AP Physics: Algebra Based - Study Guide

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AP Physics: Algebra Based - Study Guide

By Thomas Lai, Jonathan Leigh, and Sharon Chiang.
(Comments and suggestions welcome.)
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Introduction
1.
Do not spend time memorizing formulas or constants. A formula and equation sheet will be
provided for you during the free-response portion of the test. You, however, need
howto know
to use these formulas.
2.
The AP Physics 2 test does require knowledge of topics listed in AP Physics 1.

a. AP Physics 1:
Kinematics.* - Includes rotational kinematics.

Work and energy.*
Mechanical waves and sound.*

Gravitational forces.*
Electrostatics - part 1.*

DC circuits - part 1.*
b. AP Physics 2:
Thermodynamics.*
Fluid states and dynamics.*

Electrostatics - part 2.*
DC circuits - part 2.*
Magnetism.*
Geometric and physical optics.*

3.
4.
Modern physics.*
A list of useful links has been provided here.
The following conventions are used on the exam.

a.
The frame of reference of any problem is assumed to be inertial unless otherwise

stated.
b. In all situations, positive work is defined as work done on a system.

c.
The direction of current is conventional current: the direction in which positive charge
would drift.
d. Assume all batteries and meters are ideal unless otherwise stated.
e.
Assume edge effects for the electric field of a parallel plate capacitor unless otherwise
stated.

f.
For any isolated electrically charged object, the electric potential is defined as zero at
infinite distance from the charged object.
Kinematics
1.
Vectors and Scalars.

a.
A magnitude is a number that usually represents size.
b. A quantity with both a magnitude and direction is called a vector and can be drawn
with an arrow.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Examples of vectors are force and velocity.

Two vectors at right angles to each other are called components of the given
(resultant) vector.
Vectors can be added together by adding the magnitudes much like how
numbers are added, and can have a negative value.
Vectors at right angles to each other can be added using Pythagorass

Theorem.
1.
c.
Quantities that have a magnitude but not a direction are scalars.

i.
2.
Examples of scalars are time, mass, and volume.
One-dimensional kinematics.
a.
Speed is a measure of how fast something is moving.

i.
The speedometer in a car reads the instantaneous speed.
b. Speed and velocity are not the same thing in physics.

i.
c.
Speed is a scalar, while velocity is a vector.
Acceleration is the rate at which an objects velocity changes.

i.
If acceleration is positive, the object is speeding up.
ii.
If acceleration is negative, the object is slowing down.
iii.
If acceleration is zero, the object has a constant velocity.
iv.
The acceleration due to gravity on earth is approximately 9.8m/s2 .
d. Variables.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
= Initial velocity; if not given, assume zero.

= Final velocity; measured in
= Distance; total length travelled; measured in
= Displacement; distance from initial starting point.
= Time; measured in .

vi.
= Acceleration; if given constant velocity, assume acceleration is zero;

measured in
e.
Formulae.
i.
1.
Returns final velocity given the initial velocity and acceleration.
1.
Returns displacement given initial velocity, acceleration, and time.
1.
Returns velocity given acceleration, initial velocity, and initial and final
ii.
iii.
horizontal distance.
f.
Graphical representations. Notice

i.
Displacement (
):
1.
ii.
Velocity (
):
1.
iii.
Acceleration (
):
1.
3.
Projectile motion.
a.
Projectiles near Earth or are affected by gravity follow a curved parabolic path.

b. The vertical and horizontal components of projectiles are independent.

c.
Projectiles can be described by combining the separate vertical and horizontal

components of motion.
d. A projectiles horizontal motion will remain constant if there is no horizontal force.

e.
If an object it thrown so that the path matches the curved surface of Earth, it will orbit
Earth.
f.
A satellite is a projectile that travels fast enough to fall around the Earth rather than
into it.
g.
Formulae.
i.
1.
Returns velocity given initial velocity, angle above horizontal,

acceleration, and time.
ii.
1.
Returns displacement given initial velocity, angle above horizontal,

acceleration, and time.
iii.
1.
Acceleration due to Earths gravity.
2.
Gravitational acceleration, considered g is considered negative.
1.
Returns initial velocity components given initial velocity.
iv.
4.
Momentum.
a.
Both mass and velocity of an object varies directly with its momentum.
i.
b. Because momentum is determined by mass and velocity, if momentum changes and

mass remains constant, then velocity must change.
c.
Momentum is changed by applying an outside force to accelerate the object.

i.
d. The amount of time a force is applied is called the impulse.

i.
e.
Examples.
i.
Increasing momentum: to send a golf ball as far up into the air as possible,
one wants to increase the balls momentum as much as possible, which
requires a big impulse.
1.
ii.
Apply a large force over a longer period of time.
Decreasing momentum: to stop a car, impulse is needed to change the

momentum. The momentum decreases by a fixed amount.
1.
2.
A brick wall has a larger impact force, so it takes a shorter amount of

time.
3.
A haystack would have a smaller impact force, so it would take a longer

amount of time.
f.
g.
The same impulse does not mean the same amount of force or same amount of pain.
For a fixed change in momentum, a reduced impact force comes by increasing time.
When two objects bounce upon collision, impulse is provided to stop them and extra
impulse is provided to push them away from each other.
h. For a system with only internal forces, total momentum is conserved.

i.
Elastic collisions happen when objects bounce off after colliding and do not stick or
deform.
i.
ii.
j.
An example is when billiard balls collide.
Inelastic collisions happen when objects stick or get entangled.

i.
ii.
5.
Total momentum is conserved.
Total momentum is not conserved.
An example is when freight trains collide.
Forces.
a.
The Greeks believed that a force caused motion.

i.
Natural motion such as a rock falling, smoke rising, or stars moving was
considered to occur without forces.
ii.
Violent or imposed motion was believed to be caused by one or more external

force.
b. Force is a push or pull.

i.
c.
Typically measured in Newtons, or
Friction is a type of force that results when two materials move past each other.

i.
d. Galileo believed if there is friction, force is needed to keep an object moving.
i.
He also believed if there is no friction, force is not needed to keep an object

moving.
e.
Newtons three laws.

i.
Newtons first law is the Law of Inertia.

1.
An object in motion will stay in motion unless acted upon by an outside

force.
2.
An object at rest will remain at rest unless acted upon by an outside

force.
3.
ii.
If no forces exist, objects will move in a straight line indefinitely.
Newtons second law states that the acceleration of an object as produced by a

net force is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force, in the same
direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
1.
iii.
Newtons third law of motion is the Law of Action and Reaction.

1.
2.
By Newtons third law, forces come in pairs, and every action yields
an equal and opposite reaction.
Examples.
a.
The force of the Earth on a car is equal to the force of the car
on the Earth.
b. The force of a book on a table is equal to the force of the table

on the book.
f.
Inertia is an objects resistance to change.

i.
ii.
iii.
The more inertia, the more force is needed to move it.

Mass is one way to measure inertia.
Example: the force needed to shake a soda can is less than to shake a car;
therefore, the car has more inertia.
g.
The net force is the combination of all forces acting on an object.
h. When an objects net force is zero, it is in a state of equilibrium.

i.
j.
Forces are represented by arrows in diagrams.
Frictional force always acts in a direction that opposes the direction of motion.
i.
ii.
k.
The amount of friction depends on the material of the objects.

Fluids can experience and cause friction.
The amount of force exerted on an area is the pressure.

i.
l.
Pressure is not the same as force, and is measured in Pascals.
Terminal speed is when acceleration terminates because there is air resistance.

i.
This means, when terminal speed is reached, the object does not continue to
speed up.
6.
ii.
A heavier object will attain greater terminal speed.
iii.
Terminal speed is not the same every time the same object falls.
iv.
Greater air resistance leads to smaller terminal speed.
Circular motion.
a.
Rotation is when an object turns about an internal axis.

i.
The Earth rotates once every 24 hours.
b. Revolution is when an object turns about an external axis outside the object.
i.
c.
The Earth revolves around the sun every 265.25 days.
Linear speed is greater on the outer part of a rigid disk versus the inner part.
i.
ii.
d. Angular speed is the same throughout the disk.
i.
ii.
iii.
e.
The rotational inertia of an object is the objects resistance to rotation.

i.
f.
The angular momentum of a rotating object is directly proportional to its rotational

inertia and speed.
i.
g.
A rotating objects angular acceleration is directly proportional to the square of its

linear speed and inversely proportional to its radius.
i.
h. The period of a rotating object is the time required for each rotation.
i.
i.
The frequency of a rotating object is the amount of rotations in a given amount of

time.

i.
j.
Centripetal force is the force perpendicular to the path of the moving object and
produces circular motion.
i.
ii.
Examples.
1.
Gravitational force holding the moon in orbit is directed towards the

Earth.
2.
Electrical force holding electrons moving around the nucleus is

directed inward toward the nucleus.
3.
When a car rounds a corner, centripetal force points toward the

corner.
k.
Centrifugal force does not pull outward; it is simply an imaginary effect caused by the
Law of Inertia.
l.
Gravity can be simulated by spinning a cylindrical container, making its contents feel
as though they are pressed against the outer wall.
m. The center of mass of an object is not always at its geometric center.

i.
ii.
The center of mass of the Solar System is not at the center of the sun.
A star with a planetary system around it follows a wobbly path.
n. The center of gravity is always located at an objects geometric center.

i.
The center of gravity may be located where there is no actual matter.

1.
ii.
The center of gravity of a donut is in the center.
If the center of gravity of an object is above the area of support, it will remain
upright. Otherwise, it will topple.
1.
Stability is when any displacement requires lowering the center of

gravity, thus requiring work.
iii.
A humans center of gravity when standing with arms by the side is typically
located near the navel.
o. Torque is the turning force applied to make an object rotate.

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
A doorknob placed far away from the hinges provides more leverage for easier
opening.

v.
Torque is balanced when the products of the mass and distance of objects
from the turning axis are the same.
1.
Work and Energy

1.
Work is the product of the force and the distance the object is moved.
a.
b. Work is measured in Joules (Newton-meters).

i.
c.
For larger values we use kilojoules (kJ) or megajoules (MJ).

is the same as
d. Work is dependent on the force and direction.

e.
We use machines to change the course/direction and force.

i.
Example: Pulleys and Levers.
f.
Exerting a force does not always equal doing work.
g.
It takes four times the work to double speed.
h. Example: The amount of work required to lift 0.25 pounds of cheese up one meter is 1
Joule.
2.
Power is the rate at which work is done.

a.
The unit of power is Watt (joules per second).
b.
c.
Twice the power means the object can do twice the work in the same amount of time
or the same amount of work in half the time.
3.
Mechanical Energy is the energy due to the position of something, or the movement of
something
a.
4.
This is what enables an object to do work.
b. Can be in the form of potential or kinetic energy.
Potential energy is the stored state of energy has the potential for doing work.
a.
Found in fossil fuels, electric batteries and the food we eat.
b. Work is required to elevate objects against the earth's gravity. The potential energy due
to elevated positions is called gravitational potential energy.
i.
Example: Water in an elevated reservoir and the raised ram of a pile driver
have gravitational potential energy.

c.
5.
Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion.

a.
b. Kinetic Energy depends on the mass of the object as well as its speed. If speed of an
object is doubled, its kinetic energy is quadrupled.
c.
6.
Exists in other forms such as: thermal energy, acoustical energy and radiant energy.
Law of Conservation of Energy states: Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can be

transformed from one form into another, but the total amount of energy never changes.
a.
7.
Energy is transformed from one form to another.
Machines are devices used to multiply forces or simply change the direction of the forces.
a.
Every machine underlies the concept of Law of Conservation of Energy.
b. Simplest machine is the lever. When work is done on one end of the lever, the other
end does work on the load as well.
i.
Direction of force is changed (up versus down).
ii.
iii.
c.
The fulcrum is the pivot point (close to the load).
Mechanical advantage is the ratio of output force to input force for a machine. AKA
same as the number of strands of rope that actually support the load.
d. A pulley is basically a kind of lever that can be used to change the direction of force.
i.
e.
8.
If properly used, (a system of) pulleys can multiply forces.
A machine can only transfer energy from one place to another or transform it from
one form to another. It cannot create energy.
The machine efficiency is the ratio of useful work output to total work input, or the ratio of
actual mechanical advantage to theoretical mechanical advantage.
a.
100% efficiency is impossible.
b. Wasted energy is dissipated as heat (thermal energy).

c.
9.
Efficiency will always be a percentage less than 1.
Energy for lifephotosynthesis.

a.
There is more energy stored in the molecules in food than there is in the reaction
products after the food is digested. The energy difference is what sustains life.
b. Sugar is the simplest food.

Mechanical Waves and Sound

1.
A period is the time of a back-and-forth swing. It depends only on the length of the pendulum
and the acceleration of gravity.
a.
2.
3.
A longer pendulum has a longer period than a shorter pendulum.
The simple harmonic motion is the back-and-forth vibratory motion of a swinging pendulum.
(also called oscillatory motion).
A simple harmonic motion traces out a special curve known as a sine curve.
a.
The high points of the wave are called crests, and the low points are called troughs.
b. Amplitude refers to the distance from the midpoint to the crest/trough of the wave.
i.
c.
Amplitude = maximum displacement from equilibrium.
The wavelength of a wave is the distance from the tip of one crest to the top of the
next one.
d. Frequency is how frequently a vibration occurs.

i.
ii.
The unit for frequency is hertz (Hz).
The frequency of the vibrating source and the frequency of the wave it
produces is the same.
iii.
Example: One cycle per second is 1 hertz, 2 cycles per second is 2 hertz etc.
iv.
e.
When energy is transferred by a wave from a vibrating source to a distant receiver,

there is no transfer of matter between the two points.
f.
Example: Sound, light (in form of electromagnetic wave) are examples of different
types of waves.
g.
The speed of a wave depends on the medium through which the wave moves.
i.
Example: Sound waves move 330 m/s - 350 m/s depending on temperature
and four times faster in water.
1.
ii.
Use
Where
wavelength.
iii.
for the speed of sound.

is the wave speed,
is the frequency, and
is the
Frequency and wavelength vary inversely to produce the same wave speed for
all sounds.
1.
Example: During a concert, you do not hear the high notes in a chord
before you hear the low notes. The sounds of all instruments reach you
at the same time.
h. A transverse wave is whenever the motion of the medium is at right angles to the
direction in which a wave travels.

i.
Example: electromagnetic waves, the waves of the stretched strings of musical

instruments and upon the surfaces of liquids.
ii.
i.
Shown by shaking slinky up and down.
A longitudinal wave is when particles move along the direction of the wave rather
than at right angles to it.
i.
j.
Shown by pulling slinky in and out.
An interference pattern is when the waves produced by each object overlaps.

i.
Within the pattern, the wave effects may be increased, decreased, or

neutralized.
ii.
A constructive interference is when the interference creates a wave of

increased amplitude. Also known as reinforcement.
iii.
A destructive interference is when the high part of one wave simply fills in
the low part of another. Also known as cancellation.
iv.
k.
Example: moire pattern
A standing wave is when the original waves and the reflected waves form nodes, the
certain parts of the rope that remain stationary.
i.
The standing waves are the results of interference.
ii.
Nodes are the stable regions of destructive interference.
iii.
An antinode is the position on a standing wave with the largest amplitude

(Antinodes occur halfway between nodes).
l.
Sound waves are produced by the vibrations of material objects.

i.
4.
High pitched sounds high frequency.
ii.
Low pitched sounds low frequency.
iii.
can travel through gases, liquids, and solids, but not through a vacuum.
iv.
Travels the fastest through very elastic materials.
The Doppler Effect is the change in frequency due to the motion of the source (or receiver).
a.
The greater the speed of the source, the greater the Doppler effect.
b. Example: The changing pitch of a car horn as the car passes you.
i.
This occurs because the sound wave crests are encountering you more
frequently. And when the car passes and moves away, you hear a drop in the
pitch because the wave crests are encountering you less frequently.
ii.
is the equation involving the Doppler effect.

1.
is the new frequency, or the frequency you hear due to the Doppler
effect.

2.
is the frequency of sound emitted by the moving object.
3.
is the velocity of sound (
4.
) and
is the velocity of the object.
For objects coming toward you, use the subtraction sign as the
frequency will be higher.
5.
For objects moving away, use the addition sign on the bottom of the
equation as the frequency will be lower.
5.
Beats are the periodic variation in the loudness of sound.

a.
It is caused by the interference of two sound sources of slightly different frequencies.
b. An oscilloscope displays beats in graphical representations of their pressure patterns.

6.
With Closed-Ended Pipes, the standing wave in this pipe must have a node at one end and an
antinode at the other.
a.
The wavelength of a standing wave is always twice the node-to-node distance, but the
wave is so long that we dont see a second node.
i.
Gravitational Forces
1.
2.
3.
Newton reasoned that the moon is orbiting the Earth for the same reason apples fallthey are
both pulled by Earths gravity.
Calculations of gravity are measured from the center of Earth.

Objects traveling at a tangential velocity around another object will orbit.
a.
4.
Tangential velocity points perpendicular to gravity.
Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation.

a.
b. The greater the masses, the greater the force of attraction.

c.
The closer the masses, the greater the force of attraction.
d. There can never be a force of gravity with just one mass, due to Newtons Law of
Action and Reaction.
e.
is the universal gravitational constant.

i.
5.
f.
Your weight is smaller on top of a mountain as at the beach.
g.
Perturbation is the deviation of an object from its normal orbits.
The force due to gravity is represented by the symbol

a.
Another word for the force due to gravity is weight.

6.
A force field is a graphical representation of the acceleration near a mass due to gravity.
a.
7.
The acceleration due to gravity is the actual gravitational field around the mass.
a.
b. At the center of Earth, the gravitational field is zero.
8.
The weight reading on a bathroom scale is linked to the amount of compression, which is
related to the normal or support forces,
a.
and
If an elevator accelerates, the reading on the scale would change.

i.
ii.
As the elevator accelerates up, the scale would show an increase in weight.
As the elevator accelerates down, the scale would show a decrease in weight.
b. A new definition of weightlessness is feeling weightless by the absence of a gravity

force.
9.
Gravitational force between Earth and the moon is stronger on the side of the Earth facing the
moon.
a.
between Earth and the moon does not cause the oceans to be pulled toward the
moon.
b.
between Earth and the moon does not cause the solid planet to be pulled toward
the moon.
c.
There are two ocean tides per day because of the moon.
i.
Spring tides occur when the moon, Earth, and sun all line up.
1.
ii.
We would see a full moon.
Neap tides occur when the moon, Earth, and sun form a right angle.
1.
We would see a half moon.
10. A black hole is a region of space-time exhibiting such strong gravitational effects that
nothingincluding particles and electromagnetic radiation such as lightcan escape from

inside it.
a.
When fusion decreases, stars get cooler and smaller.

i.
For extra heavy stars, gravity can collapse the star into a black hole with the
same mass as the original star.
b. One could escape from a black hole if they were a far distance away.
11. An Earth satellite is a projectile that falls around the Earth rather than into it.

a.
The orbital speed for close orbit about the surface of the Earth is 8 km/s.
i.
At this speed, the object would burn up from air friction.
b. Satellites are usually about 150 kilometers above the Earths surface.
c.
For a satellite close to Earth, the time for one complete orbit is 90 minutes.
d. Communications satellite orbits take a longer amount of time to orbit, and their
linear speed matches that at the equator.
12. A satellite with an elliptical orbit path has the greatest speed when it is closest to the center
of gravity.
a.
Everywhere along an elliptical orbit, the sum of PE and KE is constant.
b. Apogee is the point when the satellite is farthest from the center of gravity.
i.
c.
Potential energy is lowest at this point, while kinetic energy is the greatest.
Perigee is the point when the satellite is closest to the center of gravity.
i.
Potential energy is greatest at this point, while kinetic energy is the lowest.
13. Work is required to launch a rocket straight up and escape gravity. This work is used to give the
rocket kinetic energy.
a.
The speed associated with this kinetic energy is called the escape speed from the
surface of the Earth.
i.
Thermodynamics
1.
The internal energy, also known as the thermal energyof an object is related to the kinetic
energy of all the particles comprising the object.
a.
In solids, the particles comprising the solid are held together tightly, allowing limited
motionthe particles can only vibrate back and forth in their given positions.
b. In liquids, the particles can move back and forth across each other, but the object itself
has no defined shape.
c.
In gases, the particles move throughout the volume available, interacting with each
other and the walls of any container holding them.
d. Instead of looking at the sum of all the individual particles kinetic energies, you could
examine the average kinetic energy of the particles comprising the object.
i.
1.
2.
The average kinetic is given in Joules.

is Boltzmanns Constant,
J/K.

e.
Temperature is measured in Kelvins, the SI unit of temperature.

i.
ii.
The Kelvin scale is closely related to the Celsius scale.
The zero point on the Kelvin scale is at absolute zero, a theoretical minimum
temperature, and the zero point on the Celsius scale is at the freezing and
melting point of water.
1.
2.
3.
2.
When objects are heated, they tend to expand, and when they are cooled, they tend to
contract.
a.
This occurs because at higher temperatures, objects have higher kinetic energies, so
their particles vibrate more.
b. At higher levels of vibration, the particles arent bound to each other as tightly, so the
object expands.
i.
The linear expansion of a material is characterized by the materials

coefficient of expansion ( ).
1.
ii.
When calculating a materials three-dimensional expansion, youll use the
volumetric expansion formula, and the materials volumetric coefficient of

expansion ( ).
1.
c.
3.
When frozen, water crystallizes into a hexagonal lattice, causing it to expand.
Heat is the transfer of thermal energy from one object to another object due to a difference in
temperature.
a.
Heat always flows from warm objects to cool objects.
b. The symbol for heat in physics is

i.
Positive values of
represent heat flowing into an object, and negative values
represent heat flowing out of an object.

c.
When heat flows into or out of an object, the amount of temperature change depends
on the material.
i.
The amount of heat required to change one kilogram of a material by one

Kelvin (or degree Celsius) is known as the materials specific heat capacity.
1.
The specific heat of a material is represented by the symbol

d. The relationship between heat and temperature is quantified by the following

equation.
i.
e.
Heat can be transferred from one object to another by three different methods.
i.
Conduction is the transfer of heat along an object due to the particles

comprising the object colliding.
1.
An example is when you stick an iron rod in a fire. The end in the fire
warms up, but over time, the particles comprising the iron rod near the
fire move more quickly, colliding with other particles in the iron
speeding them up, and so on, resulting in heat transfer down the
length of the iron rod.
2.
a.
is the rate of heat transfer, which is the energy transferred

to the system ( ) per unit time (
), measured in Joules per
second, or Watts, depends on the magnitude of the

temperature difference across the object (
), the
cross-sectional area of the object ( ), the length of the object

ii.
( ) and the thermal conductivity of the material ( ).
Convection is a result of the energetic particles moving from one place to

another.
1.
An example is a convection oven, where air molecules are heated near

the burner and then circulated throughout the oven, transferring the
heat throughout the entire ovens volume.
2.
iii.
Convection typically only occurs in fluids.
Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves.

1.
An example is when you place your hands on top of a fireplace to

warm up, absorbing the maximum amount of electromagnetic
f.
wavesmostly infraredcoming from the fire.
The Carnot Efficiency of a heat engine is given as follows:

i.
ii.
4.
Matter can exist in different states, including solids, liquids, gases, and plasmas.
a.
Plasmas are energetic gases that have been ionized to conduct electricity.

i.
Examples include stars, lightning, and neon signs.
b. When matter changes state, its internal energy changes, so the kinetic energy of its
constituent particles changes.
c.
i.
The energy required to change a specific materials state is known as the

materials latent heat of transformation ( ).
1.
2.
3.
When an object transitions between the solid and liquid phases, you
use the latent heat of fusion (
).
When an object transitions between the liquid and gaseous phases,

you use the latent heat of vaporization (
).
You can calculate the energy required for a material to change phases
using the following formula, where
objects mass, and
transformation.
is the heat added,
is the materials specific latent heat of
is the
a.
5.
In studying the behavior of gases in confined spaces, it is useful to limit ourselves to the study
of ideal gases.
a.
Ideal gases are theoretical models of real gases, which utilize a number of basic
assumptions to simplify their study.
i.
The assumptions include treating the gas as being comprised of many particles
which move randomly in a container.
ii.
The particles are, on average, far apart, and they do not exert forces upon one
another unless they come in contact in an elastic collision.
b. Under normal conditions, most gases behave in a manner quite similar to an ideal gas.

i.
Heavy gases as well as gases at very low temperatures or very high pressures
are not as well modeled by an ideal gas.
c.
The Ideal Gas Law relates the pressure, volume, number of particles, and temperature
of an ideal gas in a single equation.
i.
ii.
is the pressure of the gas (in Pascals),

meters),
gas,
is the number of moles of gas,
is the volume of the gas (in cubic

is the number of molecules of
is the universal gas constant equal to
Boltzmanns Constant (
1.
), and
is
is the temperature.
To convert from molecules to moles, you can use Avogadros Number

(
molecules per mole).

a.
iii.
It is also quite straightforward to find the total internal energy of an ideal gas.
1.
iv.
It is important to understand that the speeds of the individual atoms and/or

molecules in the system can have a wide range of speeds, which are in an
ongoing state of flux as momentum is transferred due to the many collisions
occurring in the material at the microscopic scale.
1.
The statistical distribution of particle speeds is modeled by the

Maxwell Speed Distribution.
2.
6.
Thermodynamics is the study of the relationship between heat transferred to or from an

object, and the work done on or by an object.

a.
The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if object A is in thermal equilibrium
with object B, and object B is in thermal equilibrium with object C, then objects A and C
must be in thermal equilibrium.
i.
Two objects are in thermal equilibrium when their internal energies are the
same.
ii.
This law is essentially common sense, but scientists needed it to be a written

law to complete their proofs of the first and second laws of thermodynamics.
b. The first law of thermodynamics states that the change in the internal energy of a
closed system is equal to the heat added to the system plus the work done on the
system.
i.
1.
represents heat added to the system, and

on the gas.
2.
represents work done
If heat was taken from the system or work was done by the system, the
respective quantities would be negative.
3.
The equation for work can also be written as:

a.
ii.
A pressure-volume (PV) diagram can be useful for visualizing the

thermodynamic processes of gases.
1.
iii.
In exploring ideal gas state changes, there are a number of state changes in
which one of the characteristics of the gas or process remain constant, and are
illustrated on the following PV diagram.

1.
a.
In an adiabatic process, heat flow is zero, so the change in
internal energy of the gas must be equal to the work done on

the gas.
b. In an isobaric process, pressure of the gas remains constant.
i.
c.
The prefix -iso means to remain constant.
In an isochoric (or isovolumetric) process, the volume of the

gas remains constant. This means the work done on the gas
must be zero, as shown in the diagram.
d. In an isothermal process, the temperature of the gas remains

constant. The product of pressure and volume remain
constant, so the internal energy of the gas remains constant.

c.
The second law of thermodynamics can be stated in many different ways.

i.
One statement of this law says that heat flows naturally from a warmer object
to a colder object, and cannot naturally flow from a colder object to a warmer
object without an external force doing work on the system.
ii.
This law also limits the efficiency of any heat engine and proves that it is not
possible to make a 100 percent efficient heat engine.
iii.
The law also states that the level of entropy in a closed system can only
increase or remain the same.
d. The third law of thermodynamics, also known as Nernsts Theorem, states that no
material can ever be cooled to absolute zero.
Fluid States and Dynamics

1.
A fluid is matter that flows under pressure, which includes liquids, gases, and plasmas.
a.
Examples of fluids are water, air, and the sun.

2.
Density is the ratio of an objects mass to the volume it occupies.

a.
i.
is pronounced rho.
b. Less dense fluids will float on top of denser fluids, and less dense solids will float on
top of denser fluids.
i.
3.
You must look at the average density of the entire solid.
Buoyancy is a force exerted by a fluid on an object, opposing the objects weight.

a.
Archimedes Principle states that the buoyant force on an object is equal to the
density of the fluid, multiplied by the volume of the fluid displaced, multiplied by the
acceleration due to gravity.
i.
ii.
Example: steel boats can float because the average density of the entire boat,
including the air inside the boat, is less than that of water.
1.
The weight of the volume of water displaced is greater than the weight
of the boat itself.
4.
Pressure is the effect of a force acting upon a surface.

a.
It is a scalar quantity calculated as the force applied per unit area, where the force
applied is always perpendicular to the surface.
i.
ii.
Measured in Pascals (Pa), or one N/m2 .
b. The pressure that a fluid exerts on an object submerged in that fluid can be calculated
by multiplying the density of the fluid by the depth submerged, all multiplied by the
acceleration due to gravity.
i.
ii.
This is the gauge pressure, because this is the reading you would observe on a
pressure gauge.
1.
You can determine the absolute pressureor total pressureby

adding in the atmospheric pressure (
Earth.
), which is about
Pa on
a.
c.
Pascals Principle states that when a force is applied to a contained, incompressible

fluid, such as water, the pressure increases equally in all directions throughout the
fluid.

i.
This fundamental characteristic of fluids provides the foundation for hydraulic

systems found in barbershop chairs, construction equipment, and the brakes
in your car.
ii.
1.
Because the force applied to the contained fluid is distributed

throughout the system, you can multiply the applied force through this
application of Pascals Principle to create a pressure in the fluid which
you can call
a.
2.
Similarly, the pressure at the second piston,

divided by the area of the second piston,
, must be equal to
.
a.
3.
Since the pressure is transmitted equally throughout the fluid in all

directions according to Pascals Principle,
must equal
a.
4.
Rearranging to solve for

the areas
over
, you find that
is increased by the ratio of
a.
5.
6.
Therefore, you have effectively increased the applied force
However, the energy remains constant due to the law of conservation

of energy.
d. The continuity equation for fluids states that the volume of fluid that enters a pipe
must equal the volume of fluid that leaves the pipe, even if the diameter changes.
i.
This is a restatement of the law of conservation of mass for fluids.

ii.
1.
2.
As the cross-section of the pipe gets smaller, the velocity of the fluid
increases.
e.
When applied to fluids, the conservation of energy leads to Bernoullis Principle.

i.
Fluids moving at higher velocities lead to lower pressures, and fluids moving at
lower velocities lead to higher pressures.
ii.
1.
Airplane wings have a larger top surface than the bottom surface, so
the velocity of the fluid has to be greater on the top to cover the same
distance.
a.
This means the pressure from the air on top is less than the
pressure from the air on the bottom of the wing.
iii.
1.
The pressure at a point in the tube plus half the density of the fluid
multiplied by the square of its velocity at that point, added to
must be equal at any point in the tube.
Electrostatics - Part 1
1.
Matter is made up of atoms, which contain neutrons, protons, and electrons.

a.
Electrons orbit the nucleuswhich consists of protons and neutronsin distinct

energy levels.
i.
To move to a higher energy level, an electron must absorb energy.

ii.
When an electron moves to a lower energy level, it gives off energy.
b. Most atoms are neutral, but if it loses or gains electrons, it is no longer neutral and is
called an ion.
i.
ii.
c.
If an atom loses one or more electrons, its net charge is positive and it is
known as a positive ion.
If an atom gains one or more electrons, its net charge is negative and it is
known as a negative ion.
The particles in a nucleus, known as nucleons, are held together by the strong nuclear
force.
d. Antimatter is matter made up of particles with the same mass as regular matter
particles, but opposite charges.
i.
An antiproton is a particle with the same mass as a proton, but a negative

charge.
ii.
iii.
A positron has the same mass as an electron, but a positive charge.
An antineutron has the same mass as a neutron, but has characteristics

opposite that of the neutron.
iv.
When a matter particle and its corresponding antimatter particle meet, the
particles may combine to annihilate each other, resulting in the complete
2.
conversion of both particles into energy.
Like charges repel, and opposite charges attract.

a.
A positive charge represents a charged particle or representation of which opposes

the charge held by an electron.
3.
b. A negative charge is the converse, the charge held by an electron.
Positive and negative charges are meant to be treated algebraically, so that during any process,
the net amount of charge produced is zero.
a.
The law of conservation of electric charge states that that the net amount of electric
charge produced in any process is zero.
4.
A coulomb, an SI unit that measures charge, is equal to

as this is a
protons. It should be noted
unit of charge and calculations will often be done in milli, micro, and
nano-coulombs.
a.
1C=
b. -1 C =
c.
electrons, respectively.
the elementary unit of charge, the charge held by a proton or electron is

i.
5.
protons
Conductivity.

a.
Conductors are materials that facilitate electron movement.

i.
Many of the transition-metals are good conductors as they allow electrons to

pop off of the atomic shell and move freely.
ii.
Conductors can be charged by conduction.

1.
iii.
If a charged conductor is brought into contact with an identical neutral

conductor, the net charge will be shared across the two conductors.
Conductors can also be charged without coming into contact with another
charged object in a process called induction.
1.
To charge a conductor by induction, first bring it close to another

charged object.
2.
The free electrons on the conductor will move toward the charged
object if the object is positively charged, or away if it is negatively
charged.
3.
If the conductor is then grounded by means of a conducting path to

the Earth, the excess charge is compensated for by means of electron
transfer to or from Earth.
4.
The ground connection is then severed, and when the object is moved
away from the conductor, the charges in the conductor redistribute,
leaving a net charge on the conductor.
b.
Insulators are materials that restrict electron movement.

i.
The atomic structure of insulators is such that electrons are bound very tightly
to the nuclei and are nearly immovable.
ii.
Insulators can also be charged by contact, or conduction.

1.
Much like momentum and energy, charge is also conserved in a closed

system.
a.
For example, if you rub a balloon against your hair, some of the
electrons from the atoms in your hair are transferred to the
balloon.
i.
The balloon now has a negative charge, but your hair

has a positive charge.
c.
Few materials that fall into the semiconductor category, such as Silicon and
Germanium.
i.
6.
Their conductivity is based on how hot the metal is.
Neutral objects, both insulators and conductors, can be charged by polarization.

a.
By bringing a strong positive or negative charge close to that object, the electrons in
the neutral object tend to move toward a strong positive charge or away from a strong
negative charge.
i.
A positively charged object can be attracted to both a negatively charged object

and a neutral object.
ii.
A negatively charged object can be attracted to both a positively charged object

and a neutral object.
7.
Coulombs Law.
a.
i.
is the electrostatic constant, equal to

1.
ii.
iii.
iv.
You may sometimes see this written as
.
, where
permittivity of free space, is
is the force experienced by each particle in Newtons equally.

and
are each charge in Coulombs, respectively.
represents the distance (
) in between the midpoint of both
b. This formula is very similar to the formula for gravitational force.

c.
, the
and
A positive value for the electrostatic force indicates that the force is a repelling force,
while a negative value for the electrostatic force indicates that the force is an attractive
force.
d. Keep in mind that force is a vector, and therefore has both magnitude and direction,
which allows you to apply Coulombs Law to problems of multiple dimensions.
i.
In cases where you have forces due to multiple charges, determine the force
due to each individual charge and then add the forces using the superposition
8.
Electric Fields.
a.
principle.
The electric field is a chart of the electric force per unit charge also known as
Newtons per Coulomb.
i.
Denoted by letter
ii.
is the magnitude of electric field given a single point charge for
that given point in space.

1.
Where is the distance between the charge and the point in space.
2.
Where
is the point-charge in Coulombs.
or

b. The electric field is usually rendered with arrows showing what force it would
experience if a positive charge was placed in the space.
i.
An electric field example of two
charges. Notice that the field lines
point away from the positive charge and towards the negative.
1.
ii.
An electric field example of two like
charges. Notice that the field lines
point away from both of them as they represent an imaginary positive

charge.
1.
c.
9.
The equation
represents the force on charge , given the electric field.
Electric potential is defined by the change in electric potential energy when an electric charge
moves from point A to point B.
i.
Work is done when charge q moves from low to high potential whereas
negative work is done when the charge falls from high to low potential.
ii.
As the charge falls from high to low potential, the charge translates potential
energy into kinetic energy.
iii.
Electric potential is understood as the potential energy per unit charge.

1.
If point charge q has electric potential energy

the electric potential
2.
Where
10. Voltage (Difference in Potential).
at this point is
at some point
.
is the amount of stored energy in Joules.

a.
Only differences in potential are physically measureable.
b. The difference in potential energy equivalent to work done by the electric force to
move the charge from point B to point A, or from low to high potential.
c.
The unit of electric potential is a Volt, or

the letter
i.
(Joules per Coulomb, and is denoted by
Note that a positive terminal or plate in a battery has a higher potential than a
negative one.
Thus a positively charged object moves naturally, or falls from a high
to low potential.
11. Relation Between Electric Potential and Electric field.

a.
You can find the work required to move a charge from point B to point A using both
Electric potential and electric field.
i.
Work done by electric field to move a positive charge from b to a (low to

high) is given by
ii.
We also find
where E represents the electric field and d is distance
in meters. We can find the voltage given the Electric field and a distance
because, at different distances, the electric field has different potential.
iii.
We then find that
and we can now find the electric field given the
voltage and the distance between the high and lower potential point.
12. The electron Volt.
a.
Defined as the energy acquired by a particle with an elementary charge moving

through a potential difference of 1 V.
b. Since the charge on an electron is
C, one electron volt is denoted by
Joules.
13. Capacitance
a.
See Electrostatics Part II. Small number of capacitance problems on the AP Test.
Electrostatics - Part 2
1.
The Standard Model of Particle Physics explains the interactions of different forces in the
universe.
a.
When observed from their most basic aspects, all observed forces in the universe can
be consolidated into four fundamental forces.
i.
Strong nuclear force holds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus.

ii.
Electromagnetic force causes electrical and magnetic attraction and

repulsion.
iii.
iv.
Weak nuclear force is responsible for radioactive beta decay.
Gravitational force is an attractive force between objects with mass.
b. All matter is divided into two categories.

i.
All fundamental forces act on hadrons, which include bigger particles such as
neutrons and protons.
1.
2.
Hadrons are further divided into baryons and mesons.
Baryons such as protons and neutrons are composed of three smaller

particles known as quarks.
a.
Scientists have identified six types of quarks.

i.
Up quark ( ):
ii.
Down quark ( ):
iii.
Charm quark ( ):
iv.
Strange quark ( ):
v.
vi.
Top quark ( ):
.
.
.
.
Bottom quark ( ):
b. Charges on each quark are either one third of an elementary

charge, or two thirds of an elementary charge, positive or
negative, and the quarks are symbolized by the first letter of
their name.
c.
For the associated antiquark, the symbol is the first letter of

its name with a line over it, such as
3.
for the anti-up quark.
Mesons are composed of a quark and an antiquark.

a.
For example, it could be composed of an up quark and an

anti-down quark.
ii.
All but the strong nuclear force act on smaller leptons, such as electrons,
positrons, muons, tau particles, and neutrinos.
1.
Scientists have also identified six types of leptons.

a.
Electron ( ):
b. Electron neutrino (
c.
Muon ( ):
d. Muon neutrino (
e.
Tau ( ):
): .
): .

f.
2.
Tau neutrino (
): .
If you know the potential difference between two parallel plates, you can easily calculate the
electric field strength between the plates.
a.
i.
Where
ii.
is the electric field in
is the voltage, and is the distance (
) between both plates.
b. As long as youre not near the edge of the plates, the electric field is constant between
the plates.
c.
3.
Note that this formula gives the electric field strength in volts per meter, but it is
equivalent to Newtons per coulomb.
Capacitors: Parallel conducting plates separated by an insulator can be used to store electrical
charge.
a.
These devices are known as parallel plate capacitors.
b. The amount of charge a capacitor can store on a single plate for a given amount of
potential difference across the plates is known as the devices capacitance.
i.
ii.
can be used to find the total charge held by the capacitor in

Coulombs.
1.
is charge in Coulombs,
farads.
iii.
is voltage, and
Given in coulombs per volt, also known as a farad (

1.
is capacitance in
).
A farad is a very large amount of capacitance; therefore, most

capacitors have values in the micro, nano, and pico-farad ranges.
c.
The amount of charge a parallel plate capacitor can hold is determined by its
geometry as well as the insulating material between the plates.
i.
ii.
The plates carry equal amounts of charge, but of opposite sign.
The capacitance is directly related to the area of the plates, and inversely
related to the separation between the plates.
1.
a.
The permittivity (
) of an insulator describes the
insulators resistance to the creation of an electric field.

b. The permittivity of free space, also known as vacuum

permittivity, is a constant written as
and is equal to
Farads per meter.

c.
The symbol kappa ( ) represents the relative permittivity of

a material, also known as the dielectric constant.
i.
For vacuum and air, the relative permittivity is equal to

one.
ii.
iii.
For other materials, the relative permittivity is larger.
Dielectrics are insulators which are placed between the plates of a capacitor
to increase the devices capacitance.
1.
When a dielectric is placed between the plates of a capacitor, the

electric field between the plates is weakened due to the molecules of
the dielectric becoming polarized in the electric field created by the
potential difference of the capacitor plates, creating an opposing
electric field.
2.
The greater amount of polarization, the greater the reduction in the

electric field.
3.
For a fixed charge on the plates
, the voltage decreases, increasing
the capacitance.
iv.
By storing charges on the opposing plates of a parallel-plate capacitor,

electrical energy is stored between the plates in the form of the electric field.
1.
2.
The electric field outside the plates is zero.
The magnitude of the electric field strength between the plates is

constant and can be determined through some basic manipulations of
previously-developed equations.
a.
3.
The electrical energy stored in the electric field between the plates of
the capacitor (
) can be quantified as follows:
a.
b. Simpler equation:
Where
is the energy stored in Joules ( ).
d. Electric Dipoles are are composed of two equal point charges

distance .
separated by

i.
They occur often in physics as well as molecular biology. Image given below:
1.
ii.
Then
simplifies to the equation
iii.
iv.
This equation is for finding a potential

1.
2.
3.
at point
is the difference in potential in volts.
from an electric dipole.
is the electrostatic constant.

is the magnitude of each charge.
4.
is the length between the two charges in the electric dipole.
5.
is the distance from Point P to the positive charge within the dipole.
6.
is the angle between the perpendicular line through the midpoint of

the positive charge and the negative charge.
7.
8.
DC Circuits - Part 1
Problems on the AP test will often ask you to find the potential at the

1.
Flow of Charge
a.
Charge flows when there is a potential difference (difference in voltage), across the
ends of a conductor.
b. To attain a sustained flow of charge in a conductor, some arrangement must be

provided to maintain a difference in potential while charge flows from one end to the
other.
c.
Electric charge will always flow from low to high potential. Dont confuse this with the
flow of conventional current, which flows from high to low potential.
2.
Power in a Circuit.
a.
The amount of power says how quickly that conversion occurs.
b.
c.
3.
is equal to
and
Electric current ( ) is the flow of electric charge.

a.
Conduction electrons are electrons that carry the charge through the circuit of the solid
conductors since they are free to move throughout the atomic network.
b. Measured in amperes (
i.
c.
4.
).
One coulomb of charge per second.
The net charge of a current-carrying wire is normally zero at every moment.
Electric resistance is the resistance the conductor offers to the flow of the charge.
a.
The resistance depends upon the conductivity of the material used in the wire, the
thickness and the length of the wire, and the temperature of the wire.
b. Longer wires have more resistance than short wires. Thick wires have less resistance
than thin wires. The greater the jostling about of atoms within the conductor, the
greater resistance the conductor offers to the flow of charge.
c.
Measured in ohms (
).
d.
i.
Where
area.
e.
is the resistivity constant,
is the length, and
is the resistance in Ohms ( ).
is the cross-sectional
Resistance, which tells how difficult it is for change to flow through a circuit element, is
not to be confused with resistivity, a property of a material, which implies what the
resistance would be of a meter-cube bit of that material.
5.
Ohms Law states that the current in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage impressed
across the circuit, and is inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit.

a.
, also expressed as
i.
ii.
iii.
Where
, and
is current ( ),
is resistance ( )
is voltage (
).
b. The greater the current, the greater the voltage.

6.
A circuit is a complete path from the positive terminal at the top of the battery to the negative
terminal, which is the bottom of the battery.
a.
A short circuit happens when a path of little resistance is formed directly from the
positive to negative terminal, which creates a massive amount of current flowing
through one path.
b. An electric circuit is a complete circuit with no gaps. If there is a gap, it is usually
provided by an electric switch that can be opened or closed to either cut off or allow
electron flow.
7.
Simple Circuits.
a.
Series circuits will have two or more objects connected in series with a battery. The
current flows through each object and the electrons in all parts of the circuit start to
move at once.
b. A break anywhere in the circuit will result in an open circuit.

c.
A parallel circuit includes electrical devices connected in parallel which are then
connected to the same two points of an electric circuit.
8.
d. Combinations of parallel and series circuits can be formed to create a complex circuit.
Kirchhoffs Laws: Conservation of Charge and Energy.

a.
Kirchhoff's junction rule says that the current entering a wire junction equals the
current leaving the junction.
i.
Applies to facts about current.
b. Kirchhoff's loop rule says that the sum of voltage changes around a circuit loop is
zero.
i.
c.
Applies to facts about voltage.
A battery can raise the electrical potential energy of some charge that flows, while a
resistor will lower the potential energy of that charge. But the sum of all the changes
must still be zero.
9.
a.
or the electromotive force.
Explains a battery or generator that converts a type of energy into electric energy.
b. The battery normally has some internal resistance ( ).

c.
When terminal voltage is measured (difference between both terminals of battery)

and no current is drawn, the total voltage should equal the
. However when a
current flows from the battery, there is an internal voltage drop inside of the battery,
like a resistor.
i.
1.
Where
is the actual voltage of the battery in a circuit, given its
internal resistance( ) and current ( ).

battery.
is the rated voltage of the
10. Ammeters and Voltmeters.

a.
Ammeters measure current.

i.
In order to measure current, the ammeter must be in series with that resistor.
b. Voltmeters measure voltage.

i.
In order to measure voltage, you must put the voltmeter in parallel with the
resistor.
c.
Ohmmeters measure Resistance.
d. You may sometimes see multimeters, which are a combination of the three.
i.
To use a multimeter:
1.
Plug the black probe into the COM port and use the needle for
measuring the (-), or low potential side of an object.
2.
Plug the red probe into the mAV port and use it for measuring on
the positive terminal or side.
3.
Switch the knob to what you need to measure: current (amps), voltage
(volts), or resistance (ohms).
a.
Always turn the knob to something higher than you expect the
value will be, to prevent damage to the meter.
11. Brightness of a Bulb.

a.
Brightness of a bulb depends solely on the power dissipated by the bulb.

i.
A bulbs brightness can change depending on the power it experiences (

1.
b. You can assume that a bulb has constant resistance, for the AP Test.
DC Circuits - Part 2
1.
Circuits with capacitors.

a.
Capacitors in parallel:
).

i.
for all of the capacitors in parallel.
b. Capacitors in series:
i.
c.
for all capacitors in series.
Notice that the equations are inverse for capacitance, in comparison to resistance
involving series and parallel resistors.
2.
RC Circuits (Resistor-capacitor).
a.
As charge accumulates on a capacitor, the voltage across it increases, and the voltage
decreases until the voltage across the capacitor equals the emf of the battery.
b. There is no voltage drop across the resistor, and no more current flow in the circuit.
c.
The voltage across the capacitor, which is proportional to the charge that the capacitor
has, increases with time.
i.
The graph is exponential, and given by the formula

1.
, which appears in the equation, is the time constant
circuit.
in
charged.
a.
c.
2.
. This defines how quickly the capacitor is
Where emf is the electromotive force
b. Where
of the
of the battery.
is the voltage across the capacitor at time .
Where is time in
The lower the resistance in the circuit, the faster the capacitor becomes
charged.
ii.
d.
Capacitor discharge in RC circuit.

i.
, an exponential decay curve. Explains the voltage as a

capacitor decays.
1.
2.
Where
is the initial voltage of the capacitor.
is the time constant
, and is the time, in seconds.

ii.
e.
The charge and discharge of a capacitor within a RC circuit can be utilized to produce
voltage pulses at a consistent frequency.
i.
One possibility is the creation of a sawtooth voltage curve in a RC circuit with a

gas filled tube.
ii.
Magnetism
1.
An electric field becomes a magnetic field when the electric charges are moving relative to the
observer.
a.
All atoms have magnetic fields due to their moving electrons, known as orbital
magnetic fields.
i.
Complete electron shells contain pairs of electrons that spin in opposite

directions to cancel out their magnetic fields.
ii.
Diamagnetic materials are comprised of atoms with filled outer electron

shells.
1.
If there is an external magnetic field, the electronic structure of
diamagnetic materials tends to create a weak internal magnetic field

opposing the external field.
iii.
Partially-filled shells of electrons can cause a net magnetic field.

1.
Atoms whose outermost electron shells are half-filled are the most
magnetic.

iv.
If all the atoms or molecules in a material align in the same direction to create
a strong net magnetic field, the material is ferromagnetic.
1.
v.
These materials can be permanently magnetized.
If the atoms or molecules align themselves in random configurations, the

material is paramagnetic.
1.
The magnetic orientation of these materials can be weakly influenced

by a magnetic field.
2.
vi.
They do not remain aligned when the magnetic field is removed.
A solid may be comprised of regions in which magnetic fields of atoms are

grouped and aligned, known as magnetic domains.
1.
If the domains are aligned in a random arrangement, there is no net

magnetic field.
2.
If they are aligned and point in the same direction, a magnetic field is
observed.
3.
They can be aligned naturally or by application of an external magnetic

field.
b. In order to act as a strong permanent magnet, a material must be magnetic at three

distinct configuration levels.
i.
ii.
At the atomic level, the atom must have a partially-filled outer shell.
At the crystal lattice level, the atoms or molecules must be arranged in the
same magnetic alignment.
iii.
At the domain level, all magnetic domains must be oriented in the same
direction.
iv.
At higher temperatures, the increased random thermal motion makes it more

difficult for electrons to maintain their alignment, so the magnetic effects are
reduced.
c.
Magnets are polarized, and each have a north and south pole.
i.
There are no single isolated magnetic poles.

1.
If you split a magnet in half, each half exhibits both a north and a south
pole.
ii.
You can draw magnetic field lines, or magnetic flux lines, to show the
direction the north pole of a magnet would point if placed in the field.
1.
Magnetic field lines are drawn as closed loops, starting from the north
pole of a magnet and continuing to the south pole of a magnet.
2.
Inside the magnet itself, the field lines run from the south pole to the
north pole.

3.
a.
The magnetic field is strongest in areas of greatest density of

magnetic field lines, or areas of the greatest magnetic flux
density.
d. Magnetic field strength is measured in units known as Tesla ( ).

i.
ii.
e.
f.
1 tesla = 1 Newton-second per coulomb-meter
Like poles repel, and opposite poles attract.
When a magnetic field interacts with a material, the material obtains an amount of
magnetization due to that field.
i.
The ability to support that magnetic field within itself is the materials
magnetic permeability ( ).
1.
Materials with high magnetic permeability, such as iron, support

stronger magnetic fields.
2.
Materials with lower magnetic permeability such as air and water

support only weak magnetic fields.
3.
The magnetic permeability of a vacuum is:

a.
2.
The Earth exerts a force on magnets; therefore, the Earth is technically a giant magnet.
a.
The magnetic north and south pole of the Earth are constantly moving.
i.
3.
The current rate of change is thought to be more than 20 kilometers per year.
A current running through a wire can create a magnetic field, leading to the modern study of
electromagnetism.
a.
This can be explained by Einsteins Theory of Special Relativity.

i.
ii.
According to this theory, length and time are not absolute measures.
They can be perceived differently based on the motion of the observers
relative to each other.
iii.
Moving objects contract in the direction of their motion relative to a stationary

observer.

b. A wire contains a large number of positive metal ions fixed in space, surrounded by a
sea of negative electrons which are able to move freely.
c.
The wire as a whole is neutral because the quantity of electrons matches the quantity
of positive ions.
d. When current flows through the wire, the net flow of electrons is in a specific direction
while the positive ions are fixed in space.
e.
If a charged observer object moves outside the wire, the separation of electrons and
ions differ slightly due to length contraction from the observers perspective.
i.
This creates a difference in charge density between the positive ions and
negative electrons, leading to a non-zero net charge.
ii.
The charged observer object sees the wire as having a net electrical charge,
and therefore experiences an electric force from the wire.
iii.
4.
The magnetic force is just an electric force acting on a moving charged object.
Relative motion between charges and a magnetic field can produce a force.
a.
The magnitude of the force (

with a velocity ( ) is given by:
) on a charge ( ) moving through a magnetic field ( )
i.
ii.
is the angle between the velocity vector and the direction of the magnetic
field.
iii.
To find the direction of the force, use a right-hand rule.

1.
Point your fingers in the direction of a positive particles velocity.
2.
Curl your fingers inward 90o in the direction the magnetic field points.
3.
Your thumb will point in the direction of the force on the charged
particle.
iv.
An application of this is the velocity selector, which only allows charged

particles of a specific velocity to pass through it.
1.
A uniform electric field is directed perpendicular to a uniform magnetic

field.
2.
A positively charged particle moving to the right through a velocity

selector is subjected to an upward electric force from the electric field
and a downward magnetic force from the magnetic field.
a.
The strength of the fields are chosen such that the magnitudes
of the electric and magnetic forces are equal for a charged
particle of the desired velocity.
3.

v.
Another application of this concept is the mass spectrometer, a tool for

measuring the mass-to-charge ratio of individual molecules or atoms.
1.
This device ionizes a small sample of a material in a vacuum chamber,

sorts the ions by their mass to charge ratio, and measures the
quantities of the sorted ions.
2.
Once the particles are positively ionized, they are accelerated into a
magnetic field.
3.
As the charged particles enter the magnetic field, the field exerts a
force on the particle perpendicular to its velocity, which is a centripetal
force, causing the particle to turn in a circle.
4.
By measuring where the particle hits, you can determine the radius,
and therefore calculate the mass of the particle.
5.
b. Magnetic fields cause a force on moving charges, and current-carrying wires contain
moving charges; therefore, a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field may experience
a magnetic force.
i.
1.
= Magnetic force.
2.
= Current in the wire.
3.
= Length of the wire.
4.
5.
= The magnetic field strength.

= The angle between the direction of current flow and the magnetic
field.
ii.
c.
The direction of this force can also be found using a right-hand rule.
1.
Point your fingers in the direction a positive charge would flow.
2.
Bend your fingers inward in the direction of the magnetic field.
3.
Your thumb will then point in the direction of the magnetic field.
Moving electric charges create magnetic fields; therefore, electrical current in a wire
creates a magnetic field around the wire.
i.
To determine the direction of the electrically-induced magnetic field, use a

right-hand rule by pointing your right-hand thumb in the direction of positive
current flow.
1.
The curve of your fingers as you grasp the wire shows the direction of
the magnetic field around a wire.

ii.
The magnetic field strength ( ) is a function of the distance from the center
of the wire ( ). A stronger magnetic field exists close to the wire, and a weaker
magnetic field exists further away from the wire.
1.
iii.
You can obtain an even stronger magnetic field by wrapping a coil of wire in a
series of loops, or a solenoid, and flowing current through the wire.
1.
2.
This is an electromagnet.
You can make this field even stronger by placing a piece of iron inside
the coils of wire.
3.
Another right-hand rule tells you the direction of the magnetic field due
to an electromagnet.
a.
Wrap your fingers around the solenoid in the direction of

positive current flow.
b. Your thumb will point toward the north end of the induced
magnetic field.
4.
The strength of the magnetic field due to a solenoid (

determined using the following equation.
) can be
a.
i.
ii.
5.
= Number of loops of wire per unit length.

= Current through the wire.
Current-carrying wires create magnetic fields, and current-carrying

wires contain moving charges which experience a force when moving
through a magnetic field.
a.
Therefore, current-carrying parallel wires exert forces on each

other.
b. If the current in two parallel wires flows in the same direction,

the wires are attracted to each other.
i.
If the current flows in opposite directions, the wires

repel each other.
d. In electromagnetic induction, charges may be moved when the magnetic fields are
changed.
i.
A potential difference is created by a changing magnetic field, known as the

induced electromotive force (emf).
1.
ii.
Emf is not a force, but rather a potential difference.
This potential difference can move charges in wire segments as well as circuits.

iii.
The amount of magnetic field passing through an area is the magnetic flux
(
iv.
).
The units of magnetic flux are webers.

1.
v.
One weber is a tesla meter squared.
The magnetic flux (
) through a given area ( ) due to a magnetic field ( )
can be determined using the following relationship.

1.
a.
is the angle between the magnetic field and the normal to

the defined area.
vi.
The magnitude of the induced emf is equal to the rate of change of the
magnetic flux through an area defined by a loop of wire.
1.
vii.
If the flux passes through multiple loops of wire, multiply the flux by the
number of loops.
1.
viii.
The direction of the current induced in the loop of wire always opposes the
change in magnetic flux.
1.
ix.
This is known as Lenzs Law.
By turning a coil of wire in a magnetic field, you can generate an induced emf.
1.
A popular scenario involves the induction of an emf in an expanding or

contracting rectangular loop of wire, as shown.
a.
b. Assume the loop of wire is placed in a constant magnetic field,
and the velocity is constant.
c.
The flux through the loop is increasing; therefore, an emf is

induced which creates a counter-clockwise current in the loop.
d. The magnitude of the induced emf can be found as follows.

i.

Geometric and Physical Optics

1.
Electromagnetic waves consist of an electric field component and a magnetic field
component oriented perpendicular to each other, and do not require a medium in which to
travel.
a.
The speed of all electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is approximately

.
, or
b.
c.
Waves in which the electric and magnetic fields vibrate in more than one plane are
unpolarized.
i.
ii.
The electric charges are travelling in a variety of directions.

Certain materials made of long molecules parallel to each other can permit
certain orientations of EM light to pass through while blocking out others.
1.
Half the orientations are blocked when light travels through a

polarizing filter.
a.
2.
This also means half the intensity is left.
Two polarizing filters at right angles to each other are opaque, blocking
100% of the light.
3.
The intensity of light transmitted by a polarizing filter is given my

Malus Law.
a.
i.
ii.
is the intensity of incoming light.

is the angle between the axis of the polarizer and the
incoming lights polarization angle.

4.
2.
When more than one wave travels through the same location in the same medium at the same
time, the total displacement of the medium is given by the principle of superposition.
a.
The total displacement is the sum of all the individual displacements of the waves.
b. The combined effect of the interaction of multiple waves is called wave interference.
i.
When two or more pulses with displacements in the same direction interact, it
is known as constructive interference.
1.
The resulting displacement is greater than both of the individual

pulses.
ii.
When two or more pulses with displacements in opposite directions interact, it

is known as destructive interference.
1.
iii.
The resulting displacements negate each other.
After interfering, the waves continue along their original path as if they had
never met.
iv.
3.
Animations describing waves interfering can be seen here and here.
When waves of the same frequency and amplitude traveling in opposite directions meet, a
standing wave is produced.
a.
Certain nodes appear to be standing still and other antinodes vibrate with maximum
amplitude above and below the axis.
b.
c.
4.
There will always be one more node than antinode.
The shift in a moving waves observed frequency due to relative motion between the source of
the wave and the observer is known as the Doppler Effect.

a.
When a source and observer are moving towards each other, the observer perceives a
higher frequency.
b. When a source and observer are moving away from each other, the observer perceives
a lower frequency.
c.
d. Observed frequencies in space shifted towards the red end of the electromagnetic
spectrum is known as the Red Shift, and indicates that celestial objects are moving
away from the Earth.
5.
Geometric Optics is the study of image formation with light. It involves the properties of
images formed with mirrors and lenses.
a.
Reflection occurs when a wave reaches a boundary between two media, some or all of
the wave bounces back into the first medium.
i.
ii.
iii.
The angle made by the incident ray and the normal is called the angle of
incidence.
The angle made by the reflected ray and the normal is called the angle of
reflection. They are equal.
The relationship between the reflected ray, incident ray, and the normal is
called the law of reflection, also known as the Second Law of Specular
Reflection.
1.
2.
The angle of incidence ( ) is equal to the angle of reflection (
).

iv.
Diffuse reflection is the type of reflection that occurs when rough surfaces,
such as a piece of paper, reflect light in a variety of directions.
v.
Specular reflection occurs when smooth surfaces reflect light waves in a more
regular fashion so that the reflected waves maintain their parallelism.
vi.
A virtual image refers to an image that only appears to be behind the
surface of a mirror(or lens). The image is not actually located at its apparent
position and cannot be formed on a screen.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The distance from the object to the mirror is known as the object
distance (
).
distance (
).
The distance from the image to the mirror is known as the image
For virtual images, the distance is negative.
The magnification of an image is found using the magnification

equation.
a.
vii.
Mirrors can either be plane or spherical, depending on the shape of its surface.
1.
A plane mirror is a mirror with a flat reflective surface.

a.
The object distance and image distance are equal, so there is

no magnification.
2.
Spherical mirrors have concave or convex reflective spherical

surfaces.
a.
Concave mirrors have a spherical reflecting surface that

causes light to diverge as it passes through the lens.
i.
The principal axis is a virtual line perpendicular to the

center of the mirrors surface.

ii.
Rays coming into a mirror parallel to the principal axis

are reflected from the plane of the mirror and
converge through the focal point of the mirror.
iii.
iv.
The relationship between the focal distance, the object

distance, and the image distance is described by the
mirror equation.
1.
2.
is the distance from the mirror to the object,

shown in the diagram as
3.
is the focal length of the mirror.
b. Convex mirrors have a spherical reflecting surface that causes

light to diverge as it passes through the lens.
i.
Light rays coming into a convex mirror parallel to the

principal axis are reflected away from the principal
axis.
ii.
Because light rays never converge on the reflective side

of a convex mirror, convex mirrors only produce virtual
iii.
images that are upright and reduced in size.
The focal point is virtual; therefore, the focal distance

is negative.

iv.
3.
Ray tracing to find image: real or virtual, upright or inverted, magnified

or reduced.
b. When one part of each wave is made to travel at a different speed than another part,
refraction occurs.
i.
The index of refraction ( ) is a measure of how much light slows down in a

material.
1.
In a vacuum, all EM waves have a speed of
2.
In other materials, light slows down.
3.
4.
The index of refraction also depends on the frequency.

a.
This is known as dispersion.
b. Dispersion is responsible for the behavior of prisms.

i.
White light is refracted twice in a prism: first upon

entering, and again upon leaving.
ii.
This causes the different frequencies of light to bend

slightly different amounts.
5.
The following charts shows a few absolute indices of refraction in

certain materials.

a.
ii.
The amount a light wave bends as it enters a new medium is given by Snells
Law.
1.
a.
and
are the indices of refraction of the two media.
b.
and
correspond to the angles of the incident and
refracted rays.
2.
iii.
When light passes from a higher-index material to a lower-index material,

the light bends away from the normal.
1.
When the angle of refraction reaches 90o , the refracted ray would
travel on the boundary between the surfaces.
2.
Total Internal reflection is when a beam of light is not able to enter

the medium and is only reflected.

a.
This only applies when the beam is placed at critical angle
which is when the beam does not emerge into the air above
the surface.
b. At the critical angle (
) and at all angles greater than this
angle, light is totally reflected back into the medium of the

incident ray.
medium while
c.
is the index of refraction of the incident
is the index of refraction of the medium
into which the light passes.
The critical angle can be determined by a derivation of Snells

Law.
i.
c.
Thin lenses come in convex and concave, but light converges in convex lenses while it
diverges in concave lenses.
i.
Convention states that image distances beyond the lens are considered
positive distance, and images on the same side of the lens as the object are
considered negative distance.
ii.
Converging lenses have a thicker center than edges.

1.
A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted through the far focal
point of the lens.
2.
A ray drawn from the object through the center of the lens passes
through the center of the lens unbent.
a.
It actually refracts upon entering the lens and refracts back

upon exiting the lens, but the net result is often drawn as a
straight line.
3.
iii.
Diverging Lens have thicker edges than its center.

1.
A ray from the object parallel to the principal axis is refracted away
from the principal axis on a line from the near focal point through the
point where the ray intercepts the center of the lens.
2.
Any ray that passes from the object through a focal point is refracted
parallel to the principal axis.
3.
iv.
Formulae.
1.
This equation relates the distance from the center of the mirror
(lens) to the object (
the mirror (lens). :
2.
) and the image (
) to the focal length ( ) of
The focal length ( ) equals one-half the radius of curvature ( ) of
the mirror. The focal point is real for a concave mirror but virtual for
convex mirror.
3.
The linear magnification (

image (
) refers to the ratio of the size of the
) to the size of the object (
ratio of the image distance (
). The magnification equals the
) to the object distance (
).:
d. Diffraction is the bending of waves around obstacles, or the spreading of waves as

they pass through an opening.
i.
The smaller the obstacle and longer the wavelength, the greater the diffraction.

ii.
iii.
Huygens Principle states that every point on a wave front acts as a source of
spherical waves, which propagate at the speed of the wave itself.
1.
The sum of all the spherical wavefronts from all the individual points
determines the new wave front.
a.
2.
Diffraction can be observed by shining a light through a narrow slit

before reaching a viewing screen.
a.
As light waves pass through the slit, parallel rays pass directly
through the center and create a central bright spot on the
screen.
b. Rays that are diffracted reach the screen at different

intensities.
c.

3.
You can relate the slit width ( ), the angle at which destructive
interference occurs ( ), the wavelength of the light ( ), and the

minima number (
a.
4.
) using the following equation.
Thomas Young utilized diffraction to prove light has properties of

waves.
a.
b. The two light waves travel different distances to the screen on
which they are projected, so effects of both constructive and
destructive interference are observed.
c.
The interference pattern generated is similar to that of

single-slit diffraction.
i.
The width of the central maximum is the same as the

width of the other maxima, and the difference in
intensity across the maxima is less extreme.
d.

i.
Since
is equal to
approximately equal to
, and that value is
for small angles, you
can solve for the distance between bright spots with

the following equation.
1.
5.
When a large number of slits are arranged at equal spacings, a

diffraction grating is created.
a.
This creates the same pattern as double-slit diffraction, but

with sharper and brighter maxima.
b. These are useful tools for determining wavelengths accurately.

iv.
Diffraction of X-rays has been extremely useful for exploring the composition
of atomic-scale materials.
1.
A beam of X-rays incident upon a crystalline solid at some angle

leads to reflection of the beam.
2.
Some of the beam will be reflected at the first plane of atoms, and
some of the beam will be reflected at the next plane.
3.
The two reflected rays interfere, producing constructive maxima
when the second ray travels a while integer multiple of wavelengths

greater than the first ray.
a.
4.
v.
When light traveling through a medium of index

film of thickness and index of refraction
some is transmitted into the film.
1.
is incident upon a thin
, some light is reflected and
If the transmitted light is again reflected at a boundary with another

medium of index
, it travels back out of the film and can interfere
with the first reflected ray.

2.
3.
Anytime reflection occurs off a slower medium, a phase change

occurs, resulting in an additional optical path difference of
a.
You find constructive interference with path differences of
whole integer multiples of the wavelength in the film.

i.
b. You find destructive interference halfway between the

constructive wavelengths.
i.
Modern Physics
1.
Electromagnetic waves can also exhibit some characteristics and properties of particles in
addition to waves.
a.
These particles are called photons.
b. Light acts like a wave when:

i.
ii.
iii.
c.
The light diffracts, or bends slightly around an object it passes.

Interference in the light is noticeable.
The light exhibits the Doppler Effect.
Characteristics of light similar to a particle are:

i.
Blackbody radiation.
1.
Very hot objects emit radiation in a specific spectrum of frequencies

and intensities which varied with the temperature of the object.
a.
2.
Hotter objects have higher intensities at lower wavelengths.
Physicists expected that at very short wavelengths the energy radiated

would become very large, in contrast to observed spectra.

a.
This was known as the ultraviolet catastrophe.
b. It was proposed that atoms could only absorb or emit radiation

c.
ii.
in specific, non-continuous amounts, known as quanta.
Therefore, energy is quantized; it only exists in specific

discrete amounts.
Photoelectric effect.
1.
When EM radiation struck a piece of metal, electrons could be emitted,

known as photoelectrons.
a.
The frequency of the light affected the creation of

photoelectrons.
b. Not all EM radiation creates photoelectrons.

2.
Because energy exists in specific, discrete amounts, EM radiation also

only exists in discrete amounts.
a.
These small pieces of EM radiation are known as photons.
b. Photons have zero mass and zero charge.

c.
The velocity of a photon is equal to , or the speed of light

(
).
d. The energy of each photon of light is quantized and is related

to its frequency by the following equation.
i.
1.
The value of
, known as Plancks Constant, is
given as
2.
3.
is the wavelength of the light.
Einstein proposed that the electrons in the metal object were held in
an energy well, and they needed to absorb enough energy to free
themselves from the well.
a.
The electrons would not be released unless they absorbed a

single photon with the minimum amount of energy, known as
the work function ( ) of the metal.
i.
The frequency of this photon is the cutoff frequency,

or threshold frequency,
ii.
, of the metal.
Any excess energy absorbed would become kinetic

energy for the photoelectron.

iii.
iv.
When a photon with energy greater than the energy

holding the electron to the nucleus is absorbed by an
atom, the electron is emitted as a photoelectron.
v.
The kinetic energy of the photoelectron can be found

by the following equation.
1.
b. In performing this experiment, the energy of the

photoelectrons is measured by collecting them in a circuit.
i.
A reverse bias potential, or negative potential

difference, is then applied to the circuit until the
current just becomes zero.
ii.
This is the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted

photoelectrons divided by the elementary charge.
1.
iii.
1.
2.
The slope of the line is equal to Plancks

constant ( ).
The y-intercept is the work function of the

metal ( ).
3.
iii.
Compton effect.
The x-intercept is the cut-off frequency (
).

1.
When an X-ray photon was shot at a graphite target to observe the

collision between the photon and an electron, a photoelectron was
emitted.
a.
The original X-ray was also scattered and emitted with a longer
wavelength, which means energy was lost.
b.
c.
The lost energy and momentum of the photon was exactly

equal to the energy and momentum of the photoelectron.
i.
This meant that photons followed the laws of

conservation of energy and conservation of
momentum.
iv.
de Broglie wavelength.
1.
Because EM waves can behave as moving particles, it made sense that

moving particles could also behave as waves.
a.
Louis de Broglie shot electrons through a double slit and

observed a diffraction pattern.
i.
The smaller the particle, the more apparent its wave

properties are.
ii.
The wavelength of a moving particle is given by the

following equation.
1.
b. When slow-moving electrons were shot at a crystalline nickel

target, they created the same diffraction pattern as observed
when shooting X-rays at crystals.
d. Ernest Rutherford shot alpha particles, or helium nuclei, at a very thin sheet of gold
foil and discovered that a significant number of the particles were deflected by large
amounts.
i.
This led to the conclusion that:

1.
Atoms have a small, massive, positive nucleus.

2.
3.
ii.
Electrons must orbit the nucleus.
Most of the atom is made up of empty space.
Niels Bohr further refined Rutherfords model of the atom by researching and
developing a model of the hydrogen atom.
1.
Electrons dont lose energy as they accelerate around the nucleus;

energy is quantized and electrons can only exist at specific discrete
energy levels.
a.
i.
ii.
2.
= Atomic number of the element.

= Positive integer energy level.
The number of specific orbits at each energy level on an atom is

limited.
3.
An electron must absorb or emit a photon of energy exactly equal to

the difference between its initial and final energy levels to change
energy levels.
a.
iii.
To visualize the allowed energy levels in an atom, one could use an energy
level diagram.
1.
a.
The
energy state is known as the ground state, the
lowest possible energy for an electron of a hydrogen atom.
b. The right side represents the energy corresponding to each

level.

c.
Energy levels are negative to indicate the electron being bound

by the nucleus of the atom.
iv.
Atoms can only emit certain frequencies of photons, correlating to the

difference between energy levels as an electron falls from a higher to a lower
energy state.
1.
Electrons can only absorb photons with energy equal to the difference
in energy levels as the electron jumps from a lower to a higher energy
state.
2.
A unique atomic spectrum of emitted and absorbed radiation for

each element is produced.
a.
Electrons that are accelerated through a large potential

difference and collided with molybdenum or platinum
electrons in the
level give off X-ray photons.
b. An object that is heated to the point of incandescence, or
glowing effects, emits a continuous energy spectrum, known

as blackbody radiation.
c.
2.
The quantum mechanical model of the atom.

a.
Electrons exist in specific states, and photons are emitted and absorbed in conjunction
with electrons moving between states.
i.
Electrons exist in electron clouds, which can be thought of like a wave spread
out in three-dimensional space.
1.
In some areas of the cloud, electrons are more likely to be observed.
2.
Electron states are described by four characteristics, known as

quantum numbers.
a.
The principal quantum number ( )relates to the energy of

the electron state and ranges from one to infinity.

b. The orbital quantum number ( ) is related to the angular

momentum of the electron and can range from zero to
in whole number integers.
c.
The magnetic quantum number (

of the angular momentum.
d. The spin quantum number (
) relates to the direction
) is usually written as
or
, but is typically called spin up or spin down.

3.
The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that no two electrons can exist in
the exact same state.
4.
The circumference of the orbital radius of an electron as a standing

wave about the nucleus must be a whole integer multiple of the de
Broglie wavelength of the particle.
a.
b.
5.
The amplitude of a particle wave is given by the wave function,

read as the Greek letter Psi.
a.
The actual calculation of the wave function is beyond the scope

of algebra-based physics.
b.
is the probability of finding a particle at the given position

and time.
i.
If
is zero, you would never find a particle at that
position.
ii.
c.
Larger values indicate higher probabilities.
The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle states that you cannot

measure both an objects position and momentum absolutely
at the same time.

i.
The more precisely you know one measurement, the

more uncertainty you have in the other.
3.
Fission and fusion.

a.
The nuclear particlesprotons, neutrons, and electronsare held together by the

strong nuclear force.
i.
ii.
iii.
The atomic number of an atom ( ) is the number of protons in the nucleus.

The mass number ( ) is the number of protons and neutrons.
In a neutral atom, the number of protons and electrons are equal.

1.
iv.
Atoms that are not neutral are known as ions.
The atomic number determines the element, but the element can have varying
mass numbers.
1.
The different configurations of an element with varying mass numbers

are known as isotopes of that element.
2.
b. Einstein proposed that an objects mass is a measure of how much energy that object
contains.
i.
ii.
The law of conservation of mass and the law of conservation of energy can be
combined into the law of conservation of mass-energy.
Einsteins famous formula relates the amount of energy contained in matter.

1.
a.
iii.
= Speed of light; approximately
It is not realistic to convert large quantities of mass completely into energy, so

mass-energy conversions are typically measured in the universal mass unit (
) instead of kilograms.
1.
This is equal to the mass of one-twelfth the mass of a single Carbon-12

atom.
2.
3.
4.
iv.
The mass of a proton and neutron is close to
.
One universal mass unit converted to energy is equivalent to 931 MeV.
The nucleus of an atom is bound together by the strong nuclear force.

1.
You must add energy to the system to break apart the nucleus.
2.
The energy required is known as the binding energy of the nucleus,

and the energy comes from a fraction of the mass of the nucleons.
v.
If measured carefully, the mass of a stable nucleus is actually slightly less than
the mass of its individual component nucleons.

1.
2.
The difference in mass is known as the mass defect (
).
The binding energy must be equal to the mass defect due to the law of
conservation of mass-energy.
a.
c.
Fission is the process in which a nucleus splits into two or more nuclei.
i.
For heavier nuclei such as Uranium-235, the mass of the original nucleus is
greater than the sum of the mass of the fission products.
1.
ii.
This mass is released as energy.
A common fission reaction involves shooting a neutron at an atom of

Uranium-235, which briefly becomes Uranium-236, an unstable isotope.
1.
The atom then fissions into a Barium-141 and a Krypton-92 atom,

releasing the excess energy.
2.
iii.
This also sends out three more neutrons to continue a chain reaction.
This is the basis of atomic bombs and nuclear power plants.
d. Fusion is the process of combining two or more smaller nuclei into a larger nucleus.
i.
The product of the reaction may have a smaller mass than its precursors,
releasing energy.
ii.
This is the nuclear reaction that fuels our sun.

1.
iii.
This is also the basis of atomic hydrogen bombs.
This reaction holds tremendous potential as a clean source of power.

1.
You can create hydrogen from water, which can then be used in fusion.
2.
The most promising fusion reaction involves fusing two isotopes of

hydrogen, known as deuterium and tritium, to form a helium nucleus
and a neutron while releasing a considerable amount of energy.
4.
Nuclear decay.
a.
Radioactive materials release energy and/or particles when an unstable nucleus

decays through one of three different processes.
i.
The law of conservation of nucleon number states that the total number of
particles in the nucleus, known as nucleons, must remain constant in any
radioactive decay process.
b. In an alpha decay process, an alpha particle ( ) is emitted, converting the initial
element to a new element that has an atomic number two units less than the initial.
i.

ii.
c.
In a beta decay process ( ), a neutron decays into a proton, which stays in the
nucleus, and an electron, which is emitted.
i.
When an electron is emitted, it is a

1.
ii.
decay.
Decay:
Beta decay can also occur by emission of an anti-electron, or a positron, in a

process called
1.
decay.
An electron and a positron can annihilate each other, turning

completely into energy, each with an energy of 0.511 MeV.
2.
Decay:
iii.
d. In a gamma decay process ( ), a high-energy gamma photon is emitted.
i.
The number of nucleons remains constant, but the nucleons are rearranged to
a lower energy state.
1.
This is the same process as when an electron falls to a lower energy

state.
ii.
iii.
e.
These processes happen spontaneously to radioactive materialsmaterials with

unstable nuclei.

i.
It is impossible to predict exactly when any single nucleus will undergo a

nuclear decay process.
ii.
The half-life of a material describes how long it takes for half of the nuclei to
decay.
1.
5.
Materials with shorter half-lives are much more unstable.
Einsteins theory of special relativity.

a.
The maximum possible speed for any reaction is the speed of light in a vacuum ( ).
i.
The speed of light in the vacuum is the same for all observers, whether moving
or at rest.
b. Observers moving at different speeds would experience different time intervals.

i.
ii.
Objects traveling at high velocities would experience time dilation.
What is experienced as a short time interval by the high-speed object is

experienced as a longer time interval by the observer.
c.
As objects travel at higher speeds, their length contracts compared to a stationary

observer.
d. As objects move faster and faster, it takes more energy to accelerate them.
i.
Therefore, mass can never be accelerated to the speed of light.
Useful Links
List of AP Physics 1 topics.

AP Physics 1 equation sheet.
AP Physics 2 equation sheet.
CollegeBoard AP Physics course outline.
AP Physics 1 supplemental problem sets.
AP Physics 2 supplemental problem sets.
AP Physics 1 & 2 practice - Learnerator.

AP Physics: Algebra Based - Study Guide

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AP Physics: Algebra Based - Study Guide

The AP Physics 2 test does require knowledge of topics listed in AP Physics 1.

Kinematics.* - Includes rotational kinematics.

Mechanical waves and sound.*

Electrostatics - part 1.*

Fluid states and dynamics.*

Geometric and physical optics.*

A list of useful links has been provided here.

The following conventions are used on the exam.

The frame of reference of any problem is assumed to be inertial unless otherwise

b. In all situations, positive work is defined as work done on a system.

Vectors and Scalars.

A magnitude is a number that usually represents size.

Examples of vectors are force and velocity.

Vectors at right angles to each other can be added using Pythagorass

Quantities that have a magnitude but not a direction are scalars.

Examples of scalars are time, mass, and volume.

Speed is a measure of how fast something is moving.

The speedometer in a car reads the instantaneous speed.

b. Speed and velocity are not the same thing in physics.

Speed is a scalar, while velocity is a vector.

Acceleration is the rate at which an objects velocity changes.

If acceleration is positive, the object is speeding up.

If acceleration is negative, the object is slowing down.

If acceleration is zero, the object has a constant velocity.

The acceleration due to gravity on earth is approximately 9.8m/s2 .

= Initial velocity; if not given, assume zero.

= Distance; total length travelled; measured in

= Displacement; distance from initial starting point.

= Acceleration; if given constant velocity, assume acceleration is zero;

Returns final velocity given the initial velocity and acceleration.

Returns displacement given initial velocity, acceleration, and time.

Graphical representations. Notice

b. The vertical and horizontal components of projectiles are independent.

Projectiles can be described by combining the separate vertical and horizontal

d. A projectiles horizontal motion will remain constant if there is no horizontal force.

Returns velocity given initial velocity, angle above horizontal,

Returns displacement given initial velocity, angle above horizontal,

Acceleration due to Earths gravity.

Gravitational acceleration, considered g is considered negative.

Returns initial velocity components given initial velocity.

b. Because momentum is determined by mass and velocity, if momentum changes and

Momentum is changed by applying an outside force to accelerate the object.

d. The amount of time a force is applied is called the impulse.

Apply a large force over a longer period of time.

Decreasing momentum: to stop a car, impulse is needed to change the

A brick wall has a larger impact force, so it takes a shorter amount of

A haystack would have a smaller impact force, so it would take a longer

h. For a system with only internal forces, total momentum is conserved.

An example is when billiard balls collide.

Inelastic collisions happen when objects stick or get entangled.

Total momentum is conserved.

Total momentum is not conserved.

An example is when freight trains collide.

The Greeks believed that a force caused motion.

Violent or imposed motion was believed to be caused by one or more external

b. Force is a push or pull.

Typically measured in Newtons, or

He also believed if there is no friction, force is not needed to keep an object

Newtons three laws.

Newtons first law is the Law of Inertia.

An object in motion will stay in motion unless acted upon by an outside

An object at rest will remain at rest unless acted upon by an outside