Etd Moore 3992

AUTOCLAVED AERATED CONCRETE (AAC)
A STUDY ON AAC FOR LOW-RISE STRUCTURES IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
by
Elham Moore
A Thesis Presented to the

FACULTY OF THE USC SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF BUILDING SCIENCE
August 2010
Copyright 2010
Elham Moore
Dedication
To my husband Alireza, the greatest love of my life, who makes me a better person
every day,
and
To my parents, Shahin and Ali, whose ultimate sacrifice and unconditional love brought
me here today.
ii
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my gratitude to my committee members, Professor Goetz
Schierle who introduced me to a new generation of building materials, AAC; Professor
Anders Carlson who supported me fully throughout this research, and whose
mentorship I truly appreciate; Professor Gail Borden who helped me narrow down my
focus on one material; Professor Douglas Noble whose high expectations made it a
better research document; Professor Dimitry Vergun whose comments clarified areas of
great importance; and Dr. Michael Mehrain whose insightful remarks helped me finalize
the structural part of my research.
I would also like to thank Mr. Steve Gervasio from the E-crete Company who provided
me with AAC blocks, E-crete mortar, and all the test results their company had
previously performed on AAC. Also thanks to Mr. Richard Koosa, who facilitated the
process of getting me the AAC blocks.
Special thanks go to Mr. Lance Hill, the Laboratory Manager of the USC Sonny Astani
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, whose coordination and enthusiasm in
my project made the nearly impossible possible.
Special thanks go to my husband Alireza, parents Shahin and Ali, sister Bita, brother in
law A.J., and best friends Elena and Granaz, who supported me unconditionally all along
the way. And last but not least I would like to thank my classmates from the Chase L.
Leavitt Graduate Building Science program whose insights and friendship made this
journey a more enriching experience.
iii
Table of Contents
Dedication
Acknowledgements
List of Tables
List of Figures
Abstract
ii
iii
vi
viii
xiv
1. Chapter 1: Autoclaved Aerated Concrete, A Distinctive Building Material

1.1. Introduction
1.2. Hypothesis
1.3. Explanation and Definitions
1.3.1. Concrete
1.3.2. AAC: Autoclaved Aerated Concrete
1.4. List of Possible Tests
1.4.1. Material Properties Tests
1.4.2. Engineering Tests
1.4.3. Other Considerations/Tests
1.5. Study Boundaries
1
1
3
3
3
6
7
8
9
10
11
2. Chapter 2: Structural Concrete

2.1. What is Structural Concrete?
2.1.1. Definition
2.1.2. Ingredients
2.1.3. Manufacturing Process
2.1.4. Applications
2.2. What is Lightweight Structural Concrete?
2.2.1. Definition
2.2.2. Ingredients
2.2.4. Applications
13
13
13
14
21
23
26
26
27
28
29
3. Chapter 3: Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC)

3.1. What is AAC?
3.1.1. Definition
3.1.2. History
3.1.3. Ingredients
3.1.5. Properties
31
31
31
33
34
37
41
iv
3.1.6. Applications
3.1.7. Manufacturers
52
55
4. Chapter 4: Research Method (Tests Proposed)

4.1. Karsten Pipe Penetration Test
4.1.1. Purpose
4.1.2. Procedure
4.1.3. Calculation
4.2. Thermal Resistant Value (R-Value) Test
4.2.1. Purpose
4.2.2. Preparation
4.2.3. Procedure
4.2.4. Calculation
4.2.5. Restrictions, Problems, and Mitigation
4.3. Structural Connections Tests
4.3.1. Purpose
4.3.2. Preparation
4.3.3. Procedure
77
77
78
78
82
82
82
83
89
91
93
95
95
97
100
5. Chapter 5: Performing the Tests and Results

5.3.1. Bolted Connection Capacity Test in Shear
5.3.2. Bolted Connection Capacity Test in Pull-Out
104
104
112
115
115
120
6. Chapter 6: Result Analysis

127
127
128
130
130
133
7. Chapter 7: Future Work

7.1. Material Properties Tests
7.2. Engineering Tests
7.3. Other Tests
136
136
137
138
Bibliography
143
List of Tables
Table A: Impact of AAC in Different Aspects of a Construction Project
xiv
Table 3-1: E-Crete Standard Block
67
Table 3-2: Table 3-2: E-Crete Cladding Block
68
Table 3-3: E-Crete Jumbo Block
68
Table 5-1: Karsten Pipe Test on AAC2 Dry Smooth Vertical Surface
106
Table 5-2: Karsten Pipe Test on AAC2 - Dry Rough Vertical Surface
107
Table 5-3: Karsten Pipe Test on AAC2 - Wet Smooth Vertical Surface
108
Table 5-4: Karsten Pipe Test on AAC2 - Wet Rough Vertical Surface
108
Table 5-5: Karsten Pipe Test on AAC2 Dry Smooth Horizontal Surface
109
109
Table 5-7: Karsten Pipe Test on an Exterior Concrete Wall
111
Table 5-8: Karsten Pipe Test on an Exterior Plaster Wall
111
Table 5-9: Inside Temperature (Fahrenheit) Reaching Equilibrium in 18

hours
113
Table 5-10: Average R-Value of AAC2
114
Table 5-11: Shear Test on AAC Sample with 3/8 Rebar
116
118
Table 5-13: Pull-Out Test on AAC Sample with 3/8 Rebar
122
126
vi
Table 6-1: Allowable Service Load on Embedded Bolts (Pounds) [Obtained

from Table 1911.2 of the 2007 CBC]
131
Table 6-2: 1/2" and 3/8 Rebar Values for AAC and Regular Concrete
134
Table 6-3: AAC Connection Capacity Ratio to Regular Concrete
135
Table 7-1: Summary of Test Results
140
vii
List of Figures
Figure 1-1: The Freeman House, Los Angeles, California, Architect: Frank
Lloyd Wright
Figure 1-2: Translucent Concrete; Project: Iberville Parish Veterans

Memorial, Louisiana, USA, Architect: Grace and Hebert, Translucent
Concrete: LiTraCon
Figure 1-3: Translucent Concrete; Project: Cella Septichora Main entrance

gate 02, Photo: ron Losonczi, Translucent Concrete: LiTraCon
Figure 1-4: Glass fiber reinforced concrete (GFRC) as an exterior panel
Figure 2-1: A Common Concrete Ingredient Ratio
13
Figure 2-2: Portland cement
14
Figure 2-3: Blue Circle Southern Cement factory near New Berrima,
Australia
16
Figure 2-4: Left: A Dry Process Cement Manufacturing Line. Right: First
Round Crushing of Stones
17
Figure 2-5: Fly Ash Dump in a Construction Project
18
Figure 2-6: Aggregate Grading
19
Figure 2-7: Close-up of Beach Sand, Surface Area ~ 0.20 Square Inches
20
Figure 2-8: A Typical Concrete Mix
22
Figure2-9: Curing of Concrete
23
Figure 2-10: Top Left: Cast in Place Concrete , Top Right: Poured in Place
Concrete , Bottom: High Rise Concrete Frame Construction
24
viii
Figure 2-11: Concrete Bridge in Visoko
25
Figure 2-12: Example of Architectural Precast Concrete
26
Figure 2-13: Schematic of Lightweight WA Particle
28
Figure 2-14: Chateau on the Lake in Branson, Missouri
29
Figure 2-15: Creating a Landmark with Lightweight Concrete: First

National Bank Tower, Omaha, Nebraska
30
Figure 3-1: AAC Panels on a Construction Site
31
Figure 3-2: Stacked Blocks of AAC Wrapped in Foil
32
Figure 3-3: Dr. Axel Eriksson, Inventor of the AAC
33
Figure 3-4: Top: AAC from Natural Material , Bottom: AAC Raw Materials
by Percentage
34
Figure 3-5: Left: Aluminum Paste Package , Right: Aluminum Powder
35
Figure 3-6: A Limestone Formation in the Waitomo District of New

Zealand
36
Figure 3-7: Gypsum Chrystal
37
Figure 3-8: Slurry Being Poured into Moulds (Picture Courtesy H+H UK
Ltd.)
39
Figure 3-9: Green Cake Rising in Mould (Picture Courtesy H+H UK Ltd.)
39
Figure 3-10: Green Cake Being Cut By Wires (Picture Courtesy H+H UK
Ltd.)
40
Figure 3-11: Green Blocks Loaded into an Autoclave (Picture Courtesy

H+H UK Ltd.)
40
ix
Figure 3-12: Left: AAC is Fire Resistant , Right: UL Rated Classified
42
Figure 3-13: Fire Spreading With and Without AAC
43
Figure 3-14: AAC Blocks are Easy to Drill or Cut with Conventional
Construction Tools
45
Figure 3-15: Creating Curves and Elaborate Details on Site with AAC
45
Figure 3-16: Design Flexibility: The Dancing House Window

Arrangement, in Prague, Czech Republic, Architect: Frank Gehry
46
Figure 3-17: Design Flexibility: The Dancing House in Prague, Czech

Republic, Architect: Frank Gehry
47
Figure 3-18: Rapid Construction: Clockwise Week 1 through Week 3,

Allen University
49
Figure 3-19: Consumption of Raw Material and Energy to Produce

Building Materials
50
Figure 3-20: Thermal Insulating Effect of Hebel AAC Blocks
51
Figure 3-21: C. K. Choi Building, Institute of Asian Research in Vancouver,

Canada
53
Figure 3-22: Factor 10 House, Chicago, Illinois
54
Figure 3-23: The New American Home 2008, Orlando, Florida
54
Figure 3-24: Hebel AAC Blocks
57
Figure 3-25: Hebel AAC U-Blocks in Construction
58
Figure 3-26: Hebel Wall Panels in Construction
59
Figure 3-27: Hebel Floor Panels in Construction
60
Figure 3-28: Hebel Cladding Boards
61
Figure 3-29: Schematic Design of a Hebel Structural Floor Panel
62
Figure 3-30: Hebel Structural Floor Panel in Construction
62
Figure 3-31: Hebel Sound Barrier Panels
63
Figure 3-32: Hebel Stair Treads
64
Figure 3-33: E-Crete Standard Block - Schematic
66
Figure 3-34: E-Crete Standard Block
66
Figure 3-35: E-Crete O-Block
69
Figure 3-36: E-Crete U-Blocks
69
Figure 3-37: Three-Piece Test Specimen for Shear Strength
71
Figure 3-38: Aercon Fire Shaft Blocks
73
Figure 3-39: Aercon Horizontal Cladding
74
Figure 3-40: Aercon Mortar Products from Left to Right: Thin-bed Mortar,
Large Grain Mortar, Block Patch, and Repair Mortar 30
75
Figure 3-41: Geofill LD Pervious
76
Figure 4-1: Karsten Test on Horizontal and Vertical Surfaces
77
Figure 4-2: AAC Block Close-Up: The Smooth Surface and Rough Surface
79
Figure 4-3: Karsten Pipe Test on AAC: Sealing the Connection
80
Figure 4-4: Process of Making the Test Cell
86
xi
Figure 4-5: Section of a Two Layer Face Made Out of R-15 Foam
Insulation
87
Figure 4-6: Attaching iButtons with Different Adhesives
87
Figure 4-7: Sealing the Joints
88
Figure 4-8: Top: Turning the Heat Source on Before Closing the Back of
the Test Cell, Bottom: Finished Test Cell
90
Figure 4-9: Formula to Calculate the R-Value of an Unknown Material
92
Figure 4-10: Schematic Drawing of the AAC Wall Section of the Test Cell
93
Figure 4-11: Drilling 2 Diameter Hole in Center of an AAC Test Sample
98
Figure 4-12: Left: Placing the Rebars and Securing Them in Place with
Wood Blocks , Right: Using Wood Block Caps for Protection While Grout
Dries
99
Figure 4-13: Preparation for the Shear Test
101
Figure 4-14: Preparation for the Pull-out Test. Left: Adjusting the Height
of Top Plate, Right: Placing the Sample on the Top Plate and Fixing Rebar
between Corrugated Plates
102
Figure 5-1: Performing the Karsten Pipe Penetration Test on an AAC2

block at 3rd Floor Studio, Watt Hall, the USC School of Architecture
104
Figure 5-2: Performing the Karsten Pipe Penetration Test on Horizontal

and Vertical Surfaces of an AAC2 Block at the USC School of Architecture
105
Figure 5-3: Performing the Karsten Pipe Penetration Test on an Exposed

Plaster Wall, 3rd Floor Watt Hall, University of Southern California
110
Figure 5-4 Inside Temperature (Fahrenheit) Reaching Equilibrium in 18

hours
112
Figure 5-5: Shear Test Results on AAC Sample with 3/8 Rebar
115
xii
Figure 5-6: Failed Sample in Shear Test with 3/8 Rebar
117
119
Figure 5-8: Failed Sample in Shear Test with 1/2 Rebar Side View
119
120
Figure 5-10: Pull-Out Test Results on AAC Sample with 3/8 Rebar
123
Figure 5-11: Sample in Pull-Out Test with Failed 3/8 Rebar Connection to
Mortar
123
Figure 5-12: Failed Samples in Pull-Out Test with Failed 1/2 Connections
124
125
xiii
Abstract
This thesis is a multi-disciplinary study on a number of material and structural

characteristics of Autoclaved Aerated Concrete or AAC, to find advantages and
disadvantages of AAC as a building material to substitute wood or conventional CMU for
low-rise residential buildings in Southern California.
AAC is has favorable qualities, and taking into account the claims of its manufacturers,
has a great potential to becoming a commonly used building material: It is light weight,
non-combustible, resource efficient, and has acoustic isolating and thermal insulating
properties. As seen in the table below, these characteristics can have effects on
different aspects of a construction project. For instance its light weight affects the
transportation cost, reduces the carbon footprint in transportation, results in lighter
building (less dead load) which immediately translates to less seismic force, and is more
workable on site.
Table A: Impact of AAC in Different Aspects of a Construction Project

Structural
Light weight
Seismic design
Noncombustible
Thermal
Insulator
Acoustic
Isolator
Resource
Efficient
fire proofing
not needed
-
Environmental
Construction
Cost
Carbon footprint
in Transportation
No toxic fume in
high temperature
Less energy use &
carbon footprint
Less noise
pollution
Workable, Fast
construction
Transportation,
Construction
No fire proofing
Less resources
Less additional
insulation
Less additional
insulation
Less material
used
xiv
Table above is a summarization of the main impacts of different characteristics of AAC

on various aspects of construction.
The thesis tests two of the material properties of AAC: water absorption coefficient and
R-value that are calculated by performing a Karsten Pipe Test and a thermal resistance
test, respectively. From the structural point of view, this research focuses on the
grouted connection of steel rebars to AAC and testes them in shear and pull-out
(tension). These tests were found necessary as designing connections is usually a
challenging part of the design, detailing, and construction. They also tend to fail more
comparing to structural members themselves, in case of an earthquake or other natural
hazards.
In the end, the thesis concludes that AAC possesses some desirable characteristics, such
as higher R-value in comparison with other building materials, and some undesirable
characteristics, such as low structural strength in comparison to reinforced CMU. Taking
into account the findings of this thesis, designers face a trade-off between the
advantages and disadvantage of AAC, a dilemma that can be resolved by reflecting the
requirements of any particulate project.
xv
Hypothesis
This thesis studies some of the material properties and structural characteristics of
Autoclaved Aerated Concrete, also known as AAC, to find out if this building material
could be a potential substitute in low rise residential structures in Southern California
which are dominantly constructed with wood, and sometimes with concrete masonry
units (CMU).
xvi
1. Chapter 1: Autoclaved Aerated Concrete, A Distinctive Building

Material
1.1. Introduction
Autoclaved Aerated Concrete, also known as AAC, is a lightweight building material that
is used widely in Asia and Europe. It was first made in Sweden in the 1920s and has
been used as a building material ever since. Even though it has been years since
autoclaved aerated light weight concrete (AAC) was introduced to the construction
world, it is not as well-known and widely used in the United States as one would expect.
Considering the low density (or light weight) of AAC which makes both construction
easier and transportation cheaper, and other qualities including structural strength, fire
resistance, and thermal properties, a question arises as to why AAC is not a common
building material in California?
California is in a seismic zone and the lateral design of structures is mainly based on the
seismic forces. Given that the seismic forces exerted on a structure are proportional to
the weight of the structure, a need for lightweight structures seems predetermined.
Wood is relatively a light and flexible material; therefore it is structurally an ideal

building material within highly seismic areas, such as Southern California. It also is a
renewable material and if used responsibly, sustainable. But studies show that the
speed the wood is consumed for construction is much faster that it could be renewed.
So the question arises: is there any substitute?
From another perspective, the earthquake concern in Southern California is not the only
natural hazard to consider. Another natural hazard some Californians have to deal with
almost yearly is fire especially in the hot and dry summers. Wood, being a light material
is a great solution for earthquakes, though is one of the worst choices for fire resistance.
To resolve this issue the building code has limitations, rules and regulations to fireproof
the structure, basically by predicting a time lag so people can get out of the building
before it collapses, and fire fighters secure adjacent structures in time. Is there any
substitute?
AAC is a lightweight building material that weighs as little as 20% of regular concrete.1 It
is a sustainable building material as all the ingredients are natural and abundant, and
has adequate structural characteristics to be used in a seismic zone, considering the fact
that steel reinforcement is readily available and a recycled material.
The light weight and fire resistance of ACC may be ideal for areas of fire and seismic
hazards, which justifies an investigation on this material. This thesis will focus on
studying different characteristics of AAC as they are claimed by the manufacturers, to
verify or refute them.
Green Building LLC, http://www.buildinggreen.com, C 2009, viewed October 07, 2009
To further continue the endeavors of this thesis, E-Crete Company, one of the
manufactures of AAC in the United States, has agreed to provide information and
sample material to help this research progress.
1.2.
Hypothesis
This thesis studies some of the material properties and structural characteristics of
Autoclaved Aerated Concrete or AAC to find out if this building material could be a
potential substitute for wood or concrete masonry units (CMU) in low rise residential
structures in Southern California.
1.3.
Explanation and Definitions

1.3.1.
Concrete
The word concrete comes from the Latin word "concretus" meaning compact or
condensed, the past participle of "concresco", from "com-" meaning together, and
"cresco" meaning to grow.2 Merriam-Webster online dictionary defines concrete as a
hard strong building material made by mixing a cementing material (as Portland
cement) and a mineral aggregate (as sand and gravel) with sufficient water to cause the
cement to set and bind the entire mass.3
Wikipedia, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete>, C Wikimedia, Viewed September 9, 2009
Merriam-Webster, <http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/concrete>, C 2010 Merriam-Webster,

Incorporated, Viewed September 9, 2009
The most common and simple definition of concrete is: a building material consisting of
aggregates which is divided into two categories of coarse aggregate such as gravel, and
fine aggregate such as sand, water, and a cementitious substance, mainly Portland
cement. In the recent years other materials such as fly ash are being used as partial
substitutes, due to high carbon footprint of the process of making Portland cement. The
cementitious substance and water form a paste to glue the aggregates together. Figure
1-1 shows a famous concrete structure, the Freeman House by Frank Lloyd Wright,
located in Los Angeles, California. However specialty concretes such as translucent
concrete as shown in figures 1-2 and 1-3 and glass-fiber reinforced concrete or G.F.R.C.,
as shown in figure 1-4, are used in a more limited scope and for special purposes.4
Figure 1-1: The Freeman House, Los Angeles, California, Architect: Frank Lloyd Wright 5
4
ConcreteNetwork.com , <http://www.concretenetwork.com>, C 1999-2010, Viewed September 9, 2009
Los Angeles Exuberance, <http://leblog.exuberance.com/city_los_angeles>, Viewed September 9, 2009
Figure 1-2: Translucent Concrete; Project: Iberville Parish Veterans Memorial, Louisiana, USA,
Architect: Grace and Hebert, Translucent Concrete: LiTraCon 6
Figure 1-3: Translucent Concrete; Project: Cella Septichora Main entrance gate 02, Photo: ron
Losonczi, Translucent Concrete: LiTraCon 7
6
Litracon, <http://www.litracon.hu >, C2001-2010 Litracon Bt, Viewed September 9, 2009
Litracon , <http://www.litracon.hu>, C2001-2010 Litracon Bt, Viewed September 9, 2009
Figure 1-4: Glass fiber reinforced concrete (GFRC) as an exterior panel 8
1.3.2. AAC: Autoclaved Aerated Concrete

AAC, Autoclaved Aerated Concrete, is a pre-cast concrete that is lightweight due to gas
bubbles that form and are trapped in it due to a chemical reaction between the
ingredients. The material should undergo a final curing process in an autoclave oven
before being used.9
The manufacturing process of AAC includes mixing of the ingredients - Portland cement,
fly ash, lime, sand, water and aluminum powder or paste - and then pouring them into a
mold. The chemical reaction between the lime and aluminum produces microscopic
HC Trading, <http://www.hctrading.com>, C HC Trading, Viewed September 9, 2009
Taylor Trading, <http://www.safecrete.com/aac/1.htm>, Viewed September 9, 2009
hydrogen bubbles. Creation of the hydrogen gas and therefore bubbles in the structure
of the AAC increases the volume of the final product from 33% to up to five times its
raw materials original volume. The product then is cut using a set of thin wires, and
cured in an autoclave. The final AAC product can be used for wall, floor, roof, cladding,
and other purposes. 10,11
1.4.
List of Possible Tests
In order to advance the knowledge base on AAC, several tests could be performed to
better identify the characteristics of AAC and evaluate this material. These tests are
necessary to understand the best functionality of AAC; to find the optimum way of using
it, or to realize in what categories of structures the choice of AAC would be a viable
alternative. The possible tests can be categorized into three different groups; material
properties tests, engineering tests, and other tests.
The material properties tests will study material characteristics of AAC such as water
intrusion, durability in freeze and thaw, stiffness, thermal insulating properties, acoustic
insulating properties, fire resistance, and similar. Several possible tests in this category
are listed in the section below.
On the other hand, the engineering tests focus on the load bearing capacity of AAC in
different types of loading, to include bending and shear. These tests also include studies
10
Tool Base Services, http://www.toolbase.org/Technology-Inventory/Foundations/autoclaved-aeratedconcrete, C 2001-2008 Nahb Research Center, Viewed October 7, 2009
11
E-Crete LLC, http://www.e-crete.com/, C 2005 Ecrete LLC, Viewed September 10, 2009
on a multi-piece assembly of AAC in shear, since AAC blocks are normally used as a wall
assembly and not as a single piece. Other tests include determining the load capacity of
different type of connections to AAC, and creep. Below is a list of several possible
engineering tests.
There are other tests including cost analysis (such as initial cost, construction cost,
construction equipment cost, and labor cost) and life-cycle analysis that are categorized
below as other tests.
1.4.1. Material Properties Tests
AAC water penetration: Is AAC a suitable material as an exterior faade,

especially in moist conditions? Results of a Karsten Pipe Test as described in
chapter 4, illustrates if AAC is a proper building material to be used as an
exterior faade.
AAC durability: Is AAC a durable material in contact with acid rain or other
environmental factors, as an exterior faade?
AAC durability: Is AAC a durable material if immersed in water for a period of

time?
AAC durability: Is AAC a durable material in freeze and thaw?
If AAC is not a durable material in contact with water, what kind of finishes
can be applied to it?
Mold resistance: Is AAC mold resistant in a moist condition?
Pest resistance: Does AAC lose structural strength in contact with pests?
8
Thermal resistance: What is the thermal resistance of a regular AAC block?

Can this material help reduce the insulation cost of a building?
Sustainability (potential for LEED credits): What are the possible LEED
credits to obtain if AAC products are used in a project, in comparison with
other conventional building materials?
Sustainability (manufacturing): How sustainable is the manufacturing

process of AAC? What is the carbon footprint in comparison with other
conventional building materials such as wood, concrete, and steel?
Sustainability (transportation cost savings): Taking into account the

considerable light weight of AAC, to what extent is the transportation cost
affected by substituting other conventional building materials with AAC?
Fire resistance: In what temperature and after how many hours AAC building
material fails if a fire occurs? How does it compare to standard tests for
wood, concrete, and steel assemblies?
Sound barrier: How much of an acoustic barrier are AAC block walls? Can
they be used as acoustic insulators?
1.4.2. Engineering Tests
Weight/Density: How light are AAC blocks in comparison to wood, concrete,

and steel? How does it affect the seismic design of a structure?
Workability/easy and fast construction: Is AAC an easy material to work

with? Does its light weight impact construction speed? Are there any savings
in cost?
Creep: How much creep does an AAC block wall have over time?
Structural connections (vertical pull out): What is the strength of a grouted

bolt connection to an AAC block in pull out?
Structural connections: shear: What is the strength of a grouted bolt

connection to an AAC block in shear?
Structural strength (bending strength): What is the ultimate bending stress

of an AAC block? How does it compare to wood, concrete, and steel?
Structural strength (shear strength): What is the ultimate shear stress of

AAC blocks connected with the manufacturers mortar mix?
1.4.3. Other Considerations/Tests:
Initial cost: How does using AAC as a building material impact the initial cost
of a project, in comparison with wood, concrete, and steel?
Life-cycle cost: How does using AAC as a building material impact the energy
cost during the lifetime of a building? How does it compare with wood,
concrete, and steel?
Construction equipment cost: Does using AAC reduce the construction

equipment cost in comparison with wood, concrete, and steel?
10
Labor cost: Is labor more expensive using AAC in comparison with wood,
concrete, and steel? Do they need special training?
Manufacturing cost: What is the manufacturing cost of AAC in comparison

with wood, concrete, and steel?
Effect of marketing on AAC sale: How effective is the AAC marketing strategy
on its sale in Southern California?
1.5.
Study Boundaries
In this study four different tests will be performed that could be categorized into
material properties tests and structural tests. The building science tests include:
a. Finding the Water Absorption Coefficient (WAC) of the AAC blocks. In order to
find the WAC of this material a Karsten Pipe Test will be performed on an 8 thick
AAC block to find out if AAC is a proper material to be used on the exterior of
buildings. The test is described in detail in chapter 4.
b. Finding the thermal resistance value (R-value) of AAC standard building blocks,
8x8x24 blocks. In order to find the R-value, a 24x24x24 test cell will be
prepared and tested as described in chapter 4.
The structural tests will be focused on the connection of a steel reinforcement rebar or
bolt to an AAC block with grout. Two tests, as described below, are designed to be
performed on the block samples:
11
a. A pull-out test will be performed to find the strength of a grouted connection of

a steel rebar or bolt to an AAC block.
b. A shear test will be performed to find the strength of a grouted connection of a
steel rebar or bolt to an AAC block.
These tests seem necessary to perform due to the fact that structural and also nonstructural connections tend to be one of the most challenging aspects of the design and
detailing of AAC. Due to the porous structure of this material, it is necessary to study the
loading capacity of different bolt connections to the AAC blocks. The outcome will be
reduced by a safety factor defined in chapter 6, and compared to similar bolt
connections to regular CMU blocks and regular structural concrete.
12
2. Chapter 2: Structural Concrete

2.1.
What is Structural Concrete?
2.1.1. Definition
As defined by the ACI (American Concrete Institute), concrete is a composite material

that consists essentially of a binding medium within which are embedded particles or
fragments of aggregate, usually a combination of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate;
in Portland-cement concrete, the binder is a mixture of Portland cement and water,
with or without admixtures. 12
Figure 2-1: A Common Concrete Ingredient Ratio 13
12
ACI, <http://www.concrete.org/Technical/CCT/FlashHelp/ACI_Terminology.htm>, C 2009, Viewed

September 9, 2009
13
ACI, <http://www.cement.org/basics/concretebasics_concretebasics.asp>, C 2009, Viewed September

10, 2009
13
2.1.2. Ingredients
The main ingredients of a concrete mix include Portland cement, coal fly ash, gravel,
sand, and water. There are other ingredients such as foam, glass aggregate or chemical
admixtures that are mainly added to achieve a certain characteristic in the concrete
such as durability, plasticity, density, or curing rate.
Portland Cement
Portland cement is the main ingredient of different types of structural concrete. It is in the form
of a very fine powder material (one pound of cement includes 150 billion grains), gluing other
concrete ingredients together.14 See figure 2-2.
Figure 2-2: Portland cement 15
14
ACI, <http://www.cement.org>, C 2009, Viewed September 10, 2009
15
ACI, <http://www.cement.org>, C 2009, Viewed September 10, 2009
14
There are certain concerns regarding the high carbon footprint of the Portland cement
manufacturing process, and in recent years other substitute materials have been
introduced to the market which will be discussed later in this chapter.
The history of making Portland cement goes back to the early 1800s when Bricklayer
Joseph Aspdin of Leeds, England made the first Portland cement by burning powdered
limestone and clay in his kitchen oven.16
Today a similar process is carried out by burning the ingredients, generally lime and
silica, at high temperatures. Other admixtures such as iron or aluminum are added by a
precise ratio defined by engineers. 17
Based on ACIs description on producing Portland cement, the large stones carried from
the mine or quarry go through a first round of crushing, reducing the size of the stones
from giant stones to a maximum of 6 inches in each dimension. Later these stones will
go through a second round of crushing, this time reducing their size to a maximum of 3
inches.18
From here on, two different procedures could be carried on: the dry process or the wet
process. In the dry process the raw materials are mixed and grinded and then fed into a
16
ACI, <http://www.cement.org/basics/index.asp>, C 2009, Viewed September 10, 2009
17
18

September 10, 2009
15
kiln, with a temperature about 2700 degrees Fahrenheit. However, in the wet process
the raw material is ground with water, forming slurry and the slurry is then fed to the
kiln. The raw materials at high temperatures of the kiln change into a gray and hard final
product very different in characteristics than the original materials. This final product is
called the cement clinker having a dimension of 1 to 2 inches. Grinding the cement
clinker will result in the fine powder we know as Portland cement. 19, 20
Figure 2-3: Blue Circle Southern Cement factory near New Berrima, Australia21
19

September 10, 2009
20
International Network for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement (INECE),

<http://www.inece.org/mmcourse/chapt6.pdf>, Viewed October 7, 2009
21
Wikipedia, <http://en.wikipedia.org>, C Wikimedia, Viewed October 7, 2009
16
Figure 2-4: Left: A Dry Process Cement Manufacturing Line 22

Right: First Round Crushing of Stones 23
Coal Fly Ash
Coal fly ash is a black colored, waste product of coal combustion, and in the recent years
has been used as a substitute for Portland cement in the concrete mixture. The
advantage of this substitution is using less Portland cement which has a large carbon
foot print, and use of fly ash which would be a waste product otherwise.
As a general rule, substitution of 20% of Portland cement with coal fly ash does not
require any provisions, but at higher ratios an engineering design shall be provided to
22
Trade Korea.com, <http://www.tradekorea.com/products/Machinery.html?nationCd=CNandlinkFlag=>,

C 2008 KITA (Korea International Trade Association), Viewed October 7, 2009
23
17
ensure the strength of the final product. Some tests have shown that fly ash makes the
concrete stronger and gives it improved workability compared to the standard mix.24
Figure 2-5: Fly Ash Dump in a Construction Project 25
Gravel
Gravel is the large size aggregate in a concrete mixture, and based on the ACI definitions
gravel is the granular material that is retained, or mostly retained, on the 4.75 mm (No.
4) sieve. This definition applies to aggregates of that size due to natural disintegration or
24
BuildingGreen.com
<http://www.buildinggreen.com/auth/productsByCsiSection.cfm?SubBuilderCategoryID=6848>, C 2010
Building Green, LLC, Viewed September 19,2009
25
Project Monitor, <http://www.projectsmonitor.com/OPED/cement-industry-needs-policy-on-fly-ash>, C

2001 - 2008 Economic Research India Limited, Viewed October 7, 2009
18
abrasion of rocks, or as a result of manually crushed larger rocks. 26 See figure 2-6 for
aggregate grading.
Figure 2-6: Aggregate Grading27, 28
Sand
Sand is a hard and small granular material and is the fine aggregate in the concrete
mixture. The hardness of sand comes from its component of silicon dioxide. ACI defines
sand as: granular material passing the 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) sieve and almost entirely
passing the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve and predominantly retained on the 75 m (No. 200)
sieve, and resulting either from natural disintegration and abrasion of rock or processing
26
Cowden Gravel & Ready Mix, <http://cowdeninc.com/gravel.php>, C 2006 Cowden Gravel & Ready Mix,
Inc., Viewed September 11, 2009
27
Cowden Gravel & Ready Mix, <http://cowdeninc.com/gravel.php>, C 2006 Cowden Gravel & Ready Mix,
Inc., Viewed September 11, 2009
28
ACI, <http://www.cement.org/basics/images/agg_1035.gif>, C 2009, Viewed September 11, 2009
19
of completely friable sandstone. This definition is applied to an entire aggregate either

in a natural condition or after processing. 29
Figure 2-7: Close-up of Beach Sand, Surface Area ~ 0.20 Square Inches. 30
Water
Another ingredient of a concrete mix is water which mixes with the cementitious
material to form a paste that glues the aggregate together. Almost any drinkable water
with no distinct taste or odor may be used in a concrete mixture. 31
29

September 9, 2009
30
Wikipedia, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Third_beach_sand.jpg>, C Wikimedia, Viewed September

9, 2009
31

10, 2009
20
The ratio of the mass of water to the mass of Portland cement in a concrete mix is
shown as w/c. This ratio is very important in achieving different concrete strengths, and
therefore is defined by an engineer.32
The manufacturing process of concrete consists of three major steps: proportioning,

mixing and hydration, and curing.
Proportioning
In order to achieve a concrete with certain structural strength and qualities, the
concrete mix should be carefully proportioned. For special purpose concrete, usually an
engineering design shall be provided. There are empirical tables to find the correct ratio
of fine aggregate to coarse aggregate, the percentage of other admixtures, and most
importantly, the w/c ratio. Aggregates shall conform to ASTM C-33 with proven
shrinkage characteristics of less than 0.05%. Usually a w/c ratio of 0.5 or less is used.
The importance of w/c ratio becomes clearer knowing that the strength of the final
concrete directly depends on this ratio. The higher the w/c, the more workable the
concrete is. However more shrinkage occurs while it cures, and the structural strength is
reduced. While a lower w/c creates a stiffer mix that is not as workable, but tends to
shrink less, and will have a higher strength. Typically, a concrete mix is about 10 to 15
32

September 10, 2009
21
percent cement, 60 to 75 percent aggregate, 15 to 20 percent water, and up to 8

percent entrapped air, by volume. 33 See figure 2-8.
Figure 2-8: A Typical Concrete Mix 34
Mixing and Hydration
When the ingredients are mixed, a chemical reaction, called hydration, between the
cement and water causes the cement to harden, bind to the aggregate and become
33

10, 2009
34
Cool Climate, Concrete, <http://www.coolclimateconcrete.com/images/piechart.jpg>, C 2009, West

Main Consultants, LLC, Viewed October 1, 2009
22
strong. Therefore it is important that the concrete is prepared shortly before pouring, so
it does not lose its workability and flow.35
Curing
Curing begins after the exposed surfaces of the concrete have hardened sufficiently to
resist marring. Curing ensures the continued hydration of the cement and the strength
gain of the concrete. 36
Figure2-9: Curing of Concrete 37
35

10, 2009
36

10, 2009
37
Civil, Environmental, and Architectural Engineering,

<http://www.iri.ku.edu/projects/concrete/phase2.html>, C 2009, Viewed October 1, 2009
23
Concrete gains its strength throughout the years of hydration and curing; however it
gains most of its structural strength in the first 28 days. The 28-day strength is the basis
for the engineering design. Concrete cures better in a moist condition, therefore in
many projects they fill the area with water if possible, or as seen in the figure below,
they keep the concrete moist with moisture-retaining fabrics. 38
2.1.4. Applications
Figure 2-10: Top Left: Cast in Place Concrete39, Top Right: Poured in Place Concrete40, Bottom:
High Rise Concrete Frame Construction 41
38

19, 2009
39
Baruzzini, <http://www.baruzzini.com/images/large/image-12.jpg>, Viewed March 11, 2010
24
Concrete is one of the most common and one of the oldest building materials in the
world. Various projects such as buildings, high rises, bridges, roads, and damns are built
with concrete. It can be used poured-in-place, such as slabs on grade and foundations,
cast-in-place such as floor slabs, beams and columns, or pre-cast such as concrete
panels or concrete blocks. 42
Almost every building project uses some concrete because it is the most durable
conventional material available for use in contact with soil.
Figure 2-11: Concrete Bridge in Visoko 43
40
Maiden Gully, <http://home.vicnet.net.au/~mgcfa/whatsnew.htm>, Viewed March 11, 2010
41
Healy Long, & Jevin, <http://www.healylongjevin.com/systems.htm>, C 2009 - HLH Construction

Management Services, Inc., Viewed October 1, 2209
42
History of Concrete, <http://www.howconcreteworks.com/application_of_concrete.html>, Viewed

October 1, 2009
43
Wikipedia, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Concrete_Bridge.jpg>, C Wikimedia, Viewed

October 2, 2009
25
Figure 2-12: Example of Architectural Precast Concrete 44
2.2.
What is Lightweight Structural Concrete?
2.2.1. Definition
Structural lightweight concrete (LWC) by definition is lighter than normal-weight

concrete (NWC). This quality is achieved by replacing the coarse aggregate in a regular
concrete mix with kiln processed light weight aggregate. This results in a lower modulus
of elasticity for LWC, making it less stiff in comparison to NWC. The lightweight
aggregate is a composition of expanded shale, clay or slate (ESCS). 45 ESCS owes its
durability to the ceramic nature of the aggregate and its exceptional connection to the
44
Hering Intl., http://www.heringinternational.com/en/concrete/architectural-concrete-1411.htm,

Viewed September 30, 2009
45
ESCSI, <http://www.escsi.org/pdfdoc1/Structural%20Info%20Sheet%20%204640.0.pdf>, C 2010 ESCSI,

Viewed October 1, 2009
26
cementitious material.46 This lightweight aggregate brings about an average reduction

of 30% in weight. Its producers claim that it has a better fire rating and offers design
flexibility for longer spans and thinner sections, while maintaining the structural
strength 47, which are claims to be verified by testing and engineering analysis.
2.2.2. Ingredients
The standard ingredients of a lightweight structural concrete are similar to those of a

normal-weight structural concrete mix, however as mentioned above the coarse
aggregate is different. The aggregate here is a rotary kiln produced structural
lightweight aggregate (LWA). 48
Structural Lightweight Aggregate, Expanded Shale, Clay and Slate, ESCS
Expanded shale, clay and slate (ESCS) lightweight aggregate is used in various
applications including structural concrete mixture, paving or asphalt. To prepare ESCS,
raw material and minerals are processed in a rotary kiln at approximately 1800
Fahrenheit. 49
46
ESCSI, <http://www.escsi.org>, C 2010 ESCSI, Viewed October 1, 2009
47
ESCSI, <http://www.escsi.org/pdfdoc1/Structural%20Info%20Sheet%20%204640.0.pdf>, C 2010 ESCSI,

48
ESCSI, <http://www.escsi.org/New%20Web/Structural%20Lightweight%20Concrete.htm>, Viewed

October 10, 2009
49
ESCSI, <http://www.escsi.org/>, C 2010 ESCSI, Viewed October 1, 2009
27
As seen in the schematic view below, the absorbed water by the porous aggregate or
surface film can help concrete better cure, as mentioned in sections above. 50
Figure 2-13: Schematic of Lightweight WA Particle 51
The manufacturing process of structural lightweight concrete is similar to that of regular

concrete; the only difference being the mixture content. The lightweight aggregate
reduces the weight of the final product by approximately 30%. 52
50
ESCSI, <http://www.escsi.org/>, C 2010 ESCSI, Viewed October 1, 2009
51
ESCSI, <http://www.escsi.org/New%20Web/Structural%20Lightweight%20Concrete.htm>, C 2010

ESCSI, Viewed October 1, 2009
52
28
2.2.4. Applications
Lightweight concrete is used generally for floors because of the light weight, reducing
the weight of the structure, and resulting in cost savings due to reduction in size of
columns, beams, and foundations the entire gravity load path as well as the reduced
seismic forces, and therefore reduced moment frame sizes, shear wall sizes, and
foundation sizes.
53
The figures below demonstrate different landmarks built with
lightweight concrete.
Figure 2-14: Chateau on the Lake in Branson, Missouri 54
53
54
ESCSI, <http://www.escsi.org/pdfdocs/Omaha1a.pdf>, C 2010 ESCSI, Viewed October 21, 2009
29
Figure 2-15: Creating a Landmark with Lightweight Concrete: First National Bank Tower, Omaha,
Nebraska55
55
Wikipedia, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_National_Bank_Tower>, C Wikimedia, Viewed October

11, 2009
30
3. Chapter 3: Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC)

3.1.
What is AAC?
3.1.1. Definition
As previously described in chapter 1, AAC, or Autoclaved Aerated Concrete, is a

lightweight precast concrete produced by mixing the general ingredients of a concrete
mix, except for the coarse aggregate (gravel), and aerating it to reduce its weight to a
level as low as 20% of the regular concrete weight.56
Figure 3-1: AAC Panels on a Construction Site 57

56
Safe Crete, <http://www.safecrete.com>, C Safe Crete, Viewed September 9, 2009
57
Beijing Huaguang Solar Filter Plant, < http://www.hgtyn.com/huaguang/jienengfang/Eeps.html>,

31
Figure 3-2: Stacked Blocks of AAC Wrapped in Foil 58
AAC is differentiated from typical lightweight concrete too because in lightweight

concrete mixtures, the coarse aggregate is specified to be light weight, but AAC gains its
light weight from completely removing the coarse aggregate from the mixture, and
instead putting in admixtures that produce hydrogen bubbles to make a relatively highly
aerated final product.
Based on ACIs definition, the mix of ingredients forms a homogeneous void structure.
The voids in the body of the concrete are formed in two different ways. They form
58
Wikipedia, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerated_autoclaved_concrete>, C Wikimedia, Viewed

September 9, 2009
32
either due to chemical reaction between the ingredients, or by the addition of prepared
foam,59 discussed later in this chapter.
3.1.2. History
AAC was invented by Dr. Axel Eriksson at the Swedish Royal Institute of Technology. In
1929 it went into production in Sweden and became a popular construction
material.60,61 The first AAC brand, Ytong, was produced from alum slate in the 1940s.
Due to its bluish color, it was also known as blue concrete.62
Figure 3-3: Dr. Axel Eriksson, Inventor of the AAC 63
59

September 19, 2009
60
Svenska Byggnadsvrdsfreningen, <http://www.byggnadsvard.se>, C 2008, Viewed October 4, 2009
61

October 4, 2009
62

October 4, 2009
63
Hebel, <http://www.hebel.co.nz/about/hebel%20history.php >, CFG Concrete LTD, Viewed October 10,

2009
33
3.1.3. Ingredients
Among the ingredients of AAC, Portland cement, coal fly ash, sand, and water are
described previously in chapter 2. However, other ingredients such as aluminum powder
or aluminum paste, lime, and gypsum are used for various reasons which will be
discussed in this section.
Figure 3-4: Top: AAC from Natural Material64, Bottom: AAC Raw Materials by Percentage65
64
Xella, <www.xella-group.com/htmlcomenytong_basicmaterial.php>, c Xella International GmbH,

65
Green Earth Vision, <http://www.greenearthvision.com/aacplan.html>, C 2008 Green Earth Vision,

Viewed December 12, 2009
34
Aluminum Powder or Aluminum Paste
Aluminum powder is a relatively stable material under ordinary storage and

temperature, but should be handled with extreme care due its nature of being highly
explosive. It reacts with some acids and caustic solutions and produces hydrogen gas. In
production of AAC, the reaction between the aluminum powder (or paste) with lime
produces the hydrogen gas which results in the bubble structure of the AAC. 66
Figure 3-5: Left: Aluminum Paste Package67, Right: Aluminum Powder68
66
J. T. Baker,<http://www.jtbaker.com/msds/englishhtml/a2712.htm>, Viewed October 04, 2009
67
Classic Sales, <http://classicsales.tradeindia.com/Exporters_Suppliers >, C 2009, Viewed September 12,

2009
68
EBay, <http://o2essentialoils.com/ebay/chemicals/aluminum-powder.jpg>, C2009, Viewed September

12, 2009
35
Lime
Lime is the calcium containing material (including oxides, hydroxides or carbonates) that
is used in the concrete mix, and in the production of Portland cement. Limestone is
extracted from quarries and mines.69
Figure 3-6: A Limestone Formation in the Waitomo District of New Zealand 70
Gypsum
Gypsum is a gray or yellow, or sometime translucent, soft natural mineral containing

calcium sulfate. In the construction industry, it is mainly used to make gypsum drywall
or plaster as ceiling or wall finishes, but it is also used in making Portland cement, or as
69
Wikipedia,<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Limestone_Formation_In_Waitomo.jpg>, C Wikimedia,
70
Wikipedia, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Limestone_Formation_In_Waitomo.jpg>, C Wikimedia,

36
soil conditioner.
71 72 73
, ,
ACI defines gypsum as a mineral having the composition of
calcium sulfate dihydrate (CaSO4.2H2O). 74
Figure 3-7: Gypsum Chrystal 75
The manufacturing process of AAC includes mixing of the ingredients - Portland cement,
fly ash, lime, sand, water and aluminum powder or paste - and then pouring them into a
mould, usually about 2/3 full. The chemical reaction between the lime and aluminum
produces microscopic hydrogen bubbles, increasing the volume of the slurry to fill the
71
Oster and Frenkel. 1980. The Chemistry of the Reclamation of Sodic Soils with Gypsum and Lime.
72
Wikipedia,<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gypsum>, C Wikimedia, Viewed October 4, 2009
73
Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP),

<http://www.dep.state.fl.us/geology/geologictopics/rocks/gypsum.htm>, C 2010 State of Florida, Viewed
October 4, 2009
74

September 12, 2209
75
FDEP, <http://www.dep.state.fl.us/geology/geologictopics/rocks/gypsum.htm>, Viewed October 4, 2009
37
mould. The slurry stiffens after about 4 hours and creates a green material also known
as the green cake. Formation of the green cake is the preliminary curing of AAC. 76
After the preliminary curing, the green cake is solid, but still soft, and ready to be cut
into different shapes and sizes. It is removed from the mould and cut with thin wires.
Thin wires cut the cake accurately providing 90-degree angles and straight sides with
ASTM tolerances of approximately 1/16 inches. 77, 78
For the final product to gain structural strength, the cut green cake is finally placed in an
autoclave (an enclosed pressurized chamber), and steam cured at a temperature
approximately 374 Fahrenheit (190oC) and pressure of 8 to 12 bars. Under this
temperature and pressure sand reacts with calcium hydroxide and form calcium silica
hydrate, which is the accounts for the material's high strength79. The final AAC product
can be used for wall, floor, roof, stairs and other purposes as described in this chapter.80
76
Toolbase Services, <http://www.toolbase.org/Technology-Inventory/Foundations/autoclaved-aeratedconcrete>, C 2001-2008 Nahb Research Center, Viewed October 7, 2009
77
Moxie International, <http://www.moxie-intl.com/glossary.htm>, C 2008 Moxie International, Viewed

October 7, 2009
78
Xella Hebel, <http://www.xella-usa.com/html/us/en/hebel_aac-technology.php>, C Xella Aircrete North

America, Inc., Viewed September 9, 2009
79
Wikipedia, < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerated_autoclaved_concrete#cite_note-0>, C Wikipedia,

Viewed May 1, 2010 [Original sources: Building Green,
<http://www.buildinggreen.com/auth/productsByCsiSection.cfm?SubBuilderCategoryID=685>, C 2010
Building Green, LLC. and Svenska Byggnadsvrdsfreningen,
<http://www.byggnadsvard.se/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=459:pionjaerinsatser-ibetongens-barndom-konstruktionsbetongens-historia-1890-1950&catid=45:material&Itemid=84>, C 2008
Svenska Byggnadsvrdsfreningen]
80

38
AAC strength is slightly different about different axes. The weak axis is the direction the
slurry raises into the mould. Compression test results on both axes of AAC blocks are
presented in chapter 3 on E-Crete.
Figure 3-8: Slurry Being Poured into Moulds (Picture Courtesy H+H UK Ltd.)81
Figure 3-9: Green Cake Rising in Mould (Picture courtesy H+H UK Ltd.)82
81
Understanding Cement , <http://www.understanding-cement.com/autoclaved-aerated-concrete.html>,

2005-2010, WHD Microanalysis Consultants Ltd, Viewed September 19, 2009
39
Figure 3-10: Green Cake Being Cut By Wires (Picture Courtesy H+H UK Ltd.) 83
Figure 3-11: Green Blocks Loaded into an Autoclave (Picture courtesy H+H UK Ltd.)84
82

83

40
Another method of manufacturing AAC is adding prepared foam to the slurry. The foam
is produced by diluting a liquid concentrate with water, and then pressurizing with air
forced through a conditioning nozzle. The foam is then blended with the base mix
consisting of cement, fly ash, water and sometimes aggregate. This causes the base mix
to expand and become lighter. The air bubbles hold their shape until the cement
hydrates permanently trapping the air in the material. 85
3.1.5. Properties
Light Weight
AAC can weigh as low as 25 pounds per cubic foot (pcf) or about 20% of the regular
structural concrete with an average weight of 150 pcf. A sample of AAC was measured
to have a density of 27 pcf prior to performing the tests described in chapter 4 of this
thesis. However, heavier AAC, with a density of approximately 60 pcf, is produced for
load bearing structural components.86
Fire Resistance
Based on E-Crete Companys brochure, E-Crete AAC is non-combustible, with 4-hour
U.L. classified fire rating for a 4-inch thick non-load-bearing or a 6-inch thick loadbearing wall. The company claims that AAC has a melting point of over 2900 Fahrenheit
84

85
Geofill Cellular Concrete, <http://www.geofill.com>, C 2008, Viewed September 9, 2009
86
Green Building LLC, <http://www.buildinggreen.com>, C 2009, Viewed October 7, 2009
41
(1600oC) while a typical residential fire is about 1200 Fahrenheit (650oC).87 The
argument about this claim would be that the high melting point of AAC may not directly
relate to its fire resistance. The material may crumble or lose its structural strength in
lower temperatures, long before melting. Therefore it is important to study the impact
of exposure to high temperatures on AAC. The company also claims that no toxic fume is
released when an AAC building is on fire, unlike other building materials, which is
another topic to further research, but beyond the study boundaries of this thesis.
Figure 3-12: Left: AAC is Fire Resistant88 , Right: UL Rated Classified 89
87
E-Crete, <http://www.e-crete.com/advantages/index.htm#Fire>, C 2005 E-Crete LLC, Viewed October 7,

2009
88
European Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Association, <http://www.eaaca.org/eaaca>, C 2008 European

Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Association, Viewed October 7, 2009
89
E-Crete, <http://www.e-crete.com/advantages/index.htm#Fire>, C 2005 E-Crete LLC, Viewed October 7,

2009
42
Figure 3-13: Fire Spreading With and Without AAC90
Strength and Durability

As a large manufacturer of AAC, Xella-Hebel, explains that the strength and durability of
their product is due to 12 hours of curing and steaming of the green cake under high
pressure (160 to 170 psi) and high temperature (360 to 380 Fahrenheit ~ 182 to 193o C )
in autoclave ovens. Similar to other precast concrete, there is no need for AAC products
to cure on site.91 Based on independent research, manufacturers claim that AAC is a
durable material that can stand up to below freezing temperatures in Europe and
earthquakes in Japan, and it is low maintenance and does not rot, warp, or corrode. 92,93
90
Hebel, <http://www.hebel.co.nz/products/aws.php>, CFG Concrete Ltd, Viewed October 7, 2009
91

92
Encon Construction , <http://www.enconconstruction.net/Advantages_of_AAC.html>, Viewed October

9, 2009
43
This topic could be seen from two perspectives: material durability and structural
strength. Through personal communications of the author with South American
architects, and European builders, AAC is commonly used in their countries and is
known as a durable material. However, as later discussed in this chapter, the
compressive strength of AAC is approximately 700 psi, which does not make AAC a
structurally strong material in comparison with conventional concrete, or even wood. In
terms of durability as well, it should be noted that AAC has been introduced to the
market not more than 70 years ago, therefore it is not easy to compare it to other
building materials that have been used for centuries. Obviously various tests in terms of
material properties and material change in different temperatures and climate
conditions can be run on AAC, as well as loading tests to check its durability and
structural strength.
Design Flexibility and Workability
AAC is an easy material to work with on site. It can be sawn, drilled, nailed into, and
shaped with regular woodworking tools. This was personally experienced in order to
perform some of the tests described in chapter 4. Samples of AAC blocks were saw-cut
and drilled at the USC woodshop very easily. This quality makes it possible to create
carvings, arches and curves, or angle cuttings on site, which would give the architects
93

44
more flexibility in creative designs.94, 95 The figures below demonstrate examples of this
characteristic of AAC:
Figure 3-14: AAC Blocks are Easy to Drill or Cut with Conventional Construction Tools 96
Figure 3-15: Creating Curves and Elaborate Details on Site with AAC97
94
Hebel, < http://www.hebel.co.nz/benefits/index.php >, CFG Concrete LTD, Viewed October 10, 2009
95

9, 2009
96
Hebel, <http://www.hebel.co.nz/benefits/index.php >, CFG Concrete LTD, Viewed October 10, 2009
45
Figures 3-16 and 3-17 demonstrate the Dancing House by Frank Gehry in Prague, Czech
Republic. Ninety-nine AAC panels of different shapes and sizes are used in the exterior
to create the form.98
Figure 3-16: Design Flexibility: The Dancing House Window Arrangement, in Prague, Czech
Republic, Architect: Frank Gehry 99
97
Hebel, <http://www.hebel.co.nz/photos/Acoustic%20and%20intertenancy%20systems/index.php>,
CFG Concrete LTD, Viewed March 7, 2010
98
Galinsky, < http://www.galinsky.com/buildings/dancinghouse/index.htm>, C Galinsky 1998-2006,

Viewed March 27
99
Wikipedia, <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Dancing_house_windows.jpg>, C
Wikimedia, Viewed March 27, 2010
46
Figure 3-17: Design Flexibility: The Dancing House in Prague, Czech Republic, Architect: Frank
Gehry100, 101
100
Xella, <http://www.xella-group.com/flash_media/shared/ytong_general_brochure.pdf>, C Xella

International GmbH, Viewed October 9, 2009
101
Wikipedia,<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Prague_-_Dancing_House.jpg>, C Wikimedia, Viewed

October 4, 2009
47
Cost-Effectiveness
Encon Construction, a Green Consulting and Construction Management Services firm
states: Independent studies have verified AAC as a cost-effective building material,
since the owners will not have to pay extra premiums for qualities such as sound
insulation, thermal insulation, or fire resistance. 102
In this statement higher initial costs are implied, but are justified due to savings through
reductions in maintenance, energy costs and insurance.103 Cost of an 8x8x24 AAC
block is 2.30 U.S. dollars, and an 8x8x16 precast concrete costs approximately 1.00
U.S. dollars.
104
Since the individual blocks cost more, substantial savings in insulation,
fire resistance and construction cost would have to be realized to justify its use on a cost
basis.
Rapid Construction
Due to AACs lightweight and precast structural elements, the portion of construction
utilizing AAC products is completed very quickly compared to other building materials.
In a conversation, a Chilean architect noted: we use AAC blocks in every rush project at
our company, because it finishes in no time. As in regular cast-in-place concrete, it
takes at least several days for it to stiffen to the extent workers can walk on it. Since in
102

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103
E-Crete, <http://www.e-crete.com/advantages/index.htm#Cost>, C 2005 E-Crete LLC, Viewed October

7, 2009
104
Home Depot, <http://www.homedepot.com/Building-Materials-Concrete-Cement-Masonry-ConcreteBlocks/>, C2000-2010 Homer TLC, Viewed March 14, 2010
48
the construction terminology time equals money, a rapid progress of projects equals
money savings for the owner.
Figure 3-18: Rapid Construction: Clockwise Week 1 through Week 3, Allen University 105
Another research area to investigate could be a cost effectiveness study on AAC; will the
possibly higher initial costs of AAC be justified due to its rapid construction?
Sustainability
AAC manufacturers claim that the process of the AAC emits no pollutants and leaves no
toxic waste or by-products.106 It should be noted that manufacturing of Portland
105
Xella Hebel, < http://www.xella-usa.com/html/us/en/hebel_projects.php >, C Xella Aircrete North

America, Inc., Viewed October 9, 2009
106
Xella Hebel, <http://www.xella-usa.com/html/us/en/hebel_aac-technology.php>, C Xella Aircrete

North America, Inc., Viewed September 9, 2009
49
cement, one of the ingredients of AAC, emits 0.8 tons of CO2 per 1 ton of cement,
107
which contradicts the claim. Emission of no pollutants during the mixture of the
ingredients, or curing, is not sufficient for such a claim while one of the main ingredients
is responsible for such high carbon dioxide emission. This again could be a subject for
further research that could compare the carbon footprint of the AAC manufacturing
process with other building materials. AAC manufacturers also claim that all the material
before and after curing can be recycled and used towards making new AAC. This can
possibly happen, while the aspect to study would be whether or not all the waste can be
recycled into manufacturing new AAC. 108
Figure 3-19: Consumption of Raw Material and Energy to Produce Building Materials 109
107
The Huffington Post, <http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/01/02/new-cement-absorbs-morec_n_154757.html>, C 2010 HuffingtonPost.com, Inc., Viewed March 14, 2010
108

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European Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Association,

<2009http://www.eaaca.org/eaaca/index.php?option=com_contentandtask=viewandid=56andItemid=92
50
As shown in figure 3-19, the amount of energy used to produce this material is lower
relative to the volume of the material produced, which is a potential to obtain a LEED
credit towards a certification.110 The reason would be the expansion of the mixture, and
the considerably larger volume of the final product in comparison to the raw material.
Thermal Insulator
Hebel and E-Crete claim that an 8 AAC standard block wall performs better than a
regular stud wall frame as the air bubbles in the structure of the AAC blocks provide
thermal insulation.111
Figure 3-20: Thermal Insulating Effect of Hebel AAC Blocks 112

>, C 2008 European Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Association, Viewed October 7, (*Source: FeBeCel
handbook 2000: Le Bton Cellulaire - Matriau d'Avenir, p. 32)
110
Xella Hebel, <http://www.xella-usa.com/html/us/en/hebel_aac-technology.php>, C Xella Aircrete

North America, Inc., Viewed September 9, 2009
111

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51
The thermal test described in detail in chapter 4 will measure the thermal resistance
quality of AAC blocks. However since AAC has lost about 70% of a normal structural
concrete because of its special mix, AAC blocks do not poses the qualities of a high mass
concrete wall.
Acoustic Insulator
Hebel AAC, as argued by the manufacturer, demonstrates superior acoustic insulation
by both reflecting and absorbing sound, due to the ability of the air bubbles in the
structure of AAC to reduce the sound transmissivity of the wall.113 ,114 There was no
numeric justification for this property of AAC, which makes it a topic for further
research.
3.1.6. Applications
The majority of the AAC products are standard wall blocks, roof/floor panels, wall
panels, and cladding which will be discussed in section 3.1.7. A few sample projects that
have utilized AAC products are discussed below.
112
Hebel, < http://www.hebel.co.nz/technical/Brochures%20-%20pdf/B-5_Hebel%20Block.pdf>, CFG

Concrete LTD, Viewed October 10, 2009
113
Hebel, <http://www.hebel.co.nz/benefits/index.php>, CFG Concrete LTD, Viewed October 10, 2009
114

9, 2009
52
Figure 3-21: C. K. Choi Building, Institute of Asian Research in Vancouver, Canada 115
The figure above demonstrates the C. K. Choi Building for the Institute of Asian Research
in Canada that used AAC blocks as a building material. The university office building
houses five research centers. A physical presence, both on the interior and the exterior,
was required for each center while maintaining a unified look with no one center or
culture dominating. This building is designed as a sustainable structure in terms of
daylight and natural ventilation, salvaged material and resource conservation. 116
Also having used AAC blocks is the Factor 10 in Chicago, Illinois demonstrated in the
figure below. In 2000, the City of Chicago Department of Environment and Housing
sponsored a national competition to identify creative modifications to their existing
New Homes for Chicago program to incorporate innovative sustainable building
115
Flickr, <http://www.flickr.com/photos/>, C 2010 Yahoo!, Viewed October 18, 2009
116
BuildingGreen, <http://www.buildinggreen.com/hpb/overview.cfm?projectid=44>, C 2010

BuildingGreen, LLC, Viewed October 18, 2009
53
practices. Factor 10 House is a cutting edge design and was one of the case-study
designs chosen for construction which was finished in 2003. 117
Figure 3-22: Factor 10 House, Chicago, Illinois118
Figure 3-23: The New American Home 2008, Orlando, Florida119

117
Resource Efficient Homes, <http://homes-across-america.org>, Viewed March 7, 2010
118
Resource Efficient Homes, <http://homes-across-america.org>, Viewed March 7, 2010
54
Figure 3-23 demonstrates The New American Home in 2008, Orlando Florida. One of the
primary project goals was to ensure energy efficiency and innovation in design, and
introduce builders to new HVAC strategies and advanced insulation and air-tightness
details. Aerated concrete blocks with an R-value of 8 and an exterior rigid foam
insulation system with an R-value of 5.7 create airtight exterior walls. This, along with
many other energy saving strategies, resulted in 64% reduction in cooling energy use,
55% reduction in heating energy use, and 57% reduction in hot water energy use. 120
3.1.7. Manufacturers
3.1.7.1.
Xella Hebel - History
Josef Hebel was born in 1894 in Westerheim, near Memmingen, in Bavaria. He started
working in the construction field when he was 15, and five years later graduated as a
building technician in 1914. At the age of 25 he became a partner in a construction firm
which he owned solely a few years later.121 In 1932, during the depression years, his
company, Josef Hebel GmbH, switched to road construction since the building projects
were minimal. But later in 1943, at the height of World War 2, he acquired the
technology for the manufacture of Autoclaved Aerated Concrete. He purchased a shut
119
Hojins Southwest Orlando Real Estate Scoop, <http://sworlandoblog.com/2008/02/15/the-2008-newamerican-home-at-lake-nona>, C 20062007, Viewed March 7, 2010
120
Hojins Southwest Orlando Real Estate Scoop, <http://sworlandoblog.com/2008/02/15/the-2008-newamerican-home-at-lake-nona>, C 20062007, Viewed March 7, 2010
121
Hebel, < http://www.hebel.co.nz/about/hebel%20history.php>, CFG Concrete LTD, Viewed October

10, 2009
55
down calcium silicate brick factory with mixing equipment in Memmingen, near Munich.
Josef Hebel modified the AAC manufacturing process, using wires to cut the AAC into
different shapes and sizes. He soon mechanized the whole system of manufacturing,
slicing, lifting, and packaging. In 1945, his head office in Munich was destroyed in the
war, and it took him 3 years to re-launch his company in Memmingen. After World War
2, many building needed to be rebuilt and AAC became a prominent building material
since it did not produce any waste, when waste was a concern due to the large amount
of waste and debris from the bombings. Any AAC waste on site could have been
returned to the factory and crushed and recycled. 122
Hebel specialized in the manufacturing technology and advancement, new equipment,

and the formulation of AAC. In the early 1950's Hebel established a new division for
residential applications, Hebel Haus, which served greatly to their increasing popularity.
In 1967 Hebel signed a joint venture with Asahi Chemical Material Co. in Japan, and not
too long later there were ten factories across the Japanese islands. Soon, numerous YTong and Hebel plants were established in Germany, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia,
Czech Republic, France, Hungary, Holland, Poland, Slovakian Republic, Slovenia,
Switzerland, USA, Mexico, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Japan, Australia, Turkey, Israel,
Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, India, and the Peoples Republic of China. Many other European
122

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56
countries such as Great Britain, Northern Ireland, Spain, France, Finland, and Norway
also have production facilities made by other brands.123
3.1.7.2.
Xella Hebel - Products
During the research for this thesis, Hebel was found to be the main manufacturer of
AAC products with the largest variety of product types.
Blocks
Standard Blocks: The most common standard Hebel block size is 8x8x24, but blocks
are manufactured in various sizes. As seen in figure below, these bocks are commonly
used to build walls.
Figure 3-24: Hebel AAC Blocks 124

123

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57
A thin-bed polymer modified mortar is used to connect the blocks, which dries in
approximately 5 minutes according to the manufacturers specifications.125
U-Blocks: This product is among the complementary products of Hebel. They are used
when additional reinforcement due to higher loads is required, such as in beams or
lintels. 126 See figure 3-25.
Figure 3-25: Hebel AAC U-Blocks in Construction 127
124
Hebel, <http://www.hebel.co.nz/photos/Block/index.php >, CFG Concrete LTD, Viewed April 7, 2009
125
Hebel, <http://www.xella-usa.com>, C Xella Aircrete North America, Viewed October 1, 2009
126
127
Hebel, < http://www.hebel.co.nz/photos/Block/index.php >, CFG Concrete LTD, Viewed October 10,
2009
58
Wall Panels
Hebel AAC wall panels are designed and manufactured with steel reinforcement wires.
They come 24 wide, and up to 19-8 high, and in various thicknesses. If tests prove the
thermal insulation properties of AAC to be sufficient, and since in many projects - such
as the Dancing House of Frank Gehry - AAC has been used without another exterior
finish, using these wall panels can potentially reduce the construction time. AAC wall
panels are installed in one layer, which can be constructed more quickly than the
standard wood framed thermal construction that includes wood studs, insulation, and
gypsum board installation. Hebel claims that an experienced crew of ten workers can set
100 panels per day or approximately 3,000 square feet of wall area with one small
crane.128
Figure 3-26: Hebel Wall Panels in Construction 129
128
129
Hebel, <http://www.hebel.co.nz/photos/CIWS%2006.jpg >, CFG Concrete LTD, Viewed October 1, 2009
59
Floor Panels
Hebel AAC floor panels look similar to wall panels except for the side key and rims that
allow for the grouting and connection of the panels. An experienced crew of ten can set
150 floor panels per day, or approximately 4,500 square feet with one small crane.130
Figure 3-27: Hebel Floor Panels in Construction 131
Cladding Boards
Hebel AAC Cladding boards are 2, 3, and 4 thick, 8', 9-4 or 9'-10 long, and 24
wide. Hebel claims that they have a fire rating of up to 4 hours, which would be for the
4 thick panel. Based on the thermal transmissivity of AAC, a feasibility study could be
130
131
Hebel, < http://www.hebel.co.nz/photos/Panel%20Floor/index.php>, CFG Concrete LTD, Viewed

October 1, 2009
60
performed on AAC cladding boards in comparison with the traditional metal sheathing
and insulations in steel frame structures.132 See Figure 3-28.
Figure 3-28: Hebel Cladding Boards133
Roof Panels / Structural Floor Panels
Hebel AAC roof panels are the same product as the floor panels, but for a different
application. Hebel claims that these panels reduce thermal transfer through the roof,
which is a major source of energy loss in a building.134 It should be noted that the
building code has minimum requirements for roof insulation, and while the thermal
132
133
Hebel, <http://www.hebel.co.nz/photos/Panel/index.php>, CFG Concrete LTD, Viewed October 1, 2009
134
61
resistance test in chapter 4 will provide the R-value of this material, it should be
compared with the code requirements to see if it is sufficient, or additional insulation
shall be provided.135
Figure 3-29: Schematic Design of a Hebel Structural Floor Panel 136
Figure 3-30: Hebel Structural Floor Panel in Construction 137

135
Hebel, <http://www.hebel.co.nz/products/structuralfloor.php>, CFG Concrete LTD, Viewed October 1,

2009
136

2009
62
Hebel Supercrete Structural Floor Panels, similar to the roof panels, are steel reinforced
for load bearing purposes. These panels are approximately 6 to 10 inches thick, and up
to 19 feet long. As seen in figure 3-29 and 3-30, panels have edge profiling allowing
reinforcing rods to be grouted into the joints and lock all the panels together. The grout
dries in a few minutes so the panels can be used soon after installation as a working
surface. 138
Sound Barriers
Figure 3-31: Hebel Sound Barrier Panels139
137

2009
138

2009
139
Hebel, <http://www.hebel.co.nz/products/soundbarriers.php>, CFG Concrete LTD, Viewed October 1,

2009
63
Hebel Supercrete Sound Barrier Panels provide sound barricade to be used on busy
roads, motorways, and around industrial sites. 140 An acoustic test shall be performed to
measure the sound transmissivity of this material, and how feasible it is to be used in
residential construction. See figure 3-31.
Stair Treads
Hebel Supercrete Stair Treads come 3-3 or 3-11 long, approximately 7 inches deep
and 12 inches wide. Hebel claims that their stair treads are sound proof compared to
conventional wood framed stairs. 141 This suggests further research such as an acoustic
test and feasibility study for residential construction.
Figure 3-32: Hebel Stair Treads 142
140
Hebel, <http://www.hebel.co.nz/products/soundbarrier.php>, CFG Concrete LTD, Viewed May 1, 2009
141
Hebel, <http://www.hebel.co.nz/products/treads.php>, CFG Concrete LTD, Viewed October 1, 2009
142
Hebel, <http://www.hebel.co.nz/photos/Hebel%20Stairs/ST%2001.jpg>, CFG Concrete LTD, Viewed

October 1, 2009
64
Since AAC stairs consist of solid blocks, and a wood-framed stair is hollow, another issue
to take into account is the increased dead load in seismic calculations for seismic regions
such as Southern California.
3.1.7.3.
E-Crete - History
E-Crete blocks were developed about 75 years ago, and have been used in different
parts of the world for various applications. 143 E-Crete claims that their product gives an
edge to the engineers and/or architects who are concerned about the environment, due
to their energy-saving products made with all natural raw materials, providing thermal
insulation which reduces the heating and cooling costs of the occupants.144 As
mentioned before, AAC ingredients are similar to those of regular concrete, and the
most controversial ingredient in terms of being environmentally friendly is Portland
cement. However due to the volume increase of about 50% of the final product in
comparison to the raw material, the total carbon footprint per ton of AAC, would be
smaller than regular concrete. In terms of thermal insulation, the result of the thermal
test in chapter 4 seems necessary to identify the effectiveness of AAC on energy costs of
a building.
143
E-Crete LLC, < http://www.e-crete.com/about/index.htm >, C 2005 Ecrete LLC, Viewed September 10,
2009
144
E-Crete LLC, < http://www.e-crete.com/about/index.htm >, C 2005 Ecrete LLC, Viewed September 10,
2009
65
3.1.7.4.
E-Crete - Products
Blocks
Figure 3-33: E-Crete Standard Block - Schematic 145
Figure 3-34: E-Crete Standard Block146

145
E-Crete LLC, <http://www.e-crete.com/productline/index.htm>, C 2005 Ecrete LLC, Viewed September

10, 2009
66
Standard Blocks: E-Crete Standard Blocks are used to build load-bearing and non-loadbearing masonry walls. Figure 3-33 shows a schematic drawing of a standard block and
figure 3-34, an E-crete AAC wall assembly. Tables 3-1 through 3-3 illustrate various sizes
of the blocks.147
Table 3-1: E-Crete Standard Block
148
E-Crete AAC Block Dimensions

(Inches)
Width
(Thickness)
Height
Length
24
24
24
10
24
12
24
14
24
16
24
146

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147

10, 2009
148

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67
Table 3-2: E-Crete Cladding Block 149
E-Crete AAC Cladding Block

Dimensions (Inches)
Width
(Thickness)
Height
Length
24
32
24
32
Table 3-3: E-Crete Jumbo Block 150
E-Crete AAC Jumbo Block Dimensions

(Inches)
Width
(Thickness)
Height
Length
24
32
24
32
24
32
10
24
32
12
24
32
24
48
O-Blocks: O-blocks are used where vertical reinforcement is required. After placing the
reinforcement bar into the block, it is then filled with approved grout material.151
149
E-Crete, <http://www.e-crete.com/productline/index.htm>, C2005 Ecrete LLC, Viewed July 11 , 2009
150

10, 2009
151
68
Figure 3-35: E-Crete O-Block 152
U-Blocks: U-blocks are generally used for composite reinforcement concrete header
beams or bond beam reinforcing. 153 Figure 3-25 shows a cage of steel reinforcement
being placed in the U-block. Later they will be filled with structural concrete per
engineering design.
Figure 3-36: E-Crete U-Blocks 154
152
153
E-Crete, <http://www.e-crete.com/productline/index.htm>, C 2005 Ecrete LLC, Viewed August 8, 2009
154
69
Mortar
E-Crete mortar is produced specifically to work with E-crete blocks and lintels. The
mortar bed required to hold on the blocks is approximately 1/16 inch thick which
minimizes heat loss through the connection. The repair mortar is used to repair cuts in
the blocks due to electrical or plumbing requirements. Both thin-bed mortar and repair
mortar come in ready-to-mix powder packages. 155
Structural Tests Results on E-Crete Blocks
Several structural tests have been performed by Resources Applications, Designs and
Controls, Inc. (RADCO) on E-Crete standard AAC blocks, the results of which are
summarized below. These test programs were developed by RADCO in conjunction with
Svanholm International, Ltd and ICBO-ES personnel to establish a basis for ICBO-ES
listing of this product. The tests are performed per RILEM (The International Union of
Testing and Research Laboratories for Material and Structures) recommendations and
ASTM standards. 156 Pursuing this procedure and the ICBO-ES testing was based on the
California Building Code that allows builders to use only building materials that have
been tested and pre-approved by an accredited agency.
155
156
RADCO Test Report No. RAD-1823, Project No. C-6207, Lab No. TL-1407, 1997-1998
70
Shear Strength
A shear test was performed at RADCO lab in a small scale similar to ASTM C 273. Each
test specimen was constructed by cementing three AAC blocks together with
manufacturers mortar mix, with two nominal overlaps of 5.5 inches and 6.25 inches.
(See figure below.) The test results indicated average shear strength of 82.6 psi for the
test specimen with 5.5 overlap, and 91.2 psi for 6.25 overlap. 157
Figure 3-37: Three-Piece Test Specimen for Shear Strength 158
Compression Loading
As mentioned earlier, AAC has a strong and a weak axis. The compression test was
performed at RADCO Engineering Lab along both axes, per RILEM 2.4 standards. The
157
Shear Strength Tests on Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Tobermorite Light Weight Structural Mineral,
RADCO Test Report No. RAD-1882 & 1938, Project No. C-6329, Lab No. TL-1407, June & October 1997
158
Shear Strength Tests on Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Tobermorite Light Weight Structural Mineral,
RADCO Test Report No. RAD-1882 & 1938, Project No. C-6329, Lab No. TL-1407, June & October 1997
71
test results confirmed an average compressive strength of 434 psi along the strong axis,
and 382 psi along the weak axis. 159
3.1.7.5.
Aercon - History
Another AAC manufacturer, Aercon in Florida, was established in 2002, and is a small
business manufacturing various AAC products. Aercon mentions that even though AAC
has been used for decades now, there are many Aercon AAC projects in the United
Stated, but with minimal national awareness. 160
3.1.7.6.
Aercon - Products
Blocks
Standard Blocks: These blocks come in various thicknesses of 2, 4", 6", 8", 9.5", and
12", and fixed length and height of 24 and 8 respectively. They are classified into three
strength classes of AC2, AC4, and AC6. 161
U-Blocks: U-blocks come in 8, 9.5, and 12 thicknesses, and 24x8 sections. As

mentioned before the purpose of this product is to create steel reinforced beams.162
159
Density & Compression Tests on Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Tobermorite Light Weight Structural
Mineral, RADCO Test Report No. RAD-1823, Project No. C-6207, Lab No. TL-1407, January 1998
160
Aercon AAC, <http://www.aerconaac.com/>, C 2009 Aercon Florida, LLC, Viewed April 10, 2010
161
162
72
O-Blocks: This product is designed to allow for vertical reinforcement. They come in 8,
9.5 and 12 thicknesses, and in 8x24 or 24x24 sections, with one or two holes to
allow for reinforcement respectively. 163
Fire Shaft Block: This product is specifically used to restrict fire from spreading. It can be
used as load bearing or non-load bearing, and they come in 4, 6, 8, 9.5, and 12
thicknesses and 24x24 sections. 164
Figure 3-38: Aercon Fire Shaft Blocks 165
Value Block: Value blocks are designed in larger sizes for labor saving purposes. They
come in 3, 4, 6, 8, and 12 thicknesses, 24 height, and 24 and 48 lengths. 166
163
164
165
73
Horizontal Cladding
Aercon Horizontal Sound Wall Panels are used as a buffer between traffic and
residential areas.167 They come in maximum length of 20 feet, width of 24" and
thicknesses of 6", 8", 10", and 12".168
Figure 3-39: Aercon Horizontal Cladding 169
Vertical Load Bearing Panels (ALV)
These panels are structurally designed to create a primary structure system for a
building. They have a maximum height of 20 feet, width of 24 and various thicknesses
of 6, 8, 10, and 12, and they come in two strength classes of AC4 and AC6. 170
166
167
168
169
74
Mortar
Thin-bed Mortar: This is a polymer modified adhesive to connect AAC blocks. 171
Large Grain Mortar: This product is specifically design to connect the vertical or
horizontal panels to the foundation. 172
Block Patch: This product sets very fast and is used to repair the broken or chipped AAC
blocks before application of plaster. 173
Repair Mortar 30: This is a fast setting mortar to repair the broken or chipped AAC
structural wall, floor, or roof panels. 174
Figure 3-40: Aercon Mortar Products from Left to Right: Thin-bed Mortar, Large Grain Mortar,
Block Patch, and Repair Mortar 30 175
170
171
172
173
174
75
3.1.7.7.
Other Manufacturers
Beside the two main manufacturers of AAC mentioned above, there are other
lightweight concrete manufacturers that produce special types of concrete used for
specific purposes such as roads or paving. One of the manufacturers of such products is
the Geofill Cellular Concrete Company. Geofill products are produced by mixing preformed foam into the cementitious slurry per ASTM C869, causing the mixture to
expand, and the final product to be very light weight. Geofill products are engineer
designed to have specific characteristics and strengths. The figure below demonstrates
the product Geofill LD Pervious that is used as a fill in projects such as road construction
where drainage is necessary. 176
Figure 3-41: Geofill LD Pervious
177
175
176
Geofill Cellular Concrete, <http://www.geofill.com>, C 2008 Geofill, Viewed April 8, 2010
177
Geofill Cellular Concrete, <http://www.geofill.com/geofillPervious.asp>, C 2008 Geofill Cellular

Concrete, Viewed April 8, 2010
76
4. Chapter 4: Research Method

4.1.
Karsten Pipe Penetration Test
The Karsten Pipe test is designed to measure the amount of water penetration in a
building material. It is commonly done on concrete, stone, or plaster. The test is
performed by connecting a glass tube filled with water to a surface of the test material
with
th plastiline. There are two types of tube designed to connect to horizontal and
vertical surfaces of the test material, since the test is sometimes performed on existing
surfaces which could be in either orientation.. The water in the tube exerts pressure on
the surface and the amount of water absorbed by it is measured as described in the
next sections, to give the water absorption coefficient of the material. 178
Figure 4-1:
1: Karsten Test on Horizontal and Vertical Surfaces 179
178
TQC, <http://www.tqc.eu/en/products/article/184/KARSTEN
<http://www.tqc.eu/en/products/article/184/KARSTEN-TUBE-PENETRATION-TEST>,
TEST>, C 2009 TQC,
179
Guard Industrie, < http://www.guardindustrie.com/gb/produits/1

http://www.guardindustrie.com/gb/produits/1-ProtectGuard>,
ProtectGuard>, C
guardindustrie.com, Viewed October 18, 2009
77
4.1.1. Purpose
This test provides data about the water penetration into different building materials in a
certain time frame. This is a helpful test to provide information to realize the amount of
rain water absorption by building faades. The need for a moisture barrier and/or a
protective sheathing will be evaluated later from the test results.
As AAC is a relatively new material in Southern California, this test is proposed to

measure the water intrusion in AAC blocks. This test is to verify the water absorption
ratio of AAC, and then its suitability to be used as an exterior faade.180 Professor
Schierle, the committee chair of this thesis, spends the academic year in Southern
California and summers in Germany. He confirmed that AAC is used widely in Germany
where there is definitely more precipitation than in Southern California. The need for an
additional moisture barrier beyond the exposed AAC is what is being questioned.
4.1.2. Procedure
This test is to measure the water absorption of a material in room temperature.

Therefore it was performed in the studio space of the third floor of Watt Hall. The
temperature was measured to be 68 Fahrenheit.
First a sample of AAC block was chosen after being carefully checked to have the least
amount of defect, indention or cavity on its faces. If the test is performed on an AAC
180
Reed Construction Data, <http://www.reedconstructiondata.com>, Viewed October 16, 2009
78
surface with a cavity, the amount of water absorbed from the Karsten tube is not all
absorbed by the material, but some is only filling the cavity or the crack. In order to
assure the accuracy of the test results, all the water should be absorbed by the building
material and not its local defects. And since this test is based on the volume of water
absorbed by the building material, water filling up cavities or cracks can significantly
affect the accuracy of the result. After a flawless block was selected, it was then cleaned
and dusted prior to attaching the test tube with the sealant, in order to have a clean and
waterproof connection between the AAC and the sealant. The plan was to perform the
test on both a horizontal and a vertical surface of AAC and study if water absorption
varies based on the orientation of the material. However while checking the blocks, it
was realized that different sides of the block had different smoothnesss; the rough side
is assumed to be the side created by the green cake wire-cut in the manufacturing
process, and the smooth side to be the face in contact with the mold. Therefore the test
was performed on both the rough and smooth sides. The figure below demonstrates a
close up of the smooth and rough sides of the AAC block.
Figure 4-2: AAC Block Close-Up: The Smooth Surface and Rough Surface
79
The test tube was connected to the cleaned AAC surface with a sealant, ensuring a tight
and water proof connection. More sealant was used to go over the tube to ensure water
would not leak through the connection as shown in figure below. Sealing is very
important because the test would be invalid if some water leaked out through the
connection. As mentioned before, all the water removed from the tube shall be
absorbed by the building material, and if some leaks out through the tube to sealant
connection, or AAC to sealant connection, the test results would be invalid. 181
Figure 4-3: Karsten Pipe Test on AAC: Sealing the Connection
181
80
After the connection was properly sealed, the test tube was carefully and slowly filled
up with water to avoid formation of air bubbles in the tube. Since the amount of water
absorbed by the test material is measured by the water volume change in the tube, it is
of great importance to make sure all the tube volume is filled with water only and not
any air. It is possible to get rid of the air bubbles by tapping on the tube, but any tapping
may affect the waterproofing of the sealant connection to the block. Therefore it is
easier to avoid formation of air bubbles in the tube, rather than mitigating it afterwards.
The tube was filled up to the 4 milliliter mark per the Karsten pipe test specifications
and right at the same time the stopwatch was started.
When water is in contact with the building material surface, it is absorbed by the
building material depending on the material porosity and its water absorption
capability. The first 5 minutes after running the test is called the wait time, and the
water level was measured once at 5 minutes, and the difference of that reading (which
is a number less than 4 milliliters) with the initial water level (4 millimeters) was
recorded as WAC 5. This number is equal to the amount of water absorbed in the first
five minutes of the test, also known as the water absorption coefficient at 5 minutes
(WAC 5).182 The water level was again measured at 15 minutes and the difference of
this reading with the primary 4 millimeter water level was recorded as WAC 15. This is
182
Graftex, <http://www.protectionhydrofuge.com/index.php?section=application&ss=1&langue=en>,
Viewed May 10, 2010
81
the amount of water absorbed by the material after 15 minutes of being in contact with
water or the water absorption coefficient at 15 minutes. 183
4.1.3. Calculation
To calculate the water absorption coefficient of the surface material, the Karsten Pipe
Test formula is used 184:
WAC(Material) = WAC 15 WAC 5
This is basically the amount of water absorbed between 5 and 10 minutes after the
material is exposed to water.
4.2.
Thermal Resistant Value (R-Value) Test
4.2.1. Purpose
One of the important claims of all the AAC manufacturers is its thermal insulating value
and its effect on energy savings in a building. If the claim is true to that extent, then AAC
masonry blocks can be used to build a wall without need for additional insulation, which
would significantly reduce the insulation and labor costs of a project. From another
perspective, comparing an AAC wall section to a regular timber frame wall section, the
AAC wall provides a preferred section due to its material - and therefore R-value uniformity. Uniform thermal resistance is preferred because it optimizes the
183
184
82
construction cost by minimizing the construction of multiple superimposed layers of

materials that would otherwise be required to average out the resistance or to bridge
gaps in resistivity. A conventional wood frame stud wall consists of 2x4 or 2x6 wood
studs at 16 inches on center with a lower R-value than the fiber glass insulation placed
in between them, resulting in less uniform thermal resistance for the whole assembly. A
thermal resistance test would provide how effectively AAC can reduce the insulation
cost of a project, and whether its R-value is sufficient to satisfy the California Title-24
requirements.
Title 24 of the California Code of Regulations, known as the California Building

Standards Code or just "Title 24" contains the regulations that govern the construction
of buildings in California."
185
New construction is required to meet specified energy
efficiency levels, so the thermal resistivity of the building envelope is an important part
of meeting these code standards. The AAC R-value shall be compared to the minimum
insulation required for roofs (R-30), floors (R-19), and exterior walls (R-13) based on the
Title-24 recommendations.
4.2.2. Preparation
In order to find the R-value of the AAC sample blocks, a test cell with approximate
dimension of 24x24x24 was prepared.
185
State Architect DGS, <http://www.dsa.dgs.ca.gov/Code/title24.htm>, C 2007 State of California,

Viewed April 8, 2010
83
The reason to choose this dimension for the test cell was that it should be small enough
in order to achieve equilibrium of the interior temperature in a short time. This test was
performed indoors, at the studio space of third floor of Watt Hall at the University of
Southern California, and the goal was to run the test and leave the test cell unattended
for no longer than one night, because the test required creating high temperatures.
The AAC blocks provided by the E-crete company were 24x10x8. In order study the Rvalue of AAC more accurately, heat loss through the mortar joint between the AAC
blocks should be minimized. The proposed solution was to use the least possible
number of blocks, which results in the least possible mortar joints; use of a single block
was out of the question, because based on the thickness of the foam insulations to be
about 2 , the inside space of the test cell would have been too small to install a heat
source safely, hence two AAC blocks were used, as described later in this section, to
have only one mortar joint, and a more uniform AAC surface.
Five sides of this cube were made out of foam insulation with an R-value of
approximately 30 and the last side out of two AAC blocks, with unknown R-value. The
insulation provided was a 2-inch thick foam with an R-value of approximately 15.
Therefore in order to have a total R-value of 30 for the 5 cell sides, 2 layers of foam
were glued together. It should be noted that in an assembly consisting of multiple
layers, when they are connected to each other in a way that any heat leak is avoided,
the R-value of the final assembly is equal to the sum of the R-value of each single
84
element. In order to achieve a leak-free assembly, a heavy duty construction adhesive

was used. This is a very thick adhesive and while connecting the foam layers together, it
created an approximately 1/4" to 1/2" gap in between the layers. Given that the
adhesive provides a leak free connection, the introduction of an air gap in between the
two foam layers helped increase the total R-value of the final wall section to more than
30. Since the air film in between the foams is not a heat conductor, it helps to increase
the R-value.
After each of the two foam layers were glued, the edges were again sealed with more
adhesive to ensure leak free connections. The last face, made out of the two 8x10x24
AAC blocks, was assumed to be the weakest face, where almost all the thermal transfer
takes place. The two blocks were bonded together with manufacturers provided mortar
mix to create a 24x20x8 (length x height x depth) AAC wall.
After the AAC face was assembled, it was glued to the other sides of the test cell as seen
in figure 4-3. Then four iButtons were attached at different heights and on both sides of
it. After that another layer of finish material - in this case a thin layer of foam with an RValue of 0.5 - was applied to the exterior face of the AAC wall. This finish layer was also
glued to the AAC face, ensuring no heat escape from the connection joint of the two
surfaces. See figures below for the process of making the test cell and sealing the joints.
85
Figure 4-4: Process of Making the Test Cell
86
Figure 4-5: Section of a Two Layer Face Made Out of R-15 Foam Insulation
Attaching this layer to the AAC wall hid four of the iButtons in between the two layers.
Another set of five iButtons was attached to the exterior face of the foam, and at
different heights. The reason to attach the iButtons at different heights was to find out if
there would be a difference in the heat transfer from the top, middle or bottom part of
the surface.
Figure 4-6: Attaching iButtons with Different Adhesives
87
Figure 4-7: Sealing the Joints
The formula used to calculate the R-value of AAC is mentioned in the next sections, and
that describes why iButtons were attached at each side of the AAC, and on the exterior
of the finish layer.
88
4.2.3. Procedure
A heat source (a 60 watt incandescent lamp) was placed in the center of the test cell,
hanging from the top face of the box. The cord had to pass through the top face,
therefore a small hole was drilled on it and after passing the cord through, it was filled
with glue and sealant to ensure minimal heat leak through the hole. It is very important
to have the hole sealed, because if heat leaks out through it, the system never reaches
an inside equilibrium temperature; it is as if the heat source is warming up the test cell
and all the room around the test cell. The outside cell temperature being at around 70
degrees, it would always be cooler and heat would continuously leak out.
Aluminum foil was put around the heat source to eliminate the radiation to the
iButtons, to ensure the temperature rise in the iButton readings is due to convection
and not radiation. See figure 4-8.
The goal is to retrieve temperature data from inside the cell, in between the AAC layer
and the foam layer, and the outside from the iButtons. The R-value of the foam
insulation (R = 0.5) and the temperature readings from the iButtons are plugged into the
formula mentioned in the next section to calculate the only unknown in the formula, the
R-value of the AAC blocks.
89
Figure 4-8: Top: Turning the Heat Source on Before Closing the Back of the Test Cell, Bottom:
Finished Test Cell
The test was run for 36 hours in order for the system to reach equilibrium of the inside
temperature. A sample test was performed a few days before to test the iButtons
90
reading accuracy, and in general to find out flaws or mistakes that need to be fixed
before the actual test. The sample test was run for 12 hours, and the iButton data
showed that the inside temperature was still rising. Based on an engineering judgment,
24 to 30 hours should be sufficient for the system to reach inside equilibrium
temperature, and get some temperature readings after it.
After the 36 hours, the iButtons were removed and the temperature data downloaded
to an excel spreadsheet. The three sets of iButtons recorded the inside test cell
temperature at the AAC surface (TIn), the surface temperature between the AAC wall
and the foam layer (TMid), and the outside temperature at the foam surface (TExt). In
other words, these temperature data demonstrate the temperature drop after heat
passed through each layer of material. The difference between the inside temperature
reading (TIn) and the temperature reading between the AAC and foam layer (TMid) can
indicate AACs thermal resistance. The higher the temperature difference is, the higher
the R-value is expected to be.
4.2.4. Calculation
Using the formula below, knowing the R-value of the foam finish layer, and the
temperature data from the iButtons at each surface, the R-value of the AAC block is
derived.
91
T Mid = T In + (T Ext - T In) x [R AAC (R AAC + R Fin)]

T Mid = Temperature between AAC and the exterior finish (Fahrenheit)
T In = Inside cell temperature (Fahrenheit)
T Ext = Temperature of the exterior of test cell (Fahrenheit)
R AAC = R-value of AAC (Unknown)
R Fin = R-Value of the finish material (R = 0.5)
Figure 4-9: Formula to Calculate the R-Value of an Unknown Material
In order to have a better understanding of the logic of this formula, it is rearranged

below to give the formula below:
T In - T Ext
R AAC + R Fin
T In - T Mid
R AAC
Looking at the new version of the original formula, a logical deduction is obtained: the
temperature drop from the inside of the test cell (TIn) to the exterior of test cell (TExt) is
attributed to the sum of the thermal resistances of AAC and the finish layer, which are
all the layers that that cause heat loss between the interior and the exterior. In other
words, the thermal resistance of AAC and the finish layer created the drop in
temperature. In the same way, the temperature drop from the inside of the test cell (TIn)
and the temperature between the AAC and the exterior layer (TMid) is only attributed to
92
AACs thermal resistance, the only layer that can create heat loss between these two
locations. In the other words, this drop in temperature is attributed to the thermal
resistance of AAC only. The figure below shows a schematic view of the section of the
AAC-and-foam face of the test cell with a temperature drop graph drawn over it.
Figure 4-10: Schematic Drawing of the AAC Wall Section of the Test Cell
4.2.5. Restrictions, Problems, and Mitigation
There were several issues to consider about making this test cell. First, for accurate
answers, there has to be minimal heat transfer between the installed interior and
exterior iButtons from any other sides of the test cell other than the AAC side. In other
93
words, in order to find out how much the AAC blocks blocked the heat transfer, the
temperature of the iButtons should be affected only by heat transfer through the AAC
face, and not presumably due to heat loss through other faces and then absorbed by the
AAC face. In order to achieve such thermal insulation, two layers of R-15 foam insulation
were attached by an adhesive leaving an isolated gap of approximately 1/4 between
the two layers. This air entrapped between the two layers acts as a high R-value thermal
resistant, assuring the fact that the R-value of all the faces will be much higher than the
AAC face.
Second, all the joints should be highly sealed in order to ensure minimal or no thermal
transfer occurs through them. The goal is to let all or most of the heat loss happens
through the AAC face. In order to achieve a high confidence in this regard, all the joints
were sealed three times with a sealant adhesive. See figure 4-7.
Third, connecting the iButtons did not seem problematic at first, but later throughout
the preliminary test, iButtons fell inside the test cell due to high inside temperatures
melting the adhesives. Four different methods of connections and adhesives were used
in the first round of testing, to include two types of tapes and two liquid adhesives. In
the end, only the liquid adhesives had withstood the high temperature. However, after
removing the iButtons from the surface, it was realized that one of the adhesives was
very hard to remove from the iButton surface. It would not impede getting the
temperature readings from it, but it would interfere with future use of it. Therefore in
94
the second round of testing, only Heavy Duty Construction Adhesive was used. Not only
did it withstand the high temperatures, but it also was easily peeled off from the
iButtons leaving no marks.
4.3.
Structural Connections Tests
4.3.1. Purpose
In both structural and architectural design, designing a connection is usually a

challenging task. Finding the way to connect different members and to satisfy both the
structural and architectural requirements could be more time-consuming than one
would expect at first. Furthermore, studies have shown that the connections are the
most likely components in a structure to fail in case of an earthquake or other
unfavorable incidents, rather than the actual members. This is the reason to perform
some structural tests on the connection of AAC to other material. Whether it is being
used as structure, building envelope, or veneer, AAC would have to be connected to
other materials. One of the most common connections to consider for precast concrete
is bolted connections. Two tests were identified to be valuable to this research, given
that this thesis is studying the possibility of substituting AAC with other common
building materials for low rise residential structures in Southern California.
The most common building material for low rise residential building in this region is
wood, and to some extent concrete and concrete masonry units (CMU). AAC blocks can
potentially substitute for conventional CMU, resulting in a significant dead load
95
reduction. However, unreinforced masonry is not allowed by the California Building

Code because it is an earthquake prone region, therefore a shear study on reinforced
AAC seems to be a valuable study. In the same sense, the shear resistance of a
reinforced AAC wall assembly should be compared to a regular wood shear wall to
evaluate AACs potential to substitute wood as a shear resisting element. To simplify this
test to a scope that is possible to perform in the Viterbi School of Engineering
Laboratory, a single blocks connection with a steel rebar is evaluated in a shear
condition, and by additional calculation, an approximation for the shear value of a
reinforced AAC is derived in the next chapter.
The second test proposed is a pull-out test on the connection of an AAC block to steel
reinforcement. This test examines the capacity of such a connection in tension. The
reason to propose this test is that other finish material such as heavy stones might be
applied to AAC in a project, or objects might be hanged from an AAC floor or roof panel.
Based on professional experience, a very common method to connect objects to precast
concrete is by using steel bolts. Therefore, a single reinforced AAC block underwent a
pull-out test in order to give the connection capacity in tension. The result is compared
with similar values for a regular concrete connection in the next chapters.
Rebar sizes chosen were 1/2" and 3/8 diameter steel reinforcement bars. The former is
a rebar number 4, a very common size used to reinforce CMU walls, and the latter, a
96
rebar number 3, is a workable and common size used for simple connections or veneer
attachment to concrete.
4.3.2. Preparation
Bolted Connection Capacity Test in Shear

Bolted Connection Capacity Test in Pull-Out
In order to perform the shear and pull-out test, multiple samples of reinforced AAC
were provided. First the samples of AAC blocks were examined to ensure they are not
cracked or defective. The flawlessness of the samples is of great importance, because it
is desired that the test evaluates the connection capacity without the sample defects
leading to the failure of the block before the connection capacity can be evaluated.
After the blocks were checked, the originally 24x10x8 blocks were saw cut in the
School of Architecture Wood Shop with a band saw, to 8x8x10 test samples. Once
again, they were checked for defects, and 8 out of the 9 prepared sample tests were
chosen to perform the tests.
In order to place the reinforcement into the test samples, a hole larger than the bolt
diameter was drilled at the center of an 8x8 side of the block, the bolt was placed in
the center of the hole, and then the mortar mix was poured to fill the hole. The mortar
mix was made out of the mortar provided by the E-Crete Company, and based on their
instructions. Since the mortar mix was not very thin, a wooden stick was used to mix the
97
grout mixture poured into the hole in order to get the air entrapped out, as presence of
air reduces the strength of the grout.
Figure 4-11: Drilling 2 Diameter Hole in Center of an AAC Test Sample
98
A hole is drilled in the center of the 8x8 side of the samples having a diameter of 2 1/4
inches and depth of 5 inches for both size steel reinforcement bars (rebars). In order to
achieve a 2 1/4" diameter hole, first a smaller hole with 1 1/2 diameter drill bit was
drilled, then the drill bit was changed to 2 1/4, and the second hole drilled centered to
the center of the first one, in order to achieve the final size hole. The reason to drill the
final size hole in two steps was to avoid a break in the sample due to drilling a large size
hole. See figures above. In order to keep the rebars centered in the hole, a wood
template was prepared with a hole in the center, to go over the rebar and land on the
AAC surface as seen in the figures below. A final wooden cube with a one inch deep hole
was placed on top of the rebars for safety purposes.
Figure 4-12: Left: Placing the Rebars and Securing Them in Place with Wood Blocks, Right: Using
Wood Block Caps for Protection While Grout Dries
99
The samples were set outside, in temperatures varying from 60 Fahrenheit at nights to
about 80 Fahrenheit in the day, for 7 days in order for the grout to dry and gain
strength.
In order to use the test machine of the Viterbi School of Engineering, the rebar had to
have a length of at least 9 inches for an appropriate grip. In addition to the 5 inch
embedment of the rebar into the block, a minimum 14 inch long rebar was required; as
a result a 24 inch long rebar was used. See figures below.
A failure of this connection, both in shear and tension, could potentially be due to any of
the following reasons:
1- failure of AAC (crack and crumble);

2- failure of mortar;
3- failure of steel bar;
4- failure of the AAC bond to mortar;
5- failure of the mortar bond to the steel bar.
4.3.3. Procedure
The sample was placed on the bottom plate of the test machine so that the rebar stayed
parallel to the base surface. There was approximately 12 of space between the loading
100
shaft and the rebar plane, where a steel plate with approximately 1 thickness was
placed. This plate transferred the load from the shaft to the rebar in a shear condition.
The reason to use a plate is that there was no direct way of load exertion to the rebar
with this testing machine, since the AAC block would obstruct the shaft from moving
down and reaching the rebar. Therefore a medium was needed to transfer the load
from the shaft to the rebar.
Figure 4-13: Preparation for the Shear Test
101
The medium chosen is a stronger material than the rebar or AAC, so it would not buckle,
crack or shrink during the test, resulting in inaccurate numbers. See figure 4-13.
First the top surface (or top plate) of the machine, weighing 1000 lbs, was adjusted by
the laboratory advisor due to safety reasons. The sample was then placed on top of the
test machine, with the rebar being perpendicular to, and passing through the hole
located in the center of the top plate. A pair of corrugated plates was placed in the
center of the moving shaft of the machine, below the top plate and center to center of
its hole.
Figure 4-14: Preparation for the Pull-out Test. Left: Adjusting the Height of Top Plate, Right:
Placing the Sample on the Top Plate and Fixing Rebar between Corrugated Plates
102
The rebar passed through the hole of the top plate, and was gripped between the
corrugated plates. The moving shaft, along with the corrugated plates move down,
pulling the rebar down, or out of the AAC.
4.3.4. Calculation
In order to compare the connection capacity in shear, with similar connection to regular
structural concrete, the maximum load applied to the sample before it failed (in pounds)
is first divided by a safety factor. AAC is a new material and there are not provisions for
AAC design in the code, so based on engineering judgment and common safety factors
of 2.5 and 3 in similar contexts, for the purpose of this analysis a safety factor of 3 was
chosen. The results are compared to data from table 1911.2 of the 2007 CBC code as
mentioned in detail in Chapter 5.
In order to find the connection capacity in pull-out (tension) and compare it with similar
connections in regular structural concrete, the maximum load applied to the sample
before it failed (in pounds) is divided by a safety factor of 3, as described above. The
results are compared to data from table 1911.2 of the 2007 CBC code as mentioned in
detail in chapter 5.
103
5. Chapter 5: Performing the Tests and Results

5.1.
The Karsten Pipe Penetration Test was performed on two 8x10x24AAC-type2 (AAC2)
blocks, and as mentioned in Chapter 4, on both horizontal and vertical surfaces of each
sample, and on both sides with different roughness.
Given that AAC has already been used as a faade material in various projects, and
based on the Karsten Pipe Test categorization of a good finish material having a WAC of
0.3 or less, the first assumption was that AAC does not absorb water quickly. But the
water was absorbed much quicker than the original expectations, and as presented in
this chapter, much faster than other common finish materials.
Figure 5-1: Performing the Karsten Pipe Penetration Test on an AAC2 block at 3rd Floor Studio,
Watt Hall, the USC School of Architecture
104
Therefore, to ensure the accuracy of the results, the test was performed several times.
Issues to recheck while redoing the test were: ensuring water is not leaking through the
connection of AAC to the sealant, or the tube with the sealant, nor the flawed AAC
surface. All the tests on AAC gave similar results for the Water Absorption Coefficient
(WAC) suggesting that the test was performed correctly, and AAC has a very high water
absorption coefficient. AAC can be used as a veneer certainly with a moisture retaining
material behind it, or a protective finish layer over it, but certainly not as moisture
retaining exterior finish.
Figure 5-2: Performing the Karsten Pipe Penetration Test on Horizontal and Vertical Surfaces of
an AAC2 Block at the USC School of Architecture
105
AAC absorbed water very quickly, as in most cases it absorbed all the water in the tube
even before the 5 minute reading. Therefore the water was poured into the tube while
the test was being performed in order to at least get a couple of readings up to the 5
minute reading, and then find the 15 minute reading through extrapolation.
The average of the test results performed on dry smooth and dry rough vertical surfaces
are summarized in the following tables:
AAC2 - Dry Smooth Vertical Surface
Time (min)
WAC
0:00
0.00
2:57
3.00
4:06
4.00
5:00
4.70
5:21
5.00
15:00
14.10
Value obtained by extrapolation.
WAC = WAC 15' - WAC 5'

WAC = 14.10 - 4.70
WAC (AAC2-Dry-Smooth-Vertical) = 9.40
106
Table 5-2: Karsten Pipe Test on AAC2 - Dry Rough Vertical Surface
AAC2 - Dry Rough Vertical Surface
Time (min)
WAC
0:00
0.00
4:09
5.00
5:00
6.00
15:00
18.10
Values obtained by extrapolation.
WAC = 18.10 - 6.00

WAC (AAC2-Dry-Rough-Vertical) = 12.10
After the first round the test, it was decided to perform another test to study the water
absorption coefficient of a wet AAC surface. In areas with high amount of rain, the
faade might not dry before the next rain, so how the faade absorbs water after it is
already wet becomes of importance in evaluating this material. Therefore, a second test
was performed on the same spot a Karsten test had already been performed.
The test was done on both the smooth and rough vertical surface of the block, but it is
assumed that if the material is used as a faade, the side with least water absorption is
going to be exposed, which is the smooth surface.
107
Table 5-3: Karsten Pipe Test on AAC2 - Wet Smooth Vertical Surface
AAC2 - Wet Smooth Vertical Surface
Time (min)
WAC
0:00
0.00
1:30
1.40
3:00
2.50
5:00
4.20
15:00
13.10
WAC = 13.10 - 4.20

WAC (AAC2-Wet-Smooth-Vertical) = 8.90
Table 5-4: Karsten Pipe Test on AAC2 - Wet Rough Vertical Surface
AAC2 - Wet Rough Vertical Surface
Time (min)
WAC
0:00
0.00
1:30
1.50
3:00
3.00
5:00
5.00
15:00
15.00
WAC = 15.00 5.00

WAC (AAC2-Wet-Rough-Vertical) = 10.00
108
The test performed on the rough horizontal surface was a failure. The water absorption
rate was so high that it was impossible to get any readings before the tube got empty.
The test was performed repeatedly, with similar outcomes. The test performed on the
smooth horizontal surface was similar to the vertical surface, as presented here:
Table 5-5: Karsten Pipe Test on AAC2 Dry Smooth Horizontal Surface
AAC2 - Dry Smooth Horizontal Surface
Time (min)
WAC
0:00
0.00
3:00
3.00
5:00
5.00
15:00
15

WAC = 15 5 = 10
WAC (AAC2-Dry-Smooth-Horizontal) = 10
AAC2 - Dry Smooth Vertical Surface
Time (min)
WAC
0:00
0.00
2:00
1.70
5:00
4.80
15:00
15.60
109

WAC = 15.60 4.80 = 10.6
WAC (AAC2-Dry-Smooth-Vertical) = 10.6
In order to compare this material with other building materials that are commonly used
as exterior faade, two additional Karsten Pipe tests were performed on two exposed
exterior walls in Watt Hall; one on a concrete wall and another on a plaster wall.
Figure 5-3: Performing the Karsten Pipe Penetration Test on an Exposed Plaster Wall, 3rd
Floor Watt Hall, University of Southern California
110
Table 5-7: Karsten Pipe Test on an Exterior Concrete Wall
Concrete - Dry Vertical Surface

Time (min)
WAC
0:00
0.00
5:00
0.10
15:00
0.15
WAC = 0.15 - 0.10

WAC (Concrete) = 0.05
Table 5-8: Karsten Pipe Test on an Exterior Plaster Wall
Plaster - Dry Vertical Surface

Time (min)
WAC
0:00
0.00
2:35
0.50
5:00
0.75
12:03
1.50
15:00
1.90
WAC = 1.90 - 0.75

WAC (Plaster) = 1.15
111
5.2.
The thermal resistant test was performed on a test cell with approximate dimensions of
24x2424. After the iButtons were installed and the cell was fully insulated, the heat
source inside was turned on for 36 hours. However, readings from the iButtons inside
the cell show that the system reached an average equilibrium temperature of 165
Fahrenheit after 18 hours. (See table and figure below)
Figure 5-4: Inside Temperature (Fahrenheit) Reaching Equilibrium in 18 hours
112
Table 5-9: Inside Temperature (Fahrenheit) Reaching Equilibrium in 18 Hours

Date
Time
iButton - 1
iButton - 2
iButton - 3
Mean
8-Feb
8-Feb
8-Feb
8-Feb
8-Feb
8-Feb
8-Feb
8-Feb
8-Feb
8-Feb
8-Feb
8-Feb
8-Feb
8-Feb
8-Feb
8-Feb
8-Feb
8-Feb
8-Feb
9-Feb
9-Feb
9-Feb
9-Feb
9-Feb
9-Feb
9-Feb
9-Feb
9-Feb
9-Feb
9-Feb
9-Feb
9-Feb
9-Feb
9-Feb
9-Feb
9-Feb
9-Feb
9-Feb
9-Feb
9-Feb
2:30 PM
3:00 PM
3:30 PM
4:00 PM
4:30 PM
5:00 PM
5:30 PM
6:00 PM
6:30 PM
7:00 PM
7:30 PM
8:00 PM
8:30 PM
9:00 PM
9:30 PM
10:00 PM
10:30 PM
11:00 PM
11:30 PM
12:00 AM
12:30 AM
1:00 AM
1:30 AM
2:00 AM
2:30 AM
3:00 AM
3:30 AM
4:00 AM
4:30 AM
5:00 AM
5:30 AM
6:00 AM
6:30 AM
7:00 AM
7:30 AM
8:00 AM
8:30 AM
9:00 AM
9:30 AM
10:00 AM
78.8
88.7
100.4
109.4
116.6
122
128.3
132.8
135.5
139.1
140.9
143.6
145.4
147.2
149
150.8
151.7
153.5
154.4
155.3
157.1
158
158.9
159.8
161.6
161.6
162.5
163.4
164.3
164.3
165.2
166.1
166.1
167
167
167
167
167.9
167.9
167.9
82.9
86.9
99.5
107.6
114.8
120.2
125.6
130.1
133.7
136.4
139.1
141.8
143.6
145.4
147.2
148.1
149.9
150.8
152.6
153.5
154.4
156.2
157.1
158
158.9
159.8
160.7
162.6
162.5
162.5
163.4
163.4
164.3
164.3
165.2
165.2
166.1
166.1
166.1
166.1
80.6
83.3
94.1
102.2
109.4
115.7
121.1
125.6
128.3
131
133.7
136.4
138.2
140
142.7
143.6
144.5
146.3
148.1
149
149.9
151.7
152.6
153.5
154.4
155.3
156.2
157.1
157.1
158
158.8
158.8
159.8
160.7
160.7
160.7
161.6
161.6
161.6
161.6
80.8
86.3
98.0
106.4
113.6
119.3
125.0
129.5
132.5
135.5
137.9
140.6
142.4
144.2
146.3
147.5
148.7
150.2
151.7
152.6
153.8
155.3
156.2
157.1
158.3
158.9
159.8
161.0
161.3
161.6
162.5
162.8
163.4
164.0
164.3
164.3
164.9
165.2
165.2
165.2
(The last three rows indicate the interior equilibrium temperature.)
113
In order to calculate the R-value of the 8 AAC2 block, the average data from the
iButtons with acceptable readings are taken into account for interior, middle, and
exterior temperatures at 9:00 PM to 1:00 AM with 1 hour intervals. During this time
inside temperature was at equilibrium.
The formula below, as previously mentioned in Chapter 4, was used to create table 5-10
in order to calculate the R-value of the material.
Since AAC blocks come in different sizes and thicknesses, the average R-value per inch of
the material is also calculated for an easier comparison with other building materials.
T Mid = T In + (T Ext - T In) x [R AAC (R AAC + R Fin)]

Table 5-10: Average R-Value of AAC2
Time
Average
Temperature
9:00 PM
10:00 PM
11:00 PM
12:00 AM
1:00 AM
Interior
164.1
164.1
164.8
165.2
166.1
Middle
80.2
80.5
80.8
80.2
80
Exterior
75.7
76.1
75.9
75.7
74.7
R (AAC)
9.4
9.6
8.7
9.6
8.3
Average R (AAC) = 9.12

Average R (AAC) / Inch = 1.14
114
5.3.
5.3.1. Bolted Connection Shear Test
The loading rate was set on 1000 pounds per minute for both 3/8 and 1/2 rebars. The
tests on samples with 3/8 rebar took approximately 1 minute and on the sample with
1/2" rebar slightly more than 1 minute. Test results for the 3/8 rebar are presented in
table 5-11 and figure 5-5. In the first sample, the connection failed at 1019 lbs and in the
second sample it failed at 938 lbs, with average connection strength of 978 lbs. In both
cases the rebar started to bend at the surface of AAC due to shear load, at
approximately 40 seconds. See figure 5-6 for deformed rebars and failed samples.
115
Shear Test on AAC Sample with 3/8" Rebar

Loading Rate = 1000 lbs/min
Time
(Minute)
Sample 1
Position
Load
(Inch)
(Lbs)
Sample 2
Position
Load
(Inch)
(Lbs)
0.00
0.0392
101
0.0377
102
0.08
0.0575
173
0.0522
175
0.16
0.0765
261
0.0645
262
0.24
0.0942
335
0.0782
341
0.32
0.118
417
0.097
419
0.36
0.1327
447
0.107
462
0.40
0.1542
490
0.1167
499
0.44
0.48
0.52
0.174
0.185
0.193
552
589
620
0.1265
0.1362
0.147
540
579
620
0.56
0.2015
655
0.1585
659
0.60
0.2115
697
0.1702
701
0.64
0.2227
736
0.1822
738
0.68
0.2347
777
0.196
774
0.72
0.2477
817
0.2165
799
0.76
0.2612
858
0.2452
854
0.80
0.2752
894
0.2777
885
0.84
0.2937
924
0.3218
911
0.88
0.3195
968
0.3862
938
0.92
0.3467
1019
0.3982
929
0.96
0.3827
1019
0.412
920
1.00
0.4567
1084
1.02
0.4697
1075
1.04
0.4877
985
116
This test was performed only on one of the samples with the rebar. Prior to
setting the samples on the test machine, they were investigated for flaws that could
impact the accuracy of the test results. The rebar in one of the samples was loose in
the mortar, which could lead to unreliable test results. The sample was discarded for
that reason.
Similar to the 3/8 rebar sample, loading rate was 1000 lbs/minute and the test
ended when the AAC sample started to crack at 1090 lbs, and it finally failed after
reaching the maximum of 1122 lbs. See figures 5-8 and 5-9.
117
Test result for the 1/2" rebar is presented in table 5-12 and figure 5-7.
Shear Test on AAC Sample with 1/2" Rebar

Loading Rate = 1000 lbs/min
Sample 1
Time
(Minute)
Position
(Inch)
Load
(Lbs)
Time
(Minute)
Position
(Inch)
Load
(Lbs)
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.28
0.30
0.32
0.34
0.36
0.38
0.40
0.42
0.44
0.46
0.48
0.50
0.52
0.0522
0.0542
0.057
0.0605
0.0642
0.0677
0.071
0.0742
0.0772
0.0805
0.0837
0.0872
0.0907
0.0945
0.0982
0.1022
0.106
0.1097
0.1132
0.1162
0.1185
0.1202
0.1215
0.123
0.1242
0.1255
0.1265
102
116
135
157
180
202
222
242
262
280
300
320
340
360
379
400
420
440
461
483
503
524
542
561
582
604
623
0.54
0.56
0.58
0.6
0.62
0.64
0.66
0.68
0.7
0.72
0.74
0.76
0.78
0.8
0.82
0.84
0.86
0.88
0.9
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.98
1.00
1.02
1.04
1.06
0.1277
0.1292
0.1307
0.1325
0.1345
0.1367
0.1387
0.141
0.1432
0.1457
0.1482
0.1507
0.153
0.1552
0.1572
0.1592
0.1615
0.1637
0.1662
0.169
0.1717
0.1747
0.1782
0.1822
0.19
0.2012
0.2277
642
662
681
702
722
743
762
781
801
821
841
861
883
903
921
941
960
980
1000
1020
1040
1059
1079
1088
1097
1122
835
118
Figure 5-8: Failed Sample in Shear Test with 1/2 Rebar Side View
119
5.3.2. Bolted Connection Pull-Out Test
The loading rate was set on 0.1 inches per minute for the first 1/2" rebar, resulting in
the whole test time period of 5 minutes. This was realized to be relatively slow by the
laboratory advisor, as based on ASTM standards a test should take between 2 to 3
minutes. Therefore on the second 1/2" rebar sample, the loading rate was increased to
0.2 inches per minute, resulting in the test being approximately 2 minutes long. For
120
both 3/8 rebar samples loading rate was 0.15 inches per minute which resulted in tests
ending at about 1.5 and 2 minutes.
Test results for the 3/8 rebar samples are presented in table 5-13 and figure 5-10. The
connection in the first sample failed at 497 lbs and the second sample failed at 426 lbs,
with average connection strength in pull-out of 461 lbs. In both cases the rebar
connection to the mortar failed. In sample 1, the rebar slid clean out of the mortar, and
in sample 2 it was displaced for about 1/2".
As it is shown in figure 5-11, there was a slip in the rebar grip of sample 1 at about 45
seconds, where a sudden drop in the load is seen. However it was a minor flaw and the
test continued successfully.
Failure in the first sample started after approximately 85 seconds of loading, and in the
second sample after 75 seconds.
See figure 5-12 for failed samples.
121
Pull-Out Test on AAC Sample with 3/8"

Loading Rate = 0.15 inch/min
Time
(Minute)
0
0.08
0.16
0.24
0.32
0.40
0.48
0.52
0.56
0.60
0.64
0.68
0.72
0.76
0.80
0.84
0.88
0.92
0.96
1.00
1.04
1.08
1.12
1.16
1.20
1.24
1.28
1.32
1.36
1.40
1.44
1.48
Sample 1
Position
Load
(Inch)
(Lbs)
0.045
0.057
0.069
0.081
0.093
0.105
0.117
0.123
0.129
0.135
0.141
0.147
0.153
0.159
0.165
0.171
0.177
0.183
0.189
0.195
0.201
0.207
0.213
0.219
0.225
0.231
0.237
0.243
0.249
0.255
0.261
0.267
51
66
89
112
139
170
202
220
241
260
282
305
326
350
278
307
333
355
371
385
402
416
430
445
460
475
486
492
495
496
495
493
Sample 2
Position
Load
(Inch)
(Lbs)
0.0675
0.0792
0.0912
0.1032
0.1152
0.1272
0.1392
0.1452
0.1512
0.1572
0.1632
0.1692
0.1752
0.1812
0.1872
0.1932
0.1992
0.2052
0.2112
0.2172
0.2232
0.2292
0.2352
0.2413
0.2472
0.2532
0.2592
0.2652
0.2712
0.2772
0.2832
0.2892
51
63
80
96
113
137
168
186
204
221
240
255
268
284
301
318
333
344
358
372
385
399
413
423
426
421
416
407
390
359
319
279
122
Figure 5-11: Sample in Pull-Out Test with Failed 3/8 Rebar Connection to Mortar
123
Sample 1 with a lower loading rate failed at the rebar connection to the mortar.
However cracks were visible around the edge of the hole, at the mortar to AAC
connection. In the second sample with a higher loading rate, the rebar to mortar
connection failed, with no visible failure at the mortar to AAC connection.
Figure 5-12: Failed Samples in Pull-Out Test with Failed 1/2 Connections
124
Test results for the 1/2 rebar samples are presented in table 5-14 and figure 5-13,
demonstrating the first sample failure at 1870 lbs at 3 minutes and 25 seconds, and
second sample failure at 1210 lbs at 1 minute and 21 seconds.
125
Pull-Out Test on AAC Sample with 1/2" Rebar

Loading Rate = 0.1 & 0.2 inch/min
Time
(Minute)
Sample 1
Position
(Inch)
Load
(Lbs)
Time
(Minute)
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.70
1.80
1.90
2.00
2.10
2.20
2.30
2.40
2.50
2.60
2.70
2.80
2.90
3.00
3.10
3.20
3.30
3.40
3.50
3.60
3.80
4.00
0.0922
0.1122
0.1322
0.1522
0.1722
0.1922
0.2122
0.2322
0.2522
0.2622
0.2722
0.2822
0.2922
0.3022
0.3122
0.3222
0.3322
0.3422
0.3522
0.3622
0.3722
0.3822
0.3922
0.4022
0.4122
0.4222
0.4322
0.4422
0.4522
0.4722
0.4922
51
73
103
143
189
244
308
377
441
475
514
559
610
675
752
834
928
1019
1116
1227
1327
1441
1556
1663
1742
1816
1870
1846
1841
1826
1727
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.05
1.10
1.15
1.20
1.25
1.30
1.35
1.40
1.45
1.50
1.55
1.60
1.65
1.75
1.85
Sample 2
Position
(Inch)
0.0802
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.19
0.20
0.21
0.22
0.23
0.24
0.25
0.26
0.27
0.28
0.29
0.3
0.31
0.32
0.33
0.34
0.35
0.36
0.37
0.38
0.39
0.4
0.41
0.43
0.45
Load
(Lbs)
51
82
122
176
249
327
371
410
454
504
574
638
699
771
859
948
1030
1074
1124
1169
1189
1198
1210
1182
1158
1129
1075
1049
1034
977
924
126
6. Chapter 6: Result Analysis

6.1.
As mentioned in Chapter 4, and based on the Karsten Pipe Penetration Test

specifications, a material with a WAC of 0.3 or less is a suitable material to be used as an
exterior finish. The AAC blocks have an average WAC of 9.5, and consequently are not a
suitable material for exterior finishes.
The second Karsten Pipe test performed on an exterior exposed plaster wall in Watt
Hall, presents a WAC of 1.15 for plaster. Since plaster walls are one of the most common
finishes in the region, it seems that Karsten tests assumption of a WAC of 0.3 or lower
for a suitable exterior finish material, could be a conservative assumption.
Conversely the concrete surface showed a very low water absorption coefficient of 0.05.
However, based on discussions with the E-crete manufacturers, and other architects, it
is confirmed that AAC blocks have been, and are currently used as an exterior finish in
Europe without another finish layer being applied to them. The concern of AAC blocks
losing their strength in contact with water was also declined by the manufacturer, and
structures that are more than 50 years old in Europe are witness to this claim.
Considering the fact that rain is more of a concern in Europe than in Southern California,
based on decades of usage AAC can be used as an exposed finish material, while
127
applying a moisture barrier behind the AAC blocks, or a protective material over it, is an
absolute necessity.
6.2.
The thermal test demonstrates that the E-crete AAC2 8 blocks have an R-value of 9.12,
or approximately 1.14 per inch.
Compared to regular concrete, with an R-value of approximately 0.3 per inch
186
, AAC
provides about 4 times better thermal insulation. Considering the fact that in concrete
wall assemblies usually foam insulation is used, which is a more expensive type of
insulation compared to fiber glass, the insulation cost can drop by a great percentage if
AAC blocks are used instead of regular concrete. However in regular residential
buildings, with 2x4 or 2x6 wood stud walls, usually R-11 or R-13 fiber glass insulation is
used. That wall assembly, including the gypsum board and other finishes would have a
finished R-value of 13 to 15 respectively. In that sense, an 8 thick AAC wall falls a bit
short in terms of thermal resistance values in comparison to the finished wood stud
wall. The whole AAC wall assembly would be more than 10 inches thick considering the
interior finish and/or paint, and the additional rigid foam insulation of 1/2 to 1 inch
thick, to reach a total R-Value of 11 to 13 for the whole AAC wall assembly. An example
186
All Wall Systems, <http://www.allwallsystem.com/design/RValueTable.html>, C 2003 All Wall Systems,

Viewed March 7, 2010
128
of this additional insulation is The New American Home in Florida, as mentioned in

Chapter 3.
An AAC wall system is more uniform than a wood framed system so there is less chance
for thermal leak, unlike a wood stud wall system with fiberglass insulation installed
between the studs, that is less consistent in terms of thermal resistance, as the actual Rvalue of the studs is much less than the fiberglass R-value.
From another perspective, installation of fiber glass insulation is more technique

sensitive. The insulation has to be pushed into every corner of the studs to ensure the
uniform distribution, and no spot is left out without insulation, therefore in order to
achieve the nominal R-value more labor/time should be spent on the fiberglass
installation. In comparison, foam insulation is much easier and faster to install, but
rather more expensive.
Another aspect to consider is that while AAC blocks have the thermal resistance
naturally, it should be noted that the mortar joint does not contain as much air bubbles
as AAC blocks do, therefore the R-value of it would be different. However, in the
thermal test no significant difference was recognized in terms of heat loss through the
joints in comparison to the AAC blocks. The readings were obtained from the iButtons
installed exactly on the mortar joint of AAC.
129
Also it should be noted that the thin bed mortar has an approximate thickness of 1/16,
which is significantly smaller than the dimensions of the blocks. This concern would be
of less importance if AAC wall panels are used due to less connection joints. Considering
an 8x8x24 AAC block wall, for every 8 of wall height there is one 1/16 mortar joint,
and based on the calculation below the ratio of mortar to AAC is less than 1 percent,
and therefore its effect negligible:
1"
16
x 100% = 0.78%
8"
6.3.
The failure in samples with 3/8 rebar happened both at the connection between the
rebar and the mortar, and the rebar itself. While the mortar was cracking at the rebar
connection (bond failure), the rebar was bending under the shear stress. The shear
capacity of the connection with 3/8 rebar was about 1000 lbs.
The failure in the 1/2" rebar sample happened at 1120 lbs when the body of the AAC
started to crack at a 45 degree angle (typical shear failure), and finally broke in half.
130
In the sample with 1/2" rebar, it was the AAC block that broke under shear loads. This
shows that exceeding the minimum edge distance per code, and providing 4 edge
distance, instead of 3 (see table below), was not enough to keep the connection safe
from shear failure of the concrete. Deeper rebar embedment to 7 or 9 inches and/or an
increase in the edge distance to 5 or 6 inches could have been helpful in this case.
However, it should be realized that not in all projects do the designers have the luxury
of designing with deeper embedment or bigger edge distances due to the architectural
design constraints or economical unfeasibility.
A relevant portion of Table 1911.2 of the 2007 California Building Code is presented
here in order to make a comparison between the obtained test results and similar
connections to regular concrete.
Table 6-1: Allowable Service Load on Embedded Bolts (Pounds)

[Obtained from Table 1911.2 of the 2007 CBC]
Minimum Concrete Strength (PSI)
Bolt
Diameter
Minimum
Embedment
Edge
Distance
Spacing
(Inches)
(Inches)
(Inches)
(Inches)
Tension
Shear
Tension
Shear
Tension
Shear
1/4"
2 1/2
1 1/2
200
500
200
500
200
500
3/8"
2 1/4
4 1/2
500
1,100
500
1,100
500
1,100
950
1,250
950
1,250
950
1,250
1,450
1,600
1,500
1,650
1,550
1,750
4 1/2
3 3/4
7 1/2
1,500
2,750
1,500
2,750
1,500
2,750
4 1/2
6 1/4
7 1/2
2,125
2,950
2,200
3,000
2,400
3,050
f'c = 2500
f'c = 3000
f'c = 4000
1/2"
5/8"
131
In order to make a comparison with the values presented in the table above, the test
results should be reduced by a factor of safety. Since the building code usually uses an
average safety factor of 2 to 3, by choosing a safety factor of 3, the allowable load for
the 3/8 rebar connection is approximately 330 lbs, and for the 1/2" rebar it is about
380 lbs:
Allowable Load = Actual Load Factor of Safety

Allowable Load (3/8 Rebar) = 1000 lbs 3 330 lbs
Allowable Load (1/2 Rebar) = 1120 lbs 3 380 lbs
Depending on the type of use of this material, this number could be adequate or low. If
the loads exerted are due to finish materials such as marble or granite bolted to the AAC
wall blocks, this could be an adequate load value if the spacing of the bolts is designed
based on the connection capacity. Yet in general, 380 lbs allowable connection capacity
for a single bolted connection to regular concrete is relatively low as can be seen from
the tabulated values above.
From another perspective, considering this value for an AAC block shear wall, it is
deduced that a reinforced AAC wall, with minimum 1/2" rebars at 12 inches on center,
can withstand approximately 400 pounds per lineal foot lateral force. A wood shear wall
with 2x4 studs at 16 inches on center and 12/32" sheathing with 8d nails spaced at 4
along edges and with 1 3/8 inches penetration will have almost the same lateral
resistance of 430 pounds per lineal foot. Another aspect to keep in mind is that the
132
shear wall capacity obtained by testing a single reinforced block is a conservative

assumption. Exerting pressure on one end of the blocks was done in the shear test
would tilt the other end up, resulting in a faster failure. However, in a block shear wall
each block is retained in place by the adjacent blocks, therefore the shear value of the
whole assembly will be higher than this calculated value because of the additional
confinement of adjacent blocks.
Another aspect to consider is that these blocks are designed as non-load bearing. Other
AAC products, such as reinforced beams and lintels, are mainly designed for load
bearing purposes. If the blocks are used to have other finish materials mounted on
them, or even to mount the AAC itself onto another base structure, other tests should
be performed to resemble long term loading.
The test on the 3/8 rebars was done at the same loading rate of 0.15 inch per minute.
The failure in both samples happened at the rebar and the mortar bond connection.
Failure in the first sample happened at 496 lbs, as the rebar slid easily out of the mortar,
while in the second sample failure happened at 426 lbs, as the rebar was displaced for
approximately half an inch. The average connection capacity is about 460 lbs, however
taking into account a safety factor of 3 it is reduced to approximately 150 lbs. Again,
considering the fact that these blocks are non-load bearing elements, 150 lbs could be
133
used for some design purposes, but comparing to similar connection types to regular
concrete, it is relatively low.
In the 1/2" rebar sample however, the connection capacity was 1870lbs and 1210 lbs in
sample 1 and 2 respectively, resulting in an average capacity of 1540 lbs. However,
there are certain issues to consider regarding these results: first, there is an obvious
jump of 50% in the connection capacity in sample 1, which was loaded at a rate half as
much as sample 2. A possible deduction would be that the lower the loading rate, the
higher the connection capacity. Usually in a more rapid rate of loading failure occurs
faster. Second, there is an increase of more than 3 times in the connection capacity of
1/2 rebar to 3/8 rebar. From the engineering point of view this is the type of result to
expect since the pull-out capacity has direct relationship to the contact surface of the
rebar and the mortar. This is also seen in table 6-1 from the CBC 2007, where there is an
obvious jump in the connection capacity moving from one rebar to the next size.
Table below presents AAC test results for both sizes of rebar with similar values of
regular concrete based on table 1911.2 of the CBC 2007:
Table 6-2: 1/2" and 3/8 Rebar Values for AAC and Regular Concrete
f'c = 2,500 PSI
Diameter
(Inches)
f'c = 3,000 PSI
AAC
Tension
(lbs)
Shear
(lbs)
Edge
Dist.
(Inches)
Tension
(lbs)
Shear
(lbs)
Edge
Dist.
(Inches)
Tension
(lbs)
Shear
(lbs)
Edge
Dist.
(Inches)
3/8
500
1,100
2 1/4
500
1,100
2 1/4
154
326
1/2
950
1,250
950
1,250
500
374
134
In order to make an easier comparison the ratio of the AAC connection capacities to that
of in regular concrete (with fc = 2500 psi and 3000 psi) are presented in this table:
Table 6-3: AAC Connection Capacity Ratio to Regular Concrete

AAC Connection Capacity Ratio to:
Diameter
(Inches)
f'c = 2,500 PSI
f'c = 3,000 PSI
Tension
Shear
Tension
Shear
3/8
31%
30%
31%
30%
1/2
53%
30%
53%
30%
Table 6-3 shows in a 3/8 rebar the connection capacity in AAC is approximately 30% of
a similar connection to regular concrete. While the shear capacity of the connection
with a 1/2" rebar, is also about 30% of regular concrete, but the tensile capacity is
approximately 50%.
135
7. Chapter 7: Future Work

Based on the test results mentioned in Chapter 5 and the analysis in Chapter 6, there
are other research areas that would compliment this thesis.
7.1. Material Properties Tests
AAC durability: Is AAC a durable material in contact with acid rain, as an

exterior faade? Based on the research done for this thesis AAC is widely
used in Europe, and especially in Germany where it rains much more than
California, and there have been no documented problems with AAC as a
faade. However the Karsten pipe test proved the severe need for a moisture
retaining membrane behind AAC blocks or panels.
AAC durability: Is AAC a durable material if immersed in water for a period of

time? Will it lose its structural strength?
AAC durability: Is AAC a durable material in freeze and thaw?
AAC durability: Vandalism: Is AAC a durable material for vandalism? During

the performance of the experiments of this thesis, it was noticed that AAC
blocks crumbled more than regular concrete when scratched on, therefore
an area of study would be if it can withstand vandalism? Or if penetration
through it is possible with basic tools.
Mold resistance: Is AAC mold resistant in a moist condition?

136
Pest resistance: Does AAC lose structural strength in contact with pests?
Thermal resistance: What is the thermal resistance of a regular AAC block?

Can this material help reduce the insulation cost of a building?
Sustainability: potential for LEED credits: What are the possible LEED credits
to obtain if AAC products are used in a project, in comparison with other

conventional building materials?
Sustainability: manufacturing process: How sustainable is the manufacturing
process of AAC? What is the carbon footprint in comparison with other

conventional building materials such as wood, concrete, and steel?
Sustainability: transportation cost savings: How much is the transportation
cost saving if other conventional building materials are substituted with AAC?
There is a great potential of reduced cost in comparison to regular concrete
because of the very light weight of AAC.
Fire resistance: At what temperature does the AAC building material fail if a
fire occurs? How does it compare to wood, concrete, and steel?

Sound barrier: How much of an acoustic barrier are AAC block walls? Can
they be used as acoustic isolators?
7.2. Engineering Tests
Weight/Density: How light are AAC blocks in comparison with wood,

concrete, and steel? How does it affect the seismic design of a structure?
137
Normally, the dead load in a wood structure is assumed between 15 to 25

pounds per square foot, a steel structure about 70 psf, and a concrete
structure 150 psf.
Workability/easy and fast construction: Quantify how AAC is easy to work

with. Quantify how its light weight impacts construction speed. Are there any
savings in cost?
Creep: How much creep does an AAC block wall have over time?
Structural connections: vertical pull out: What is the strength of a grouted

bolt connection to an AAC block in pull out?
Structural connections: shear: What is the strength of a grouted bolt

connection to an AAC block in shear?
Structural strength: bending strength: What is the ultimate bending stress of

an AAC block? How does it compare to wood, concrete, and steel?
Structural strength: shear strength: What is the ultimate shear stress of AAC
blocks connected with manufacturers mortar mix?
7.3. Other Tests
Initial cost: How does using AAC as a building material impact the initial cost
of a project, in comparison with wood, concrete, and steel?
138
Life-cycle cost: How does using AAC as a building material impact the energy
cost during the lifetime of a building? How does it compare with wood,
concrete, and steel?
Construction equipment cost: Does using AAC reduce the construction

equipment cost in comparison with wood, concrete, and steel?
Labor cost: Is labor more expensive using AAC in comparison with wood,
concrete, and steel? Do they need special training?
Manufacturing cost: What is the manufacturing cost of AAC in comparison

with wood, concrete, and steel?
Effect of marketing on AAC sale: How effective was AAC marketing strategy
on its sale in Southern California?
7.4. Conclusion
The test results performed during this research, as well as some tests performed by
RADCO laboratory in conjunction with Svanholm International, Ltd are summarized in
the table below. The comparison is assumed to be among AAC, Douglas Fir- Larch wood
that is the most common type of natural wood used in building construction in Southern
California, and regular concrete of 2500 psi compressive strength. It should be noted
that AAC blocks can be compared with CMU and not poured-in-place concrete, but it
should be noted that CMU holes that are used for reinforcement are filled with grout
that has similar characteristics to regular concrete. Therefore the comparison is valid
and reasonable.
139
Table 7-1: Summary of Test Results

AAC
Wood
Concrete
(Doulas-Fir Larch)
(2500 PSI)
Density (PCF)
30-35
32-40
130-150
WAC (ml/min)
1.5
0.3
R-Value (per inch)
1.2
0.9
0.3
1/2 Rebar Pull-out (lbs)
500
950
3/8 Rebar Pull-out (lbs)
150
1/2 Rebar Shear (lbs)
380
155 870
1250
3/8 Rebar Shear (lbs)
330
(lb/ft)
1100
Compressive Strength (PSI)
380-430
800
3,000
Shear Strength (PSI)
30
170
500 (CMU: 20)
Burning/Melting Temperature (F)
2900
700
2000
500
In terms of weight, AAC is almost as light as wood, and about 25% weight of regular
concrete. This means great reductions in the weight (or dead load) of a building which is
immediately translated to less seismic forces. This is a very desirable characteristic for
highly seismic regions such as Southern California.
The Karsten Pipe Test result proved that AAC has very high WAC and cannot be used as
moisture retaining exterior finish. Suggested solutions include applying a moisture
retaining membrane behind the AAC blocks, or applying concrete water-proofing sprays
to its surface. Both recommendations would not affect the finished look material, if the
texture of it is desirable as a part of the design. (See Frank Gehrys Dancing House in the
Czech Republic.)
140
AAC was proven to have a much higher thermal resistance in comparison to wood and
concrete which can contribute to the final thermal resistance of an envelope, however
as mentioned before, it is not quite sufficient to satisfy the California Title-24 without
additional foam insulation.
In terms of structural values, the low shear and pullout test results suggest that other
systems, wood frame or CMU, are stronger. However, if designed properly based on
loads, it could be sufficient. As mentioned before, the pull-out test result for the 1/2
rebar showed a connection capacity of 1200 lbs, which is reduced to 400 lbs considering
a safety factor of 3. Therefore a reinforced AAC block wall with 1/2 rebars at every foot
(12 inches) on center gives 400 pounds per lineal foot lateral resistance. This compares
well with a wood shear wall with 12/32" sheathing and 8d nails spaced at 4 along
edges, having 1 3/8 inches penetration. It is suggested to perform tests on actual size
reinforced AAC block walls, and simulate a real earthquake load. The results of such test
would be essential to determine the capacity of reinforced AAC to be used in highly
seismic Areas. Southern California as an earthquake prone region, therefore building
codes and standards are more restrictive, and new building materials are not accepted
without thorough approved testing. It is believed that more tests should be performed
on this material in order to obtain tables for lateral design. Engineering should be able
to justify lateral design with a certain level of confidence in especially earthquake prone
regions.
141
Another issue worth studying deeper is the cost study. Cost of an AAC block is almost
twice of a similar size CMU unit. This doubles the initial material cost of a structure. A
valuable study would incorporate an analysis of the relative cost increase in a project
substituting CMU with AAC blocks, a cost study on potential savings in labor and
construction time due to AACs light weight and workability, in the insulation cost of the
project, as well as the potential savings in energy cost of a building after occupancy, due
to higher quality insulation.
Finally, marketing and advertisement of this product in Southern California has been
poor over the past years. AAC is an unknown product to many architects or engineers.
Most of the designers know about Frank Gehrys Dancing House in the Czech Republic,
but not many of them know that Autoclaved Aerated Concrete is the finish material
used on the faade. It is believed if comprehensive structural and seismic tests prove
that AAC can be safely used in highly seismic regions, marketing for the product would
be rather easy.
142
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AUTOCLAVED AERATED CONCRETE (AAC)

A STUDY ON AAC FOR LOW-RISE STRUCTURES IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

A Thesis Presented to the

1. Chapter 1: Autoclaved Aerated Concrete, A Distinctive Building Material

2. Chapter 2: Structural Concrete

3. Chapter 3: Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC)

4. Chapter 4: Research Method (Tests Proposed)

5. Chapter 5: Performing the Tests and Results

6. Chapter 6: Result Analysis

7. Chapter 7: Future Work

Table A: Impact of AAC in Different Aspects of a Construction Project

Table 3-1: E-Crete Standard Block

Table 3-2: Table 3-2: E-Crete Cladding Block

Table 3-3: E-Crete Jumbo Block

Table 5-7: Karsten Pipe Test on an Exterior Concrete Wall

Table 5-8: Karsten Pipe Test on an Exterior Plaster Wall

Table 5-9: Inside Temperature (Fahrenheit) Reaching Equilibrium in 18

Table 5-10: Average R-Value of AAC2

Table 5-11: Shear Test on AAC Sample with 3/8 Rebar

Table 5-12: Shear Test on AAC Sample with 1/2 Rebar

Table 5-13: Pull-Out Test on AAC Sample with 3/8 Rebar

Table 5-14: Pull-Out Test on AAC Sample with 1/2 Rebar

Table 6-1: Allowable Service Load on Embedded Bolts (Pounds) [Obtained

Table 6-3: AAC Connection Capacity Ratio to Regular Concrete

Table 7-1: Summary of Test Results

Figure 1-2: Translucent Concrete; Project: Iberville Parish Veterans

Figure 1-3: Translucent Concrete; Project: Cella Septichora Main entrance

Figure 1-4: Glass fiber reinforced concrete (GFRC) as an exterior panel

Figure 2-1: A Common Concrete Ingredient Ratio

Figure 2-2: Portland cement

Figure 2-5: Fly Ash Dump in a Construction Project

Figure 2-6: Aggregate Grading

Figure 2-8: A Typical Concrete Mix

Figure2-9: Curing of Concrete

Figure 2-11: Concrete Bridge in Visoko

Figure 2-12: Example of Architectural Precast Concrete

Figure 2-13: Schematic of Lightweight WA Particle

Figure 2-14: Chateau on the Lake in Branson, Missouri

Figure 2-15: Creating a Landmark with Lightweight Concrete: First

Figure 3-1: AAC Panels on a Construction Site

Figure 3-2: Stacked Blocks of AAC Wrapped in Foil

Figure 3-3: Dr. Axel Eriksson, Inventor of the AAC

Figure 3-5: Left: Aluminum Paste Package , Right: Aluminum Powder

Figure 3-6: A Limestone Formation in the Waitomo District of New

Figure 3-7: Gypsum Chrystal

Figure 3-11: Green Blocks Loaded into an Autoclave (Picture Courtesy

Figure 3-12: Left: AAC is Fire Resistant , Right: UL Rated Classified

Figure 3-13: Fire Spreading With and Without AAC

Figure 3-16: Design Flexibility: The Dancing House Window

Figure 3-17: Design Flexibility: The Dancing House in Prague, Czech

Figure 3-18: Rapid Construction: Clockwise Week 1 through Week 3,

Figure 3-19: Consumption of Raw Material and Energy to Produce

Figure 3-20: Thermal Insulating Effect of Hebel AAC Blocks

Figure 3-21: C. K. Choi Building, Institute of Asian Research in Vancouver,

Figure 3-22: Factor 10 House, Chicago, Illinois

Figure 3-23: The New American Home 2008, Orlando, Florida

Figure 3-24: Hebel AAC Blocks

Figure 3-25: Hebel AAC U-Blocks in Construction

Figure 3-26: Hebel Wall Panels in Construction

Figure 3-27: Hebel Floor Panels in Construction

Figure 3-28: Hebel Cladding Boards

Figure 3-29: Schematic Design of a Hebel Structural Floor Panel

Figure 3-30: Hebel Structural Floor Panel in Construction

Figure 3-31: Hebel Sound Barrier Panels