begin
with relatively moderate volumes of
endurance work at low intensities
and have a more technical focus. This
is likely to provide a more suitable
environment for the development
of hypertrophy compared to later
mesocycles of the general preparatory

phase where volume and/or intensity
are likely to increase.
Minimising interference in
intermittent sports
For intermittent sports, which tend to

have a short preparatory phase, one
option to minimise interference is
to adopt an undulating approach to
the organisation of training volume.
Figure 1 provides a visual schematic to
illustrate this approach, assuming the
athlete requires development of both
the metabolic and strength qualities
listed.
Periodising in this manner involves
utilising concentrated blocks of high
volume work targeting a specific
quality, alternated with blocks of
work involving a lower volume. By
providing a lower maintenance dosage
of training to preserve other qualities,
this approach can still be considered
concurrent, but with shifts in focus to
avoid potential interference between
competing adaptation.
Figure 1 shows that as maximum
strength is least likely to be influenced
by periods of high volume metabolic

conditioning, the focus for weights
room-based activity should be here.
Traditional high volume-low intensity
endurance training is also replaced
by interval training formats which are
higher in intensity to further minimise
the risk of interference.
For the less experienced athlete, relative
shifts in training emphasis between
these blocks should be subtle.
For the experienced athlete requiring
a more substantial stimulus to drive
adaptation, a more conjugated structure
to planning is recommended,75,89
involving mesocycles of longer duration
(4-6 weeks) and/or more pronounced
shifts in training volumes.
As overtraining may be partly
responsible for the blunting of strength
adaptation, it is crucial that periods of
intentional overreaching are followed
with appropriate periods of restoration
work. This is particularly relevant for the
more experienced athlete who is more
susceptible to interference due to the
greater training volumes imposed.8,57,79
Summary
The unique and divergent adaptations
which result from strength and
endurance training produce an
interference, which favours endurancerelated qualities and blunts the benefits
of strength training. The interference
effect is most likely explained by
acute fatigue which adversely affects
performance during explosive strength
training sessions. Recent discoveries
in the field of molecular physiology
have identified the signalling pathways
underpinning the response to different
exercise stimuli. Current evidence
demonstrates a blocking effect to the
pathway responsible for upregulating
protein synthesis, via molecules
which detect energy status within
cells activated by bouts of endurance
exercise. This reduces the capacity for
hypertrophy when endurance-related
objectives form part of the same training
regimen. Coaches should therefore
adhere to the recommendations
provided in Table 1 for programmes
which include both strength- and
endurance-related outcomes.
able 1. Summary of recommendations to minimise interference during programmes where strength and endurance
T
training are programmed concurrently
upplementing an endurance athletes training programme with strength training is likely to result in a significant
S
performance advantage without compromising other endurance-related qualities
Intermittent
sports performers should utilise high intensity interval training formats to drive aerobic-related adaptations
A
void
high volumes of technical and endurance training when the goal for a training cycle includes development of
hypertrophy or explosive power in particular
F
or
athletes from intermittent sports, an undulating model of periodisation through pre-season may provide one solution to
avoid interference
W
hen
high volumes or exhaustive bouts of endurance exercise take place, it is advisable to avoid strength training within the
following 24 hours
O
n
days when both strength and endurance training are scheduled, strength training should be performed as the second
session in the day, with >6 hours separating sessions
E
ndurance
activities involving minimal eccentric loading (eg, cycling and rowing) appear to cause less interference than
running-based sessions
S
trength
training sessions should avoid unnecessary volume and adopt a training to non-repetition failure approach during
cycles where aerobic qualities are the primary focus
F
or
strength-trained athletes, a split part body routine may offer a means of overloading strength qualities in a focused
manner whilst retaining quality
A
ppropriate
timing and intake of carbohydrate and protein following training is crucial to enhance recovery and potentially
offset interference at a molecular level.
17
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S&C Coach of the Year Youth Sport
Richard Holmes Award for the Emerging S&C Coach of the Year
The nominations are now being received at www.uksca.org.uk

20
POSTER ABSTRACTS
Abstracts from
the UKSCA 2013
Annual Conference
Over the next 17 pages you can read the poster abstracts which
were submitted for all the presentations made at last years
UKSCA Annual Conference. You can now view full copies of the
posters in the members section of the UKSCA website.
The effect of concentric and eccentric training on anthropometry

and performance
Buttigieg C, Dimitriou L, Miller S, University of Middlesex
PURPOSE: Studying adaptations following exercise consisting of either concentric or eccentric contractions has
provided challenges in controlling for total work performed. Previously, isokinetic dynamometry has been used to
control for this (Moore 2012). However, the crossover of isokinetic training to multi-joint performance appears limited
despite showing favourable strength increases (Morriss 2001). We have developed a training programme that uses
single-leg squat-jumps (SLSJ) in which the take-off and landing are on opposite legs; total work is identical, but the takeoff phase (left-leg) requires concentric contractions, while the landing phase (right-leg) utilises eccentric contractions.
MethodS: Nine males and six females volunteered (mean SD: age = 23.3 4.9 yrs, height = 173.7 7.9 cm, body mass =
70.7 10.4 kg). Individuals who participated in single-leg dominant sports were excluded. The eight-week, low-intensity
jumping programme consisted of 30 (3x10) SLSJs, with a 1-min recovery between sets, performed 4 dwk-1 (M-W-F & S
or S). Pre- and post-testing included dual energy x-ray absorptiometry to assess lean mass, fat mass, and bone mineral
density (BMD) of the left (concentrically trained) and right (eccentrically trained) thigh and shank. Performance was
assessed using SLSJs for both legs. To monitor any changes in ground reaction forces during the training, peak forces
during take-off (left leg) and landing (right leg) were measured during a left-right SLSJ (ie, take-off from left, land on
right). Statistical analyses were carried out using two-way (legtime) repeated measures ANOVA.
Results: Despite a difference in force profile (same total force but greater peak force during landing; p<0.001) between
the two training conditions, no differences were found between the concentric- and eccentric-trained legs. However,
lean (p=0.006) and fat mass (p=0.021) of the thigh, but not shank, increased over time in both legs. Both concentric and
eccentric training caused an improved SLSJ height (p=0.002)
CONCLUSION: When a similar movement is performed with the same total work, the form of training (concentric vs
eccentric) does not appear to affect changes in anthropometry and performance. Consequently, eccentric training as
done within the current study improves performance equal to that seen following concentric training. Future studies
should look to increase the loading, as this will control for potential overloading effects of bilateral training that subjects
may have been undertaking simultaneously.
21
POSTER ABSTRACTS
Relationship between the rate of perceived exertion with load

and power in the squat
Mark Chapman, Fernando Naclerio, Jack Miller and Dan Robbins,
Centre of Sports Sciences and Human Performance, School of Science, University of Greenwich
PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to determine the applicability of the OMNI-RES (0-10) rate of perceived exertion (RPE) scale
to control the resistance training intensity and to establish the potential relationship between the RPE values and the mechanical
power obtained at the end of each repetition during a set to muscular failure with the load represented by different percentages of
the 1 repetition maximum (1RM) in a free weight parallel squat (lower body multi-joint exercise).
MethodS: Eight men (age 24.17 4.5 years; body mass 78.212.1 kg height 175.5 4.3) were assessed on eight different occasions with
48 hours rest between each session. After determining (1RM) value, each participant completed seven tests until achieving muscular
failure while using the following 1RM percentage ranges: 3040, >4050, >5060, >6070, >7080, >8090, and >90-99%. A velocity
transducer (Winlaborat) and an OMNI-RES (0-10) scale were used to estimate accelerative average mechanical power (AAMP) and
to determine the perception of effort (RPE) expressed after each repetition of every set.
Results: The RPE produced from the start to the end of each set was related to the percentage of the load and the variability of
the AAMP measured. In addition, significant differences (p<0.05) were found between the initial RPE (RPE_1) and the average RPE
obtained from the first three repetition (RPE_1-3) with respect to the RPE expressed when a 10% decline in AAMP were identified
for all analysed percentage ranges. Table 1 summarises the Mean and SD values obtained for each of the RPE measured variables in
each of the tested percentages.
Table 1. Mean SD for RPE variables determined in each evaluated range.
Variables
3040%
>4050%
>5060%
>6070%
>7080%
>8090%
>90%
RPE_1
1.50.9
21.4
3.41.4
3.61.2
41.3
6.60.9
7.410
RPE_1_3
1.50.9
3.61.1
3.61.1
4.11.3
4.71.2
7.20.8
7.90.8
RPE_10%
4.12.2
5.12.5
6.42
6.51.3
80.9
8.30.9
8.30.7
RPE_F
100
100
100
100
100
100
RPE_1 = score recorded after the first repetition. RPE1_3 = Average score recorder for the first three repetitions. RPE_10% = score recorded when a 10%
decrease in accelerative power was determined. RPE_F = OMNI-RES score recorded for the final repetition.
CONCLUSION: These relationships demonstrate the utility of the OMNI-RES (0-10) scale for selecting the load and to identify the
point at which a 10% decline occurs when performing a maximal speed set to failure using different load percentage in parallel squat.
The correlation between stretch shortening cycle activity and sprint

running performance in circa pubertal youths
Richard Clarke, Jonathan Hughes, Paul Read
Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Gloucestershire
PurposE: Recently it has been concluded that CMJ, RSI and leg stiffness could be used to measure slow, intermediate and
fast stretch shortening cycle (SSC) function respectively (Lloyd et al, 2011a). A slow SSC is reported to be strongly correlated
to acceleration (Bret et al, 2002), whereas a fast SSC is more indicative of maximum running velocity (Chelly and Denis, 2001).
However, such data only exists for adult populations. Due to reports of a change in the regulation and performance of SSC tasks
throughout maturation (Lloyd et al, 2011b; Lloyd et al, 2012), a deeper understanding of how (or if) this change in performance and
regulation affects sprinting activity in youths is required. This study aimed to establish the relationship between SSC function
and sprinting tasks in circa-pubertal ( 1 year PHV) children and to identify the relationship between maturational offset and
performance in SSC or sprinting tasks.
(continued on next page)
22
POSTER ABSTRACTS
MethodS: Ten male participants (mean age: 13.9 0.84 years; maturation offset -0.570 .66 years; height: 166.5 6.0 cm; mass: 53.3
8.3 kg) volunteered to take part in the study and carried out three SSC tests, submaximal hopping (leg stiffness), maximal hopping
(RSI) and a CMJ ( jump height) on a portable contact mat (Smartjump, Fusion Sport, Australia). Following the SSC tests, each
participant carried out a 30m sprint with a 10m split time measured by a set of light gates (Smartspeed, Fusion Sport, Australia) to
represent max velocity and acceleration respectively (Bret et al, 2002; Chelly and Denis, 2001). Data was analysed using a Pearsons
Product Moment Correlation Test and a correlation was reported between all variables.
Results: Maturational Offset is significantly (p<0.05) correlated to CMJ (r = 0.876), RSI (r = 0.645), 10m-sprint (r = -0.740), and
30m-sprint (r = -0.764). However, no significant correlation was found with absolute stiffness (r = 0.010) or relative leg stiffness
(r = -0.498). All correlations were stronger with maturational offset compared to chronological age, with the exception of 30m-sprint (r
= -0.826, p=0.003) During performance comparisons; CMJ was significantly (p0.05) correlated to 10m-sprint (r = -0.816), 30m-sprint
time (r= -0.725) and relative leg stiffness (r= -0.714). Absolute stiffness was only correlated to relative stiffness (r = 0.738) and RSI only
to maturational offset (r = 0.654) not to any other performance measure.
CONCLUSIONS: During the circa-pubertal maturational stage, tasks requiring a slow SSC ability develop linearly with biological
age. However, tasks involving more neural regulation may not consistently improve through PHV. Practically, this suggests that the
greatest performance enhancements in circa pubertal populations could come from increases in strength and slow SSC ability.
Investigating the use of a point of care salivary cortisol test in the

professional football environment
J Dunbar,1 A Jehanli,1 A Browne,1 E Franklin2
1
IPRO Interactive Ltd; Wallingford, 2Reading Football Club; Reading
PURPOSE: The use of salivary diagnostics within the sporting community has gathered momentum in recent years, with the
identification of hormone levels to assist in the optimisation of workloads, or antibody levels to assess individual recovery status
and potential immune suppression. Immediate feedback for coaching and support staff via a Point of Care (POC) test would give
a significant time advantage over standard laboratory techniques, which often take several days to reveal data to sporting squads.
The purpose of this paper is to assess a new POC product developed by Ipro for the rapid determination of salivary cortisol (sCort)
in comparison to standard laboratory ELISA determination.
MethodS: A total of 29 saliva samples were taken from a cohort of English Football League Championship Academy soccer players
(16.6 0.5 yrs), using IPRO OFC collection kits. The samples were taken during routine monitoring before training sessions. The
same samples were assessed immediately on a POC Lateral Flow Device (LFD) to determine sCort concentrations and then taken to
a laboratory for subsequent analysis via ELISA within four hours of collection. The measurement range for ELISA was 0.4 28.0 ng/
ml (1.10 77.26 nM) and POC test 0.75 15.0 ng/ml (2.0 40 nM).
POC sCORT ng/ml.
Results: All samples were within the measurement range on both platforms, with concentrations measured via ELISA ranging
from 0.50 6.26 ng/ml and with the LFD from 1.09 9.45 ng/ml; with the mean difference 0.49 ng/ml. The relationship between the
sCort values obtained using the ELISA and POC test was represented by the formula: y = 0.7983x 0.488, with R2 0.7936.
10.00
9.00
8.00
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
ELISA sCORT ng/ml.
6.00
7.00
8.00
CONCLUSION: The POC test used in the sporting environment showed good agreement with the ELISA method for the determination
of sCort. Given the quick data turnaround and efficiency in terms of cost, it represents a suitable alternative method for use in sports
teams.
23
POSTER ABSTRACTS
Acute immuno-endocrine responses to a mid-season football match

in the English Football League Championship
J Dunbar,1 M Springham,2 A Jehanli,1 A Browne1
1
IPRO Interactive Ltd, Wallingford, 2 Sports Science Department, Brighton & Hove Albion Football Club; Brighton
PURPOSE: The measurement of a number of salivary biomarkers has become commonplace in some Premier League and
Championship Soccer teams, in an attempt to monitor responses to training, competition, lifestyle factors and stress. To date little
data has been published showing typical responses to such activity. The purpose of this paper is to describe endocrine biomarkers
and a marker of mucosal immunity around a Championship match during the mid-season period.
MethodS: Saliva samples from ten outfield players (mean SD: age 24.1 4.8 yrs, mass 79.8 7.7 kg) who started the match were
collected 30 hrs (-30) and 2hrs before the match, as well as immediately (post) and 72 hours (+72) alter the game, using an IPRO Oral
Fluid Collector (OFC) device, as part of routine monitoring practice. Secretory IgA (sIgA) was determined using an IPRO Lateral
Flow Device (LFD) Reader and IPRO sIgA LFD, and concentrations of cortisol and testosterone were established using ELISA.
Results: Eight of the players completed the full match, and the remaining two players completed 62 and 69 minutes. The group
mean ( SD) responses for sIgA and T/C ratio are summarised in the table, where pre IgA was significantly higher than other timepoints and post T/C ratio lower than other timepoints.

-30
Pre
Post
+72
sIgA (g/mL)
142.1 62.1
347.9 256.9*
135.4 87.4
128.9 68.0
T / C ratio
89.6 55.1
132.2 58.9
50.0 23.3**
129.4 40.1
CONCLUSIONS: Given that sIgA is sometimes used as an acute stress marker (Nomura, 2012), it is likely that the pre values were
affected by emotional/psychological factors related to competitive match play. This would imply that samples taken close to the start
of competitive play should not be used as a baseline for evaluating subsequent recovery, as such values can be spuriously high in
some individuals. The T/C declined in all players post match, but had recovered to pre-match levels within 72 hours.
Kinematic and muscle activity analysis of minimalist running footwear

Rik Mellor, St Marys University College, Twickenham
PurposE: In recent times the activity of barefoot running has slowly gained a dedicated following worldwide due to supposed
benefits in performance and injury prevention. Global shoe manufacturers are releasing specialist footwear for runners making
the transition from mileage running shoe technology of the past few decades to what have become known as minimalist footwear
despite a lack of unequivocal empirical research to resolve the disputed benefits.
METHODS: This study analysed the kinematic and muscle activity adaptations between treadmill running in subjects own neutral
shoes, minimally structured footwear, or when running barefoot. Six (male n=4, female n=2) subjects were recruited from the local
amateur long distance running population and were recorded performing treadmill running, at their 21k race pace, via high speed
video (500Hz). Muscle activity of selected lower limb muscles was measured via wired surface electromyography (1000Hz).
Following a progressive treadmill warm up to race pace, two-dimensional sagittal plane relative angular displacement, and muscle
amplitude and relative percentage contribution (taken from prior maximal voluntary isometric contractions) were recorded over
three consecutive gait cycles of each randomised footwear condition. Statistical analysis used an ANOVA to identify differences
in the mean values of angular displacement of the lower limb segments and muscle activity amplitude and percentage of maximal
contraction.
RESULTS: Significant differences were identified in knee and ankle angular displacement pre ground contact (-20ms) between the
barefoot and shod conditions, but significant difference was only recorded in a stride time that was less in barefoot than in shod.
Analysis of amplitude and percentage of muscle activity did not provide any significant differences. A small, fairly diverse subject
group and experimental limitations provide scope for further study.
CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests it is not necessarily the case that changing between distinctly structurally designed running
shoes will cause the runner to change their neuromuscular function; in addition the barefoot condition did not elucidate the expected
gross significance in mechanical adaptation reported elsewhere. Further research is required to compare a variety of running
footwear, particularly within the field of muscle activity adaptations as subtle changes in shod or barefoot conditions may well be a
purely subconscious a priori modulation by the runner to the foot-ground interface.
24
POSTER ABSTRACTS
Effectiveness of a sports-specific resistance and plyometric training

programme: the case of an elite under-19 junior badminton player
G Middleton, D C Bishop, C Smith, T I Gee.
School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Lincoln
PurposE: Resistance and plyometric training (RPT), used to aid development of sport-specific high-intensity performance
capabilities, has been identified as a key training modality within badminton (Sturgess & Newton, 2008). However, published
recommendations for optimal frequency and duration of RPT within a typical microcycle are sparse. This case study aimed to
build on current evidence and assess the response to and withdrawal from a single weekly 60-min RPT session over an eight-week
period on badminton specific functional performance within an elite England under-19 player.
METHODS: An international male player (age: 18 yrs; height: 1.77m; mass: 81.5kg), possessing two years experience of general
resistance training and no history of badminton-specific RPT completed the intervention throughout a competitive season. This
featured a combination of multi-joint strength training exercises, medicine ball throws and plyometric jumps. Exercises were
chosen in accordance with recommendations for elite badminton players (Sturgess & Newton, 2008) but modified relative to
badminton-specific movement patterns (Foran, 2001; Ooi et al, 2009). Performance testing was conducted at three time-points;
baseline, post-intervention (eight weeks) and after withdrawal from the RPT programme (post-16 weeks commencement of
training), to monitor any changes in badminton-specific functional performance. This followed an A-B-A withdrawal design as
recommended for single-subject research (Kinugasa et al, 2004). Anaerobic power was assessed via a countermovement jump
(CMJ), a standing long jump (SLJ), and both one- (1-MBT) and two-arm (2-MBT) medicine-ball (2kg) throws. Acceleration was
assessed by 5- and 10m run sprints. Agility was assessed by badminton specific sideways and four-corner tests (Ooi et al, 2009).
RESULTS: A positive change from baseline to post-intervention (at eight weeks) was observed in: CMJ (+ 6.2cm), SLJ (+ 0.13m),
1-MBT (+ 2.25m) and 2-MBT (+ 0.26m). Such magnitude of difference in speed and agility performance was considered less
meaningful and practically insignificant. At the 16-week assessment (withdrawal), a decline in CMJ height (- 4cm), SLJ (- 0.04m),
1-MBT (- 0.05m) and 2-MBT (- 0.52m) was evidenced. Small improvements in 5- and 10m sprint times (- 0.11s and - 0.12s) and sideways agility (- 0.39s) were observed.
CONCLUSIONS: Low-frequency in-season badminton specific RPT programme may provide favourable increases in high-intensity
capability in badminton-specific performance when compared to pre-assessment values. However, such positive change may not be
sustained following the withdrawal period. The improvements in speed and agility following the withdrawal period were probably
due to specific conditioning effects of the competitive season.
Does caffeine have an ergogenic effect on sports-specific agility in

competitive male racquet sport players?
T Nicholson, G Middleton, and T I Gee
School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Lincoln
PURPOSE: Caffeine has been found to have an ergogenic effect on intermittent-sprinting performance and sport-specific agility
(Stuart et al 2005; Schneiker et al 2006). However, racquet sports events (tennis, squash and badminton) which demand various
repeated short-term high intensity exercise bouts have had little attention in this field. Caffeine can potentially defer fatigue,
enhance concentration and lessen pain perception: all of which have been postulated to improve racquet sport performance
(Hornery et al 2007). The study aimed to investigate the effects of caffeine supplementation on on-court movements used in
racquet sports during a specific agility test.
MethodS: Following institutional ethical approval, eight competitive male racquet sports players were recruited (age: 21.0 1.69,
stature: 1.75 0.05-cm, mass: 72.9 7.9-kg). A randomised double-blind experiment was conducted which used two undistinguishable
solutions (6-mg.kg-1); caffeine powder (CAF), and placebo (PL). Solutions were administered 60-min prior to testing in a counterbalanced design. Performance was measured by the time to completion (s) on two trials of the four corner agility test (Ooi et al
2009) separated by a 2-min rest between bouts. Physiological variables measured included heart rate (HR), blood lactate (B lac) and
blood glucose (B glu) which were recorded immediately at the end of each trial.
Results: There was a significant difference (p<0.05) in the time taken to complete the test between CAF (45.63 3.66-s) and PL
(47.57 3.67-s) in the first trial (T1). There was also a significant (p<0.05) increase in B glu concentrations during T1 for CAF (CAF:
4.37 0.12-mmol.l-1 vs. PL: 3.80 0.33-mmol.l-1). The second trial (T2) showed a significant (p<0.05) reduction in the time to complete
the test with CAF (44.91 4.78-s) compared to PL (46.70 4.64-s). Furthermore, a significantly higher B glu in the T2 was recorded
with CAF (CAF: 4.69 + 0.30-mmol.l-1 vs. PL: 4.00 + 0.25-mmol.l-1). There were no significant differences in HR or B lac between both
the conditions during the two trials.

25
POSTER ABSTRACTS
(continued from previous page)

CONCLUSION: A moderate dosage of caffeine, consumed 1-h before two bouts of a specific racquet agility test induced
decreased time to completion during each trial, compared to placebo. Practically this could lead to more efficient oncourt movements and improved positioning prior to playing a shot. The increase in blood-borne glucose levels following
caffeine ingestion may have deferred fatigue within the glycolytic energy system, allowing for increased performance.
References
1. Hornery, D.J, Farrow, D, Mujika, I, and Young, W.B (2007) Caffeine, Carbohydrate, and Cooling Use during Prolonged
Simulated Tennis. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. 2: 423-438.
2. Ooi, C.H, Tan, A, Ahmad, A, Kwong, K.W, Sompong, R, Gazhali, K.A.M, Liew, S.L, Chai, W.J, and Thompson, W.M
(2009) Physiological characteristics of elite and sub-elite badminton players. Journal of Sports Sciences. 27 (14):
15911599.
3. Schneiker, K.T, Bishop, D, Dawson, B, and Hackett, L.P (2006) Effects of Caffeine on Prolonged Intermittent-Sprint
Ability in Team-Sport Athletes. Journal of Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise. 38 (3): 578-585.
4. Stuart, G.R, Hopkins, W.G, Cook, C, and Cairns, S.P (2005) Multiple effects of caffeine on simulated high-intensity
team-sport performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 37 (11): 1998-2005.
A two-year exploratory case study on outdoor learning

Stewart Ollis, University of the West of Scotland
PurposE: With concerns about the state of physical activity and health in youth, this case study examined the effects of outdoor
learning on physical activity and health in the primary school domain. The intervention adopts a complexity paradigm and an
ecological constraints-led perspective which is receiving attention in both physical activity and strength & conditioning literature.
METHODS: Participants in the study were P6 children (17 girls, 16 boys) from a school in Fife, Scotland. The study was a
longitudinal exploratory case study (two years) and measured 12 outdoor learning sessions per year with two different student
cohorts. A mixed methods design based on ecological and complex typology was adopted. Five integrated GPS/hr/accelerometers
were randomly assigned and recorded on each session. Observational analysis was conducted at various timescales on behavioural
activities and motor functioning. Interviews, blog analysis and reflection sessions were also employed to assess student and school
perceptions.
RESULTS: The effect of outdoor learning on physical activity was large. Outdoor learning sessions lasted approximately 3-4 hours
each and were learning and not physical activity orientated. Although the physical activity profile was variable between and
within sessions, a large mean effect was identified. The average distance covered was 7.1km over various forms of environmental
domain. Participants spent over 98% non-sitting using various forms of movement including all out sprinting (average peak
17.9kmh with hr at 220). Findings showed that participants were engaged in large proportions of intense and vigorous activity with
HR profiles showing that 94% of the session was conducted at above 120bpm; of this 44% was spent at 150bpm and above; and most
surprisingly 18% was spent at 170bpm and above. Mean HR was 149bpm. Accelerometer data showed that there were considerable
impacts (over 300-400 high impacts) with none in the walking phases. Motor function was considerably challenged (running/
jumping/ climbing/ carrying/ throwing/ cart-wheeling/ natural movement activities) through body-environment constraint.
Observational analysis showed OL challenged both gross and fine motor skills and integrated perception action coupling with
challenging physical activity actions. Not only was the OL extremely popular with children and school staff, it was also considered
a powerful pedagogical tool with school staff. Holistic learning was repeatedly mentioned. Retention and transfer of OL was also
high as children became free-range children and even parents were recorded as mirroring activities at weekends. Self regulation
and self control were recorded as positive aspects of physical activity actions within OL.
CONCLUSION: The results suggest that outdoor learning has a positive effect on physical activity profile in a primary school
setting. The physiological demands (high intensity hr and motor functioning analysis) were surprisingly very high. It is important
to highlight how the learning and pedagogical element was regarded highly by the teaching staff. With PE lessons recorded as
having children being inactive for over 48% of classes and triggering only moderate physical activity, the present findings become
powerful, challenging the need for overly-prescribed physical activity interventions. The mixed methods and case study design
proved effectual in understanding such ecological and complexity science based approaches. Further investigations of schools,
activities and participants are recommended.
26
POSTER ABSTRACTS
Changes in hand grip and leg strength following a 100m short course
breaststroke swim
Samuel W Oxford,1 Rob James, Michael Price, Michael J Duncan2
1
Coventry University, 2Manchester Metropolitan University
PurposE: This study, in ten specialist breaststroke swimmers, investigated changes in hand and leg strength and kinematics,
including intra-cyclic velocity fluctuations and arm-leg co-ordination, over four laps of 100m short course breaststroke from a water
start.
METHODS: Intra-cyclic velocity fluctuations were calculated from mean peak velocities of the greater femoral trochanter during
the arm and leg propulsive phases and the minimum velocities attained during the arm-leg lag phase and the recovery of the
arms and the legs. Arm-leg co-ordination was defined using two transition phases that described the continuity between the
recovery and propulsive phases of the arms and the legs. During the last three strokes of each lap that were not affected by turning
or finishing techniques, the following were analysed: duration of the four stroke phases (arm pull, arm recovery, leg kick and leg
recovery); duration of the two transition phases; swim speed; stroke length; stroke rate; and velocity fluctuations of the greater
femoral trochanter. Each lap was recorded using three 50 Hz standard cameras in underwater housings. Strength indices were
assessed using hand grip and isometric leg strength pre and post the swim.
RESULTS: A significant decrease in clean swim speed, (p=0.046) was observed between laps along with a significant decrease in
mean minimum velocity of the greater femoral trochanter during the arm and leg recovery phase of the stroke (p=0.039). There was
a significant decrease in the strength indices (p<0.05) from pre to post swim.
CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that as participants progressed through the 100m swim they became fatigued as there was
a decrease in clean swim speed and a decrease in the force-generating capacity of the arm and leg muscles. Although there was a
significant change in clean swim speed there were no significant changes in coordination or timings of the phases of the stroke.
Even though there was a significant decrease in the force generating capacity of the arms and legs on the strength indices, these
were not related to the peak velocity and/or mean propulsive forces of the arms and legs.
Relationship between agility, lower body strength, and maturation in

elite youth soccer players
John Radnor,1 Jonathan Hughes,1 & Rhodri S Lloyd2
1
2
School of Sport, Cardiff Metropolitan University
PURPOSE: Evidence suggests lower body strength is an underpinning mechanism of sprint performance (Wisloff 2004). Although
sprinting and agility are similar skills, they are distinctly separate motor characteristics (Little et al 2005). Agility is a key fitness
component in many sports, yet the relationships between strength and agility performance are not fully determined. In youth
populations, maturation may impact on agility performance due to the natural increases in strength seen throughout puberty;
however this is yet to be established. The aim of this study was to determine the relationships between reactive agility, surrogates
of lower body strength (squat jump height [SJ] and reactive strength index [RSI]) and somatic maturation in youth soccer players.
MethodS: 30 male youth soccer players from the under 11s (U11), under 13s (U13) and under 16s (U16) of a professional soccer
club centre of excellence took part. Using basic anthropometric data and regression equations (Mirwald et al, 2002), age from peak
height velocity (APHV) was calculated to estimate biological maturity. Additionally, participants were tested for concentric strength
[represented by SJ), RSI and reactive agility (RA). The strength of relationship between variables was initially examined using
Pearsons product moment correlation coefficient. Following this, multiple stepwise regression analyses were used to establish the
main determinants of reactive agility. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine any between group differences
for each performance variable. Bonferroni post hoc analysis was applied to determine the differences between the chronological age
groups in all performance measures.
Results: RA had a significant strong negative relationship with SJ performance (r = -0.843, p<0.001), a significant moderate
negative relationship with RSI (r = -0.658, p<0.001) and maturity (r=-0.585, p<0.001) and a significantly weak negative relationship
with body mass (BM) (r= -0.456, p<0.05). For all age groups combined, variation in reactive agility was best explained by SJ with the
model accounting for 71% of the total variance. Analysis of individual age groups showed that variation in RA of U11s and U13s was
best explained by SJ (75% and 53% respectively). However, the variation in RA for U16s was best predicted by the RSI score, with the
model accounting for 54% of the total variance. The one-way ANOVA showed that the agility scores were significantly faster in the
27
POSTER ABSTRACTS

U16s compared to both the U11s and U13s (p=0.047 and p=0.001 respectively). However, there was no significant difference between
the U11s and U13s. The U16 had significantly greater RSI than the U11 and U13 (p<0.001); however, there was no difference between
the U11 and U13. The U16 had significantly greater SJ height than both the U11 and U13. There was no significant difference between
the two younger age groups.
CONCLUSIONS: The study showed that surrogates of leg strength could help explain the variance in reactive agility performance
of youth soccer players. Therefore, it can be postulated that increasing strength in this population could increase agility, which is an
integral component of successful soccer performance (Reilly et al 2000, Thomas et al 2009). Specifically, as age increases it appears
that there is a dynamic transition in reliance on strength qualities, with concentric strength (SJ) appearing to be more important to
younger children and reactive strength more influential for adolescents.
Effects of plyometric training, resistance training and combined

training on running and jumping abilities in pre- and post-pubertal
males
John Radnor1, Jonathan Hughes1 & Rhodri S Lloyd2
1
2
PurposE: Although sprinting and jumping are essential skills for a number of sports, there is little research surrounding the
best methods to improve these skills during childhood and adolescence. The efficacy of different training methods on youth as
they experience the unique physical and physiological effects of puberty is yet to be fully determined. Recently, researchers have
suggested that youth of different maturity levels may respond more favourably to different forms of training when attempting
to develop running speed (Rumpf et al 2012). However, to date, limited evidence is available to accurately validate these
recommendations, and to our knowledge no data exist showing which specific training modality is most effective at developing
explosive power in youth. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of different training methods on
measures of squat jump (SJ) height, reactive strength index (RSI), acceleration and maximal running velocity in pre-pubertal and
post-pubertal male soccer players.
METHODS: Eighty male youths, evenly split between pre-pubescents and post-pubescents, were randomly divided into either a
plyometric training (PT) group, a resistance training (RT) group, a combined training (CT) group or a control (CON) group. The
exercises in the PT group progressed gradually in intensity and consisted of jumps, hops and bounds. The exercises in the RT were
solely lower body exercises and consisted of uni-lateral and bi-lateral exercises, aimed at improving high force production. The CT
group followed a training program that included both plyometric and resistance training exercises. Experimental training groups
participated in their selected training programme twice weekly for six weeks, while the CON group continued with normal physical
education lessons. At baseline and after the intervention period, participants were tested for acceleration (0-10 m), maximal
velocity (20 m), concentric strength (SJ) and reactive strength (RSI) during maximal hopping.
RESULTS: In the pre-pubescent age group, acceleration was significantly improved in both the PT and CT groups (p=0.003 and
ES= 0.395; p<0.001 and ES= 0.391 respectively). Similarly, maximal velocity was significantly enhanced in the PT and CT groups
(p<0.001 and ES= 0.382; p<0.001 and ES= 0.328 respectively). Significant improvements in SJ and RSI were seen in pre-pubescent
athletes in all three training groups. In the post-pubertal cohort, PT significantly improved maximal running velocity (p<0.001
and ES= 0.351) but not acceleration; however, RT significantly improved acceleration (p= 0.003 and ES= 0.388) but not maximal
running velocity. CT significantly improved both acceleration and maximal running velocity (p< 0.001, ES= 0.596 and p=0.01, ES=
0.507 respectively). SJ was significantly improved only in the RT and CT groups (p= 0.004 and ES= 0.536 and p< 0.001 and ES= 0.833
respectively), while RSI was significantly improved only following PT or CT (p< 0.001 and ES= 0.242 and p= 0.002 and ES= 0.213
respectively).
CONCLUSION: It can be concluded that in order to develop muscular power, acceleration and maximal running velocity, prepubescent males appear to benefit most from training modalities that require high rates-of-force development and high velocity
movement speeds (PT and CT), while post-pubescent males appear to make greatest gains from training modes that require high
levels of force output (RT and CT). This may be due to the fact that pre-pubescents respond more favourably to training that offers
a high neurological demand, as adaptations at this stage are predominantly neural and coordinative in nature. Interestingly, a
combination of both PT and CT training appears to be effective in enhancing athletic performance for both maturity groups, which
highlights the importance of a varied training stimulus for long-term athletic development.
28
POSTER ABSTRACTS
Strength and power determinants of 250 metre rowing ergometer

performance
Daniel A Safdari and Richard C Blagrove
School of Sport, Health and Applied Science, St Marys University College, Twickenham
PurposE: During a 2000m rowing race, energy is predominantly derived from the aerobic system.1 Previous authors have
suggested measures of maximal strength and power therefore provide little predictive value.2 Several studies have also shown that
maximal strength and anaerobic power can only predict 2000m rowing performance to a moderate degree.3,4,5 However, due to the
importance of achieving a fast start, investigating early stages of a 2000m rowing race, would allow researchers and coaches to
gain a better understanding of the limitations and possible interventions that could improve overall performance. The aim of this
study was therefore to examine the strength and power determinants of a 250m ergometer performance.
METHODS: A total of 45 elite and well trained male rowers, familiar with ergometer rowing and strength training, volunteered to
participate in the study (mean SD: age 21.0 2.3; height 189.1 6.9cm; mass 88.0 11.1kg; 2km ergometer time 372.8 12.6s). The
testing procedures were spread across two sessions, with the first consisting of, maximal tests for: squat jump height, power within
five strokes on a concept 2 rowing ergometer, and the 250m ergometer row (42-44 strokes per minute). The second session involving
one repetition maximum (1RM) testing of: power clean, back squat, bench pull and bench press exercises. Pearson correlations were
calculated to assess the association between 250m ergometer performance and the tests of strength and power. The variables which
correlated to the greatest extent with 250m ergometer performance were selected for a stepwise multiple regression analysis.
RESULTS: Table 1 shows all measures of strength and power assessed in this study correlate with 250m ergometer performance
with the strongest correlation being with peak power attained within five strokes (r = -.895, p<0.000). The stepwise multiple
regression identified peak power within five power strokes and 1RM bench pull as the key determinants of 250m rowing
performance accounting for 83% of the variance (R = .825; F1,43 = 173.6, p<.000).
CONCLUSIONS: The results from this study suggest maximal pulling
strength and anaerobic ergometer power are important qualities
which can predict 250m ergometer performance with a high degree
of accuracy (83%) in well trained male rowers. Due to the specificity
of the ergometer power strokes, it was expected that this parameter
would show the highest correlation with 250m performance.
Significant correlations were also found between 250m ergometer
performance and general measures of maximal strength and power
suggesting that by using training strategies to develop these
qualities within a rowers training programme, performance during
the first 250m of a race is likely to be enhanced.
REFERENCES
1 Secher, Sports Med, 15, 24-42, 1993
2 Riechman et al., J Sports Sci, 20, 681-687. 2002
3 Huang et al., J Exerc Phys, 10, 43-50, 2007
4 Izquierdo-Gabarren, et al., Eur J Appl Phys, 108, 83-92, 2010
5 Russell et al., J Sports Sci, 16, 749-754, 1998
Table 1. Correlation coefficients (R) for strength and power

determinants of time over 250m on a rowing ergometer

R-value (n=45)
Ergometer power
-.895**
Vertical height
-.346*
Power cleans
-.631**
Back squat
-.623**
Bench press
-.637**
Bench pull
-.759**
Correlation of significance is indicated by *p < 0.05 **p < 0.01.
Does physical load impact on salivary hormones and immunoglobulin

A (IgA) amongst English academy premier league football players? An
observational study
Mark Armitage1 and Richard Blagrove2
1
Medical and Exercise Science Department, Arsenal Football Club, London
2
School of Sport, Health and Applied Science, St Marys University, Middlesex
PURPOSE: Recent changes in Premier League guidelines have resulted in academy players spending more time training and
competing, with concerns amongst some practitioners of diminished returns due to subsequent increases in physical load (PL).
Using global position system (GPS) technology alongside the hormonal markers testosterone (T), cortisol (C), testosterone/cortisol
ratio (T/C) and immunoglobulin A (IgA), this study investigated the usefulness of such parameters in quantifying the PL placed
on such players.
29
POSTER ABSTRACTS

MethodS: Thirteen male academy football players (age: 16yrs 2; height: 177.6cm 8.3; body mass: 71.4kg 7.4) contracted to
Southampton Football Club gave written consent to participate in the study which was approved by the St Marys University
College institutional ethics committee. Saliva samples were collected at the same time in the week throughout the study (Tuesday
9:00am 30 minutes) and were gathered by an oral fluid collector and analysed via a lateral flow device for IgA (IPRO Interactive,
Oxfordshire). C and T levels were extracted from saliva and laboratory processed, in duplicate, using enzyme immunoassay
test kits (IPRO Interactive, Oxfordshire). Variables were non-normally distributed using Shapiro Wilks test, so therefore were
transformed using an arithmetic function (Log10) within the statistical package (SPSS version 21.0 for Windows). A one-way
repeated measures ANOVA with a deviation correction was used to compare weekly alterations in independent variables against
the mean. A one-way ANOVA assessed changes in the dependant variables across time with independent t-tests selected to
compare T1 and T2 (n = 15 weeks in each).
RESULTS: A significant main effect was found for IgA across the season against the overall mean (p=0.029), with increased
frequencies appearing near the beginning, middle and end. PL and steroid hormones were unaltered using a repeated method,
although T/C ratio neared significance (p=0.053). T and T/C ratio were significantly (p<0.05) lower at T2 than T1. T/C ratio
experienced 30% reductions than the sum mean at weeks 26, 34, 43 and 45. Within and between subject coefficient of variation were
54 and 52% for IgA, 45 and 48% cortisol, 43 and 42% testosterone and 60 and 51% T/C ratio, respectively.
CONCLUSIONS: PL appeared to be consistent throughout the season, suggesting issues around the training stimulus or the
parameters selected to evaluate such load. All measures were highly variable. Regardless of this, the season appeared to have an
effect on IgA, T and T/C ratio highlighting key periods (beginning, middle and end of season) which might have implications in the
planning and monitoring of the training year.
Effect of a 12-week challenge points programme in professional

soccer development squad
Neil Buchanan and Stewart Ollis, University of the West of Scotland
PurposE: With concerns about the state of youth football development in Scottish (and English) football, this case study
examined the effects of a novel development programme and its physiological benefits to individual and team playing capability.
The intervention adopted a complexity paradigm and ecological constraints-led perspective which is receiving attention in
strength and conditioning literature.
METHODS: 16 youth development players in a Scottish Youth Development under-15s squad took part in a 12-week exploratory
case study with an embedded experimental design. A pre and post test was conducted measuring speed, acceleration, jumptest, VO2 max, and agility. HR, observational analysis and filming were also adopted to analyse effect of the intervention. Team
performance was also monitored during this period. Coach and athlete perspectives of the 12-week programme were adopted
through formal interviews, focus groups and informal discussions. Parent perspectives who attended sessions were also
considered.
30
Pre
Post
MSFT
7.57
8.67
10m Sprint (Acc)
2.11
1.96
40m Sprint (Speed)
6.08
5.91
The intervention was framed on complex scientific principles,

where it was proposed that self-regulated and self-controlled
development enhances long-term commitment and effort.
The sessions were conducted once a week on sport science
Wednesdays and included a 40-minute indoor high intensity
challenge points program (constructed from player match
analysis) and 60-minute small sided games (SSG)/constraintsled session outdoors.
505 (Agility)
2.63
2.16
Jump (Leg Power)
33.04
37.1
POSTER ABSTRACTS
RESULTS: Pre and post tests revealed considerable effect on physiological markers. It should be noted however as a real-world
case study (non-experimental) that we believe other factors in addition to the programme were taking effect (three-month natural
youth development; other training nights; competition). However, we hope the audience accepts the large change in profile:.
Coaches and players commented on match specific development and ability to use fitness developments within matches. The
effect on performance impact was recognised by coaches and players alike and match winning profile confirmed. It is important
to acknowledge that it is impossible to infer any one reason for this success and indeed consider it as an integration of variables.
Causal processing suggested fitness and the actual program were key catalysts for personal and team mindset. Supported with
observational analysis, the players and coaches reported self regulation and understanding of game and self development enhanced
through dyadic, scrimmage and small-sided game activities as important.
CONCLUSION: The results suggest that the challenge points program had a strong effect on physical conditioning profile. The
strongest benefit was considered with whole game development. The physiological demands (high intensity HR and motor
functioning analysis) were very high within the sessions and self-control was deemed as a moderating factor in the capability of
the team to attain and maintain such levels. It is important to acknowledge an experimental contamination as players, coaches
and parents expressed how the weekly project catalysed other behaviour change (in other team training, personal training and
match effect). As a case study, this experimental contamination proved useful to understanding the real-world dynamic of a
perceived positive intervention. The findings challenge the need for overly-reductionist and prescribed training design within
youth football development. The mixed methods and case study design proved effectual in understanding such ecological and
complexity science based approaches. Greater detailed analysis of the effect of self-control/ self-regulation, high intensity interval
training HIIT benefits regards motor functioning and positive effect of dyadic/scrimmage/SSG interventions is required.
A model for predicting FMSTM score using a reduced battery in youth

athletes
SJ McLaren1 & MD Wright2
1
MSc Strength & Conditioning Student, School of Social Sciences and Law, Teesside University
2
Department of Student Services, Sport and Wellbeing, Teesside University
PURPOSE: The Functional Movement Screen (FMS) is commonly used to evaluate an athletes overall movement capability.
The FMS may be able to highlight athletes at greater risk of musculoskeletal injury and can provide useful information to help
a strength and conditioning (S&C) coach programme appropriate and individualised training interventions. Although clinically
practical, the FMS may prove to be a time-consuming process, especially when working with large numbers of athletes. Thus, the
aim of this study was to determine the efficacy of a simplified screening model to predict FMS score in youth athlete populations.
MethodS: A total of 82 youth athletes (age = 14.98 2.26 years, height = 167.46 12.48 cm, weight = 65.58 16.66 kg) completed
the FMS on initiation to a S&C support scheme over a three-year period. The FMS was completed and scored as according to
Cook (2006). A stepwise multiple regression was computed to establish the degree to which each individual FMS test could be
utilised within a model to predict overall FMS score (FMSTOTAL). Each test was added hierarchically based upon the amount of
variance to which it accounted for in FMSTOTAL; Pearsons r was calculated on the relationship between each predictor model and
FMSTOTAL. Probabilities of the true correlation being substantial (positive/negative) or trivial were calculated as per the magnitude
based inference approach. A predictor variable was considered worthwhile if its inclusion to the model resulted in a change in r
value of 0.1 for correlations 0.5-0.69, or 0.05 for correlations 0.7 (Hopkins, 2000).
RESULTS: The model including the in-line lunge (ILL), hurdle step (HS), trunk stability press-up (TSPU) and active straight leg
raise (ASLR) as predictor variables explained 82% of the variance in FMSTOTAL (R2 = 0.82, F4,77 = 92.69, p<0.001). Standard error of the
estimate for this model was 1.04 units. The relationship between the model and FMSTOTAL was near perfect (r = 0.91, 90% CI: 0.87
to 0.94) and most likely positive (100/0/0). The predictive equation was as follows:
FMSTOTAL = 3.21 + 1.46(ILL) + 1.61(HS) + 1.12(TSPU) + 1.11(ASLR)
CONCLUSION: Results imply that in youth athlete populations, the above equation may be used as an accurate predictor of
FMSTOTAL to within 1.04 units. For an athlete whose predicted FMSTOTAL lies between 12.96 and 15.04 (ie, where true score may be
14) further testing may be warranted for accurate implications to musculoskeletal injury risk.
31
POSTER ABSTRACTS
The effect of motivational and non-motivational music interventions

on strength-based activities
Jemma Duffill, North Lindsey College, Scunthorpe
PURPOSE: Researchers have examined the effect of music upon aerobic exercise such as cycling, running, and walking. There is
currently no literature investigating the effect of music on both upper and lower body resistance exercises. The rationale of the
present study is to increase understanding of the effect of motivational music as an intervention for strength or muscular endurancebased exercises. The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of music type on the number of repetitions performed at 60%
1RM in the bicep curl and leg press resistance exercises.
MethodS: Participants for experimental conditions were sampled from a sports centre gymnasium (n = 20; 23.2 4.1 years; bicep curl
1RM 38.3 12.7 kg; leg press 1RM 87.8 17.0 kg). Each participant completed repetitions of the bicep curl and leg press at 60% 1RM until
exhaustion in separate sessions under the following conditions: motivational music, non-motivational music and a control group.
The motivational qualities of the music were assessed by 21 volunteers using the updated Brunel Music Rating Inventory (BMRI-3).
Differences between conditions were analysed using a parametric one-way repeated-measure Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and a
power analysis was performed.
Results: Results of the bicep curl denoted significant differences between conditions (F1, 25 = 30.16, p<0.001, 2 = 0.61). Differences
were found between the control condition and the motivational music condition (95% confidence interval = -3.87 -1.33, p<0.001) and
the motivational music condition and the non-motivational music condition (95% confidence interval = 1.85 4.59, p<0.001).
Results of the leg press indicated significant differences between conditions (F1, 26 = 33.21, p<0.001, 2 = 0.64). Differences were found
between the control condition and the motivational music condition (95% confidence interval = -5.87 - -1.74, p<0.001); the motivational
music condition and the non-motivational music condition (95% confidence interval = 3.23 7.31, p<0.001); and the control condition
and the non-motivational music condition (95% confidence interval = -0.50 2.50, p<0.003)
CONCLUSIONS: It can be concluded that motivational music does increase the number of repetitions performed in the bicep curl and
leg press exercises. The results imply that listening to motivational music during resistance training could lead to more repetitions
being completed.
The effect of exercise intensity on post resistance exercise

hypotension in trained men
Michael J Duncan, Samantha L Birch, Samuel W Oxford
Department of Biomolecular and Sports Sciences, Coventry University, Coventry
PurposE: The occurrence of post resistance exercise hypotension (PEH) is controversial and the influence of resistance exercise
intensity on PEH remains unknown. This study examined blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR) responses to an acute bout of
low and high intensity resistance exercise, matched for total work, in trained males.
METHODS: Sixteen resistance-trained males (23.1 5.9 years) performed an acute bout of low (40% of 1RM) and high intensity
(80% 1RM) resistance exercise, matched for total work, separated by seven days and performed in a counterbalanced order. Systolic
(SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure and HR were assessed at rest, following completion of each exercise resistance exercise
(three sets of back squat, bench press and deadlift) and every 10 minutes post resistance exercise for a period of 60 minutes.
.
RESULTS: A series of repeated measures ANOVAs indicated a significant intensity X time interaction for SBP (p=0.034, partial
2 = .122) whereby SBP at 50 minutes recovery and 60 minutes recovery was significantly lower following high intensity exercise
(p=0.01 in both cases) compared to low intensity exercise. There were no significant main effects or interactions in regard to DBP
(all p>0.05). HR data indicated a significant main effect for time (F 9, 135 = 2.479, p=0.0001, partial 2 = .344). Post-hoc multiple
comparisons indicated that HR was significantly higher post squat, bench press and deadlift exercise, compared to resting HR and
HR at 40, 50 and 60 minutes recovery (all p=0.03).
CONCLUSIONS: The present findings suggest that an acute bout of high intensity, but not low intensity, resistance exercise using
compound movements can promote post exercise hypotension in trained men.
32
POSTER ABSTRACTS
The effect of heavy back squats on repeated sprint performance in

trained men
Michael J Duncan, Glen Thurgood and Samuel W Oxford
Department of Biomolecular and Sports Sciences, Coventry University, Coventry
PurposE: Performing maximal or near-maximal muscular contractions can produce short-term increases in the maximum force
produced by the stimulated muscles in a phenomenon known as post activation potentiation (PAP). Although PAP is appealing
for strength and conditioning coaches in enhancing exercise performance the data on this phenomenon are equivocal. This study
examined the impact of PAP on repeated sprint performance in trained Rugby Union players.
METHODS: This study used a balanced cross-over, within subjects, repeated measures design involving two experimental
conditions following a baseline testing session: 1) heavy resistance exercise stimulus and 2) control (no PAP) to examine the
post-activation potentiation effects of heavy resistance exercise on repeated sprint speed over 5, 10 and 30 metres. Ten male
professional rugby union players (mean age = 25.2 5.02 years) performed seven 30 metre sprints, separated by 25 seconds,
assessed using infrared timing gates (Smart Speed, Fusion Sport, Ltd, Australia) four minutes after back squats (90% 1RM), or a
control condition (no PAP) performed in a counterbalanced order and separated by five days.
.
RESULTS: Results from a series of repeated measures ANOVAs revealed significant condition X sprint interactions for 10 metre
(p=0.02) and 30 metre (p=0.05), which indicated that times were significantly faster in the PAP condition for sprints 5, 6 and 7 across
both distances. Fatigue rate was also significantly lower in the PAP condition for 10 metre (p=0.023) and 30 metre (p=0.006) sprint
running speed.
CONCLUSIONS: This study evidences that a heavy resistance exercise stimulus administered four minutes prior to repeated
sprints can offset the decline in sprint performance seen during subsequent maximal effort sprinting over 10 and 30 metres in
rugby union players.
A comparison of the effects of eight weeks of traditional resistance

training and complex training on rate of force development in
professional rugby league
Jon Harwood 1, Jonathan Hughes 1, & Rhodri Lloyd 2
1
Exercise and Sport Research Centre, University of Gloucestershire
2
PURPOSE: The need to produce force against a variety of loads is essential in professional rugby league. Complex training (CT),
alternating between resistance exercises and plyometric exercises with similar movement patterns within an exercise session, is
a form of training that may potentially bring about a state of post activation potentiation. This may result in increased dynamic
power and rate of force development (RFD) during the subsequent plyometric exercise. Such a method may be more effective than
traditional resistance training (RT) alone for developing RFD across a variety of loads. This research investigated the effects on
lower body RFD from either CT or RT.
MethodS: Twelve professional rugby league players (meanSD: age: 22.33 2.75 years; height: 179.33 6.78 cm; mass: 92.33 11
kg) were trained, using either RT or CT twice weekly for eight weeks during the pre-season. Subjects were split according to their
initial 1RM scores to ensure that no statistical differences in lower body strength existed between groups. Participants were tested
pre- and post-intervention to assess peak RFD (PRFD) during the squat jump (SJ) at a variety of loads. PRFD was calculated as
the peak force attained during the 250m, from the point when the vertical force trace reached the subjects body mass after the
countermovement phase of the exercise.
RESULTS: One-way mixed-design repeated measures ANOVA tests revealed a significantly greater improvement in PRFD for the
CT groups SJ at body (BW) and 20% back squat and 1RM (p=0.019 and p=0.009 respectively). No significant differences occurred
at 40 and 60% 1RM (p=0.760 and p=1.000 respectively). A significantly greater improvement occurred at 80% 1RM for the RT group
compared with the CT group (p=0.011).
CONCLUSION: The results of this study suggest that CT is more beneficial for improving low load PRFD (BW and 20% 1RM) in
comparison to RT, which proved superior at improving PRFD against higher loads (80% 1RM). Therefore, when RFD is of primary
importance, an athletes training methodology should be assigned according to the individual requirements with regards to the
force-velocity curve.
33
POSTER ABSTRACTS
Performance and endocrine adaptations in response to differing

ratios of concurrent strength and endurance training
TW Jones, G Howatson, M Russell & D N French
PURPOSE: The present study sought to examine the performance, hypertrophic and endocrine adaptations to varying frequencies
and ratios of concurrent strength and endurance training. The interference effect relating to the attenuated strength and hypertrophic
responses experienced when strength and endurance training are conducted alongside each other is well documented, as is the fact
that training frequency may influence the overall presence of the interference effect. As such it may be prudent to ask if the ratio of
strength and endurance training performed may influence the degree of interference experienced. The aims of the present study
were to determine if the frequency and ratio of strength and endurance training influence the overall presence of the interference
effect and the degree of interference experienced.
MethodS: A total of 30 recreationally resistance trained males completed six weeks of 3-d-1 of strength training (ST), concurrent
strength and endurance training ratio 3:1 (CT3);concurrent strength and endurance training ratio 1:1 (CT1); or no training (CON).
Strength training was conducted in a functional multi-joint model and endurance training consisted of treadmill running. Assessments
of 1RMs, countermovement jump (CMJ) height, body composition via air displacement plethysmography and endocrine factors
were conducted at baseline, mid intervention and post intervention.
Results: Mid training intervention ST was the only condition to elicit significantly greater increases in total of 1RMs than CON
(p<0.05). Mid training the ST condition resulted in greater CMJ increases than CT1 and CON (both p=0.04). Post training participants
following the ST condition achieved significantly greater CMJ than all other conditions (all p<0.05). CT3 was the only condition which
resulted in significant elevations in basal testosterone levels. It was only CT1 that resulted in significant elevations in basal cortisol
(both p<0.05). Post intervention CT1 resulted in greater decreases in body fat % than ST and CON (both p<0.001). No significant
differences were observed between groups for lean mass (p>0.05).
CONCLUSIONS: It was concluded that the ratio and frequency of concurrent strength and endurance training did affect strength in
the lower limbs as assessed by CMJ in response to six weeks of 3-d-1 of training. It was also observed that increased frequencies of
endurance training result in increased catabolism. These data suggest that if strength adaptation is the primary focus of a training
intervention, then frequency of endurance training should remain low in the limbs in which strength is required.
The effect of frequent and structured strength and conditioning

coaching on youth athlete FMSTM score
SJ McLaren,1 M Laas,2 K Genner,1,3 MD Wright2
1
MSc Strength & Conditioning Student, School of Social Sciences and Law, Teesside University
2
Department of Student Services, Sport and Wellbeing, Teesside University
3
Department of Sport, Moulton College, Moulton, Northampton
PurposE: The Functional Movement Screen (FMS) is commonly used to evaluate an athletes overall movement capability. The
FMS may yield particular use in identifying movement dysfunctions and informing strength and conditioning (S&C) interventions
for youth athletes, given the proposed importance of fundamental movement skills to long term athlete development. However, the
effect of S&C on movement capability in youth athletes is unknown. Thus, this study reports the effectiveness of one years S&C
support on youth athlete FMS score.
METHODS: Nineteen youth athletes (age = 14.69 1.72 years, height = 167.42 11.61 cm, weight = 78.01 17.56 kg) completed the
FMS before and after a one-year intervention period. Athletes were initiated to the Tees Valley Future Champions Scheme, which
provides facility access and S&C support to high performing youth athletes. All athletes received non-contact S&C support, including
annotated exercise videos and advice on exercise selection following initial testing results. Furthermore, S&C coaching was offered
on a drop-in basis for one hour a week. Pre- and post-intervention testing results were analysed using effect size and 90% confidence
intervals. Probabilities of the true effect of the intervention being substantial (positive/negative) or trivial were then calculated using
a customised spreadsheet (Hopkins, 2006) with a smallest worthwhile effect of > 0.2 between-subject standard deviations. Data was
then filtered to include only those athletes who attended S&C coaching sessions (n = 15, 18.86 7.46 sessions) and re-analysed in the
same manner.
34
POSTER ABSTRACTS
RESULTS: Post intervention all athletes improved overall FMS score by 1.11 (90% CI: 0.20 to 2.01) arbitrary units (8.10%; 90% CI:
0.60 to 16.1). Although standardised effect size for this mean change was small (0.45; 90% CI: 0.08 to 0.81), the intervention was still
likely positive (87%). When the data was re-filtered to include only those who attended S&C coaching sessions, the improvement in
overall FMS score increased to 1.64 (90% CI: 0.69 to 2.60) arbitrary units (12.4%; 90% CI: 4.80 to 20.50). As a result, the standardised
mean change was amplified to represent large effect (0.82; 90% CI: 0.34 to 1.30) with the effect of S&C coaching very likely positive
(98%) on youth athlete FMS score.
CONCLUSIONS: Results imply that in youth athlete populations S&C support may improve fundamental movement skills, although
regular S&C coaching is likely to enhance the magnitude of this effect. S&C coaching is likely to produce greater improvements in
fundamental movement skills than S&C support alone.
The effects of a four-week plyometric programme on reactive

strength index, vertical leg stiffness and 20m sprint performance in
male youth cricket fast bowlers
Robert Burge, Paul Read, Jonathan Hughes & Steve Draper
PURPOSE: Previous research has reported that stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) function enhances with biological age; however, the
effects of maturation on concomitant performance measures such as reactive strength index (RSI), vertical leg stiffness (Kvert) and
enhanced rate of force development (RFD) remain equivocal. Increased RSI and Kvert have been reported following a stand-alone
four-week plyometric intervention in youth populations (Lloyd et al 2012). This indicates decreased ground contact time (GCT)
and enhanced fast SSC ability, critical during the stance phase of sprinting. However, enhanced sprint performances over 10m, 20m
and 30m in youth populations have only been reported following six-to-ten-week stand-alone plyometric training interventions
(Kotzamanidis 2006; Meylan & Malatesta 2009). Furthermore, as a majority of county cricket academy winter programmes
operate over 14 weeks, split into six- and eight-week blocks, a four-week minimal dose plyometric intervention could highlight
an effective and flexible way of implementing plyometrics into four-week mesocycles. Therefore the purpose of the present study
was to examine the effects of a four-week plyometric training intervention on measures of RSI, Kvert and 20m sprint performance.
The study then attempted to identify relationships between these performance measures and biological age maturational offset
equation to calculate age at peak height velocity [APHV] (Mirwald et al 2002).
Method: A total of 39 male elite academy cricket fast seam bowlers (aged 10-17 years) were split into EXP and CON groups
matched by chronological age (rounded to the nearest birth date). The EXP group performed a progressive specific dose of
plyometric training twice weekly, a bodyweight foundational movement programme (BFMP) and technical fast bowling training
(TFBT). The CON group performed the BFMP and TFBT sessions only. Measures of RSI, Kvert and 20m sprint performance were
collected pre- and post-intervention. RSI was calculated from five consecutive bilateral maximal vertical jumps using the formula:
(Jump height [mm] / ground contact time [ms])
(Flanagan & Comyns, 2008)
Discounting the first jump, the best three of the remaining four jumps were used to calculate a mean average. Twenty consecutive
bilateral submaximal hops at a frequency of 2.5Hz was used to determine Kvert (Dalleau et al 2004). Two trials were performed with
the grouping of 10 hops closest to the designated metronome rate used for analysis. All tests were performed on the contact mat.
RESULTS: No main interaction (group time) was reported for Kvert (p = 0.060) or RSI (p = 0.648). A main effect (group time) was
reported for 20m sprint performance (p = 0.049). No significant difference was reported for EXP (p=.543) pre and post 20m sprint
performance (3.30 0.31 - 3.26 0.19 ms-1). A significant difference was reported for CON (p = 0.038) pre and post 20m sprint
performance (3.52 0.26 - 3.68 0.25 ms-1). A correlation between CON delta sprint performance (0.17 0.27 ms-1) and CON
APHV (r = 0.516, p = 0.038) was reported. Alpha was set at (p < 0.05).
CONCLUSION: This study concluded that a four-week specific dose plyometric training intervention is a sufficient and necessary
neuromuscular stimulus to maintain sprint performance, despite the high-repetitive eccentric loading and kinematics indicative
of slow- and fast-SSC function involved with fast bowling. Although no significant improvement was evident in RSI, Kvert and 20m
sprint performance in the EXP, the correlation between APHV and the CON sprint performance infers this studys findings are
commensurate with previous empirical research that SSC function does increase with biological age.
35
POSTER ABSTRACTS
Are there stretch shortening cycle-like actions in the shoulder and

torso in upper body striking actions?
James Parker, 1,2 MCharlotte Olsson1
1
Department of exercise physiology, biomechanics and health at School of Business and Engineering, Halmstad University,
Halmstad, Sweden . 2Scandinavian School of Golf, Halmstad, Sweden
PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to 1) investigate if stretch shortening cycle (SSC)-like actions in the upper extremities can
be detected during a golf swing, and 2) see if SSC-like actions exist, and investigate if they can be correlated with lead arm and thorax
transition acceleration and peak speed.
MethodS: A total of 37 elite golf players were included in the study. Kinematic data were collected and manually digitised to
create a three-dimensional model of the torso and left upper arm: one representative swing from five trials was chosen for analysis.
Kinematic data were recorded at the initiation of, and during, the downswing and reported as: degree () change in spine rotation (SR;
rotation of thorax with respect to pelvis); rate of change in SR (RSR; in /s); degree change in shoulder horizontal adduction angle
(SHA; humerus with respect to thorax); rate of change in SHA (RSHA; in /s); thorax transition acceleration; thorax peak speed; lead
arm transition acceleration; and lead arm peak speed.
Results: Results demonstrated that golfers have a stretch-like action in the torso (SR 7.78.8) and, to a lesser extent, the shoulder
(SHA 1.61.3). The rate of stretch was larger at the shoulder than spine (RSHA 39.631.0/s2, SRS 16.013.9/s2). Amount and rate of
stretch had no correlation with transition accelerations or peak speed of the thorax (r-values ranging from 0.02 to 0.20) or with lead
arm (r-values ranging from-0.08 to 0.26). However, thorax acceleration (r=0.58, p<0.01) and thorax peak speed(r=0.52, p<0.01) were
significantly correlated to lead arm speed.
CONCLUSIONS: Our results confirm that SSC-like actions seem to exist both at the torso and shoulder in a golf swing. SSC-like
actions may not augment an increase in concentric muscular force or limb speed in striking activities since no correlations were
found between eccentric stretch parameters and torso and lead arm accelerations and speeds. Furthermore, thorax peak speed was
correlated to lead arm speed; therefore, if the goal is to increase peak arm speed, the golfer should focus on improving thorax peak
speed.
The relationship of vertical leg stiffness, peak power output and

VO2max in recreationally active cyclists: identification of the interface
between human and the bike
Guy Pitchers; Matthew Cole; Jonathan Hughes
PurposE: Individuals with superior movement economy are capable of using less oxygen at a level of work/intensity than
individuals with poor economy (Turner & Kilduff, 2011). Professional cyclists have been shown to generate 11% greater absolute
mechanical efficiency when compared to amateur cyclists (Coyle et al 1991). The reported variations in power were linked towards
the greater torque development at the first phase of the revolution (Coyle et al 1991). Vertical leg stiffness may be important to
cycling performance as not only is the majority of force produced vertically but optimisation of the stretch shortening cycle may
limit energy wastage during the propulsive phase (So et al 2005; Fonda & Sarabon 2010). The literature has yet to examine the
possible impact of vertical leg stiffness on peak power output and VO2max bike performance.
METHOD: Eight recreationally active male cyclists (age 34 7yrs; mass 77 7kg; stature 1.81 0.06m) completed two testing
sessions, with a minimum of 48h rest between each session. In the first testing session the participants completed stiffness
familiarisation of sub-maximal bilateral hopping in place, with their hands on hips, at a frequency of 2 Hz set on a digital
metronome. This was then followed by an incremental VO2max test increasing by 1W every 3s until volitional exhaustion. The
second session involved a total of 20 sub-maximal jumps, with repetitions 6-15 used for calculation of vertical leg stiffness (kNm-1)
using the equation by Dalleau et al (2004), before completion of a 30s Wingate test.
RESULTS: Pearsons correlations revealed that absolute vertical leg stiffness had a strong positive relationship (r = 0.73) with peak
power output, but not with VO2max (r = 0.28).
CONCLUSION: It was concluded that vertical leg stiffness is a good indicator of peak power output in recreationally active male
cyclists. Interpretation of the data may agree with previous literature that good vertical leg stiffness may optimise the stretch
shortening cycle during the propulsive phase in cycling.
36
POSTER ABSTRACTS
The effect of six-week eccentric training on muscle-tendon mechanics

Dominic Richmond, University of Northampton
PurposE: Strength, flexibility and stiffness are important for performance and injury risk. Strength training can influence these
variables and eccentric training is suggested to be an advanced form of training where high loads can be utilised. Therefore, this
study investigated the effects of a six-week eccentric plantar flexor training program on strength, flexibility, stretch tolerance,
muscle stiffness, tendon stiffness, muscle-tendon complex (MTC) stiffness and running economy (RE) in university football players.
METHOD: Thirteen students from the University of Northampton Football Club volunteered (mean SD: age = 20.0 0.9 yr;
height = 1.8 0.6 m; mass = 75.9 8.5 kg) all completed the testing and training intervention. Participants performed the VO2max,
strength, range of motion (ROM) and stiffness tests on a dynamometer with simultaneous ultrasound analysis. Following 48hr
rest, participants performed a running economy test which involved running at 70% of their VO2max. Participants then undertook the
six week eccentric training program, training twice per week, with each session consisting of five sets of 12 repetitions of maximal
eccentric plantar flexor contractions from 20 plantar flexion through to 10 dorsiflexion (10s-1). Following the six week intervention,
participants were retested.
RESULTS: Significant increases in maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) (47%), ROM (87%), tendon stiffness (33%), stretch tolerance
(108%) and a significant reduction in muscle stiffness (20%) were found following the eccentric training program
(p < 0.05). There was no change in O2 consumption, heart rate or MTC stiffness following the eccentric training program.
CONCLUSION: The changes in strength, stiffness, ROM and stretch tolerance have important implications for performance
enhancement and injury prevention but were not sufficient to alter running economy. Further research should examine other joint
complexes and the influence of eccentric training on muscle strain injury profiles.
A six-stage model for teaching the (squat) snatch in strength and

conditioning
K Watson,1 K Gibbon,1 Gareth Walton,2 Mark McKenna3
1
Glasgow School of Sport, Glasgow, 2Setanta College, Co Kildare,
3
Sports Academy, Institute of Clinical Exercise and Health Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Hamilton
PURPOSE: To share a six-stage model for teaching the snatch to athletes new to strength and conditioning. The model has been
used successfully with 11-18-year-old athletes with diverse training backgrounds and strength and conditioning history. In detailing
the model, correct technique will be discussed and exemplified. Typical athlete errors and coaching cues will also be illustrated
along with supplementary exercises that can be used to develop each stage of the model. After reading this article the strength and
conditioning professional will have further information to successfully coach the snatch to enhance an athletes ability to develop
functional explosive strength.
METHOD: The model utilises a top-down approach to teaching the snatch as suggested by Walker (2009). The snatch is broken
down into six key sections: overhead squat, hang power snatch, partial snatch deadlift, power snatch, power snatch into overhead
squat and full snatch. Each stage of the exercise can be used as a stand-alone exercise or combined into a technical model for
teaching the snatch to beginners in S&C. Key technical points are identified at each stage of the model which should be achieved
before moving onto the next stage. However, technical perfection at each stage is not required for progression, allowing for
an integrated learning approach. If implemented with effective feedback and correction from the strength and conditioning
professional, the model can be used to teach the fundamental movements of the snatch to a strength and conditioning beginner in
around 30 minutes.
CONCLUSIONS: The model presented provides coaches with a simplified model for teaching the snatch. The model can be
progressed relatively quickly and time does not need to be spent perfecting each individual stage, providing the key technical
points of each stage are mastered. Once the snatch has been mastered, the model can be used as a warm-up for any snatch-related
derivative; the stage of the model at which the warm-up terminates will be dictated by the type of snatch derivative used in the
training programme.
37
POSTER ABSTRACTS
Effects of an eight-week strength intervention on anterior tibial shear

force in females
Maike Czasche, St Marys University College, Twickenham
PURPOSE: There has been growing interest in anterior tibial shear force (AS) and its relation to anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)
injury. The potential to counteract AS and alter knee biomechanics has been identified in the posterior lower extremity musculature.
The findings of strength studies are conflicting; although recent research into ACL prevention shows an effect on biomechanics,
the underlying mechanisms are still unknown. The majority of shear force studies have measured AS through inverse dynamics and
limited modeling techniques, raising questions as to the validity of force calculations within the knee joint and showing that the true
estimation of shear forces are potentially yet to be identified. Therefore, the aim of this repeated measure eight-week intervention
study is to see if a strength programme of the posterior lower extremities affects AS and biomechanics, measured with a 3-D
musculoskeletal optimisation model.
MethodS: Sixteen recreational females aged 18-28 participated in the intervention (n= 8) and control group (n= 8). The intervention
group trained over eight weeks, three times per week for 60 minutes targeting posterior leg strength: Table 1 depicts the exercise
programme. Pre- and post-intervention a Vicon motion analysis of the right leg was implemented during uni- and bilateral drop
jump landings from a 30 cm platform. A 3-D musculoskeletal optimisation model was used in Visual Studio and Matlab to calculate
peak AS, ground reaction force (GRF), posterior shear force (PS), tibiofemoral force (TF), initial knee flexion angle (KA), and muscle
strengths at peak AS. Finally, the strength of the right posterior lower extremity was measured in an isometric strength test with a
predetermined hip angle of 30.
Results: The findings in the intervention group showed a significant peak strength increase of the posterior lower extremities by
an average of 36% (p<0.000), contrary to the control group (p>0.05). In both groups no significant differences were found in mean
peak AS, GRF, PS, TF, and mean muscle strengths at peak AS and KA pre and post intervention (p>0.05).
CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that short-term alteration of posterior lower extremity strength does not change dynamic
knee biomechanics. The result could be advantageous for the strength and conditioning coach, as changing short-term strength
is not usually aimed at altering movement mechanics. Potential underlying mechanisms that affect AS and biomechanics are
motor skill, muscular power, rate of force development and muscle-tendon stiffness. If change is desired, a combination of motor
skill and strength, within the current knowledge, may be the best treatment for success. The study offers insight into AS and knee
biomechanics during uni- and bilateral drop jump landings of recreational females, providing information regarding the relationship
between changes in strength and biomechanics.
Table 1. Strength intervention programme

Week 1-4
Week 5-8
Sets
Reps
Rest
Session 1
Split squat
Lunge
10
2 min
Good morning
Hamstring pull in pairs
10
2 min
SL SLDL
Bulgarian split squat
10
2 min
Step up
Step up
10
2 min
Nordic hamstring
Nordic hamstring
6/ 8
2 min
SL bridge
SL good morning
10
2 min
Squats
Squats
10
2 min
SLDL
SLDL
10
2 min
SL good morning
SL Hip thrust
10
2 min
Session 2
Session 3
SL= single leg, SLDL= stiff leg deadlift
38
UKSCA Events
UKSCA Workshops
These are just a selection of the dates planned for the next six months. Please see our website
for the latest dates and availability, as demand is high and new dates/venues are being added
every week.
Foundation Workshop in Strength and Conditioning
The Foundation workshop is aimed at anyone looking to enter the profession and wanting
a clear and progressive development pathway. Also to anyone wishing to add best practice
strength and conditioning to their existing roles e.g. PE teachers, sports specific coaches,
personal trainers, undergraduate students etc.
26-27 Apr 2014 - Lee Valley, London
17-18 May 2014 - Loughborough
24-25 May 2014 - Lee Valley, London
07-08 Jun 2014 - Gloucester
21-22 Jun 2014 - Belfast

12-13 Jul 2014 - Loughborough
26-27 Jul 2014 - Pitreavie, Dunfermlin
09-10 Aug 2014 - Newcastle
Planning Effective Programmes Workshop

This two-day workshop is designed as preparation for those looking to become UKSCA
Accredited and for those looking to improve their skills in enhancing their planning and
programming skills in strength & conditioning. The content is based on best practice supported
by scientific evidence and will provide you with the knowledge and understanding to create
effective programmes to improve sports performance.
05-06 Apr 2014 - Leeds
12-13 Apr 2014 - Glasgow
31-01 Jun 2014 - Heathrow
02-03 Aug 2014 - Leeds

16-17 Aug 2014 - Birmingham
06-07 Sep 2014 - Belfast
Plyometrics, Agility and Speed Workshop

This two-day, practical workshop is designed as preparation for those looking to become
UKSCA Accredited and for those looking to introduce plyo, agility and speed exercises into their
strength & conditioning programmes. It covers key technical and coaching points as well as
providing the knowledge to plan into training programmes to improve sports performance.
05-06 Apr 2014 - Stirling
26-27 Apr 2014 - Newcastle
03-04 May 2014 - Bath
10-11 May 2014 - Belfast
14-15 Jun 2014 - Lee Valley, London

28-29 Jun 2014 - Sheffield
20-21 Sep 2014 - Lee Valley, London
Weight Lifting for Sports Performance Workshop

This two-day, practical workshop is designed as preparation for those looking to become
UKSCA Accredited and for those looking to introduce Olympic lifts into their strength &
conditioning programmes. It covers key technical and coaching points of the lifts and their
derivatives, teaching you to be a better lifter, how to coach lifts and also how to incorporate
them into training programmes.
29-30 Mar 2014 - Belfast
12-13 Apr 2014 - Lee Valley, London
10-11 May 2014 - Widnes
17-18 May 2014 - Edinburgh

21-22 Jun 2014 - Lee Valley, London
12-13 Jul 2014 - Widnes
UKSCAs tutors are selected from the UKs top S&C Coaches
HELP for HEROES, Tidworth Recovery

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The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association

Succeeding as a female S&C coach

UKSCA Assessment Days

27 Apr 2014 - Bisham Abbey

28 Jun 2014 - Lee Valley, London

24 May 2014 - Loughborough

03 Aug 2014 - Lee Valley, London

01 Jun 2014 - Bisham Abbey

07 Sep 2014 - Bisham Abbey

14 Jun 2014 - Stirling

20 Sep 2014 - Loughborough

Enhance Your Career Prospects

Or for all courses look on Course Finder on our website

ISSUE 32 / MARCH 2014

ISSUE 32 / MARCH 2014

A FEMALE S&C COACH

ISSUE 32 / MARCH 2014

Letter from the Editor

of a UK-based S&C organisation that

The UKSCA has

this years annual conference will

ISSUE 32 / MARCH 2014

UKSCA Re-Accreditation deadlines

Next CPD Cycle

The UKSCA has developed a Coach Development Model,

Between 01/04/09 and 30/09/09

Between 01/10/09 and 31/03/10

Between 01/04/10 and 30/09/10

Between 01/10/10 and 31/03/11

In order for a coach to remain UKSCA Accredited following

Between 01/04/11 and 30/09/11

Between 01/10/11 and 31/03/12

Between 01/04/12 and 30/09/12

Between 01/10/12 and 31/03/13

Between 01/04/13 and 30/09/13

Between 01/10/13 and 31/03/14

We hope this model will provide the structure to encourage

UKSCAs 10th Annual Conference, 19-20

In relation to the UKSCA CPD process, this model will

ISSUE 32 / MARCH 2014

to support all the athletes who attended

within winter sports. I was particularly

NEWS... continued from page 5

Skills Active National Occupational Standards in S&C

CPD Events for Members

HOW TO SUCCEED as a female S&C coach

ISSUE 32 / MARCH 2014

Women coaching men

an expert female strength coach may be

Moreover, as commonly perceived, the

HOW TO SUCCEED as a female S&C coach

ISSUE 32 / MARCH 2014

The good news, though, is that other research indicates that

However, in the Magnusen & Rhea39 study

ISSUE 32 / MARCH 2014

with S&C coaches who display positive

HOW TO SUCCEED as a female S&C coach

them as individuals. Thus, it can be argued

Thus, demonstrating competence, or

HOW TO SUCCEED as a female S&C coach

ISSUE 32 / MARCH 2014

One study demonstrated that male swimmers indicated

males; they also cited support from the

ISSUE 32 / MARCH 2014

7. Bremner, K. Gender, sexuality and sport. Canadian

13. Bell, G J, Syrotuik, D and Socha, T. Effect of