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International Centre for Hydrogen Energy Technologies (UNIDO-ICHET) Sabri Ulker Sk. 38/4, Cevizlibag, Zeytinburnu,
34015 Istanbul, Turkey
b
Marmara University, Goztepe Campus, Technology Faculty, 34722 Istanbul, Turkey
c
The University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station, C2100 Austin, TX 78712, USA
article info
abstract
Article history:
proposed and demonstrated with a mobile house. This concept shows that different
renewable sources can be used simultaneously to power off-grid applications. The pre-
20 December 2010
sented mobile house can produce sufficient power to cover the peak load. Photovoltaic and
wind energy are used as primary sources and a fuel cell as backup power for the system.
The power budgeting of the system is designed based on the local data of solar radiation
and wind availability. Further research will focus on the development of the data acqui-
Keywords:
sition system and the implementation of automatic controls for power management.
Renewable energy
Copyright 2011, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights
Photovoltaic (PV)
reserved.
Wind energy
Fuel cell
Hybrid power system
1.
Introduction
inexhaustibility [1]. However, due to the sporadic characteristics of natural resources, it has been a challenge to generate
a highly reliable power with photovoltaic (PV) modules and/
or wind turbines [2]. To overcome this limitation, previous
studies were conducted using a fuel cell as another energy
source and simulated results showed that a PV/wind/fuel cell
hybrid power system may be a feasible solution for standalone applications [3e5]. Since a multi-source hybrid power
system increases energy availability significantly, it becomes
advantageous for practical applications that need highly
reliable power regardless of location [6], [7].
* Corrresponding author. Tel.: 90 216 336 57 70; fax: 90 216 337 89 87.
E-mail addresses: meroglu@unido-ichet.org (M. Eroglu), erkandursun@marmara.edu.tr (E. Dursun), ssevencan@unido-ichet.org
(S. Sevencan), songjunseok@gmail.com (J. Song), syazici@unido-ichet.org (S. Yazici), osman.kilic@marmara.edu.tr (O. Kilic).
1
Tel.: 90 212 416 48 48; fax: 90 212 416 89 47.
2
Tel.: 90 216 336 57 70; fax: 90 216 337 89 87.
3
Tel.: 1 512 471 6179; fax: 1 512 471 3652.
0360-3199/$ e see front matter Copyright 2011, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.01.046
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2.
Design strategy
2.1.
Load analysis
n
X
In Vn Dn
(1)
i1
where, In, Vn, and Dn are the current, voltage and duty cycle of
each appliance used in one day, respectively and Ed shows the
total energy demand for the mobile house. As shown in Table 1,
the average daily energy consumption of the mobile house is
calculated as 4220 Wh according to Eq. (1). The total power,
2835 W, declares the maximum instantaneous power which the
inverter should meet; in order to maintain the stability of
Power
[W]
Air Conditioner
# of Hours
used/Day
[hours]
Energy
used/Day
[Wh]
560
2800
5*
Refrigerator
70
560
8*
LCD TV
65
130
2*
Electrolyser
400
200
0.5
Lighting
100
200
2*
Water Heater
1500
330
0.22
Total
2835
4220
*discreted time.
2.2.
Availability study
2.2.1.
Solar energy
The city of Istanbul has the lowest daily irradiance and sun
hours in December, as shown in Fig. 4 [9,10]. The average
radiation in December was calculated as 2030 Wh/m2/day
when PV panels are tilted at 41 [11]. Total area on the roof of
the mobile house available for PV panels is 8.4 m2 and the total
energy generated in a day of December can be calculated with
Eq. (2).
Z24
Epv
Ir dt Shpv hb hi
(2)
500
Power [W]
400
300
200
100
0
0
12
16
20
Time [h]
Fig. 1 e The mobile house.
24
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2.2.2.
S surface area of PV cells 8.4 m2
hpv efficiency of PV panels 16%
hb efficiency of batteries 85%
hi efficiency of inverter 95%
Ir solar irradiance (Wm2)
R 24
0 Ir dt total solar irradiance in a December day 2030
Whm2/day
Epv PV panels generated power to AC bus in a December
day 2203 Wh/day
According to the results from Eq.(2), 2203 Wh/day from the
solar radiation can be produced with the available surface on
the mobile house roof.
The generated power of PV panels is also a function of
temperature; when the temperature increases, the efficiency
of the panel decreases [12]. However, this paper does not
consider this point because the 2.6deviation of the average
temperature of 8 in December [13] is assumed to be negligible.
The basic mathematical model is used to calculate the
maximum power output from the photovoltaic modules
[14,15];
GT
1 aP TC TC;STC
GT;STC
Wind energy
(3)
Where:
r air density (kgm3)
A rotor sweep area (m2)
Cp power coefficient, a function of tip speed ratio and pitch
angle
V wind velocity (ms1)
The mobile house used a Ventura 1000 l kW wind turbine
model which was found suitable for the hybrid power system.
The energy produced from wind can be determined as follows.
Z24
Ew
Pw dt hs
Irradiance [W/m2]
300
200
100
0
3
11 13 15 17 19 21 23
Time [h]
Fig. 4 e Solar irradiance data for December (41 N, 29 E).
(5)
Where:
Pw instantaneous power produced (W )
hs system efficiency with battery and inverter 80%
Ew wind turbines generated power to AC bus in
a day 2177 Wh/day
Fig. 7 shows a comparison between the energy production
and the energy demand in a day in December. The area under
400
(4)
PPV YPV fPV
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Load
Solar
Wind
400
Power [W]
500
300
200
100
12
16
20
24
Time [hours]
Z24
Z24
Ppv dt hs
Pw dt hs
Pd dt hs
(7)
Using Eq. (5), the value Eeb was calculated as 160 Wh which
indicate that the mobile house has an energy surplus of 160
Wh. When is negative, the fuel cell has to be activated.
2.2.3.
Fuel cell
12
16
20
24
Time[hours]
Eeb
En
Ed
nb nfc ni
(8)
Where:
Ed energy demand 4220 Wh/day
nb efficiency of startup batteries 85%
nfc efficiency of fuel cell 50%
ni efficiency of inverter 95%
Eh hydrogen energy needed for autonomy 10452 Wh/
day 37.6 Mj/day
Since the lower heating value of hydrogen is 120 Mj/kg,
0.310 kg/day of hydrogen is required for autonomy. Eq. (9)
calculates the required amount of hydrogen;
n
PV
RTz
(9)
Where:
P pressure (bar)
V volume (l )
R gas constant 0.08314 (bar.l/ K.mol )
T absolute temperature ( K )
z compressibility factor 1.1054 @ 160 bar 15 C
n amount of gas (mol)
As a result, two 10-liter tanks may store approximately
121 mol of hydrogen e 0.242 @ 160 bar 15 Cewhich has
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100
90
80
70
SOC [%]
60
50
40
30
1
1000
1999
2998
3997
4996
5995
6994
7993
3.
February and July, the fuel cell is not working. The Mobile
House energy needs during these months are supplied by the
wind turbine and solar panels. The fuel cell works at its
maximum in April. Monthly average the PEMFC output power
at Fig. 10.
2.2.4.
Batteries
Batteries are used as the energy storage units and the required
capacity can be calculated with Eq. (10).
Ih
aEd
ns Vs 1 SOCm =100
(10)
Where:
Ed total energy demand 4220 Wh/day
ns system efficiency 80%
Vs system voltage 24 V
SOCm minimum state of charge 50%
a days of autonomy 2
The required capacity was calculated as 879 from Eq. (10).
Because of space limitations, 8 modules of Haze Professionals
12 200 sealed lead acid monoblock gelled electrolyte battery
were used so 1.8 days of autonomy is provided. Fig. 11 shows
System integration
100
D.O.D [%]
80
60
40
20
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Number of Cycles
Fig. 11 e Battery cycle life vs. depth of discharge.
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Fig. 14 e PV panels.
Fig. 16 e PEMFC.
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Start
Switch = 1
FC = off
4.
Read Battery
Bank Voltage
No
SOC50%
AND
Edem> Eprod
Yes
Read Hydrogen Pressure
No
Ph4bar
Yes
Switch = 0
Yes
SOC50%
OR
Eprod.> Edem.
No
7991
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
The mobile house project is supported by UNIDO-ICHET (United
Nations Industrial Development Organization - International
Centre for Hydrogen Energy Technologies) with the mission of
raising public awareness for renewable energy and demonstrating viable implementations of hydrogen energy technologies in developing countries. Partial support from NANOCOFC
project under EC-FP6 program is also acknowledged.
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7992
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