Professional Documents
Culture Documents
E. WM. HEINRICH
Depm'/lIIellf of Mineralogy
U llitJc rsify of Michi"an
All" Arbor, Miclligan
Toronto
1956
London
MICHOSCOPIC PETHOGRAPHY
CO\Jyright ) 956 hy the MeGraw-Hill Book Company, In('. I'rint ld ill the
United Stntes of America. All rights l'('st'TVt'd. This hook, or parts lht'rt'of, mny not b e reproduced in any for11l wi thout PCTlllission of the pub lishers.
NBS S (":;
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R.
SHROCK,
Con.s'ulting Editor
MICROSCOPIC PETROGRAPHY
For
EDITH
PREFACE
Because of the div 'rsity of rocks, the several ways in which they are
formed , and the C'llormOLiS size variation of the units which they
compose and which compose them (batholiths to submicroscopic
crystallites), the scienc of petrology utilizes several contrasting modes
of illvestigation in seeking answE'rs to problems of pctrogenesis .
Among the most important of these approaches are:
1. Gcological ( field ) hlchniques
2. Chemical techniques
3. Exp 'rimental techniqu es
4. Petrographical techniques
viii
Preface
E.
WM. H EINRICH
CONTENTS
vii
Preface.
CIIAI'TEH
1.
I
1
TJlin Sf'ctions
Ceneral .
Pn'pnration
Staining .
Pro('(:'dure fOJ ,,' pheline.
Praceciurl' for Nephelille and Pln~i(lclas('
Procedure far Brucite-Ser pentine and Calcite- Dolamit
Micram tric Min eralogical Ana lysis .
The Imlllersion Method .
Examination with the Binoctllnr l\!icroscopt:
Other Methods.
8
8
12
13
13
ROCKS-CE~EHAl .
15
15
CllAPTEll
CHA1'TElI
2. ICNuous
3.
DE ClI.!PTJONS OF
2
7
7
7
16
16
18
18
19
Hl
21
21
22
23
26
29
29
29
35
38
ix
Contents
x
Granodiorite-Quartz Latite F umily
Granodiorite.
Qu~z
Lti~
4.
Origin a nd Classification .
T " tures a nd Mic rostru ctures .
T cx turt:'s of E piclast ie Hocks
T exhlfC's of Chemi cally Precipitated Rocks
T extur s of Orga ni c Rocks.
Speeial r ca turp.s
Insol1lble Rl's icillt'S
Carhona te Rock Res idul's
Saline Residues
Accessory D etrital Minerals
Authi genic Minerals .
CHAPTE R
5.
41
41
~
44
44
49
51
51
53
54
54
60
64
64
65
67
67
70
73
73
7R
80
R4
84
86
89
92
94
96
9-;
DR
99
99
102
102
101)
Ion
107
J07
108
LOR
109
112
1J 4
114
11 4
Contents
Conglomerate and Breccia
Arkos('
Graywacke
Clay. Sha le. anel Ih,lat<,el Hocks
Clay.
Kaolin and Kaolinit( , C lay
lIIit e Clay,
Montmori ll onite Clay
Diaspore Clay.
Other C lays
Bauxite
Shale .
Chal ('cdo ni e and Rp]ntecl Rocks
Clwrt.
Dintolnit(' and Hadinlaritc .
I .i",,'storl(' and J{(1at(d Hocks
Li lllC'slonc
Tra\ (rline and R('lated Rocks
Dolomite.
J 'ilosphnril eS
V('rr\l~inous lind Ma1\~anifero ll s Hocks
Iron Carhonalt Rocks
Iroll Oxidl-' Hucks
Iron SulRde Rocks .
Iron Silicate Rocks
Manganiferous Hocks
Sa lill es ( Evaporit(s ) .
Rok Salt and R('lull'd Rocb
Sylvite-Halitc Hock s
Carnallite Rocks.
Poly halite Rocks.
Hock Gypsum
Hock Anhydrite.
Kainite Rocks
Burite Rocks .
Strontium Hocks.
Hoek Horates
Soda Niter .
Hoek Sulfm .
Analcite Rocks
xi
120
122
123
126
126
126
127
12R
130
130
130
132
135
135
138
139
139
144
145
147
149
150
15]
153
]54
155
156
156
159
]59
160
161
163
166
166
166
]67
168
168
168
170
170
171
171
172
176
170
Contents
xii
Cataclastic Textures
Crystalloblastic Textures
Porphyroblasts
Relict Tex tures
Maculose, Phacoidal, and Rrlated Textures .
Symplectites and Other Semirrgll lar Intergrowths
Foliation.
CHAPTEH
7.
DESClUPTJONS OF Ml!:TAMOrtPIlI C
H OCKS.
176
176
177
178
179
180
182
184
184
184
185
186
187
187
J90
190
192
]93
193
193
198
199
201
204
205
206
2()$)
209
209
211
212
212
214
216
217
219
222
223
223
224
225
226
226
227
228
231
232
Contents
Topaz, Dumortierite, and Andalusite Rocks
Quartz-Feldspar Gneisses and Related Rocks
Quartz-Feldspar Gneisses
Fel~ic Granulites
Alkali Gneisses .
PYTOXf'ne Granulites, Ch:unoekites, Eclogites, and Related Rocks
Pyrox('n Granulites and Charnockites
E'" IOg'i tcs .
lade .
Al~phihok Schists and Gneiss!'s and AmphiboHlt'S
ActinolitC" Schists
Ant hophyllitc Schists and Iklated Roeks
Glnu eophan(, Schists and Belated Roeks .
Glnueophane Schists .
GlallC'ophanf' Alliphiholites a nd Related Roeks
OCClll'reJle(' and Origin
ll ornhl('nde Schists
HOTnbll'nd, Gn('iss('s and Alilphibolitts
Epidote-group Rocks .
Ct'lwral .
J'ieul11nntitc Sehists .
Unnkitc, EpidusitC", and lklatt'd Rocks
Ferruginolls and Manganiferous Hot:ks .
Hydrous Iron Silicat(' Rocks .
Jaspilites, Hl'lllatite Schists, and Related Rocks
Map:llttit(' Rocks .
Eulysites and Related Hocks
EIII CT),
l\!allganese Silicate Hucks
Migl1latitf's .
xiii
232
233
233
236
239
239
239
242
243
244
244
245
247
247
250
251
252
253
256
256
257
258
259
259
261
263
266
269
270
271
lilBLIOGHAPllV
273
Gen('ral .
Ign('ous Rocks and ProCCSSf'S
S(dilllcntary Rocks and Procf'SScs.
~f<otalllorphil' Rocks and Proc 'sses
273
273
274
274
Illdex
275
1
METHODS OF MICROSCOPIC STUDY
THIN SECTIONS
General
Mi croscopic Petrogra,Jhy
4. If th e rock contains a very small percentage of gcnetically significant a . 'essory constituents, only a vcry few grains of which might
be cut b), a thin scction. This applies particularly to the insoluhle
residue min erals of carbonate and saline sedimentary rock~ and to
the accessory detrital and authigenic minerals, both heavy and light
fractions, in sandstones and related rocks.
Prepara tion
Cutting a slice
Mounting the slice to object glass
Cutting th e section
Final grinding
Mounting the cover slip
Microscopic Petrography
vertically, exactly parallel with the saw blade. This block serves as the
buttress against which the object glass of the mounted rock slice is
placed. To hold the slice in place a universal clamp (Fig. IA ) is
brought against it on the side opposite the object glass and bolted in
place. Flanges at the leading edge of th buttress block and the trail-
FJr. . 1. Diamond-saw assembly for cutting thin sections. A , Universal clump block;
11, buttrcss block ; C, basp block; D, swing above fced track; E, verti cal "lift"
adjustment; F, clamp bar for universal clamp; G, mounted rock slice; Ii , lubricant
dispenser; ] , turntahle; K , end bolt, for thickness adjustment. (Courtesy of Charles
M eyer and ECl1rlomic Geology.)
ing dge of the universal clamp pr vent the rock slice (Fig. IG) from
slipping backward or forward during cutting. A later improvement
holds the slide onto the block through suction appli d to the rear of
the slide by means of two hoI s through the block. The bottom edge
of th object glass rests on that slight proj ction of th base block
(Fig. Ie) which forms one wall of the notch where the saw blade
travels. The bottom of the blade, while making the cut, should pass
at Jeast 1 ~ in . below the lower edge of the object glass. The base block
is capable of movement on a track oriented perpendicularly to the
axis of the compound. This adjustment is made by tightening the two
eml bolts ( Fig. lK) against one another. It controls the thickness of
th e resulting section. A 6-in. sintcred-diamond blade is used On th('
machine. Kerosene, the lubricant, is supplied to the cutting edge by
jets on either side of the blade (Fig. IH ). With experience, sections
may b e cut directly to a uniform thickness of 0.08 mm. The section is
then hand -fini shed to 0.03 mm, using a coarse polishing abrasive in
water or kerosen on a flat lap or on a glass plate.
After the thin secti on has been prepared, it is best to use Canada
balsam il mounting th e cover slip. The balsam should be heated to
about]] OOC, at which temperature it Bows readily, but at which the
Lakesid .is merely soft. A wooden spatula cut to the width of the
glass slide is used to spread a film of balsam over the surfaee of th e
section. One strok of the spatula is best in order to avoid air bubbles.
Both the seetion and the cover slip should b e preheated gently. A
small ridge of balsam is placed down the center of the cover slip
with th e side of the spatula . The cover slip is then tou ched to the glass
sliel e' at th top end and allowed to d sc:end I1neler its own weight upon
the full surface of the sHde. A small weight in th e shape of a rectangular block is then placed upon the cowr slip in order to press out the
excess balsam, whieh may be removed with xylol.
In old thin sections th e balsam may have partly crystallized to
polarizing, randomly oriented needles or minute spherulites. Gentl e
heating should restore its isotropic chara cter.
Friable specimens can nrst be impregnated with lucite (methyl
metha crylate) monomer, using a vacuum. The lucite may be cut and
ground with the constituf'nts of the rock and does Dot soften noticeably at 130 to 140C.
The inhibitor in the methacrylat is nrst removed with ither a 2 or
3 per cent aqu ous solution of potassium hydroxide. This solution is
addecl in small amounts until the hvdroxide solution remains colorless
and is not tinged brown by the inhibitor. Two washings accompanied
by thorough shaking aTe g'nerally sufficient; three may be necessary.
The solution is then washed three times with thorough shaking with
water. Water that remains is removed by adding dehydrated calcium
chloride several times in amounts of about 1 g each time, agitating
the mixture and collecting the wat r that drains off. This is repeated
until the liquid lucite is entirely clear.
Microscopic Petrography
J. Sprc'ad with glass rod a thin film of sirupy phosphoric acid oVIJr
section; allow to remain 3 min.
Z. Wash by dipping gently in wat'r.
3. Immerse sljde in 0.25 per cent solution of methyl!:'ne hll1c 1 min .
4. Wash off excess dye by dipping gently in water.
By this technique nepheline, socialite, and analcit are stained deep
blue, mclilite a light blue; potash feldspar, plagioclas , and I ucite
are unaffected . Zonal structure in nepheline may b e revealed, the
IInstained zones b eing richer in SiO ~ .
PROCEDURE FOR NEPHELrNE AND PLAG IO .LASE
Microscopic Petrography
that, after a travers across the s ction has been completed, the total
distance traversed across grains of each mineral species (or groups)
may be r ad directly and recorded. The micrometer screws are return d to zero positions) the section is moved a fixed distance, and the
traverse is repeat d. The 'ntir analysis consists of a series of paraHel)
>quidistant travers s, in the course of which the lengths of lines crossing mineral grains of different species are totaled for each of the
species ( or groups).
A widely used r 'ording micrometer is the Hunt-Wentworth instrument (Fig. 2), in which the five micromcter screws, all on the same
side', arc turned by hand. Another by L itz has six spindles, three on
each side, and also is hand-operated (Fig. 3). The Dollar stage also
has six spindles and is constructed to permit the stage to be rotated
Microscopic Petrography
10
11
P'
flG. 5. Mec.:hnnical stage with slap mechanisms, for USe as Chaycs point counter.
1, OV 'l'sized knob with 24 holes drilled from below; 2, stop pin; 3, pinholdcr;
4, lockscrew; 5, elongut<-d hole for locking lockscrew. By turning knob 1, the
stop pin 2 jumps from one hole to the next in step of 0.5 111m. ( Courtesy of
Felix C/1(l1j 1.'8 rwd J3a!t,imo/'e lnsll'llm enl Co.)
12
Microscopic Petrography
13
14
Micl'oscopic Pet1'ogra.plty
2
IGNEOUS ROCKS-GENERAL
16
Microscopic Petrography
tallization) of magmas that have cooled. A magma is a mutual solution , dominantly silicate in composition, consisting chiefly of Si, 0 , AI ,
alkali elements, alkaline-earth elements, and Fe, togeth er with minor
amounts of other elements including the volatile componeTl ts-CO ~,
H~ O, F, CI, S, P, etc. A magma is initially hot and llOdeT great ppssur ,
and it poss sses mobility.
Granites, granodiorites, and quartz monzonites constitute about 95
per cent of all inb'usive ign ous rocks, whereas basalts and pyroxenebearing andesites form nearly 98 per cent of all extrusiv igneous
rocks. From this and other lines of evidence many geologists believe
that there are and have been two main types of primary magmas-a
granitic type deriv d by fusion of material from the sic lie lay r, and
a basaltic formed by fusion of material from thc shell of sima. Thc
possibility of the existence of a third type of primary magma, much
less common, has been suggested to explain th origin of peridotites
and anorthosites- tapping and fusion of the uppermost part of the
mantle. Igneous rocks, other than granite hasalt, and possibly some
peridotites are considered to result largely from the crystallization of
secondary magmas-those derived by various modifications of primary
magma, especially the basaltic typ .
There also exist a considerable body of thought and some evidence
that suggest that some plutonic bodies of rock, usually classed as
igneous, were at no time in a completely liquid ( magma ) state, but
were formed through metasomatism, i.e., largely by reactions in the
solid state as the result of ionic migration along mineral grain boundaries and throu gh the crystalline framework of minerals while the
rock as a whole remained solid or at least nearly so. This process, along
with s veral modifications of it, is generally referred to as granitization, and the num rollS adherents of this theory hold to somewhat
djffer nt ideas regarding the details of the mechanism and the scope
on which it operates.
DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY MAGMAS
Differentiation
17
lH'nts, (2) separation into two different portions through liquid immiscibility, and (3) thc migration of mat rial by means of diffusion
along a temperature gradient (Soret effect). Generally geologists no
longer regard these m chanisllls as effectiv in producing large-scale
inhomogeneities in initially uniform magmas.
Of utmost importance is differentiation resulting from crystal fractionation (fractional crystallization or crystal differentiation). In a
cooling magma th early pre<.:ipitated crystals, which ar initially in
equilibrium with magma remaining, may be prevented in various ways
from further reaction with the liquid as it continues to cool and thus
from changing their composition in order to remain in equilibrium
with it. For the mineralogical changes that result from reactions at
eqllilibrium see Fig. 8. Incomplete reaction or th prevention of
reaction results in the formation of a crystalline portion and a liquid
portion which diff r in composition from each other and also from
the original magma. Reaction may be prevented by (1) rapid cooling
or chilling, (.2) sinking or Roating of crystals under gravity, (3) gas
flotation of crystals, and (4) filter pressing to squeeze off remaining
liquid from a partly crystallized magma through tectonic movements
or rcn ew('d magmatic surges.
Examples of intrusive bodies that wer differentiated in situ largely
or in plul through gravitative settling of crystals arc some of the peridotitie layered lopoliths (Stillwater Complex, Montana); some diahasic sills (Palisad sill, New Jers y): some alkaline gabbro sills
( L1lgar, Scotlalld); and some shonkinitic laccoliths (Shonkin Sag,
Moutana) . Clear-cut examples of differentiation through Boating of
crystals app ar to b 1 ,5S common; on of the best describ d is the
headed dike studied by Euie in the Highwood Monntains of Mon tana, in which leucite crystals accumulated ncar the arcuate roof in
a shOllkinitic magma.
The fractional crystallization of basaltic magma under diff rent
geological environments ( .g., in active orogeniC belts; in volcanic
provin 'es; under plutonic conditions) is believed to yield various series of secondary magmas that were intruded or extrud d at intervals
to crystallize as sequ nees, such as:
1. Basalt, trachyte, phonolite
2. Basalt, andesite, rhyohte
3. Gabbro, tonalite, granodiorite, (minor) granite
18
Microscopic Petrography
19
20
Microscopic PetrogmpllY
1.
Grunite-rbyolit( fAmily
G ranoclio ritt'- qllAl'tz lnt itt
family
Syenitt'-trfl.('h~, tf' fllmily
;\1oTlzonitf'-lntitl' family
fnmily
Igneous Rocks-General
21
_.
~.
. ... .......
~.
.~
....
Flc. 6. Crystallites. Top row. left to 1jght, globulites, cumulites. mnrgarites; lower
row, /('"11 10 righI, hc-Ionitcs, trkhitC's . scOpuli ll'S.
22
Microscopic Petrogl'Clphy
(a)
(c)
(b)
needlelike, acicular,
23
2. Radial, spherulitic, or sheafJike clusters: divergent elongate
crystals extending from a common center. Example: tourmaline (Fig.
ge) . dllmortierite, alkali feldspar spherulites (Fig. 12c) .
3. Poikilitic: a single crystal host including numerous grains or
crystals of allother or other species unsystematically distributed. Examples: hornblend e, melilite.
4. Perthite-type intergrowths. A single crystal host including orien ted to suboriented plates, films, or blebs of another mineral. Pertbite specifically involves host alkali feldspar and guest sodi c plagioclase, an d antiperthite is the converse. Similar intergrowths occur in
the pyroxenes. Commonly the result of exsolution or deuteric replacement.
5. if icrographie. A single crystal host with evenly distributed but
irregular blebs and vermicular units of another mineral, which are
('ommonly of uniform optical orientation, although separate. Such
quartz in alkali feldspar forms micrupegmatite, mi crographic intergrowth, or granophyre (Fig. lOb). Such quartz in plagioclase forms
myrm ekite. Numerous other mineral combinations fonn similar intergrowths.
6. Overgrowths and reaction rims. Borders of one or more minerals
around another acting as a nucleus. The border may consist of a single
grain or of numerous units, not uncommonly arranged normal to the
contact with the nucleus. Corona st:.ru chne usually refers to pyroxenes
and amphiboles about olivine (Fig. 19a); kelyphitic, to various minerals overgrown on garnet.
7. Relict textures. Irregular, normally subordinate remnants of an
original mineral in a host form ed by replacement.
Igneous Rocks- General
Texture
24
Microscopic Petmgraphy
(devitrification). Holocrystalline rocks ar without glass. Tilt, fillcstgrained are microcrystalline ( Fig. lle), in which the grains arc distinguishable only mi croscopically. A commonly acccph'd graill-sin'
classification is :
AIlf'l'fI{/C diollll'i,(' 1'
Very
(oal'~e ....
".......
<I
IllUl
1- 10 1).111
I
>3
a e ll I
e lll
25
3. Phenocrysts predominate over hoJocrystalJine matrix, which usually is coarser than that of rhyolite porphyries. Hypabyssal:
granite porphyry.
Matrix phane1'itic (Le., grains visible without magnification)
4. Phenocrysts in a granitic (fine- to coarse-grained) matrix. Plutonic: porphyritic granite.
I gneotls Rocks- General
26
MiC1'oSCOIJic Petrography
Miarolitic cavities are small, irregular open spaces, usually in coarsegrained rocks, on whose walls commonly appear euhedral, inwardly
projecting crystals.
Various prefixes and adjectives have been applied to the dark- and
light-colored mineral groups and also to color variations in rocks resulting from variations in proportions of these groups. The lightcolored minerals ( quartz, feldspars, feldspathoids or fOids) are
grouped as felsic; rocks rich in them are felsic rocks. Rocks of anyone
family that are abnormally rich in the minerals of this group may b e
described by adding the prefix leu.co-, as leucogranite, leu ogabbro,
etc. The dark-colored group of minerals (biotite, amphiboles, p yroxenes, olivin ) are the mafics, and rocks in which they predominate
are mafic rocks. 1 mafic minerals ar the sole essential constituents,
the rocks are llltramafic. Similarl y, if a rock of a specine famil y con tains an abnormal amount of mane minerals it may b e referred to b y
th prefix me/n-, as a melagranite, meladioritc', melasyenitc, etc.
Sequence of Crystallization
27
lIOUS REACTIOl\
SERIES
Calcic plagioclase
Rodic plagioelase
/
/
(>Na1
(M u~cov i te)
Potash fpldspur
Qllartz
<N a
FIG. 8. Th reaction series of Bowen (modifh-d ).
2.
3.
4.
5.
Alkah feldspars
Zr and Ti silicates
Alkali (Na-Fe) pyroxenes
Alkali (Na-Fe) amphiboles
28
M icro~c;opic Pet;'ography
3
DESCRIPTIONS Of IGNEOUS ROCKS
GRANITE-RHYOLITE FAMilY
Granite
IJypab)'ss~II ,
holocrystallin ,
Quartz . ...
. .... .. .. . ................ . 10 40 %
Potu!!h fpld~par .
.........
. . ....... . 30- 00
Sodie pln~i()('lnse CX(' llidillg perthit c) . . .. . .
0- 35
Maf.l(s (l iotil(' , hornblcnop) .... ............ .
35- 10
1 plagioclase exceeds potash feldspar, th rock becomes a granodiorite. With decreas in quartz the rocks pas illto syenitts.
Mineralogy . Two general groups of granites arc commonly separated: (1) th more widespr ad, or calc-alkali, granites and (2) the
alkali granites, typically rich in sodium. ELlCh has a characteristic
mineralogy:
Calc-alkali yrcr.1llte
I'erthitic orthocluse
Alkali fll'anile
30
(u)
F IG,
quartz are especially abundant, and in a few cases the feldspar becomes poikilitic, enclosing quartz and/ or oligoc.:Jase, Micropegmatite
is widespread anu abundant; som orthoclase grains grade into rims
of micropegmatit , Anorthoclase, either twinned Or untwinned, also
may show zoning, In some cases a broad core with nonuniform xtinction is set in a narrow, unifOlm frame, Rims of albite also occur,
and inclusions of aegirine needles are common,
In porphyriti c gl;an itcs the phenocrysts are commonly microcline or
ortho -las , All matrix minerals may be included, but biotite inclusions
ar palticularly common, In granite porphyri s sanidine also forms
phenocrysts.
Potash feldspars are altered to kaolinite, other clay mjnerals, sericite (or coarse muscovite), and I 5S usually to zeolites or chlorite. The
31
NB SS&LUP
Region :ll C "n Ire LI brary
Bangalore 560 024.
32
Microscopic PetrogralJhy
coarse muscovite also forms by replac ment of plagioclase. Pleochroic halos appear around zircon, and bird's-eye-extinction mottling
characterizes coarse flakes.
In calc-alkali granites the amphibole is green or brownish green
hornblende. Zoning may ocelli, and twinning on (100 ) is common.
lnclusions are magnetite, ilmenite, apatite, sphene, and zircon ( with
halos ). In some granite porphyries horn blend or oxyhornblende
forms phenocrysts, resorbed marginally or generally.
In alkali granites the amphibol is a sodic type- hastingsite, arfv dsonite, or riebeckite. Zoning is not uncommon, especially in arfvedsonite, in which brown cores are mantled by bIll rims, or in which the
cnds of irr gular grains grade into riebeckite. Inclusions of aegirine
and aenigmatite may be present, and some arfvedsonite is mantled
by aegirine.
Uncommon diopside and augite are the pyroxenes in calc-alka1i
granit s; ferroan hypersthen e is rare. Usually th e pyroxene survives
as an irregular cor in hornbl ende. Twinning on (100) is not uncommon, and various accessories, including balo d zircon, form inclusions.
In alkali types, aegirine-augite, aegiJ"ine (including acmite), or rarely
hedenbergite OCClli. Aegirine is replaced by riebeckite or arfvedsonitc.
Accessories includ magnetite, ilmenite, hematite, pyrite, apatite,
xenotime, monazite, zircon (may be zoned), allanite, sphene, tourmaline, fluorite, fa yalite, and garnet (especially in muscovite types ).
The allanit may be overgrown by epidot . Less widespread are andalnsit " cordierite, and sillimanite. Alkali varieties may also contain
aenigmatite, astrophyllite, pyrochlore, and thorite. Astrophyllite occurs in elongate, light brown sheaves, usually in radial groups.
Th alt ration minerals are chlorite, calcite, epidote-clinozoisite,
zoisite, quartz, kaolinite and other clay minerals, sericite, zeolites,
leucoxene, sphene, rutile, magnetite, hematit , and limonite. Some
granite walls of hydrothermal cassiterite deposits show extensive replacement to greisen-an aggregate of quartz, litbium mica, topaz,
tourmaline, fluorite, and cassiterite. Othcrs are transformed to topazquartz aggregates, or are tommalized (Juxullianites) (Fig. 9c ).
The main mineralogical types ar biotite granite ("normal") , muscovite-biotit granite (binary or two-mica granite), hornblend -biotite
granite, hornblende granite, pyroxene granite, tourmaline granite,
rieb ckite granite, arfvedsonite granite and aegirine granite. Some rare
granites are rich in quartz, containing nearly 60 per cent. The term
alaskite is an unnecessary name for a leucogranite. Granitite is an
obsolete name for the normal, i.e., biotitic, granite. Silexite and
33
34
mantI of oligoclas and arc set in a matrix of smaller rounded oligoclase grains, quartz, biotite, and hornblende. Orbicular structures
are well represented among granites. Miarolitil: sb'ucturcs also occllr
O CCU1rence. Granites occm in all types of plutonic and hypabyssal
bodies, especially in batholiths, tocks, and plutons of various shap s
and sizes. TIu'ee general cat gories of granitic bodies are recognized:
1. Enormous plutons of pre-Cambrian shields
2. Bathouths in the cores of mountain ranges
3. Minor intrusives
Two contrasting structural types of graniti . batholiths can b e distinguished: (1) a type of rather variable composition, gneissic struc-
(b)
FIC. 10. (a) Aplite, Waynesvm , North Carolina. Microcline, quartz, oligoclase'.
Nicols crossed, X 19. (b ) Cranophyr~, San Lllis Ht'y Qlladran t, California. Orthoclase with inter grown quartz; magnetite. Ni (lIs crossed, X 19.
35
36
varieties. Phenocrysts ar marginally or entirely resorbed to magnetite and pyroxelJe. Amphibol e alone is rare; it typicall y occurs as
phenocrysts with biotite and shows the usual resorption effects. Some
rocks contain rare matrix amphibole. in potassic rhyolites the amphibol e is brown or green hornbl end e. In sodie rhyolites and their
porphyries, rieb eckite, arfvedsonite, Or hastingsite occurs. Rieb eckite,
whi ch alters to acmite Or a fine-grained magnetite-hematite-goethitezircon mixture, may contain Zr.
Pyroxf:'ne-bearing rhyolites are not common. Diopside, au gite, or
rarely hyp rslhene are represented, either as phenocrysts or matrix
granules. In sodie typ es diopside with aegirine-a ugite or aeg irine rims,
aegirine-augite, Or a girine forms phenocrysts. Aegirine and acmite
appeal' in the matrix.
Accessory min erals are trid ymite, cri stobalite, tita nian magnetite,
cordi 'fite, sphene, zircon, apatite, fayalite, garnet , flu orite ( in holocrystallin types ), rare graphite, and rare leu cite ( in alkali typ es and
usually zeolitized ). In the matri x of some rhyolites tridymite may b e
the chi ef Or sole silica mineral, achi evin g the status of an essential
constituent. Rhyolites with quartz phenocrysts also may have consid erable matrix tridymite. Min erals of lith ophysae include quartz,
op al, sanidine, fayalitc, tridymite, garnet, topaz, tourm alin e, pseud obrookite, and cassiterite. The more common alteration produ cts in clude qu artz, chalcedony, calcite, magnetite, h ematite, goethite, limonite, futil e, 1cuco 'ene, sphene, chlorite, kaolinite, seri cite, epidote, and
piedmontite.
Vari etal names are at a minimum . Th c name qu artz p orphyry was
applied to pre-Tertiary rhyolites. Liparite and nevadite are synonyms
for rhyolite; panterellite for alkali rhyolite. Felsite is a general fi eld or
hand-sp ecimen name for megascopically aphanitic, light-colored volcanic rocks, including rhyolite, qu artz latite, trachyte, latite, d aci te,
and in some cases also andesite.
Textures and Microstructures. Man y rhyolites are porphyriti c, and a
great variety of ma trix textures are present.
Holocrystalline
1. Microgranular (Fi g. 110 )
2. Pilotaxitic 01' felted
3. Trachytic
4. Granophyric (Fig. lOb)
5. Sphemlitic
6. Cryptocrystalline; devitrified
F IG.
37
J la, h. ((J) Hhyo litC' dtrnpil yl'C'. Arran , Scotland. Elllbaycd q ua rtz pht'noXR. ( b ) Hh., o li te . Tc'ncioy
t'l'~'~ts , a u git t' microLitts , glass . .,\i t'( ll.~ 1I0t c rossc'd ,
\rtllinlains , ;\Iontnll:l . ()u,lrtz pht 'lloc 'rysls in a flow-hand ed cl'ypl o- to Illicrol'1"., 'ln liin C' matrix. Nicols not ('ross(,d , X B.
38
Microscopic Petrography
39
like forms are scopulit's; hairlike clusters or snarls are trichites; and
bead d aggr gates are margarites. The mineral forming the crystallites cannot b determined optically. With continu ed growth crystallites become microlites, small polarizing crystals that may be
recognized as a particular mineral species. These are usually lath- or
rod like in form, and augite or f ldspar are common. Spherulites also
are constituents of rhyolitiC glasses ( Fig. 12c ).
(a)
12(1, h. ( (I ) Pumice, Millard County, Uta h . Glass, ll ighly vcs icu lar, SOll)e' eli(('("lionl\ l texture. Nicols not cros~ed, X 11. ( h ) Perlite , Ch!lfl"e(' County, Colorado.
Class with ll1ultiplt concentri c fraduct!s. icols lIot crosst'ci, X ] J.
F IG.
40
Microscopic Petrography
41
rhyolitic glasses are highly vesicular. Lithophysae may contain a variety 01 well-crystalliz d min rals.
Varieties. Pitchstone is an obsidian with a waxy rather than glassy
luster, which contains 4 to 10 per cent H 2 0. In obsidian the water content is usually 1 per cent or less. Perlite is marked by numerous groups
of multiple concentric cracks, arranged as onionlike partings (Fig.
12b ). The centers of these fracture-encircled parts may break out as
subrounded to subungular obsidian "pebbles" with concave surfaces.
Pumice ( Fig. 12a ) is natural glass froth in which th e volume of air
space approachcs, equals, or even exce ds the volume of glass. The
cavities ure usually attenuated, either straight or irregularly curved .
Occurrence. Obsidian occurs in llldividl1al Hows rarely, usually as
marginal parts of more crystallin e Hows. Pumiee forms crusts on flows
or volcanic ejectamenta- bombs and cinders. Some tuffs also consist
prinCipally of volcanic glass. The natural glass of Obsidian Cliff of
Yellowstone Park is wcll known; other examples Occur in south-central
Colorado, in New Mexico, and in Arizona.
GRANODIORITE-QUARTZ LATITE FAMILY
Granodiorite
20- 40 '7"
.. 25- 45
Quartz . . .
' ........ .
.'vI a ficli (bioi it (', horllblf'lldc)
31i 10
:30- 10
42
Microscopic Petrography
apatite, magnetite, ilm nite, zircon, allanite, sphene, and garnet. The
usual alteratioll products arc sericite, kaolinite, calcite, chlorite, sphene,
limonite, hematite, leucoxene, and quartz. Plagioclase may be sa ussuritized.
Mineralogical varieties are biotite granodiorite ("normal") (Fig.
12d ), hornbl end e-biotite granodiorite, hornblende granodiorite, augite
granodiorite, and hypersthene granodiorite. Lindgren restricted
granodiorite to rocks in which plagioclase is at least double the potash
feldspar. Rocks with less plagioclase he placed with quartz monzonites. Thus his divisions, on the orthoclase-plagioclase ratio, were 13 Va,
331/a , and 66 % for tonalite, granodiorite, and quartz monzonite, respectively. These divisions are difficult to establish, whereas it is
usually simpler to clecid which
feldspar pr dominates. Thus rocks
called quartz monzonites are hcre
partly in the granodiorite family,
part)y in tb granite family. Adamellite is a substitute for quartz
monzonite 01' even for qnartz monzonite and granodiorite (Lindgren's
sense) combined.
FIG.
12d. Granodiorite, Bitterroot
Textures and Microstructures.
Muuntains, Idaho. Quartz, zoned
Granodiorite is usually equigran noligoclase, biotite, orthoclase. Nicols
<:rossed, X9.5.
lar, medium-grained. Aplitic and
pegmatitic types also occur. Porph yritic granodiorites are not common; granodiorite porphyries are
perhaps a litt} more common. Phenocrysts are potash feldspar, plagiOclase, and mafic minerals; some potash feldspar phenocrysts are poikilitic. Some porphyries show fluidal patterns.
The normal textw'e is subhedral-granular, with gradations toward
anbedral-granular in types richer in potash feldspar. Plagioclas and
mafics show tend ncies toward subb dralism; quartz and potash feldspar are anhedral. Quartz may show wavy extinction. Myrmekite,
common in some types, is usually interstitial. A f w rar types display
orbiclllaJ' structllres; others may b e gneissoid and even autoclastic.
Occurrence. Granodiorite occurs as a very common and widespl' ad
rock, in batholiths (both compound and simple), stocks, large sills
and dikes, and irr gular plutons. Granodiorite porphyries occur in
dikes and sills and as marginal phases of larger granodiorit bodies.
43
are estimated to constitute 34 per cent. Other major granodiorite occurrences in the United States are in the Boulder batholith of Montana, in the Idaho batholith, in the Sierra Nevada Mountains of
California, and in th e Front Range of Colorado. Numerous and varitld
hydrothermal ore deposits are g netic ally associated with granodiorites.
Quartz Latite
20--30 %
aO- 50
:15- 1U
20- 10
If quartz becomes accessory, the ro ks grade into latites. With orthoclase reduced to an accessory, the gradation is into dacites. With
more p( tash feldspar than plagioclase, the rocks are rhyolites. Types
with abundant glass are difficult to classify.
Minpralogy. Sanidine is the usual potash feldspar. It may appear
as phenocrysts alone, in the matrix alone, oj' in both. Plagioclase of
the high-temperature type is th most common phenocryst mineral,
usually lJormally or oscillatorily zoned and complexly twinned . The
composition averages calcic andesine to oligocla 'e; cor s of labradorite
are uncommon . Diotite forms phenocrysts which are usually marginally
or entirely resorbed. Green to olive hornblende, also as ph noerysts
shows various degrees of inegular alteration to oxyhornblende and
marginal resorption to iron oxides. Some are entirely replaced by aggregates of augite, magn etit , and feldspar . In a few cases hornblende
phenocrysts have b ell centrally replaced by biotite aggregates and
marginally by magnetite-aug.ite. Augite app aI'S both as phenocrysts
and mab'ix grains; hypersthene is uncommon. Rarely augite shows
narrow hornblende oronas, which th emselves ar partly resorbed.
Class is an abundant constituent of some types. Some quartz latites
contain quartz ph ' 11ocl')'sts, and sphene also may appear in phenocrysts. Magnetite, ilmenit , apatite, sphene, zircon, tridymite, eristohalite, and rare garnet are the accessory minerals. The chief essentia l
silica mineral of the groundmass not uncommonly is tridymite. Chlorite, epidote, zoisite, sericit , kaolinite, quartz, calcit , and hematite
nre the llsual nIt ration products.
The names d llenite and rhyodacite are equivalents of quartz latite.
Microscopic Petrography
44
Syenite
Alka.li "yenitr
Diopside
01'
ACI'C'R8ory fC'ldspnthoids
45
In normal syeni tes (Fig. 1.'3(/ ) ortho('las or orthoclase micropcrthite is the dominant f Id spar, in rare instanc s forming 90 p l' cent of
lhe rocks. Microdine is mU<.:h less common. Carlsbad twinning is pronounced , and hcmatite platel ets may be inclllded. In sycllite porphyrie.s and related hypabyssal intrusives, sanidin may form not only
th phenocrysts but also tlw dominant man'ix feldspar . Sodi ' plagioclase is rarely absent, and in som varieties it approaches potash feldspar in abu ndall<.:e. It is usually oligoclase, uDcommonly Hnd sin .
46
Mic1'Oscopic Petrography
III alriJ'
In addition to rcglllar rniero- and cryptoperthitic inte'rgrowths, albite also is intergrowll complcxly as coarse' blebs, patches. laths , and
crystals, in some cases in such abundallce that th e crystals must b c
classcd as orthoclase-albit c.:omposites. Microperthitic structure' may
be zonally arranged, or in rims alone, and overgrowths of albite are
also common. Carlsbad twinning is common, both in phenocrysts and
matrix potash feldspar. In addition to plagioc.:lase, various other minerals such as aegirine, arfvedsonite, or sodalite may bE' included, and
minute schiller inclusions also occur in some typ s.
Albite or sodic oligoclase also forms grains and crystals outside of
perthitic intergrowths. In porphyritic types it is usuall y c.:onfincd to tIl<'
matrix, but albite phenocrysts also occur, some with rims of mic.:roperthite. Rarely plagioclase as calcic as andesille is prt'sent. Antiperthite and myrmekite also are recorded.
The mafic minerals also show marked compositional variations and
varied combinations. Biotite is iron-rich and may become nearl y
opaque in position of maXimlllTI absorption. In some types th e biotite
is resorbed or rimmed by amphibole. The amphiboles usually are
sodic-arfvedsonite and hastingsite (including barkevikite); ri ebeckite is less Common. Howev r, common green hornblende al so occurs
either with or without sodic relatives. Zoning is not uncommon, with
blue green or blue margins around green 01' brown interiors. Sodie
amphiboles form overgrowths and replacements on sodic pyrox nes,
and the converse also occurs, but less usually. Diopsidc and diopsidic
augite as well as titanian augite are common, usually zoned with
aegirine-augite or aegirine margins. Crystals of the two sodic pyroxenes also may b e present together. Hypersthene is uncommon. If
augite or aegirine-augite forms phenocrysts, the matrix pyroxene is
47
Ftc. 14a, b. (l) Mitwtte. New Mexico. Biotite' phenocrysts in matrix of biotite,
ortJ loclase.
icoIs not (:ross('d , X 10. ( b ) A<,!~jrine syenite' ("Lill/unite"), ,ludith
Mountains . Muntana. Pheno 'I'yst~ of anorthoclase, m elanite (zoned) , aegirineaugite (ZOIW] ) in III a tr;", of aegirine, anortboclase, albite. Nicols not crossed,
X 10. (Courtesy of S. R. Wa llace, u.s. Geological SII!I'VCY.)
48
fvH croscollic
Petrography
Und er the alkali syenites a great sUI cdluity of varietal namtlS has
heen coined, and ill many cases petrographers do not even agree on
their mineralogical definition. H ere only a few of the more wid ely
used (01' misused I ) varietal names are cited: Larvildte: eryptoperthitie sodiun orthoclase or anorthoclase, oligoclase, 10 to 12 per cent
manes including diopsic1ic augite. at>girine-augite, and traces of h~/
pcrsthen e, olivine, biotite, and barkevikite; may have either acc ssory
quartz or npph(]in e . Some rocks classed as larvikitcs are monzonitc!).
Norc1markite: 90 per cent orthoclase p erthite or anorthoclas(', no
plagioclasc, mafics biotite, green hornblendp, or sodie amphibole ,
augite or aegirine, .i.. quartz. Bostollites arc similar in mineralogy,
porphyritic with a tracll ytie mutrix. Pulaskite: chiefly orthoclase' cryptopcrthite, diopsid e and aq~iriJlc, ar.fvedsonite, and minor to accessory
nt'plwline. Fenitc: p erthitic orthoclase Or microcline, albitt', 2.5 to .5
per cent aegirin . minor sodic hornbl end e.
Lall1prophyric rocks of the syenite group are Illilwttl' and vogesilc,
both d ark porphyritic rocks. In min ettes ( Fi g. J 4(1 ), biotite forms th e
prin cipal phenocrysts in a matrix of sodium -ri ch orthoclase, hiotite,
and accessory hornblend e anel clinopyroxelw. The biotitp may be
zon d, with light interiors and thin cl arker rims. Tn vogcsitcs, hornblende predominates as plwnocrysts in an orthoclase-hornbl end e
matrix with accessory plagiocl as<:" biotite, a nd c1inopyroxt'nt>. These
rocks arc commonly altered markedly to calcite, chlorite, epi dote, and
quartz.
T extu1'es and M ic1'ost1'llctll1'es. Most syt'nites are subhedrn l-grallulm
in texture. Porphyritic syenites also occur lin commonly, but ),cnite
porphyries ar common in smaller intrusive masses. Tlw grain size
varies from fin to coarse. Gncissoid a nd flnidal textures res ult from
the subparallelism of fcldspar plates and laths. The bostonitic texture
is fin c-grain ed with subparallC'1 arrangement of in gularly outlin ed
feldspar tablets. In syen itt> porphyri es the matrix may b e trach y tit:.
Aplitie and pegmatitic types ar e mllch less common than in the
granites.
Th> potash feldspars tend to bc subhedral rather than anh edral and
form thin to thick tabl ets. Some micropegmatite may b e present. The
plagioclase is similar in d l'velopm ent. Mafic constitnents vary greatly
ill d evelopm 'nt-cuhec1rnl to anhE'dral. Biotite not rarely forms euhedral plates, hornbl ende slender prisms to needles. In some syenites
the mafics, particularly the pyroxen sand amphjboles, are agglomrated around a single crystal of olivine Or of magnetite or a group of
thes combined with apatite. Th pyrox ne generally is closest to this
49
Definition. Trachyte is holocrystallill c to Itypocrystalline, rarely vitreous, with matrix aphanitic; extmsiv(' and hypabyssal; cOlltaining:
j'ntn~h
Sodj(
feldspur .
rilLl;~iu('hl~f'
:\lnJi(' ~
2.';- 5
:~()- 1O
50
Microscopic Petrography
Biotite, the most common mafic, is brown to deep brown and nearly
opaque in alkali types. It occurs almost exclusively as phenocrysts,
showing partial or complet resorpbon to magnetit , pyroxene, and
other granular minerals. In normal trachytes hornblend occurs chiefly
in phenocrysts, which are usually accompanied by those of biotite and
and also show resorption effects. Inclusions of various accessories are
common in both minerals. In alkali trachytes the amphibole is arfvedsonite, barkevikite, or riebeckit.
These amphiboles may also occur
in the matrix, accompanied by accessory aenigmatite.
The pyroxene is usually diopside,
in alkali types diopside, aegirineaugite, and aegirine (including acmite). Zoning of th normal type,
with outer parts richer in Na and FeZ,
is widespread. Groundmass pyroxene
in alkali trachytes is usually a girine
(Fig. 14c). Hyp rstbene also forms
as uncommon phenocrysts in normal
trachytes. Olivine, which occurs
rarely, is normally iron-rich, but
forstcrite-bearing trachytes have
been described.
FIG. 14c. Alkali trachyt , Deadwood,
Among the usual accessories are
South D akota. Sanidine phenocrys ts,
zircon, apatite (may show violet
aegirine micropbenocrysts in a
trachytic ma trix of sanieUne and pleochroism), sphene, ilmenite, and
a girine. icols not crossed, X 10. magnetite. Some varieties contain
quartz, in accessory amounts; others
hav tridymite. The alkaH type may carry accessory feldspathoidsnepheline and analcite (phonolitic trachytes) and rare fluorite.
Secondary minerals are chlorite, calcite, magnetite, epidote, and opal
in vesicles. Mineralogical varieties include biotite (normal) trachyte,
biotite-hornblende biotite, augite trachyte, arfvedsonHe (or barkevikite) trachyte, and r1 beekite trachyte. Keratophyre (a deservedly
obsolete term) is an albitiz d trachyte, usually with zeolites and epidote; some are magn tite-rich. The classic sanidinites of the Laacher
Lake area, Germany, are actually pyrometamorphic-metasomatic
xenoliths in trachyte flows and tuffs and are not strictly igneous rocks.
Rhomb porphyries, long regard d as alkali syenite porphyries, have
been shown to be monzonite porphyries in which the rhomb-shaped
51
Here monzonite is used in the ext nded sense, including not mer ly
rocks with about equal amounts of sodic plagioclase and potash feldspar but also those in which sodic plagioclase exceeds potash feldspar
(syenodiorites ). With an increase in potash feldspar, so that it exceeds
sodie plagioclase, monzonites grade into syenites. With a decrease in
potash feldspar to accessory amounts they grade into diorites. With
quart'.l becoming an essential mineral they pass into granodiorites.
52
Microscopic Petmgraplty
with labradorite cores and oligoclase rims. The alkali feldspar is usually orthoclase, rarely microcline, and may show zoning. In alkali
types barian orthoclase and anorthoclase (or barlan sanidine) occur,
and th plagioclase may be albite.
Biotite, biotite plus hornblende, hornblende, hornblende plus augite
are common manc minerals and combinations. Augite alone also occurs, as does hypersthene, uncommonly. Olivine-bearing or olivine
monzonites are not common. The
olivine is of median composition.
Th biotite is light brown, hornblende gre n, and augite pale green.
Augite may show color or microliteinclusion zoning; biotite and orthoclase may also be includ d. In alkali
monzonites titanian augite, aegirineaugit , and a girine occur, not uncommonly in zoned crystals. In this
type the amphibole is hastingsite
(including barkevikite) or artvedsonite and also may be zoned. Oxyhornblende appears in some monzonite
porphyries.
FIG. 14d. Monzonite porphyry, Big
The numerous accessories include
Belt Mountains, Montana. Zoned
andesin phenocrysts in microcrystaJ- apatitc, sphene, zircon, magnetite,
Jill e matrix of sanirune, oligoclase,
ilmenite, allanite, garnet, pyrite,
pyrox ne, magn tite. Nicols crossed,
quartz or the feldspathoids nepheX IO.
lin , analcite, and sodalite. Alteration
minerals are epidote, calcite, chlorite, kaolinite, sericite, nontronite,
and s rpentine.
Mineralogical varieties are biotite or biotite-hornblende monzonite,
hornblende monzonite, augite monzonite, hypersth ne monzonite, and
olivine monzonite. Some rocks called essexites are monzonites.
Textures and Microstructures. The textur is equigranular-subhedral,
fin - to medium-gramed. Porphyritic monzonites are very rare, but
monzonite porphyries are not uncommon (Fig. 14d). In the porphyries
both feldspars may app ar as phenocrysts, but usually potash feldspar
is confined to the matrix. Th manes al 0 form phenocrysts.
In qUigranular types plagioclas is euh dral to subh dral, and
53
Definition. Lalite is extrusive and hypabyssal intrusive; usually porphyritic with holocrystalline to vib'eous aphanitic matrix. The composition is similar to that of monzonit .
Mineralogy. The plagioclase pht'nocrysts are of the high-temperature variety and usually zoned, with cores rarely as calcic as
bytownite. Normally they are andesine, but labradorite Or oligoclase
phenocrysts are also known. Glass inclusions, which may be confined
to cores, may b very abundant. Biotite plates are also included.
Albite and albite-Ala twinning are common. Matrix plagioclas is
andesine or oligoclas . Sanidin or anorthoclas forms uncommon
phenocrysts, which may be corrod d, but these feldspars ar usually
restricted to the grollndmass. In some types potash feldspar shells have
formed around plagioclas phenocrysts.
Biotite alone or with an amphibole or a pyroxene occurs mainly as
phenocrysts, although in holocrystallin groLlndmasses it may also be
present. The mica phenocrysts include euhedral p]agioc]ase and apatite and may be bleached marginally or show the typical dark resorption rim. Th amphibole is usually oxyhornblend or ordinary hornblende, also with the resorption border of iron oxides and pyroxene.
Hornbl nde a]so may occur in a holocrystallin matrix. Diopsidic
augit also may appear in two generations, more commonly as matrix
microlites. Hypersthene .is fOllnd in some rocks as phenocrysts. Aegirin -augite appears in som types. Olivine is ver uncommon in exh'usive types (mugearite).
Accessories are titanian rnagnetHe, apatite, quartz, anel hjdymite or
f Idspathoids. Alteration min rals in 'lude calcite, quartz, chlorite, seri-
54
Microscopic Petrography
Foidal Syenites
55
enough to class the feldspar as poikilitie- aegirine, arfvcdsonite, sodalite, nepheline, and cancrinite. Dustlike microlites also occur, and
some feldspar contains oriented tiny scales of green biotite. Alkali
feldspar is not uncommonly corroded and replaced by analcite. PlagiOclas may be absent, but some vari ties contain it in abundance. It is
usually albit , less commonly oligoclase. Andesine occurs in some
types rich in mafic minerals.
Nepheline is the most common feldspathoid, but in alt r d rocks
its former presence may be very difficult to d term in , for it is easily
and abundantly r placed by sericite (gieseckite and )jehn rite) , by
56
Microscopic Petrography
57
biotite, and in rare types two differently colored micas occur together .
Darker borders framing llghter cores characterize any zonal structure.
The mica replaces pyroxene; apatite, nepheline, cancrinite, and pyrOxene form common inclusions.
A few rocks of the group contain essential fayalitic to intermediat
olivine. The accessories are abundant and show the greatest variation
of any rock family: apatite, titanian magn tite, fluorite, sphene, muscovite, meJanite, p erovskite, aenigmatite, zircon, eudialite, eucolite,
an d calcite. Rarer are corundum, astrophyllite, rinkite, lamprophyllite, mosandrite, Javenite, rosenbuschite, and sphal erite.
Alteration min rals are kaolinit , sericite, chlorite, calcite, iron oxides, epidote, analcite, natrolit , thomsonite, stilhite, pectolite, scapolite, and katapleite (after eudialit ).
Because of the marked mineralogical and textural variations numerous varietal names appear in this family, most of which are of little
value to petrographers. Here are listed only a few whose use bas been
mOre widespread, particularly in the older literature. Lardallites, until recen tly, wer heli ved to contain anorthoclase or cryptoperthitic
orthoclase feldspar. It has been shown that v ry finely twinned sodic
plagioclase predominates. These rocks also contain nepheline sodalite, biotite, diopside-aegirioe-augite, olivine, and barkevikite and
thus should stl'ictly be considered as nepheline monzonites. A miascite
is a biotite-n phelin syenite with oligoclase. Shonkinite has been used
for a wide variety of rocks ( Fig. 16a ), but as her employed it deRn s
a mafic nepheline syenite with sanidioe, augite, biotite, and olivine.
In shonkinite from the type locality, Shonkin Sag laccolith, Montana,
nepheline occurs only in remnants, but probably was present in considerable quantity and has been alt red to natrolite and stilbite. However, shonkinite has also been used for mafic syenites containing
aegil"itic pyroxene, olivine, biotite, sanidine, and plagioclase (andesine
to labradorite ).
Among the feldspar-free members, there should be m ntioned ijolite
( Fig. 15c )- 50 to 70 per cent nepheline, the rest mainly sodic pyroxene; urtite-70 per cent nepheline, the r st mainly sodic pyroxene;
uncompahgrite-mainly melilite, a little diopside.
Textt,res and Microstructures. The textur s of thes rocks are as
varied as th ir mineralogy. Most types t nd to b
quigrannJar, but
the grain size ranges from fin to medium, to coal'S , to p gmatitic.
Most types teJld to be equigranular, nonporphyritic. Two commonly
I' cognized t xtures are the ditroitic, a subh(,dral-granular fabric, in
which th essential minerals tend generally to be anhedral to ub-
58
Microscopic Petrography
11 dral; and the foyaitic, a trachytoid fabric in which tabular feldspars and lath-shaped or prismatic mafic constituents ar subparallelly
oriented, and the feldspathoids are anhedral. Between these two are
all gradations. Another fabric is the agpaitic, in which the f ldspars
show a high d gree of euhedralism and the mancs are anh dral,
molded between the feldspars and feldspathoids .
Cataclastic textures, with cracked, bent, and strained feldspars, are
not uncommon. Likewise, strongly fluidal textures characterize the
59
60
Microscopic Petrography
Guest
Alkali feldspar . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alkali fe ldspar . . . . .. . .....
ephelin l" . . . . . ... . . . .. .. .
Nepheline . ........ .. .. ...
Aegirin ...
. . . . . . . . ..
Aegirin e-a ugit l' . . . . . . . . . ..
Arfvcdsonih .. . . .. ..... ..
Npphelinc
Cllncrinite
Cancrinit<-
Sodalltc
Aenigmatih'
Biotite
Aen ignlatiLe
Sodie plagioclaso . . . . . . . . . 0- 30
Feldspathoids .. . . . . . . .. . , 10-40
Malics ..... . . ..... .. .... 35-10
61
62
Microscopic Petrography
63
64
Microscopic Petrography
TONALITE-DACITE FAMilY
Tonalite (Quartz Diorite)
65
Definition . Dacite is exb'usiv and hypabyssal, holocrystalline, hypocrystalline, uncommonl y vitreous, with matrix aphanitic, tlsuall porphyritic. Composition is gen rally lik that of tonalite.
Mineralogy. The 'plagioclas averages andesine or oligoclase. Phenocrysts of high-temperatur plagioclase usually are zoned, normally
with andesine, calcic andesin , Or labradorite (rarely bytownite)
centers and with oligoclas and andesine margjns. Phenocrysts of
different size and An cont nt may occur together. The matrix plagiOclase is more sodic than that of the phenocrysts. Armoring by alkali
f ldspar is rare. Accessory potash feldspar, sanidine or anorthoclase, is
otherwise generally confin d to th matrix; rarely sanidine form s
pheno rysts. Quartz occurs as phenocrysts alone, a phenocrysts and
66
Microscopic Petrography
67
If the average plagioclase is more calcic than and sine, the rock belongs to the gabbro family. If quartz becomes essential, the rock is a
tonalite. Diorites with essential feldspathoids are very rar .
Mineralogy. The plagioclase normally varies from calcic oligoclase
to calcic andesine (Fig. 17b) and commonly shows marked normaltype zoning, so that its average composition must be estimated. Oseillatory and reverse zoning also oCCur. Augite diorites may ev n have
plagioclase with labradorite cores; in some varieties albite form the
rim of zoned crystals. Illcluded maBcs, magnetite, and apatit are
abundant. Potash feldspar (usually orthoclase) is present only in accessory amounts. Rare porphyritic dike rocks may contain labradorite
or bytownite phenocrysts, with a predominant matrix rich in oligoclase.
The most common mafic mineral is hornblende, typically green, less
commonly brownish. Color zoning may be present. Rar alkali diorites
may contain a soda amphibole, near hastingsit . Biotite, brown to
greenish brown, is also common, usually accompanying hornbl nde,
with which it may be intergrown. Biotit diorites without hornblende
are rare. Pyroxene is the least common typ of mane, with augite or
diopsidic augite being more typical than hypersthene. Uralitic amphibole replaces pyroxene. Olivine diorites are known but ar very
rare.
Quartz, in accessory amounts, may be intergrown with orthoclase or
very rar 1y microclin as micropegmatite or in some cases with plagioclase as myrmekite. Myrmekite also occurs as films along plagioclaseorthoclase grain boundaries. Other aec ssories are magn tite,
rn nite, apatite, sphene; less commonly, zircon, pyrite, pyrrhotite;
rarely, olivine and allanite and in alkali types, nepheline.
u-
68
Microscopic PetrogmpllY
FIC. lib, c. (b) Diorite, San Luis Hey Quudranglt:, Californiu. And esi ne, hornhI nde, magnetite. Nicols not eross d, X 11. (c) CUUlptonite, Ii d lIill, Ne,,",
llampshire. Andesine, hornblende, biotite. ieol not crossed X 11.
Mineralogical vari ties are hombl nde (normal) diorite, biotitehombl nde diorit , biotite-augite diorite, augite diorite, hypersthene
diorite, and olivine diorite. The dioritic lamprophyr s include kersantit , spessartite, and camptonite (Fig. 17c). These are dark-colored
rocks in which mallcs equal or excecd the amount of feldspar. The
feldspar is mainly in th matrix; plagioclase is very rare as phenocrysts.
Many lamprophyr s are greatly alt red, and calcite may be so abundant that the rocks will ~ (fervesce with cold, dilllt H I. Other s condary minerals are chlOrite, pidote, limonite, and lCll coxene.
T extures and 1.1 icrostrtlctures. Diorite is usually equigranular, although porphyritic types with hornblende and/ or p~agjo cbs ph no-
69
I
Plagioclase " ,
,I
KorSlwtitc
Rpcssu.rtite
Cu.mpt,onite
Matrix andeslll
Amphibole , ,
JlIf1.(,I'lX
IUsually
PyruX('I1P ,
Olivill(' , '"
"
('r'yaLs
rplartz,orthodlll:!!', I quartz
glass
crysts may be found, The texture varies from anhedral granular to suobedral granular, Plagioclase outlines may be relatively regular; quartz
find orthoclase are interstitial. The mafics may b s<:,gregated in
clust,J's, Both the mafics and plagioclase may be oriented in not uncommon gneissoid textures, In some typ s amphibol is markedly
poikilitie, Sympl ctitic plagioclase-hornblende intergrowths are formed
through recrystallization along grain boundaries, Orbicular structures
are rare, In diorite porphyri s plagioclase phenocrysts Dormally appear as broad laths in section, In diol'itic lamprophyres the mane minerals form the phenocrysts and also appeal' in the matrix; plagioclas
very rar Iy forms ph nocrysts, Some lamprophyres are nonporphyriti ' and arc fin e-, ven-grained rocks with a tendency of most constituents toward euhedralism-the I anidiomorpbi c textll1'e, In many
cases the matrix is pi]otaxitic; rarely h alopilitic, Amygdllics are
known,
OCcul'renc', Bodi s of diorite occur in large intrusives such as complex batholiths, ei ther as marginal phases (Vermilion granite, Minnesota) oj' as separHte intrllsive masses (southern alifornia ) , Diorites
70
Microscopic Petrography
also form the p ripheral phases of smaller dominantly granitic, granodioritic, and syenitic bodies and occur as single dikes and stocks of
limited dimensions. Another noteworthy United States occurrence is
in the Adirondacks.
Andesite
Definition. Andesit is volcanic and hypabyssal intrusiv , holocrystallin or hypocrystalline, with matrix aphanitic, and having the
sam gen'ral mineral composition as diorit .
Mineralogy. Th normal plagioclase ranges from oligoclase to calcic
andesin . Where phenocrysts occur, th e matrix plagioclase is more
sodic, and the average of alJ plagioclase should b more sodic than
Ab so in order for the rock to qualify as an andesite. Phenocrysts of
labradorite may 0 cur. In some districts an extreme range in plagioIase composition OCCurs in a single rock, with a few phenocrysts of
bytownite, som microphenocrysts of labradorite, and abundant microlites of andesine. The ph nocrysts ar high-temperature plagioclase,
and most of them show zoning of various types, espeCially normal, but
also oscillatory and calcic-core types. Cores as calcic as anorthite are
recorded. In som andesites two distinct types of plagioclase phenocrysts may be present, which differ in th details of their zoning,
twinning, and av rage composition. Irregular 01' rounded inclusions
of brown glass are common and may be abundant, usually in cores or
in zan s (Fig. 18b ). Iron ore inclusions are also preval nt, as are many
of th oth r rock minerals. The matrix plagioclas is not zoned. Sanidine is uncommon but has been reported as rims on plagioclase
ph nocrysts. Anorthoclase occurs rarely as a matrix feldspar .
A sUlgle mafic mineral as phenocrysts is uncommon. Biotite and
hornblend commonly occur togeth r, as do hornblende and diopside
or diopsidi . augite, and diopside or diopsidic augite and hypersthene.
The most common andesite is one in which hornblende predominates
as phenocrysts. Biotite ph noc1'ysts appeal' in six-sid d plates 01' lathshap d cross sections, but the min ral appears rarely in th matrix.
The phenocrysts show varying degrees of corrosion and r sorption. In
early stages the reaction rim is a crust of fine-grained augite, magnetite, and h matit feldspar. With complet resorption th form er
presence of biotit is indicated only by th pseudomorph of granular
iron oxides and pyroxene. Biotit andesites commonly contain an Si0 2
matrix mineral in minor amounts. Biotite is uncommon in pyroxene
andesites.
Hornblende, brown or gre n, and oxyhornblend form pri matic
71
phenocrysts. Lik biotite, hornbleno is exceptional as a matrix mineral. Corrosion lIects similar to thos of biotit s typicall are present.
The amount of resorption increases with increasing crystallinity of
the matrix, and resorption effects on phenocrysts in a glassy matrix
are not pronounc d.
The common pyroxene phenocrysts are diopside, diopsidic augit
(Fig. lSa), and hypersthene. Sodic pyroxenes app ar rarely. Augit
(a)
(b)
FlG. 18a, b. (a) Andesite, Tendoy Mountains, Montana. Diopsidic augite phenocrysts in matrix of andesine and augite. Nicol~ not crossed, X ] 1. (b) And sit ,
San Juan Mountains, Colorado. Andesine (with inclusions of glass) and augite
phenocrysts wjth magnetite jn cryptocrystallin matril(. Nicols not crossed, X 11.
forms ph nocrysts less commonly, and pigeonit appears as ph nocrysts very rarely. Augite is a common matrix pyroxen , but som
andesit s also have pigeonite, Or augit plus pig onit , or rarely hypersthene in th groundmass. Both normal and reverse zoning occur
in pyroxen phenocrysts. In augite and hyp rsthen th latter typ is
exemplifi d by Mg-rich bord rs, in pigeonit by Ca-rich bord 1'5. Inclusions of glass, magnetite, and plagioclase OCCur in pyroxene phenocrysts. Olivine is not uncommon in pyrox ne andesites, as ph nocrysts
and as matrix grains. Matrix olivines contain 1 ss Mg than do ph nocrysts in the same rock. Corrosion rims 0 cur around th phenocrysts.
72
Microscopic Petrography
73
Gabbro
74
Microscopic Petrography
clas (Fig. 20(1.). Som such rocks, field-labeled as anorthosites, actually consi t primarily of andes in and should be termed andesinites.
Mineralogy . The main rock types that are included under the term
gabbro in the larger sense are:
N arne
Gabbro (strict sense). . . . . . ..
OHvine gabbro. . . . . . . . . . . ..
Troctolite .. .. ... . . ..... . . .
Norite . .. . . . .. . . .. .. .. .. ..
Anorthosite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E8sential minerals
Augite, calcic plagioclaso
Augite, olivin , calcic plagioclase
Olivine, calci plagioclase
Hypersthene, calcic plagioclase
Calcic plll.giol'}ase
In addition, there are hyperites-rocks intermediate between gabbros and norit s, which contain both essential clino- and orthopyroxene. Other types are olivine norites and olivine hyperites, and, if
hornblende is primary, i.e., magmatic and not uralitic, there can also
be distinguish d hornblende gabbros and hornblende norites. A few
rare types, which contain essential quartz (in exc ss of 5 per cent)
are termed quartz gabbro and quartz norite. Some rocks erroneously
call d es 'exites ("Oslo type") are mafic gabbros, with labradorite,
titanian augite, barkevikite, olivine, biotite, and variable amounts of
orthoclase.
The plagioclase normally is labradorite or bytownite, but anorthite
is not uncommon, for example, in the gabbroic rocks of the southern
California batholith. Gabbroic rocks containing anorthite form rly
were called eucrites. In a regional assemblage of gabbroic rocks the
most calcic plagioclase may OCCllI' in olivine-bearing types, less calcic
in clinopyroxene varieti s, and least calcic in norites and hyperites.
The plagioclase, which is uncommonly zoned, typically shows broad
albit twin lamellae, and combined albite-Carlsbad twins are also
common. Pericline twinning is not uncommon. If zoned, the zoning
is usually normal or of the calcic-core type. Zoning appears to become
more common with decreasing An content. The feldspar may have a
grayish cast and in many cases is charact rized by innumerable minllte
inclusions-needles, rods, plates, or spherOids, oriented paral! I along
various major crystallographic planes. Thes inclusions, which produce a schiller, may b confined to the core. They consist mainly of
h ' matit , magnetite, and ilmenite and are formed chiefly as the result
of exsolution. Other minerals, such as augite, hypersthene, and hombl nde may also be included, usually in central parts. Orthoclase is
absent, except as an uncommon accessory.
Th pyroxene of th most common ("normal") gabbro is au~jte or
75
(h)
FIG. 19a, b. (a) Olivine gabbro, Cuyamaca region, California. Orthopyroxene
corona, foUowt'd by horn blend . eorollu on olivine, in bytownite. Nicols not crossed,
X 21. (b) Gabbro, Cuyulflaca region, California. Labradorit , augite, hornblende,
lJIagnetite. Nicols not crossed, X10.
76
Microscopic Petrography
77
AtigHe, hyp ' I"stht: ne, and oHvinc may be accessory in anorthosites,
and traces of quartz, myrnwkitl', mjc)'op gmatite, p rthit " or anti perthite may be present. Rutile, corundulTl, and pyrope are additional
possible accessories. In pre-Camhrian anorthositic plutons the plagioclase is usu ally labradorite or even andesine, whercas that in anorthosites of layered lopoliths is bytownite.
Textures and Microstructures. Gabbros are normally coarse- to
medium-grained, subhedral granular; pegmatitic types also occur but
are not ommon. Norites tend toward anhedral-granu lar. Porphyritic
types ( plagioclase phenocrysts) are rare, but gneissoid and b anded
textures are not un ommon. Both plagioclase and olivine may show
pref Hed orientations . A few orbiclllar gabbros arC known . In some
plutons the grain size, texture, and mineral composition vary markedly
within short distances (a utoinjection structur ). Apatite and magnetite ar euhedral ; pyroxene, olivine, and plagioclase subhedral; any
quartz and orthoclase are int rstitiaJ.
Corona structures ( or "reaction rims") , p articularly around olivine
(Fig. 190 ), but also around magn tite and pyroxene where these minerals are in contact with plagioclase, are widespr ad and conspiCUOUS.
Th ' ccnb'al rounded olivine is surrounded by a rim of fibrou s enstatite
Or hypersth ne. This may in turn be envelop d by a second corona of
fibrous actinoJitk hornbl ende, in which plconaste grains app ar. Garnet, tremolite, actinolite, anthophyllite, and cummingtonite also app a1' in the rims, in which the fibers are set generally normal to the
contacts. D euterie overgrowths and replac ments of augite and hyp 'rsthene by Donfibrous homblend ( uralite) are also wid spread ;
the horn blend in turn is replaced by biotite. Hombl Dde also forms
very large, subh dral poikilitic crystals. In norites hypersthene may
be rimmed by augite. Cataclastie textures, with fractured, b nt, and
marginally granulated crystals, may be well dev loped. Flas r gabbros are also recorded. In anolthosites, flow and banded structures are
common ; cataclastie and even mylonitic texi'ures locally are well dev'loped. Anorthosites are commonly coal's -grained (Fig. 20a ). The
mafic min rals may be strung in synneusis textllr s or clustered. Plumos myrm kit may 0111) a conspicuous jnt 1'stitia1 constihlent.
Occurrence. Gabbros and norites oc ur (1) as minor marginal
phases of batholiths; (2) as early bodies in complex batholiths (southern California); as individual plutons, which may be layered (Ska 1'guurd, Gre nland) ; and (3) as units in layered p ridotitic lopoliths.
Troetolites a1' associat d with peridotites. Anorthosites Occur either
(1) as large pre-Cambrian plutons in which th plagioclase is labra-
78
Microscol)ic Petrography
dorite or andesine (Adirondacks, New York) , associated with pyroxene granites, syenit s, and monzonites (southern Norway) , (2) as
units in peridotitic lopoliths, in which the plagioclas is bytowllit '
(Stillwater complex, Montana) , or (3) as segregations of strictly Bmit d dimensions in gabbro masses.
20. (a) Anorthosite, San Luis Rey Quadrangle, California. Bytownite. Nieol~
crossed, X 10. (b) Diabase, Dillon, Montana. Labradorit , augite, magnetite;
ophitic texture. Nicols not crossed, X 10.
FIG.
Diabase
Descriptio~
of Igneous Rocks
79
tions, and repairs. Albite and albite plus Carlsbad twinning are typical; pericline twinning is not rare; and other twin types (Manebach,
Ala) may also be present.
The pyroxenes ar present in great variety and may show extreme
ranges in composition: enstatite to hypersthene, magnesian pigeonite
to ferroan pigeonite, diopsidic augite to subcalcic ferroan augite. The
orthopyroxenes of the range Ofl H~ may show fine-grained graphic intergrowths with exsolved clinopyroxenes, resulting in mottled extinction, for the entire grain, the cores, or the margins. This r lationship
is the same as in th plutonic gabbros, except that in diabases cooling
was more rapid, and the exsolved units are smaller and less well segr gated. Both pigeonit and augite may show zoning. Some augite is
purple, owing to Ti; the mineral may b untwinned or very complexly
twinned.
Olivine varies from magnesian types to near fayalite, which is not
common. Not uncommonly there is a general range in composition
in a single rock, or even thin section, the smaller oHvine grains usually
being rich I' in iron. Harely normal-type zoning occurs in single crystals. OxyhornbJende, or hornblende, may also be present, and in
slightly alkalic types hastingsite may occur. Uralitic hornblende is usually grecn. Biotite, which may be a titanian variety, can be accessory
or essential. Accessories include titan ian or chromian magnetite, ilmenite, picotit , apatit , analcite, quartz, and granophyre (quartz
plus orthoclase or anorthoclase). Varieties with more than 5 per cent
of quartz ar quartz diabases and are not rare. Uncommon marginal
phases of som diabase dikes contain small amounts of glass. Alteration
products are saussUTite after plagioclas , serpentine (including bowlingit ), iddingsite and magnetit after olivine, s rpentin and chlorite
after pyroxene, and calcite and pr hnite. In diabases associated with
spilit s the labradorite has been extensively albitized and th mafic
minerals converted to various secondary constituents.
Textures and Microstrllctu1es. Textures arc fine- to m dium- rrained
and even-grain d. Pegmatitic types occm as local faei s. The texture
typically is ophitic (Fig. 20b), with slender to broad plagioclase laths
wrapped or molded by anhedral to subhedral pyroxene, the larg r
plates of which may also enclose th plagioclase. III th subophitic
types this r ~lationship is less well developed, and th pyroxen s tend
toward subbedralism and form rounded small r grains b tween feldspars. Very rarely ph nocrysts of plagioclase or of augite appear as inrlividuals or in clusters. The plagioclase laths may be seriat in sizerange distribution. Rims of alkali feldspar are thin and not common.
80
Microscopic Petrography
81
Plagioclase ph >l1ocrysts are of the high-temperatur type. Glass inclllsions, zonally arranged, and olivin inclusions are common, and
albite, periclin , and Carlsbad twinning ar well developed.
FIr.. 21a, b. (a) Hornbl nde basalt, Tendoy Mountains, Montana. Oxyhornblende
phenucrysts with resorbed margills in matrLx of Illbradorite, augite, magn 'tite.
Nicols not cross >d, X 10. (b) Basalt, Modoc, California. Labradorite microphenocrysts in cryptocrystallinc Illatrh: containing ome augite. Nicols not cross 'd, X 10.
82
MiCf'oscopic Petrography
hal, brownish, light green, or light purple (Ti) in color; color zoning
including the hourglass type is conspicuous, as are twinning and in clusions of apatite, magnetite, and glass. Hypersthene (very rarely
enstatite) also fefrms phenocrysts, but 1 S5 commonly than augite.
Basalts with hypersthene phenocrysts may also carry clinopyroxene
phenocrysts and pigeonitic matrix pyroxene.
Olivine (Fig. 21c) likewise may show compositional variation in
single rock slices, the smaller grains becoming richer in Fez, and
ranges as great as F0 7o - 54 have be n report d. Some crystals ar zon d,
with narrow ferroan rims. Other
mafic minerals are oxyhornblende as phenocrysts, with corrod ed and resorbed margins
(Fig. 21a ) and uncommon biotite as matrix seal s, especially
around magn titc grains. Quartz
is accessory, but if pres nt in
amounts more than 5 per cent,
the rocks are quartz basalts.'
Xenocrystic quartz pi ccs also
may be abundant and ar
rimm d by shells of glass and
augite laths. Cristobalite is widespread in the matrix of som
FIC. 210. Olivine basalt, Modoc, Calibasalts; tridymite is less comfornia. Olivine and augite phenocrysts in mon. Orthoclase, if present, is
fine-grained matrix of labradorite, augite,
normally an accessory, but in
and magnetite. Nicols not crossed, X 10.
some rocks it becomes an essential mineral. Trachybasalt is a term for an ol:ivin basalt with some
orthoclase, sodic amphibole, and biotite. Other accessories are apatite,
titanian magnetite, picotite, and ilmenite; zircon is uncommon . Feldspathoids occur as accessories in alkalic types. Glass may be an essential
or accessory constituent; it commonly contains iron oxide dendrit s.
Amygdular fillings consist of the normal rock minerals and zeolites,
calcite, and quartz.
The pyroxenes alter to chlorite (including a fine-grained variety
commonly called chlorophaeite), nontronite, serpentine, and carbonate; olivin mainly to iddingsite (rims or pseudomorphs) or to
serpentine or nontronite. The feldspars are usually fresh, but may be
kaolinized or chloritized. Mineralogical varieties are quartz basalt,
olivine basalt, hypersthene basalt, and hornblende basalt. MeJaphyre
Descriptions of Ign
OtiS
Rocks
83
84
Microscopic Petrography
(both glass and crystal) and agglomerates. Vesicular and cellular textures (basalt scoria) likewise are widespread.
Some plagioclase phenocrysts may b broken or corroded. Matrix
plagioclase usually forms slender laths, which may be ori nted in flow
structures. Olivine shows considerable sbap variation, from anhedral
grains through skeletal laths to euhedral crystals. Embayed phenocrysts also occur, and in glassy types, olivin phenocrysts may be
"hollow", i.e., frames of olivine and fillings of glass. Reaction rims of
granular pig onite, single hypersth n crystals, or hyp rsthcne-vermicular magnetite mixtures may surround oLvin . Heaction rims of
augite or oJ augite plus sllbgraphica1Jy intergrown olivinc have form ed
around hypersthen phenocrysts (b Heved to be xenocrystic) in som
basalts.
Magnetite forms ellhedral octahedra and cubes, skeletal crystals,
and rounded grains. Ilmenite may appear as a he 'agonal skeletal
framework in magnetite.
Occurrence. Basalt is the most abllndant of extrusive rocks, occurring chiefly as flows and also as pyroclasbcs. Three main geological
associations are recognized:
1. Flood or plateau basalt ("tholeiitic" type )-quartz diabas association. Occurs in gr at thickn esses over very large ar as, for example,
the Keweenawan (pre-Cam brian) lavas of the Lake Superior region
- 15,000 ft thick; the Columbia River-Snake Riv r plains of Washington and Oregon of Miocene age, with an area of 200,000 square
miles; and the Triassic "traps" of New Jers y.
2. Olivine basalts of oceanic areas, usually associated with minor
trachyte and phonolite. Example: the basalts of the Hawaiian Islands.
3. Basalt-andesit -dacite-rhyolite association of orogenic regions,
such as the San Juan region of Colorado.
FOIDAL GABBRO-FOIDAL BASALT FAMILY
Foidal Gabbro
85
mineralogical varieties have been described and named. Only the
more prominent members of the family are considered.
Main Types. B cause of their variabl mineralogy, the chief representativ scan b b st described individually.
Types with essential calcic plagioclase
1. Theralites
Au~it(' and olivi ~Je .... ............. 4 80%
Lalll'll.dori tl' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35- 15
Nephelen( ....... ....... .. ........ J5- 5
A(((lssori('s .
Biotit{l, barkevikitc, apatite, magnetite, ihll cnite,
analcite
2. Teschenitcs
Malics (titnnill.n augite, barkevikitp). . . . . . . . . . 45- 7.'; %
Labradol'it<' . .... . ....... . ............ . . . .. 3D- JO
Anal('it<'
15- 10
Illllgll etit(~,
ilmenite, nephe-
line,orthoullls('
Many cssexi tes are fin e-grained and trachytojd; alkali feldspar
and nepheline are anhedral. Ess xite porphyries are also known.
Types without calcie plagioclase
1. Melt igites
Ncphl'iiIH' .... ..... ......... .... .. ... . .. . 2:l- .J.5%
A(1gil'i ll l' fwd / or aCl(il'ine-ltll!(itE' ............. 50-30
Som also have ssential biotite, melanite, and barkevikite; accessories include cancrinite, apatite, sphene, p >rovskite, magnet-
86
MiC1'oscoptc Petrography
ite, pyrite, calcite. If the rock contains >50 per cent and <70
per cent neph line, it is called ijolite; if > 70 P I' cent nepheline,
it is an urtite. The rocks ar medium-grained, subhedral-granular. The augite is zon d, in subh drai prisms. Nepheline carries
fluid inclusions and is replaced by cancrinite.
2. Monchiquites are dike rocks with olivin and titanian augite
phenocrysts, less commonly phenocrysts of biotite and / or alkali
amphibole too, in a matrix of analcite containing microlites of
the phenocryst mineral. . The analcite matrix, if unaltered, can
easily be confl.1s d with glass, which it was originally called.
The augite and amphibole are zoned. Limbl.11'gites have augite
and olivine phenocrysts in a matrix of alkali-rich glass.
3. Alnoites are also dike rocks containing olivine, biotite, and some
augite ph nocrysts in a matrix of mehlite tablets, titanian augite,
biotite and accessory apatite, perovskite, magnetite, in som cases
melanitc, nepheline, and calcite. Less commonly the melilite is
anhedral and shows peg structure. A rare type contains monticcllite.
O ccurrence. Rocks of this group are rare and occur as minor intrusions and differentiates in small intrusives-stocks, sills, sheets, laccoliths. Their associates are gabbros and peridotites of alkali affiniti es,
syenites, nepheline syenites, and other feldspathoid-rich rocks. Theralit occurs in the Lugar sill at Lugar, Ayrshil'e, Scotland, together with
teschenite. In the Unit d States essexites were first described from
Salem Neck, Massachusetts; melteigites are represented by occurrences at Magnet Cove, Arkansas, and Iron Hill, Colorado; and rocks
of the monchiquite type by dikes in the Fourche Mountains of Arkansas (fourchite). Th type locality for alnoite is the island of Alna,
Sweden.
n.
87
'88
Microscopic Petrography
Flc. 22. ( a.) Leucite tephritc, Borne, Italy. Lcucite and aegirine-augite phenocrysts
in matrix of leu cite, labradorite. aegirine. Nicols Dot eros ed, X 11. (b) Lencitite,
Rhenish Prussia. Germany. Hniiyne phenocrysts, leucite. and aegirine-augite microphenocrysts in Jcucit -aegirine matrix. N i coL~ not crossed. X 11.
Accessories are basaltic hornblende and biotite (which show resorption and corrosion rims) , sphene, perovskite, melanite, chromite,
chromian spinel, magnetite, ilmenite, apatite, sanidine, and glass .
Alteration minerals are natrolite and other zeolites (particularly
from nepheline) , serpentine, iddingsite, nontronite, chlorite, calcite,
and limonite.
Textures and Microstructures. Most of th rocks are porphyriticholocrystalline; rare types are porphyritic-hypocrystallin . Tb glassy
89
NUl/II'
Microscopic Petrography
90
(a )
23a, b. (a) Dunite, Jackson County. North Carolina. Olivine in mosaic aggregate. Nicols cross d, X9. ( IJ ) Pyroxenite ( harzburgite ), Wolf Creek, Dillon,
Montana. Enstatite and olivine. 'icols not crossed, X9.
FIC.
persthen is not uncommon. The amphiboles are brown or gr en hornblende; in sodie typ s barkevikite occurs. Edenite and chromian
edenite also represent the amphibol s. It may be very difficult to separate magmatic from uralitic or hydrothermal amphibole. Schillertype inclusions are common and abundant in both pyroxene and
amphibole. Mica is colorless to pale red brown phlogopite. Accessories
are numerous and varied: magnetite, ilmenite, ehromite, picotite,
pleonaste, pyrite, pyrrhotite, pentlandite, platinum, apatite, pyrope,
perovskite, corundum, anorthite, or bytownite and rarely analcite or
nepheline. Secondary minerals of deuteric or hydrothermal origin arc
numerous and may be intensively developed: tremolite, actinolite,
Descriptions
at Igneous Rocks
91
cummingtonite, anthopbyllite, phlogopite, chlorite, serpentin ( antigorite and chrysotile), talc, clinohumite, magnesite, dolomite, calcite,
sphene, magnetite, nnd hematite.
Min eralogical vari eties include: Kimberlite, an olivine-phlogopite
rock with accessory bronzite, chromian diopside, perovskite, pyrope,
ilmenite, and chromite; sam are diamond-bearing. Types of pyroxenite are nstatolite, hypersthenite, websterite ( OJtho- plus clinopyroxene) . Picrite has been used for olivin -rich manc gabbros of alkalic affiniti es, for peridotites of alkalic affinities, and for the supposed extrusive equivalents of peridotites. Th se rocks contain preponderant olivine, titanian augite, barkevikite, and either ssential or
accessory calcic plagioclase.
T extures and Microstructures. All of the constituents are generally
anh dral. The olivine-rich types, especially dunites, show a mosaic
texture- quigranular-anhedral ( Fig. 230 ). Tbe grain size varies
from medium-grained to very coal'S grain d; fine-grained varieties
are rare. Porphyritic typ s are very rare, except in a few small
intrusives, in which rare microph nocrysts of olivine or spinel are inconspicuous. A common fa bric in pyroxene-olivine rocks is the ps udoporphyriti c-poikilitic texture in which large, irregular anhedra of
pyroxene include rounded grains of olivine, magnetit , and spinel.
The pseudophenocrysts of pyroxene may reach a length of over an
inch. Amphibol likewis may be pseudoporphyritic-poikilitie. In
some types th e texture is pseudoporphyritic without the amphibole or
pyroxen being poikilitic. ayered textures are common, particularly
in peridotites of lopoliths, accentuated by chromite streaks. Olivine
may be oriented in subparallel Bow texture, and autoclasti structures
are not uncommon. Olivine may show undulatory extinction, and
translation lamellae appear in both olivine and enstatite.
Even the accessories are usually anhedral, magnetite and spinel
being rounded. The rar sideronitic texture consists of interstitial
magnetit "cementing" the essential mafics. Accessory plagioclas is
also normally interstitial, but perovskite forms euheclral octahedra.
Overgrowth repIne III nts arc widespr ad, particular] of variOllS
amphibol s, espeCially anthophyllite and tremolite on pyroxene. K 1yphi tic rims on rounded pyrope consist of radial-fibrous augite -+- pieotite, or enstatite, or hornblende or biotite and magnetit .
The replacements of olivine and pyroxene by chlorite, talc, phlogopite, and speCially by serpentine give rise to a wide variety of
secondary textural features (Fig. 23c )- rims, relicts, island-and-sea,
ps udobreccia, pseudomorphs, veins, latticework, n tworks, and mesh.
92
Microscopic Petrogmphy
FJ(:. 23c. Serpcntinite, Blacktail Range, Montana. Antigorite, cluysutil ', IIlUgnetite.
Nicol~
crossed, X9.
are r ~presented in the Unit d States by the peridotite belt of the Appalachian Mountains and by the swarms of dikes, sills, and plugs in
the Coast Range of Oregon and California.
PYROCLASTIC ROCKS
93
mcntary, but also in the manner of th<->ir formation , igneous and
sedimentary.
Classification. Th , following classifj 'ation is based Oil grain size
and shapes:
Descriptions of Igneous Rocks
Grain siz , mm
Unconsolid ated
Consolid ated
Agl!;lomeratc
Vojeunir bl'eccia
Tuff breccia
L apiUi tuff
'indery hl pilli tuff
Cou rse tuff
Tuff
The coarser rocks, such as agglomerates, are not well suited for thinsection studies, except for any fin e-grained matrix they may poss s .
Tuffs, which may be weakly indurated, commonly req uire impregnation prior to sectioning. Tuffs can be describ d on th basis of four
factors: (1) the source of the materials (2) th physical nature of
GLASS ( CHIEFLY SHARDS)
LITHIC
TUFF
ROCK FRAGMENTS
CRYSTAL
TUFF
94
Microscopic Petrography
the same source, and (3) accidental, if the particles ar rocks um-elated to the source. On the nature of the particles (Fig. 2-01 ) tuLfs are
classifi d as (1) vitric, containing pr dominantly glass shards, (2)
lithic, containi ng predominantly rock fragments, aod (3) crystal, COll sisting chi efly of pyrogenic crystals and crystal pieces. Combinations
may be termed vitric-crystal tuff, crystal-vitrie tuff, etc. The igneous
rock typ ' (rhyolitic, andcsitic, etc. ) also serves to distinguish among
tuffs-particularly thos in which crystals are abundant. Reworked tuffs
contain variable amounts of sedimentary material, and the nature of
the predominating sedimentary material may be employ d as an
additional d scriptive term. Thus such tuffs can be arenaceous, calcareous, or argillaceous.
Vitric Tuffs
Vitric tuffs are those in which pieces of igneous glass are the single
most abundant constituent. Much volcanic ash and dust, if llnaltered
and not)' worked, is in this category. Many vitric tuffs arc of rhyolitic
composition, but dacitic, trachytic, andcsitic, and basaltic vitric tuffs
also occur. Some idea of the general composition of the vitric material
may be s cured by measuring the refractive index of the glass, which
may show little or only minor variation (0.003 to 0.007), particularly
if th tuff is essential, unaltered, and not reworked. Tn some cases
intergradations of vitric and crystal tuffs give some indication of the
omposition of the vitric material. In other cases a chemical analysis
is required. The glass particles, or shards (Fig. 25a and b) , are angular
and sharp and in shape are of four main types: (1) curved, lunar, or
Y-shapcd, with usually four or more concave sides, (2) flat plat s, (3)
fibers or thin rods, and (4) dust. They represent the fragmented sides
of gas bubbles and vesicles. The shards themselves may be clear, dusty,
or nearly opaque with minute inclusions of magnetite. The glass is
usually colorless, but basic types are tan to brown. Small v sicles may
be present, ~haped as spheres, discs, curved tubes, beaded aggregates,
tapering funnels, pear-shaped cavities, etc. The glass may be unaltered
and isotropic or devitrified to a faintly polarizing cryptocrystnllin
aggr 'gate of unidentifiable materials. Most of the older tuffs (preMiocene) sho
orne devitrification.
Palagonite tuff consists of d'vitrificd basaltic tuff fragm nts, crystals
of augite and olivine, and plagioclase microlites.
The particles range downward in size from 4 mm, and the average
particle siz normally deer as s away from the source. In addition to
shards, crystals and crystal fragments of differ nt minerals may form a
o
c
95
(b)
25. (0) Shards from Kansas volt:anie ash (transmitted li ght ). A-F, Pliocene
ash; G-L, Pleistocene ash. X 144. (Courtesy of Kansas Geological Survey. ) (b)
Shards from Kansas volcanic ash (reJlectcd light). A-E, Pliocene ash; F- J, Pleistocene ash . X 144. (Courtesy of Kansas Geological Suroey.)
FIG.
96
Microscopic Petrography
In crystal hl[S inb'atelJuric crystal ' and crystal fragm nts, which
und r nonexplosive onditions would have fonned phenocrysts in
lavas, form the larg st single component. The crystals are rar ly comp] te, being usually cracked or broken and corroded' angular fragments of crystals ar very common. For rhyolitic crystal hills th
crystals are of quartz, sanidine, biotit , hornblende, and 1 ss usually
augite. Som rhyolitic tuffs contain considerable tridymite which acts
as a binder. For dacitic types the crystals are hornblende, pyroxene,
sodic plagioclase, and quartz. In andesitic types (Fig. 260) hornblend , hypersthene, andesine, and magnetite are the usual crystals.
Sanidine and augit or aegirine-augite fonn most of the crystals in
trachytes and sodic trachytes. Trass is a comm reia} term for trachytic
tuffs and (nepfielin ) phonoliti . tuffs in parts of Germany. Pllzzolane
is a commercial t rm for a h'achyte or leucite phonolit tuff used in
Italy in th manufacture of hydraulic cemcnt. In basaltic tuffs olivine,
augite, magnetite, and labradorite form th crystals and crystal fragments. Som tuffs hav the composition of m lilit basalts.
The crystals display the usual textural charact ristics of ph l1ocrysts,
97
such as glass inclusions and zoning. Envelopes of glass may enclose the
crystals. Crystal tuffs usually contain a variable amount of shards, and
all gradations occur between crystal and lithk tuHs. A subordinate
number of rock fragments may also be present. In some types spherulites of feldspar appear.
(a)
(b)
FIC. 26. (a) Andesitic agglomerat , sonthwestern Montana. Horublende, augite,
and si ne, magnetite crystals, glass shards. (,ryptocrystalline mat rial. Nicols not
crossed, X9. (b) Basa ltic lithic tuff, Big Belt Mountains, Montana. Labradorite
and magnetite crystals, rock fragments, glass, cryptocrystalline material. Nicols not
crossed, X9.
Lithic Tuffs
Mioroscopic Petrography
98
Hybrid Tuffs
(a)
(b)
FI(:;. 27. (a) Hybrid tuff, Sweetwater Basin, Montana. Detrital quartz, feldspar,
augite, garnet, biotite in matrix of glass shards. Nicols not crossed, X 10.
( b) Hybrid tuff, Swe twater Basin, Montana. Clastic quartz, feldspar, granite
fragment, upper right, in matrix of glass shards (dark) and calcite (light). Nicols
crossed. X 10.
4
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS-GENERAL
The initial subdivisioll of sedim ntary rocks is based upon the dominant mechanism of their formation ; thus the main groups are:
1. Epiclastic: those resulting from the mechanical accumulation of
rock and mineral pieces formed through physical pro 'esses
2. Chemical: those form ed by the accumulation of minerals precipitated directly from aqu ous solution by inorganic chemical process s or precipitated by reaction betwe n min rals and aqueous solutions
3. Organic: those consistin g of minerals ancI materials precipitated
from aqueous solutions tlU'ollgh the action of organisms or consisting
in large part of organic remains (coal )
4. Residual: those formed in situ by advanced decomposition and
not having undergone appreciable transportation.
. MicroscolJic Petrography
100
TABLE
2.
Ap:gn'gull'
Size, mm Particle
1 ((irahau )
Boulder
256
Cohble
lludite (rudarP.ou s)
64
Pebble
4CnHr.~(_'
Hund
Sail clston c
Salld
7fs
Silt
E:i ll s tonl'
Clay
Chi."
Shfl ll'
~56
rocks may be further subdivided on the basis of mineralogical composition, expressed in terms of thc proportions of the three most common clastic minerals- quartz, feldspars , and clays (Fig. 28). It is
necessary to remember, however, that there are other important epiclastic rocks that consist dominantly of min rals other than qllartz,
feldspars , and clays, notably the clastic limestones, in which the particl s are calcite. These aT commonly called calcirudites, calcarenites,
and calcilutitcs, depending on their grain siz , Rocks consisting of
transported shell fragments are bioclastic rocks.
Rocks of chemical origin are subdivided on the basis of the chief
component: siliceous (opal, chalcedony, quartz) , calcareous (aragonite, calcite, dolomite), phosphatic (apatite), ferruginous (limonite,
h matite, glauconite, te, ), and salines (halit , sylvite, carnallite, etc. ).
Organic rocks are cat gorized Similarly on th basis of the nature of
th iT materials: organic limestone, organic siliceous rocks (diatomite,
etc.), organic phosphorite, and coaL Coal, because it does not consist
of minerals and because its study r quires speCial techniques, is not
d scribed here, Residual rocks include some clays and bauxite; soils
are not d scrib d in this book.
Since the student seeks ultimately to determine the origin of the
rock with which he is working, it is advantageous and purposeful to
describe rocks of g neral compositional similarity together, despit
101
cal-
Some degree of coherence is necessary before an aggregate of sedimentary min ral s or particles is includ d as a rock. However, many
unconsolidated sedimentary materials, particularly sands, may be
advantageously studied either by the immersion method or by mounting in more permanent m dia.
Sedimentary materials becom sedimentary rocks through consolidation, by the processes of cem ~ntation, compaction, and recrystallization. As consolidation proce ds, Significant mineralogical transformations may also take plac . New minerals are precipitated directly from
solution; others are formed by reaction b tween solutions and min-
102
Microscopic Petrography
103
(a)
(c)
(0)
Cd)
(e)
29. Roundn<>ss. (a) Angular, (b) subangular. (c) subrounded, (d) round ~d .
( e) very rounded.
FIG.
104
Microscopic Petf'ogmphy
Sedimentary Rocks-General
105
The textures of chemically pre ipitat d rocks result from the processes of crystallization from solution Or gel, of recrystallization of
amorphous, cryptocrystalline, or phaneritic material, and of r placement. The various results may be grouped into the follOwing categories:
1. Equigranular
a. Anhedral: Jim ston ,rock salt, anhyddte, by direct pr cipitation ;
some ch rt by r crystallization
b. Subhedral to euhedral: dolomite by replacement
2. Heterogranular
a. Uneven-grained: som cherts and anhydrit -gypsum rocks by
recrystallizatiou; some dolomWc limestones by replacement
b. "Porphyroblastic": some rock salt, dolomite, rock gypsum, rock
anhydrite, polyhalite rock by recrystallizatioD; quartz euhedra in
salines
106
Microscopic Petrography
The texture of a rock cootainin dominantly organic remains is determined chiefly by:
107
SPECIAL FEATURES
Insoluble Residues
108
Mi(;roscopic Petrography
Limestones and dolomites are b'eated with HC}; ordinary commercial HCI will suffice, diluted with H 2 0 to at I nst 50 per cent but not
less than 10 p r cent. However, if fossiliferous structures and delicate
material are to b preserv d, acetic acid should b mp.loycd. Ordinarily about 10 g of rock will yield ample residue for study. The carbonate can be dissolved in beakers; usualJy two acid applications,
with H 2 0 washing between, will suffice. A final washing to decant
fine silt and clay is followed by drying.
An ffective analysis of the insoluble fraction should include (1)
identification of minerals and substances, (2) description of the characteristics (principally form ) of the individual sp cies, (3) calculation of the weight per cent of the individual constituents.
In carbonat rocks the mol' widespread species of the insoluble
residue fraction ell' quartz, chalcedony, clay minerals, anhydrit , and
gypsum. Quartz occurs abundantly, in a variety of forms-as clastic
grains or grain aggregates, as euhedral crystals, as drusy aggregates,
and as oolites. Chalcedony forms oolites, clastic grains, lacy to gramllar aggregates, fossils and may contain rhomboid cavities (dolomolds)
from which dolomite euhedra have been dissolved. The clay minerals
are chiefly kaolinite and illite. Other less abundant constituents are
sulfur, pyrite, marcasite, sphalerite, millerite, magnetite, hematite,
limonite, magane oxid minerals, adularia, albite, muscovite, chlorite,
glaUCOnite, barite, and celestite. Insoluble residues are an aid to correlation, espeCially in nonfossiliferous strata and with material from
drill cores and cuttings. Although th insoluble-residu suite also
changes laterally in facies variations, the changes are normally neither
as abrupt nor as prollounc d as vertical changes b tween strata.
SALINE RESIDVES
109
3.
Anhydrite
Ankerite
Aragonite
Barite
Boracite, M g;R,O"CI
Hrookit
Calcite
Celestite
Chalcedony
ChaJ(:oC"itp
Chloritc (c rystals)
Danbllrite, CaB. i 20 8
Dolomit('
Fluorite
'ibhsit.e
Goethite
Gypsum
llauerite, Mil ,
Hematite
llilgarditc and pamhilgal'dite,
Ca8(B.O,,),CI.4H ,0
Hydrobomcitc, CaMgBGO,,GH ,O
Ilmenite
Kali borite, KMg,B 110 19'9 li zO
Kaolinjte
Limonite (so me after pyrite)
Luenoburgitl', Mg 3 B:(OH )&(PO.)26H,O
Magnesit
Magnetite
Malachite (crystals)
Mallildrite, NI12HiFG
Mal'casite
Opal
P innoite, Mg(BOz),3H zO
Pyritr
Pyrrhotite
Quartz
Rutii('
Flphaleri te
Sulfur
Sulfohorit(l, Mg GH .(H0 3 ).(SO.).7R ,O
SU8sexite, (Mn,Mg) (BO ,) (OR )
Szaibelyite, (Mg, Mu )(B02)(OH)
Talc
Tommo.line
Veatchi te, SrB.OlO'2H,O
Zircon
110
Mic/'()$copic Petrograp"y
of the host rock. Provenance includes not only th source rocks but
also the w athcring, transportational, and d positional environments.
To study the accessory d bjtal suite effectively, its min rals mllst
usualJy be concentrated-by means of heavy liquids, magnetic separators, electrostatic separators, a Humphr ys spiral, panning, or combinations of these and other devices. In studying the suite the following should b e noted:
1. The total amount (weight per cent) of th entire group
2. The identities of the species and their individual abundances
3. Grain size (most "heavies" are in the 0.25- to O.lO-mm fraction )
4. Individual physical characteristics: shape (inclu ling h abit and
etching) , roundn ess, color, zoning, fractures, inclusions, and fluorescence
5. Compositional variation in sp;:t.ies as determined by variation in
optical propcrti s
In Table 4 is given a list of the most common heavy detrital accessory min erals of sands and sandstones. Species common in the light
( G < 2.85) accessory fraction are albite, calCite, chalcedony, dolomite,
microclin e, muscovite, oligoclase, and orthoclase.
4. COMMON HAVY DETIUTAL MINEHALS OF SANDS
Actinolite
HYPERSTHENE
Anat.ll.se
ILM EN TTE
ANDALUSITE
l{YANITE
APATITE
Ll',U O ' ENE
AUGITE
LIMONITE
Barite
MAGNETITE
BIO'rITE
MOlHtzite
lWT1L1<:
Brookite
Sidf'l'itr
assitol'itc
SiIJitn nlli tp
CHLOlUTE
SPHEN I';
Corundum
pinel
DIOPSIDE
TAUROLITE
EPlD TE-CLJNOZOlSITE
Topaz
Fluorite
TOURMALINE
GARNET
Xenotime
GLAUCONTTE
ZIRCON
Hematite
Zoisitc
HORNBLENDE
t Most (10m mOD lHe shown in capital I ttors.
TABLE
Al\'1) SAN])STO Es t
III
and enstatite. Accessories of high stability that can survive more than
one cyel of weathering and transportation include futile, zircon,
tOUJ'maline, leu cox ne, and apatite. In Table 5 are listed detrital suHes
that are characteristic of specific groups of source rocks.
TABLE 5. DETRITAL MINEJlAL SUITES (BOTH HEAVY ANI> LIGHT) O,F SANDS
ANI> ANDSTONES CHARACTERISTIC OF SPECIFIC SO\JRCE GROUPS OF ROCKS
Anatase
Albi!,!'
Brookite
Oolum bit ('-talltalite
Oassiterite
Apatitf'
Hematite (MJ.lecu lar)
Sphalerite
Wolframite
Gold
::\fUMcovite
Biotite
TourrnuJin' (It II v!lrif't ics cX('evt dmvite)
Dumorti('fite
Spodumeue
Topaz
Bllritp
Fluorite
Biotite
Apatite
~,
A))anit~~
Magnetitr
Ilmenit
Hornblend
'phene
Apatite
Co rundum
Augite
Apatite
Hypersthene
Magnetitl'
Ilmenit'
1'IeonRste
Olivin('
Leucoxene
V . Peridotites, serpentiui1,es
Magneti1,'
PicoUta
Leucoxerw
Serpentinc'
Ohromite
Talc
Umenite
An thophyllite
Enstatite
Ohlorite
Pyrop
Magncsit.e
Microscopic Petrogl'lL1Jhy
112
TABLE
5. DETIUTAL
(Continued)
Dravite
Tremolite
Wolla
tonit(~
Veslivianitc
Axinite
Kyanite
:illimo.uite
Almandite
.~ taurolite
Rutile
H ematite (sJH' I"IR.r)
"ol'k ~
llornbl elltlt
Oligoth.tstl-anuesillc
:'Ilo.gnetii('
7.ir('.ol1
Glnueop!lall('
Glaucouite
Hem!ttite (mlrthy)
Cclestit
CollophnllC'
Limonite
The accessories together rarely exceed 1 per cent and not uncommonly constitute less than 0.1 per cent. Older sedim nts normally contain a less varied suite than younger rocks, and sediments deriv (1
from older sediments carry a simpl r suit than those from igneous
and/ or metamorphic rocks. The variety of minerals varies inversely
as the distance from the source rocks. Tectonic movements result in
I' juvenation of th suite.
Auth igenic Minerals
An authig'Die mineral is 011e formed in situ by sedim ntary processes, prior to, during, or shortly after lithifaction (Table 6).
Adularia, albite, calcite, and quartz ar those most commonly forming crystallographically ori nted overgrowths on their clastic nuclei.
Adulo.ria
Albite
AnlLlcite
Anatase
Anhydrite
Barite
Brookite
Calc-it!'
CI)1('8tite
Chalc-plio fl Y
C'hl1tnositl'
Chloritc'
Collophane
6.
113
Gll1ucollit..
Gypsum
Hema.titp
Illite
Marcasite
Microrlill ('
Vyrite
Quart?
Rutile
Sel'il'it(,
Siderite
TOllrmnlil1t'
5
DESCRIPTIONS OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Definition. Sandstone is composed predominantly of clastic particles with subordinate cement, the clastic pieces consisting chiefly of .
quartz, with no more than 25 per cent feldspar and no more than 20
per cent clay minerals (Fig. 28). If the rock contains between 10 and
25 per cent feldspar, it is usually referred to as a feldspathic sandstone. On the basis of the binding agent ther are two major groups :
one with a mineral cement, precipitated in voids b tw en rains; the
other containing interstitial detrital clay and micaceous minerals. Anoth r suggested subdivision of sandstones is into impure sandstones,
i.e., > 10 per cent argillaceous material, or wackes; and pure sandstones, i.e., < 10 per cent argillaceous material, or arenites.
Mineralogy. The chief detrital mineral is quartz, with an average
content estimated to be about 65 per cent. Small amounts of clastic
chert, chalcedony, or quartzite may also be present. Most of the clastic
feldspar is usually of the potash type- orthoclase, microcline, or both,
but sodic plagioclase may also be common. The feldspars may be fresh
or altered in varying degrees to kaolinite and sericit . Both fresh and
altered types may occur together. The clay fraction consists chiefly
of sericite, illite, kaolinite, and chlorite. Montmorillonite may be
pr sent in younger sandstones. The accessory detrital constituents
("heavy" minerals and others) together rarely exceed 1 per cent of th
volume of th rock and not uncommonly are less than a 0.1 per c nt.
Among the common and widespread mineral species in this group are
andalusite, apatite, augite and diopside, biotite, chlorite, pidote and
zoisite, garnet, hornbl nde, hyperth n , ilmenite, kyanite, leucoxene,
limonite, magnetite, monazite, muscovite, rutile, sillimanite, sph ne,
114
115
staurolite, tourmaline, and zircon. Usually much rarer and far less
wid spread are actinolite, anatase, barite, brookite, cassiterite, chloritoid, chrysotile, corundum, dumortierite, fluorite, hematite, sid rite,
spinel, and topaz. Clastic calcite, dolomite, collophane shell fragments and glauconite in particles may also be present not uncommonly.
Many vari ti s of sandstone are distinguish d on the basis of the
nature of the most abundant binding agent.
1. Clastic binders
116
Microscopic Petrography
117
118
Microscopic Petrography
119
Microscopic Petrography
120
Siltstones are princ:ipally products of Huvial, lacllstrine, eolian, and
glacial environments.
Cong lo merate and Breccia
Although conglomerates and breccias, as units, do not lend themselves well to thin-section studies, their matrixes may usefully be
studied by microscopic techniqu es. Conglomerates are clastic rocks
with pebbl s Or subanau]a_r to rounded mineral or rock pieces larger
than 2 mm in di ameter. The term breCCia is used if the fragments are
not rounded. GeneraiJ y the rock
is called a conglomerate if about
10 per cent or mar of the fragments are of pebble size; the
matrix of sand or fin er sizes normally predominates. P bblv
sandstone is intermediate betwcen conglomerate and sandstone. Glacial conglom rates, or
tillites, contain relatively few
large pieces in a matrix of pr dominantly clayey material. The
degree of sorting varies greatly,
ranging from very well sorted
types, such as quartz-pebble conglomerat s, to tillites, which are
characterized by an extreme
range of siz grades.
FIC. 31a. Jasper conglomerate, Buffalo
Gap, South Dakola. Pebbles of chert,
Many conglomerat s show two
sandstone, and quartzite; grains of distinct peaks in their size-dis'luartz, chalc donj c cement. Nkols
tribution curves; i.e., they tend to
crossed, X 10.
be bimodal. These also tend to be
lithologically homogeneous and usually contain pebbles of quartz,
quartzite, or chert in a matrix of quartz sand bonded by a mineral
cement (Fig. 31a). The p bbles in these (oligomictic) conglom rates
are in the nne- to medium-pebble-size ranges, are well sorted, have
a high sphericity, and are highly rounded. The matrix sand, which at
least in some cases has been introduc d into the interstices of the
gravel after its deposition, is commonly a well-sorted quartz sand
bonded by calcite or quartz. Such conglomerates are typical1y derived
from marin gravels form ed on a transgressive beach area, are assoiated with sedimentary quartZites, and form blankets that may
121
be widespread, but are usually relatively thin and may pinch out
locally.
In contrast are the (polymictic) conglomerates in which pebbles
are of varied lithology anu mineralogy, consisting not only of quartz,
but also of granite and other plutonic rocks, as well as eruptive and
ven other sedimentary and metamorphic types. Fanglomerates belong in this group. Such conglomerates have particles that are usually
coarse, poorly sorted, and show moderate sphericity and roundness
values. The subordinat sand and silt matrix consists of quartz, fresh
feldspar, mica, and the alteration products sericite, kaolinite, and
chlorite, cemented by subordinate quartz or calcite. One variety is the
granite pebble (arkosic) conglomerate, in which most of th pebbles
consist of granite, aplite, or pegmatite. Another variety is graywacke
conglomerate. Conglomerates of this type arc thick and wedge-shaped,
representing Huvial outpourings into marginal parts of geosynclines
derived from adjacent, markedly uplifted source regions.
Intraformational conglomerates and breccias are formed by desiccation and cracking during temporary withdrawal of shallow waters
and subsequent shifting during reflooding. Two types ar common:
shale-pebble breccia Or conglomerate (Hat-pebble conglomerate),
conSisting of thin shale pieces in a sandy matrix; limestone conglomerate or breccia, in which flat and r Jatively small pieces of usually
sandy Or oolitic limestone or dolomite are embedded in a matrix of
limestone or sandy limestone and dolomite. The flat pieces may be
packed together on edge to form the striking dgewise conglomerates.
Till and tillite are characterized by extr me heterogeneity of composition and lack of sorting. The larger pieces may be faceted and
striated and are set in a greatly pr dominating matrix of clay and
som sand, eonsistinu of angular particles of quartz, fresh feldspar,
calcite, dolomite, and other rar r minerals, and rock pi c s in a still
finer grained aggregate of illite, sericite, chlorite, and in some cases
also montmorillonite and kaolinite. Older tillites contain little or no
montmoriJIonite 0)' kaolinite.
onglomerates with limon it or hematite cement are not common .
Cementing pyrite may also appear. In some examples cementing material penetrates pebbles along cracks. Silica cement may be deposited in
crystallographic continuity over matrix quartz grains or may be cryptocrystalline to slightly coarser toward tlle center of interstices.
Sedimentary breccia vari ties of special origin are talus breccias,
col1apse breccias, and bone breccias (bone beds). Breccias of cataclastic origin (fault br ccins, friction breccias) are in this book con-
122
Microscopic Petrography
(c)
FIC. SIb, c. (b) Arkose, Belt series, Tendoy Mountains, Montana . Moderately
sorted, subrounded particl '5 of quartz, microcone, and orthoclase. Nicols crossed,
X 10. (c) Arkose (brownstone), Portland, Connecticut. Poorly sorted, subangular
to subrounded quartz and feldspar in matrix with some sericite and clay; tourmalin ,lower left. Nicols not cross d, X 10.
123
124
Microscopic Petrography
Mineralogy. The conspicuous clastic minerals are quartz and feldspar. Much of th former is probably derived from metamorphic
rocks. In some graywackes the feldspar content is low; in oth rs feldspar exceeds quartz. The feldspars include microcline, orthoclase, and
plagioclase, usually sodic, although mor calcic types also occur. Both
fresh and a.ltered feldspars appear, and plagioclase exceed alkali feldspar in many cases. Normally the feldspars are somewhat altered,
(a)
(b)
125
gray or gray green color of tlle rock), s ricite, biotite, illite, SOIne
silty quartz, and locally, zeolitcs. Some of th sericite and chlorite is
authigenic. Pyrite in cubes replacing matrix also is authigenic, and
matrix carbonate, usually ankerite, as well as clusters of rutile needles,
are probably of similar origin. Calcite, dolomite, and siderite also
occur, and some secondary silica cement may be present. In subgraywackes chlorite may be a less abundant constituent, but carbonaceous
shreds are common. Some graywackes contain carbonized wood fragments. Many grits are actually graywackes, and "salt-and-pepper"
sandstones ar quartzose graywackes with abnndant detrital chert.
Textures and Microstructures. Sorting g nerally is very poor, with
pebbJe to clay sizes abundantly represented. Thus permeability is
low. Sphcricity and roundness are very low to mod rate. Thus texturally, the rocks are micl'Obreccias. The quartz may b e highly angular,
even sliverlike, and feldspars and rock pieces ar likewise angular.
Usually the long axes of these min rals and of the micas as well are
generally parallel with the bedding planes. The matrix is a microcrystalline to felted aggregate of the micas (both muscovite and biotite ),
illite, and chlorite, locally replaced by carbonate and pyrite cubes.
Sericite, illite, and chlorite replace detrital quartz and feldspar, usually penetrating the grains margiJlally in a d ntate pattern and entirely destroying the original clastic boundary. In some instances the
chlorite-quartz intergrowth is restricted to the secondary quartz overgrowth, in other 'ases the micaceous minerals encroach even upon the
originaJ detrital nucleus.
Some graywacke beds are finely laminated with interbedded shaley
layers. Subgraywackes are usually finer-grained, with poor to moderate
sorting of subrounded to angular particles.
Occu.rrence and Origin. Graywackes ar commonly associated with
su bmarine lavas and tuffs (basalts and spilites), silty shales, siltstones,
and bedded cherts. They may grade into mafic tuffs and may alternate
rhythmically with shale. Dark siliceous limestones, jaspers, and man ganiferous sediments are other associates. Their environment of formation requires rapid erosion, rapid transportation, and burial suffiCiently rapid to pr vent complete chemical alteration of mafic minerals.
Most graywackes are of marine origin, but a f ware nonmarine. They
are very characteristic sediments of some orogeniC belts, forming thick
lenticular bodies in linear geosynclines. Density currents may aid in
forming graywackes with graded bedding. Ripple marks are absent,
and fossils are I'are. Much of the chlorit , sericite, and pyrite has been
produc d diagenetically by reactions among the matrix materials, be-
126
Microscopic Petrography
tw 'en matrix and clastic pieces and between matrix components and
dissolved marine salts.
Subgraywackes, which are associated with silty shales, thin, nodular
lim stones, and in some cases even with quartzose sandstones, are indicative of moderate subsidence in unstable basins and of burial sufEci ntly rapid to prevent re-sorting.
The Timiskaming (early pre-Cambrian) of Ontario contains conspicuous graywackes. Other examples arc the Tyler (pre-Cambrian)
formation of Michigan and the Franciscan (Upper] urassic) of California. Many "sandstones" of the Pennsylvanian coal formations are
subgraywackes.
CLA V, SHALE, AND RElATED ROCKS
Clay
Descriptions
of
Sedimentary Rocks
127
Microscopic Petrography
128
augite, epidote, biotite, muscovite, pyrite, and zeolites. Other particles
consist of glass, remains of diatoms, foraminif ra, radiolaria, sponge
spicules, sharks' teeth, and carbonaceous material.
2. Underclays, which may consist of kaolinite-illite mixtures or, if
they are calcareous, of illite alone. Partly altered or fresh feldspars
may be present, also quartz in grains and lenses, muscovite, epidote,
and other heavy accessories. Secondary calcite may form crystals, in
some instanccs in vugs. Typical are the underc1ays of the Pennsylvanian cyclothems of Illinois and Pennsylvania.
MONTMORILLONITE CLAY
129
Mg/ Fe ratio and in thc R"O ~/ Si02 ratio. 10st are Ca montmorillonites,
with a f w containing ex hangeable Na, K, H, or 19. Very f w
bcntonit s are older than Cr taccolls. The original b ntollite oc 'urs
at Fort B nton, Wyoming, and is of Cretaceous ag . Bentonites also
occur abundantly in the Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary of the Gulf
Coast. Some fuller's earth is montmorillonitic. Bentonites result from
the devitrincation of volcanic ash.
Transported clays derived from bentonites usually are mixtures of
montmorillonite and kaolinite with som halloysite and allophan e.
Coarser clastic grains (as much as 25 per cent ) are quartz, potash
feldspar, plagioclase, muscovite, zircon, tourmaline, magnetit , glauco-
(b)
(c )
njte, and chlorite. Other constitllcnts are gypsum crystals and microrosettes, opal, limonite, pyrite lenticles and cubes, z olites, organic fragments, and such fossils as diatoms and sponge spicul s. Montmorillonite
replac s qu artz, f ldspar, and glass. In some types the montmorillonite is shr ddy and oriented parallel to subparallel. Coarsegrained patches and streaks of kaolin it -halloysit or kaolin it -halloysite-allophane are set in a granular or flaky montmorillonite 'base that
also may contain kaolinite and som halloysite. Patches and veins of
coarsely crystalline montmorillonite with lmdula~o}'y xtinction appear
along cracks. Clays of trus type occur in th Coastal Plain of Texas.
The so-called metabentonites consist of a mixed-layer clay min Tal,
usually montmorillonit -illite, along with minor chloritic clay material in some cases. Glass, biotit , apatite, and zircon of pyrogeni
130
Microscopic Petrography
Defin.ition . Bauxites are residual rocks (or less commonly are transported for short distances ), consisting chiefly of one or more of the
aluminum hydroxide min rals, boehmite, diaspore, and gibbsite, usually with variable amounts of kaolinite and some iron and titanium
oxides.
Mineralogy. The chief constituents are the aluminum hydrOxide
minerals, which may Occur separately or in various combinations.
131
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Massive-cryptocrystalline to microcrystalline-granular
Fragmcntal
Granitoid
Cellular
Stratified
Oolites and pisolites may be massive or concentrically lay red, commonly with ramifying, radiating cracks. Color and grain-sizc variations differentiate the different shells. Gibbsite is the common mineral, but diaspore and bo hmit (Figs. 35a,b) also form oolites.
Pisolites may be set in a microcrystallin -granular Or in an oolitic
matrix. Some pisolites have cores of microcrystalline gibbSite pseudomorphous after feldspar. Gibbsite crystals also lin caviti s. In some
varieties the chief aluminum mineral is stained by iron oxides and is
cryptocrystalline, thus difficult to identify by microscopic means alone.
Coarser boehmite forms irregular grains to euhedral spindles; coarsegrained diaspore also appears as grains, spindles, and crossed twins.
Kaolinite forms residual patches, oolit s, grains, vermicular and accordionlike crystals, and, in some cases, veinlets cutting both matrix
and pi olites. Pyrite, which occurs locally, surrounds pisolitcs, veins
them, and also forms pyritohedra. Siderite is in grains and nodules,
some radial.
Granitoid bauxites, which have inherited their textures from parent
plutonic rocks, consist usually of gibbSite ps udomorphous aft r feldspar in a matrix of iron-stained, nearly opaque cryptocrystalline
132
Microscopic Petrography
drain ed aluminous rocks. Bauxites are either r sidual or, less usually,
transported. Another subdivision is (1) terra rossa bauxites- associated
with carbonate rocks and reportedly formed from clays; (2) lateritic
bauxites-formed from and on crystalline rocks under h'opit:al conditions.
Shale
133
36. ( a ) Sha le, Mont fey formution ( Miocene), Los Angeles, CaHfornia.
Quartz palticles in matrix silty qu:utz, clay, and bitllminous material. Change
in color is due to displacement along microfa olt. Nicols not cross d , X9. (b)
Shale, satlle formation and locality. B tter sorted, less bituminous material, more
calcite. j(;oL~ not crossed , X9.
FIC.
134
Microscopic Petrography
135
Definition. Chert is composed predominantly of fine-grained chalcedony, of cryptocrystalline quartz, or of combinations of the two
(75 per cent or more). Flint is synonymous with chert.
Mineralogy. The silica takes the form of ( 1 ) feathery chalcedony,
(2) cryptocrystalline quartz, (3) microcrystalline quartz, (4) opal,
or (5) rarely as cristobalite. Clastic quartz grains may also be present
in subordinate numbers. Older cherts or somewhat metamorphosed
cherts contain little or no chalcedony or opal, being characterized by
microcrystalline quartz. Many cherts are relatively impure, containing abundant calcite, also dolomite or siderite. Such rocks, poorly
termed porcellanites, grade into cherty limestones. Porcellanite also
has been applied ( 1 ) to rocks composed of clay and silt with large
amounts of opal or chalcedony, which grade into siliceous shales, and
(2) to silicified tuffs.
Otller constituents that may be abundant are carbonaceous material (Fig. 37a) , bitumen or graphite (sapropelic chert), d trita] quartz
(silty chert ), pyrite, chlorite, siliceous sponge spicules (spiculite
chert ), and radiolarian capsules (radiolarian chert). Other microscopic fossils, which may be abundant locally, are usually conodonts,
foraminifera, graptolites, ostracods, and spor s. Less abundant constituents are limonite, sericite, feldspar, glauconite, and clay minerals.
Jasper consists of cryptocrystalline quartz, form ed by r crystallization from chalcedony, stained brown, yellow, and red by iron oxides.
136
Microscopic Petrography
(a.)
(h)
37. (a) Chert, Teton County, Wyoming. Chalcedony, iron oxides, and carbonaceous material. Organic structures partly preserved. Nicols not crossed, X 10.
( b ) Oolitic ch rt (siliceous oolite), Statc College, Pennsylvania. Chalcedony and
quartz, pseudomorphous after calcareous oolit s and matrix carbonate. Nicols
cross d, X 10.
FIC.
137
138
Microscopic Petrography
chalk, that normally constitute only a small part of the formation. The
latter type is commonly of replacement origin, and examples retaLo
structures of the carbonate rock they replace-oolites, fossils, and
grain-size variations. Some chert concretions may, however, be primary precipitates. Bedded cherts ar believed to have formed either
by direct precipitation of silica or by diagenesis and silicification of
diatomaceous and radiolarian earths. The silica for novaculites, which
ar bedded cherts, is believed to have been obtained through submarine alteration of volcanic ash. Some bedded cherts may represent
silicified ash beds. Bedded cherts, which are associated with dark
siliceous shales, sapropelic black shales, and dark siliceous limestone,
are typified by th Arkansas novaculite (Devonian-Mississippian),
the Mont rey chert (Miocen ) of California, and the Rex chert
(Permian) of Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming, whieh is associated with
phosphorit .
Diatomite and Radiolarite
140
Microscopic Petrography
F I G.
(a)
38a, h . (a) Calcarenite ( clastic limestone). Oriented overgrowths of dear
ealcite on rounded, turbid, clastic (;!Ilcite grai ns . Two Mile Canyon, Buulder,
Colorado. Nicols nol cros ed, X 10. (b) Fossiliferous (cncrinal ) limestone, Lo 'kport, New York. Nicols nol crossed, X 10.
142
Microscopic Petrography
143
144
Microscopic Petrography
145
Microscopic Petrography
146
tative stimates staining tests are very useful (Kraus, Hunt, and Ramsdell, Mineralogy, 4th ed., pp. 226-227, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, 1951).
Textures and Microstructures. Dolomite shows a very strong tendency toward euhedral development (Fig. 39c), occurring commonly
as rhombic euhedra in a matrix of anhedral-granular calcit . Witb
complete conversion of the rock, a medium- to coarse-grained aggregate of interpenetrating dolomite subhedra is produced. The rhombohedra commonly are zoned, with cores crowded with dusty inclusions, and clear mal'gins, or with alternating Fe 2 -rich (ankeritic) and
Fe 2 -poor zones. The auk ritic zones weather to a red brown color. In
a f w cases rhomb cores consist of 'alcite, whereas margins are dolomite. Small grains of clastic quartz may be included in dolomite
crystals. Dolomitization involves destruction of th original lim ston
fabric, and such features as fossils or clastic carbonate grain outlines
are obscured or obliterated. Dolomite replaces calcite (including
fossils and oolites), quartz, and chert. Dolomolds (rhomboid cavities)
in ch rt are a common constituent of insoluble residu s. In some rocks
dolomite uhedm are rather uniformly disseminated; more commonly,
however, the dolomitized parts are irregular in sh<lpe and distribution .
In some limestones dolomitization has affected only selected layers,
resulting in alternating bands of calcite and dolomite. Some dolomites
show later silicifbation, containing chert pseudomorphs after dolomite
rhombohedra. Volum -for-volume replacement of calcite by dolomite
results in no porosity changes, but if the conversion takes place on a
molecular basis, secondary porosity may r suIt. Veinlets of secondary
calcite, of dolomite, or of quartz and other minerals such as anhydrite
are not uncommon.
Occurrence and Origin. Most dolomites originate by postdepositional replacement of limestone, but some, particularly those associated with evaporites, may represent primary chemical precipitates.
Probably dolomitization can take place in various environments: (1)
in the environment of marine limestone deposition prior to burial, (2)
in the marine environment aft r burial, (3) in the terrestrial environment after uplift, either by ground waters or hydroth rmal solutions.
DolomitizatiQn of biostromal and biohermallimestones is common, but
other types may also be replaced. Dolomites are in general more common among ol ~er s dim ntary rocks than among more recent. Many
so-called primary dolomites, which display little textural evidence of
r p1ac m ot of limestone, are associated with b ds of anhydrit and
halite. A f w clastic dolomite have also b n recognized. Examples
147
Defirl:ttion. Phosphorit (rock phosphate or phosphate rock) consists mainly of phosphate minerals, the most abundant of which is
apatite. With an increase in various other constituents phosphorit s
grade into such rocks as phosphatic limestones or phosphatic shales.
The main types ar :
1. Primary b dded phosphorites (Fig. 40a)
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mineralogy. The most abundant and widespread mineral are varieties of apatite: carbonate-fluorapatite (francolit ) and carbonate-hydroxyapatite (dahllite). In many cases these varieties are cryptocrystallin and essentially isotropic and are called collophane, much
of which is yellow to light brown in color. Both alllsotropic and isotropic francolite may occur togeth r. Other authigenic constituents include calcite, chalcedony, pyrite, anhydrite, gypsum, and uncommon
glauconite. Among the detritals quartz, muscovite, and clay minerals
may be well represented. Other materials include bitumen sh 11 and
bon fragments, sponge spicules, diatoms, radiolaria, and fossil fish
and sharks' teeth. Secondary fluorite is not uncommon in some varieties. Variscite, AlPO., 2H2 0 , appears in some leached residual phosphorites. Oth r phosphates that may be abundant locally include
metavariscite, AlPO. 2H"O; wavellite, Al ~ (P04 )2( OH,F)3' 5H 20;
and strengit , (F ,AI )PO" . 2H"O. In insular phosphorites, brushite,
CaHPO. 2H 2 0 ; monetite, CaHPO.; and wltitlockite, Ca~ (PO. h, are
present; nib'ates, sulfates, and oxalates of calcium and ammonium also
occur.
Some uncommon rock phosphates consist mainly of iron aluminum
phosphates of the orthorhombic variscit -strengite series or of its monoclinic equivalent, the m tavariscite-phosphosiderite series; apparently
orthorhombic and monoclinic pairs may occur together. Many of these
deposits are secondary, formed by th replacement of various igneous
and sedimentary rocks.
148
Microscopic Petrography
normally darker. Many oolites show bleaching. Oth r typ s have aland francolite zones or collophane and calcite
zones. The oolites are well to poorly sorted and may show som abrasion and fracturing. Many are not rounded but are ellipsoidal, flattened, Or with rather straight sides or even with marked indentations.
Calcite veins them or selectively replaces cores Or zones, which may
also be replaced by chalcedony. Quartz, muscovite, and shell pieces
are commonly irr gularly included.
The matrix for the oolites is variable: in some cases it is chiefly
t mating collophan
149
Included in this cat gory are rocks with ] 0 pel' cent or mOl' of iron
or 15 per cent Fe 2 0:1 or its quival nt. Major sl1bdivisions are (1) iron
carbonat (siderite) rocks, (2) iron oxid (hematite, limonite) rocks,
( 3) iron sulfide (pyrite, marcasite) ro ks, (4) iron silicat (chamosite,
150
Microscopic Petrography
glauconite, etc.) rocks. Also included are the manganese-rich sedimer:ltary rocks. Most rocks of this group are best studied by a combination of thin sections and polished sections.
Iron Carbonate Rocks
151
spherulit s are polygonal in outline. Some spherulites are color-zoned
and include clay particles. Sideritic mudstones are wen represented
in the Lower Jurassic of Great Britain.
In some sideritic limestones (Fig. 41a ) medium-grain ed subh draJ
siderit replaces calcite to a
varying extent. Siderite grains
or rhombs may contain minute
nuclei of pyrite. Othar siderite
limestones consist mainly of an
aggregat of sh 11 fragm ents (unalter ' d or sideritizcd) cern nted
by calcite and siderite. Dolomite
and ank rite may also b present.
Siderite apparently is precipitated in a shallow marine environment, under weakly oxidizing conditions. Sideritic rocks
are r latively uncommon, usually
forming thin nodular beds or
concretionary masses in shales,
in some cases arranged in
nearly continuous bands. Many
of th e concretions have fossil Ftc. 41a. Sid rit iron lone, Siegen,
Duclei, such as ferns, insects, Westphalia, Germany. Siderite and infish scales, 0)' rarely mollusc terstitial calcite. Nicols not crossed, X9.
shells. The pre-Cambrian siderite-chert rocks are exceptional in their thickness and extent.
Iron Oxide Rocks
Definition. Iron oxide rocks are those whose principal iron-b aring
minerals arc hematite or limonit or hoth. In some typ s chamosite,
glaUCOnite, and siderite are accessory to important constituents. The
chief vari ties are (1) oolitic hematite rocks, (2) fossiliferous hematite rocks, (3) oolitic limonite rocks, (4 ) bog iron ores, (5) gos.~ans.
Varieties. Th oolitic hematite rocks (Fig. 41b) contain oolites of
hematite in a cement of hematite and calcite, and in some types also
of quartz and siderite. The oolites, which are rounded to flattened
("flaxseed ore"), consist of hematite alone, less usually of hematitecalcite or hematite-chamosite. The structure is normally concentric,
with v ry thin shells, rarely radial, and quartz grains may he included.
152
Microscopic PetrograpllY
A few calcite oolites may also b pres nt. Most of th ooHtes have
clastic quartz nu lei, although some contain cor s of cryptocrystaUin '
quartz, chalcedony, shell particles, and oolitc fragments. Thin coronas
of dendritic hematit and quartz smround some oolites. The hematite may be of two types-a reddish brown type and a steely gray
variety, with the oolites usually th red variety and th matrix the
gray variety, although r versals and combinations also occur. Other
FIC. 41b,. c. (b) Oolitic hematite rock, Clinton forutation ( Silurian) , Wayne
County, New York. icols not cross d, X9. (c) Fossiliferous hematite rock, same
fonnation aod locality . Nicols not crossed, x 9.
153
peripherally replaced, or entirely replaced by hematite and are cemented by calcite, hematit , and in som cases also by quartz and
chalcedony. The fossil pieces include chiefly bryozoa and crinoid remains. The Clinton (Silurian) ores of the Appalachian region contain
both oolitic and fossiliferous types. The hematite app ars to be diagenetic in origin.
Oolitic Umonite rocks contain closely or loosely packed, rounded to
elongated and flattened oolites of limonite, usually with a concentric
structure but in some cases a radial fibrous structure. Films of chamosite may coat the oolites. The matrix is sandy to clayey and may
contain in addition chamosite, siderite, dolomite, calcite, and organic
debris. Some of the oolites have a delicate skeletal framework of fin grained quartz.
Bog iron orcs consist chiefly of soft, porous limonite with admixtures, in varying amounts, of clay min rals, sandy quartz, sideri te,
mangancs ' oxides, and organic debris such as leaves, roots, twigs,
and seeds, which may be partly replaced by limonite. Rarer constituents are vivianite and iron sulfates. The limonite may be in spongy
masses, with a vesi<.;ular or tubular texture or in pisolites and concretionary masses. Bog iron ores are deposited chemically and bactcriologically in lake margins and bogs, particularly in the glaciated
northern parts of Europe and North Am rica.
Cossans are iron-rich, residual, surficial deposits form d by weathering of veins and oth r ore deposits that contain such primary iron
minerals as pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyritc, bornite, covellite, and
chalcocite, a]] of which are replaced by limonite. By x-rays the limonite can b distinguished as mainly bematit and go thite, althollgh
some lepidocrocite may b present too. Limonite also replaces carbonate, kaolinite, and various rock silicates. Other common con
stituents are jarosjt -, sid rite, quartz, chalcedony, kaolinite, halloysite,
all ophane, beidellite, and nontronite. Less common are alunite,
gihhsite, plllmbojarosite, and scorodite. The texhrre is usually spongy
and cav rnous with sk letal, boxwork, and botrYOidal limonit .
Iron Sulfide Rocks
Pyrite and marcasit , which are common minor authig nie conStitll nts of many sedim ntary rocks, including black shales and some
154
Microscopic Petrography
horn (Upper Cretaceous) of Wyoming. In the Wabana area of Newfoundland occur Ordovician beds of oolitic pyrite with both pyritized
and unaltered fossil fragm nts (graptolites) set in a very fine grained
quartzose matrix. Nodules and concretions of pyrit and marcasite
are common in limestone and also occur in shales, some sandstones,
and in coals.
Iron Silicate Rocks
Flc. 42. (a) Glauconite sandstone, Haylet, New York. Glauconite and quartz in
a clay-glauconite matrix. Nicols not crossed, x 9. (b) Oolitic chamosite rock.
Clinton formation (Silurian) , Franklin Springs, N w York. Oolites of chamosite,
some with nuclei of quartz grains, in carbonate-clay matrix. Nicols not crossed,
x 9.
chamosite rocks, (4) glauconite rocks, and (5) green alit rocks. Each
of these must contain one or more of the iron silicates as the principal
iron mineral in order to be plac d in this group.
Varieties. The chamositic mudstones (chamosite ironstones) consist
of a fine-grained aggregate of gr en, cryptocrystalline to isotropic
chamosite. Chamosite oolites (Fig. 42b) occur in som types in a
chamositic matrix, and in others (chamosite-siderite mudstones) sid-
156
Microscopic Petrography
Definition . Rock salt is rock in which the prin 'ipal chemic..'llly precipitated constituent is halite. The amounts of other components,
mainly anhydrite or sylvite, may vary wid ly.
Mineralog!l . Some varieties contain halit alone, but commonly some
anhydrite is also present. The main mineralogical types are:
1. Halite rock (rock salt)
2. Halite-anhydrite -I- polyhalite rock
3. Halite-sylvite c.:arnaIHt, rock (sylvinite, sylvinhalite, halitosylvine)
4. Salt clay and silty halite rock
The accessory suite varies considerably; species that may b detected in thin s ction include magnesite, dolomit, boracite, rinneite,
lu n burgite, ki serit , kainite, h matite, pyrite, quartz, and talc. A
more complex assemblage can commonly be found in insoluble
residues.
Textu1'es and Microstrllctures. In form halit vari s from in gularequidimensional to paralJ I-elan gat and even platy. Variations in
grnin size may be extr m , ranging hom fin grains to recrystallized
single grains with foot-wide cleavag faces. A common band d
structure conSists of thin dark lay rs of anhydrite alternating with
thicker haHt bands. Not all the anhydrite, however, is confined to
the dark bands, which ow th iT olor to minute dusty inclusions. The
marginal anhydrite of the bands commonly is coarser-grained than the
interior. Anhydrite also occurs in more irregular streaks and patches,
rarely in radial aggr gates. More complex layeriug also occurs, such
157
as halitc-polyhalite bands, halite-kiescrite bands, lenticles of anhydritedolomite, anhydrite-magn sit bands, silty or clayey s ams, anhydrit clay-bitumen layers, pyrite-carbonaceous material layers, carnallit '
layers, and sylvit layers. Some halite crystals contain randomly
oriented cavities partly fill ed with liquid ( bubble inclusions, vacuoles).
These inclusions are also arranged in dodecahedral zones or in curvi linear manner. Halit also includes minute thin hematite rods and
plates, which may be concentrated in zones paraJl I with th cleavagc
or in irregular wavy bands. In rock salt that contains f i ll h sylvite the
Descriptions of Sedim entary Rocks
(b)
(a)
43. (a) Halitc-nnhydrite-carnullit rock (Permian ), Eskdale, East Yorkshire,
England . Rounded eamallite grain (stipplt!d) and slllall anhydrit crystals in
angular patches outlining former halite grain pattern, all enclosed in single larg ,
recrystallized halite unit. Nicols not crossed, XB. (CO-lIrtcsy of F. 11. SI,ewart,
Mineralogical Mag(l zine,) (b) Halite-talc-quartz rock, sam ' loeality. Talc platt!s
along hant cleavages and grain boundaries, Eulwclral qUlutz rystals and patches
of angu lar clastic quartz grains . Nicols not crossed, X7. ( ourtesy of F. H.
FIG.
158
Microscopic Petrography
age" cavities in halite. Some varieties of rock salt ontain pseudomorphs aft r gypsum, with eith r halite or anbydrit as the replacing
mineral. Not uncommonly however, they pplace gypsum tog ther,
with anhydrite marginal and halite c ntral. A peculia:; coal'S -grained
intergrowth call d "pegmatite" anhydrite consi. ts of halite with large
parallel or divergent anhydrite streaks.
Sylvite forms irr gular grains, typically colored marginally or
throughout by hematite flakes. Both anhydl'ite and sylvite are replaced
by halite. Sylvite may contain halite inclusions and also shows int rlocking contacts with halite. Some sylvite is tabular, ps udomorphous
aft r anhydrit . Polyhalite replaces both anhydrite and halite. Carnallite appcars in s ams or as rounded to irr gular grains in halite, less
commonly in sylvite or along contacts
of the two. Some magnesite al1d quartz
ar commonly associated with clay
streaks, and magnesite also occurs in anhydrite bands.
Occurrence and Origin. Rock salt
occurs in many p riods in strata ranging
in thickness from a few inches to sevcral
hunch ds of feet. Commonly it is associated with other salines sllch as anhydrite, gypsum, and potash salts in series
FIC. 44a. Halit -anJlydrite r ck of beds that may be over a thousand
( Permian), Eskdale, East Yorkfeet thick. These evaporite groups occur
shire, England. Halite veinlets
lransect granular anJ'ydrite ag- either with limestones and dolomitcs or
gre 'ates with carbonaceous with red-bed sediments. Important rock
material. Nicols not crossed, salt strata of Silurian age occur in New
xB. (Courtesy at F. H. Stewart,
York, Ohio, and Michigan; MississippianM.ineraloglcal Magazine.)
age salt is found in Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Michigan. Cyclic evaporite strata occur in the west Texas
Permian wber basal sha1 is overlain in succ ssion by dolomite, anhydrite, and salt.
HaHte is PI' cipitated by evaporation of sea water. The banding has
b n described as seasonal, with dark anhydrite layers forming in
warmer months and halite in cool r periods, and the pair representing
the annual d position. How ver, washing may reveal other colorless
anhydrit bands in the apparently pure halite layers. Uncommon ripple
marks demonstrat the presence of local d trital salt. Some rocks were
halite-gypsum aggr gates originally with gypsum altered to halite
and/or anhydrite. Polyhalite is secondary. Th rocks give much evi-
159
160
Microscopic Petrography
161
'cm:
162
Microscopic Petrography
Mineralogy. Some anhydrite is also commonly pr sent, and gypsumanhydrite ro 'ks grad into rocks containing mainly anhydrite. Other
min rals includ calcite, dolomit , haHt , sulfur, barit , quartz, and
clay. Many strata are relatively impure. Doubly terminated quartz
crystals, some with a pseudocubic habit and included hematite, have
b n found in cavities in massive gypsum.
Textures and Microstructures. The texture is fine- to coarse-grained,
bedded or massive, equigranular or heterogranular. Gypsum forms
(b)
45. (a) Rock 6'YPs um, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Tabular to fibrous gypsum
( twinned) replacing anhydrite. Nicols cro s d, X 10. (b) Rock anhydrite, Sun
City, Kansas. Vein of granular gypsum replacing radial anhydrite. Nicols not
crossed, XIS. (Courtesy of D. MacGregor.)
FIG.
163
Anhydrite-gypsum rocks grade into rock gypsum. Similarly anhydrite-halite rocks pass into rock salt. Anhydrite-polyhalite rocks
pass into rock salt. Anhydrite-polyhalite rocks are transitional types
between anhydrite-halite (Fig. 46a) or anhydrite-dolomite (Figs.
46b, c) rocks and polyhalit rocks.
Textures and Microstructures. AnhydIite displays a variety of forms:
irregular interlocking grains, equidimensional to elongate; bladed to
fibrous fans with curved cleavag s (Fig. 45b) ; rectangular Or tabular
euhedra and rectangular crystals with steplike boundaries. Combinations of various habits occur together. Likewise anhydrite rocks can
be equigranular or heterogranular. Larg euhedra of anhydrite occur
in fin -grained sugary anhydrite, polybalite, and magnesite. The min-
164
Microscopic Petrography
( a)
(b)
FTG.
165
166
Micl'osco'pic Petrogmpity
167
brownish yellow, with irregularly distributed color. Accessory material includes angular particles of quartz and feldspar, rare fragments
of brown vitrophyre, calcit and celestite grains, and calcite spheflllites. The rock is considered to have b 'en formed by the replacement
of limestone by meteoric waters.
Rock Borates
168
district of California is thought to have been formed by contact metamorphism of a lake borax deposit.
Soda Niter (Caliche)
From the quantitative petrographic viewpoint nitrates form unimportant rocks. Th principal occurrences are in the Atacama and
Tarapaca deserts of northern Chile. Herc the main mineral is soda
niter, NaNOs, with variable amounts of anhydrite, gypsum, halite,
glauberite, bloedite; niter, KNOll; darapspite, Na a (NO a )(SO.) H 2 0;
and a variety of borates, chromates, and iodates. Soda niter is usually
massive granular, showing a perfect (1011) cleavag , xtreme birefringence, and "twinkling" (( = 1.337, w
1.585 ). The calich beds
may be as much as 12 ft thick locally and ar overlain by thin gravel,
sand, and gypsum. It is generally agreed that the nitrates have been
deposit d by evaporation of gronnd water, but the source of the nitrogen has been much disputed. PhYSiographic and climatic factors have
been the main controls in localizing the d posits.
Rock Sulfur
Analcite is a prominent and charact ristic mineral of some argillaceous sedimentary b ds, occurring in oolites with concentric structure, as c m nt, as crystals, and in v in! ts. Oolites may be present as
169
6
METAMORPHIC ROCKS-GENERAL
171
in geological environments within the lithosphere and excepting environments on the surface of the lithosphere. During metamorphism a
mineralogical assemblage, which attain d chemical equilibrium under
on set of physical conditions, att mpts to reachieve equilibrium when
placed in a new physicaJ environment.
Chemical Closses
172
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Microscopic Petrography
173
pressure wel'C regarded as increasing from epi- to katazone, wh reas
stress was consider >d as generally decreasing with depth.
Another me. ns of expressing intensity variations is by metamorphic
grade, which indicates the degree Or stage of metamorphism that a
rock has attained. In practice one chooses a rock unit of nearly fixed
composition and observes the successive appearance of certain index
minerals at different places in the formation. In alllminous (pelitic)
rocks the diagnostic minerals, in increasing intensity order, are chlorite, biotite, garnet, staurolite, kyanite, sillimanite, under regional metamorphic conditions. Analogous sequ nces are available for other rock
groups, .g., chlorite, ch)oritoid, actinolite, hornblende in basic rocks,
and increase in the Ca content (anorthite) of plagioclase in feldspathic rocks. By joining pOints on a map that mark the initial appearance of each of the diagnostic minerals, mineral isograds (biotite
isogracl, sillimanite isograd, etc.) may be defined, which represent
the intersection of th e margins of a metamorphic equal -intensity zone
with the surface of the earth . In many cases, at least, isograds correspond to isothermals, which increa e in value toward an area or focus
of highest int nsity. Although th device has been applied largely to
areas underlain by r gional metamorphic rocks, si.milar zonal relations
were earlier shown to exist in some con tact m tamorphic aureoles,
where in pelitic rocks the key minerals in increasing grade sequence
are sericite-chlorit , andalusite-cordierite, and sillimanite. Similarly
in carbonate rocks increasing intensity sequences, such as tremolite,
diopside, wollastonite, larnite-spulTite, are known.
The concept of metamorphic faci es is an attempt to extend recognition of specific metamorphic nvironments for all metamorphic rocks,
irrespective of their composition . A metamorphic facies includes all
rocks of the same or varying ch mical composition that have achieved
equilibrimn in a given g o)ogical environm nt or, as usually expressed,
under a specinc combination of temperature-pressure conditions.
Rocks belonging to th same facies may be considered as having attained the same grade of m tamorphism. The assignment of a rock to
a particular facies depends upon recognition of specinc mineralogical
assemblages, which are regarded as diagnostiC of the faci s. A facies
is named after some rock (preferably common) that belongs to it.
For purposes of rock identification, however, which, after all, must
precede any attempted assignment of th gen tic environmental conditions, it is not practical to describe rocks initially according to facies
groups. The facies designation can be given only aft r the mineralogy,
texture, field r lations, and a sociations of the rock have been studi d
.~
.. "
....
~c
~..,
&:a
c
"
'~ JJ
,...
c"
",0
~
~
..;8
"
H
.. 0
~e
-;;;
c
'Q
"
p::
.&
:ac.
..8
...
-;;;
~c
"o
1l
C ...
".,
c "
e~
00
l!l "
=
... '"
~.!:
oS
:0
8.
~o
~t~e~
<v-:;:"
----+---------,---~--------+-----------
]
E
..,o
"~
175
176
Microscopic Petrography
and correlated . lot all proposed facies ar well established, nor are
the temperature-pressure conditions definable exc pt in a very general
way. The g nerally accepted faci s their min ralogicaJ criteria, and
their environm ntal conditions are pr s nted in Tabl 7.
In this book an attempt has been made to grollp metamorphic rocks
into min ralogical groups, in so far as possible. From th standpoint
of genesis this results here and ther in some unusual bedfellows. Conv rs 1y, however, if the rocks are grouped by means of faci es, mineralogical mesalliances are the rule, and the beginning student may
cxperieuc considerable difficulty in rock identification.
TEXTURES AND MICROSTRUCTURES
Cataclastic Textures
CatacJastic t xtur sand f atures result from the mechanjcal disruption of mineral grains or grain aggregates. Individual grain characteristics include wavy or irregular extinction (Fig. 490 ); anomalo11S
2V in uniaxial minerals (quartz, calcite ); bent, brok n, or mkrofaulted
cleavage and twin planes; and intt:mal or marginal granulation.
Quartz may show Bohm lamellae, which are fine lamellae with minute
inclusions, form d apparently by gliding along surfaces subparallel
with (0001).
Quartzose or quartz-feldspar rocks may show mortar strLlctur , in
which grains a1' girdled by a much fin r gl'ained marp;inal aggregate.
Further cataclasis may proceed along sets of subparallel planes resulting in very fin e grained zon s or strcaks (Fig. 49c). This leads in
ultimate development to rocks that are completely pulverized to
cryptocrystalline and even optically isob'opic mat rial ( mylonite,
pseudotachylite ).
Crystalloblastic Textures
Metamorphic Rocks-General
177
series has heel) dev loped in which high r listed sp 'cit's tend to show
idioblastic fac s against those listed lower in the column .
Rutile, spinel, magnetite, sphen , pyrite
Garnet, staurolite, andall.1site, tourmaline, chloritoid
Clinozoisit -epidot , zoisite, forsterite, chondrodite
Wollastonjte, amphiboles, pyroxenes
Biotite, muscovite, chlorites, talc
Dolomite, calcite
Cordi rite, scapolite
l' eJdspars, quartz
With little difficulty one can find numerous exceptions to this generalized scheme. Th series is a function of the crystal structures of the
minerals, at least in part.
In decussate textures the grains, partkularly platy or prismatic
minerals, lie crisscross. ParaH I or subparall el orientations of platy or
flaky minerals are lepidoblastic in texture; similar unangements of
prismatic or fibrous minerals ar nematoblastic (s e under Foliation ).
Porphyroblasts
178
Microscopic Petrography
Some petrologists would confine porphyroblasts to crystals resulting from the rearrangement of elements available in the rock and
would use metacrysts for large, generally idioblastic grains r suIting
from the introduction of materials. Only in som cascs, from the chemical nature of the large crystals and the Beld relations of the rock, is
it possible to decide if the crystals have been form d as the result
of metasomatism (i.e., that they are metacrysts rather than porphyroblasts )-microcline in schists adjacent to granite plutons; tourmaline in
schists adjacent to pegmatites (Fig. 58b).
Relict Textures
Metamorphic Rocks-General
179
FIG. 47. Pressure shadow of feath r quartz around pyrite metacrysts in slate,
Mariposa formation (Juras ic), Moth r Lodt' belt, California. Nicols crossed.
(After A. Knopf. U.S. Geological Survey.)
180
Microscopic Petrography
18]
TABLE
8.
Ro
Liost
Gut'st
Rock examples
(~uartz-.felds).lar
182
Microscopic Petrography
183
7
DESCRIPTIONS OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic breccias (also called friction breccias) are characterized by angular units consisting in the main of rock fragments , not
uncommonly of varying size, set in a normally subordinate matrix
made up of smaller rock pieces and mineral fragments and powder.
Many breccias are so coarse grained that thin-section studies of anything but the matrix ar impractical. If the particles are of smaller
size and inconspicuous in h<nd specimen, th term microbr ccia may
be employed. In such rocks the individual elements are usually sharply
angular to only slightly rounded (Fig. 49a). Many of the pieces show
internal fractW'ing, and some of their component mineral grains may
show strain, cleavage rupturing, and bent cleavage or twinning planes.
If considerabl rotation of the particles has occurred, tbe corners become rounded off through mutual abrasion, producing subangular to
rounded pieces and supplying considerable additional finer rock and
min ral powder for th matrix, which may thus predominate. Such
cataclasites hav b n r ferred to as crush conglomerat s. In sam
types breccia pi ces are surrounded by numerous subparallel shear
184
185
surfaces along which the rock has been much more intensely granulated, resulting in a fragmented and str aked texture. Some recrystallization may take place along the sh ar planes (kakirite).
Brecciation affects a wide variety of rocks lllcluding such types as
sandstones, limestones, plutonic igneous rocks, quartzites, marbles,
and gneisses. Some of th so-called schistose grits may also be included in this group. These ar naceous sediments, well r pres nted
in the Highland Border of Scotland, show varying degrees of trans-
.FIc. 49a, b. (a) Brecciated arkose; microcline, orthoclase, quartz. Hot Springs,
Arkansas. icols crossed, x9. (b) Biotite gneiss, cataclastically ddormcd; quartz,
orthoclase, hiotite. Neihart district, Montana. Nicols not crossed, x9.
formation, from cataclastic to higher-grade regional metamorphic effects. In th former quartz grains may be rotated, strained, fractured,
and attenuated. The pelitic matrix is sheared and alter cl to fin grain d sericite, or to a fin -grained sericite-chlorit -albite aggregate
with some quartz, epidote, and sph n .
Phacoidal Rocks
In phacoidal rocks the characteristic textural feature consists of ellipsoidal or lensoid units in a finer-grain cl matrix that is brecciat tl
and sheared. Some aug n gneisses that belong to this category are
quartz-feldspar rocks in which ellip oidal Single-crystal "eyes" of
186
MicroscopiC Petrography
187
metamorphic minerals, including sericite, chlorite, fine-grain d graphite, and quartz. If the original rocks were also metamorphic, relict
grains of higher-grade minerals may survive, including garnet, biotite,
staurolite, kyanite, and andalusite, which will display marginal alteration to chlorite or sericite. Many phyllonites display remnant microfolds of curved mica flakes at various angles to the pronounced
schistosity.
Mylonites have b n formed by extreme milling and complete
pulverization of rocks along major fault zones under strong confinin~
pressure. The grain siz usually is exceedingly fin , but thin lenses of
slightly coarser grains or bands of more intense crushing may parallel
the lamination. The lamination, which resembles flow structure in
some volcanic glasses, is locally accentuated by darker-colored layers
and thin trains of dusty magnetite. Many rocks that show mylonitization are relativ Iy inactive chemically, such types as sandston s,
quartzHes, granites, and quartz-feldspar gneisses being strongly represented, but such rocks as gabbros and peridotites may also be mylonitized. For varieties that display a strong foliation the superfluous
name mylonite schist has been used.
Gouges are also fine-grained products of extreme cataclasis along
fault zones but have been developed tmder weak confining pressure.
Thus the resulting product, which commonly contains quartz, clay
minerals, sericite, chlorite, and other relict rock minerals, is very
weakly cohesive.
Vitrifled Rocks
Extrem exampl s of cataclastic metamorphism are rocks b'ansformed into vih'eous material, which tmder the microscope appears as
a nonpolarizing glassy substance but which x-rays may reveal to be
only cryptocrystalline. Such dark rocks are called ultramylonit sand
ps udotachylites. The German term Hartschiefer and the English
term flinty crush-rock designate similar rocks. These rocks occur as
lenticles in mylonit s and locally along ov rthrust b Its. In some cases
they form small dik s, having been injected in a manner similar to
igneous material. Gneisses with veins of Illtramylonitic rock have been
referr d to as trapshott n gneisses. Parent rocks of ultramylonites are
the same as those of mylonites.
PYROMET AMORPHIC ROCKS
Microscopic Petrography
rocks occw' along th margins of some dikes and sills, along the floors
of lava flows , wher volcanic bombs fell into sand, along the floors and
roofs of burning coal seams, and as xenoliths in intrusive and extrusive
rocks.
Porcellanites (also used for silicified tuffs and some cherts) are
hard, aphanitic rocks with the fractme and texture of unglazed porcelain, formed by baking of clays and shales marginal to coal seams
ignited either spontan ously or by man. Th rocks are very fin
<Trained to cryptocrystalline aggr 'gates of quartz, f ldspars, and
mica' ous min erals.
Fritted or vitrifi d sandstones (bornstones ) (Fig. 50a ) consist of
(a)
from contact witl1 basaltic bomb; quartz
remnants in 1 chatlicrite, some magnetite. Sunset Crater, Arizona. Nicols not
cross d, X21. (b) Xenolith of homb] ode granite in b-Isalt; quartz and turbid
feldspar partly melted. larg hornhlcnd cony rted to diopsid -glass mixtllre.
Mitlcchtcrn, Odenwa)d. G 'rmany. Nicols not crossed, x21.
FIC.
50a, b.
189
sembling "h'ue" quartzites) . If the sandstone contained ac essory calcite, chlorite, or clay minerals, pyroxenes may be developed.
Where aluminous or siliceolls rocks have be n includ cl in basalts,
gabbros, and ultramafic rocks both recrystallization and partial m ltin g
may have occurred. Such rocks are buchites (also basalt jaspis and
basalt jasper) and consist of fin e-grained aggregates of various combinations of cordierite, mullit, sillimanite, tridymite, corundum,
spinel, anorthit to labradorite, augit , nstatite-hypersthene, and magnetite, set in an abundant matrix of light-color d to brownish glass.
Round d residual quartz genins
may be preserv d. The glass may
also contain such crystallites as
trichit s or globulites, gas pores,
and various microlit s. The cordierite appears in a variety of
forms: hexagonal crystals and
spi ral , parallel, and irregular clusters (indialite).
Some buchites also show evidenc of metasomatism, particularly those nclosed in intcl'mediate ign ou rocks. Min rals
such as sanidine and plagioc:lase
ar . introduced. The sanidinites of
th Laacher S a area in Germany
(Fig. 50c), which occur as blocks
SOc. Solnirlinile; unidinc crysta ls
in trachytes and phonolites, con- FIG.
with interstitial glassy to t:rypluCJystal.
tain various combinations of glass, line aggregate. Laacl1Pr Sea, , rmany.
i ols nol <:rossed, X 10.
sa nidine, cordierite, sillimanite,
hypersth ne, scapolite, corundum,
spinel, and relict staurolite and garnet. Th y w re formed by the combination of thermal metamorphism and soda m tasomatism of pelitic
sediments. Other sanirunites are hybrids between phonolit s ( or
trachytes) and m tamorphos d pelitic ediments and resemble igneous
rocks, containing such other species as oligoclas , biotite, sodie
amphibole, sodalite, nosean and haiiyn . Man y of th rocks have a
miarolitic, subh dral-granular t xture. In sanirun -rich varieties thf
feldspar forms blocky crystals with other constituents confined to th
subordinate interstitial matrix.
Xenoliths of m tam orphic rocks, such as schists in basalt, may show
alteration of quartz marginally and along cracks to tridymite, some
190
Microscopic Petrography
191
spars; chlorite and magnetite after biotite; and hornblende after hypersthene or augite. Cornubianite has b en used as a varietal name
for micaceous hornfcls.
Textures and Microstructures. Cordierite commonly forms highly
poikilitic porphyroblasts, u uaJJy with ragg d, denticulate borders. In
some, inclusions ar so abundant that the cordierite forms only an
irregular sponge. Sector twinning is common, and a bluish tint may be
(a)
FIG. SIa,
Complex,
X 11. (b)
aggregate.
192
Microscopic Petrography
potted slates al' hemi ally eqtdval cl1t to hornfelses but appear
in th , outer parts of contact allreol s d v loped in slates and phyllit s.
At the lower t mperatures the 'chistosity is retajned, and minerals
such as hyp rsthene, sillimanite, and garn t are not develop d, and
cordierit and andalusite are formed only exc ptionally, in highly
193
aluminous types. The normal minerals are muscovite and biotit '.
Quartz and sodic plagioclase at' common.
Th rocks have a spott d or maculose, texture. In th lowest-grade
rocks the spots are clots of minnte graphite flakes or clusters of tiny
magnetite grains (Fleckschiefer). In slightly higher-grad types micas,
especially biotite, may appear in aggregat s of coarser flakes (Knotenschi fer). In some types andalusit or cordierit forms small but distinct porphyroblasts (Fig. SIc) (Fruchtschiefer, Garbenschief 1',
I ptynolite).
Matrix micas are usually subparallelly oriented and may "flo'vv
around" porphyroblasts. Mica porphyroblasts may be distinctly poikiIitic. Quartz veinJets may b locally abundant.
Descriptio1lS of Metamorphic Rocks
Other Hornfelses
Hornfelses of markedly different composition result from the contact metamorphism of rocks other than shales. Sandstones ar converted to quartzites. Feldspathic sandstones, arkos s, and felsic volcanic rocks are recrystallized to granoblastic quartz-feldspar-biotite
rocks, resembling som granulites mill ralogically, but usually nnergrained and nonfoliated. These are called arenaceous hornfelses.
Limestones and dolomitic lim stones are transformed into marbles
and Ca-Mg-silicate rocks. Contact m tamorphism of basalts and andesites produced mafic hornfelses-dense, dark- olored granoblastic aggregates of calcic plagioclase, hyp rsthene, diopsicl , accessory magnetite, sphene, and apatit , and in some varieties olivine OJ' biotite or
hornblende. Such rocks resembl various pyroxen granulites in mineral composition.
MARBLES AND RELATED ROCKS
Marbles
194
Microscopic Petrography
9.
T ypc of siliclLLE'
a s ilicatc
Example
Wollastonite
Clinozoisite
a-Mg sili(:at!' or
Tl'emolite
Mg siJir,af,c + nCO, Forstl'ri te + ('llkitl'
Ca-Mg-AI sili('otp
V08uviaJlile
Thus th list of accessory constituents is long and the possibl combinations are highly variabJ , owing ( 1) to original basic chemical
(b)
F ,G. 520, h. (a) Mllrble; calcite in granoblastic t xture. Tate. Georg.ia. Ni ols not
crossed, X 10. ( h ) Marble; ca lcite in sutured texture. Felch, Michiga n. Nicols
crossed, X 10.
De~'criptjons
of Metmn01phic Rocks
195
196
Microscopic Petrograpily
(I)
FIc. 53a, b. (a) Ophicalcite; calcite, lobate grains of forsterit; partly alter d to
serpentine, quartz (clear ), graphite upper rig/lt. Moriah. New York. Nicols not
Tossed, X 10. (b) Pcncatite; calcite, brucite rosettes after periclas . Ontario,
Canada. Nicols crossed, x21.
section (Kraus, Hunt, and Ramsdell, Mineralogy, 4th ed., pp. 226-227,
McGraw Hill Book Company, IDc., N w York, 1951).
Banded varieties also occur, either with alternating coarse- and
fine-grained layers or with som layers richer in various accessory
minerals. Among the more uncommon varieties containing both carbonates in abundance, there ar those containing alternations of
irregular calcit grains with angular dolomit grain . Others contain
dolomite concentrated in I nses and hingers. Some dolomitic marbles
are cut by calcit vein 1 ts.
The grain size varies greatly: grain as small as 0.0075 mm have
b en measured, and anhedra of calcite rea h a foot on edge excep-
Descriptjon~
of Metamorphic Rocks
197
tionally. Fin -grained types range in average grain size from 0.02 to
0.5 rom ' medium-grained, 0.5 to 1 mm; and coars>-grained, 1 to 5 mm.
Types in whieh silicates and other accessories are relatively abundant may show more complex textural patterns. Porphyroblasts of
chlorite, tremolite, forsterite (usually altered to serp ntine) , phlogopite, grossularite, clinozoisite, vesuvianite, scapolite, wollastonite,
chondrodite, and dravit may be conspicuous. Some v suvianite groups
arc set in shells of feldspar . The silicat s or oth race ssories may be
concentrated in thin bands, streaks, or granular to radial aggregates.
Many contain inclusions of other
minerals. Periclase usually appears
as corroded relicts showing cubic
cleavage, set in a rounded, whorllik aggr gate of curved brucite
plates. Where both s rpentine
pseudomorphs after forsterit and
brucite pseudomorphs after pcriclase appcar in the same rock, some
cJjffieulty may arise in separating
th m. Dravite and chondrodit ' also
occur together and may b confused . The platy and prismatic silicat '5, as well as the crystal direction s of the calcite, are oriented to
varying degrees in regional marbles, but are usuall y irregularly
FIG. 53e. Clinozoisi te-d iopsidp-scaparranged in contact types.
olite rock ; clinozoisite in radJating
Occurrence and Origin. Marb] s
clusters of twinned nnd zoned
are formed either by contact metablades . Dillon, Moutana. Nicols
crossed, X lO.
morphism or regional metamorphism of limestones or dolomites. Contact types may also have had some elements mctasomatically added,
particular H~ O (tremolite, brucite, serpentin ), F (apatite, phlogopite, vesuvianite), B (tourmaline, axinite), and S (pyrite, pyrrhotite ).
P ricla marbles are not found in regional metamorphic assemblages.
Examples are known from the Organ Mountains, N w Mexico. The
follOWing series indicates generally increasing temperature of formation : (I) tremolite, (2) forsterite, (3 ) diopside, (4) P riclas , and
(5) wollastonite. Marbles containing these minerals belong in the
pyroxene hornfels facies.
In the United States mar};>I s are abundant in southwestern Mon-
198
Microscopic Pet1'ography
(a)
FlG. 54a, b. (a) Calc-Uinta; dark bands rich in diopside, epidote, and axinite,
light hands of quartz and wollastonite. St. Dennis, Cornwal1, England. Nicols not
crossed, X 10. (b) Calc-silicate hornfels; erenulated bands of diopside in quartz,
garnet, Yestlyiunite, phlogopite. Fri drichsbrunn, Harz Mountains, G rmany.
ieols crossed, X 10.
]90
via nit (Fig. 54b), epidote-group minerals, wollastonite, and scapolit
are other common and widespread constitll nts. Several members of
the epidote group may appear together. Accessories are calcite, quartz,
sphen , pyrite, graphite, magnetite, microcline, pbJogopite, apatite,
tremolite, and hornblende.
Textures and Microstructures. The texture is commonly granoblastic,
fine- to medium-grained. Small-scale mineralogical banding is wid spr ad. Garnet-, pyroxene- or epidote-rich bands may altemate. In
some varieties concentric arrangement of mineraJ species is locally
conspicuous. Garnets may show zoning and twinning. Porphyroblastic texture is not common, but minerals such as vesuvianite, gam t,
and sphene may be subhedral to euhedral.
Origin and Occurrence. Calc-silicate hornfelses ar form d by contact m tamorphism of argillaceou limestones and dolomites in which
the non calcareous part was of such an amount that it reacted with all
of the carbonate, so that none of the calcite remains. Excellent xamples are known from the Si rra Nevadas. Rocks of this group can
be referred either to the amphibolite or pyrox ne-hornf Is facies, most
of them to the latter. In the formation of some, metasomatism has
been a contribu ting factor, with introduction of such elements as Fe,
F, B, and S.
Description of Metamorphic Rocks
Colc Schists
1. Lowest grade
Calcite-sericite (cipolin or cipolino)
Calcite-sericite-chlorite aibit
Calcite-antigorite
Calcite-talc
Quartz may be present; magnetite and sphene are common a cessories; dolomit may proxy in part for calcite
2. Intermediate grade
Calcite-epidote (or zoisite )-biotit
Calcite-epidote-tremolite (or actinolite)
Calcite-tremolit dolomite
200
MicroscopiC Petrography
Textur sand Micro s/rtl cttl1CS. Th foliation is usually distinct, resulting principally from parallel elongated lenses of calcite ( or calcite
and dolomite) and parallel arT
rangem nt of micas, tremoHte-actinolite (Fig. 54c ), and hombl nde.
Individual carbonate grains may
also be lensoid. Not uncommon
banded textures consist of alternating fine- and coarse-grain d carbonate layers, or lay r concentrations of micas, epidote-group minerals, diopside, and amphiboles.
The carbonate minerals commonly show marked twinning,
much of it apparently formed by
twin gHding during plastic deformation. Twin lamellae may be b ent.
Granulation and various degrees of
recrystallization may also be conFIG. 54c. Calc sc11ist; calcite, quartz,
spicuous, some dolomite appearing
chlorite, actinolite. Shclby, North
as rhombic euh dra. In higherCarolina. N'cols cro sed, X 10.
grade types calcite usually is
coarse-grained and may show a small 2V. Orientation of crystallographic clir ctions is th rule.
Micas and chlorite are thinly tabular; biotit Hakes and rounded to
ovoid grains of epidot -group minerals are widely associated in bands.
201
202
Microscopic Petrography
203
204
Microscopic Petrography
Bands
Diopside gn eiss. . . . . . . ..
Diopside gneiss ... .. ... .
Diopside gneiss ........ ,
ScapoliLc marble . . . . . ..
Diopside-zoisite gneiss ..
Garnct-zo isit gneiss.. ..
At several localities (Scawt Hill, Lam , Ireland; Little Belt Mountains, Montana; Crestmore, California; Tres Hermanos Mountains and
Iron Mountain, N w Mexico; Velard fia, Durango, Mexico; and Nanjangud, Mysore, India) siliceous limestones or dolomites have b n
altered by high-temperature contact metamorphism, particularly
around mafic intrusives, to aggregates of calcite and various 1'ar Ca
or Ca-Mg silicates. These include larnite, rankinite, scawtite, spurrite,
205
till 'yite, m rwinit , and 'uspidine, as well as the more common
melilite and monticeJlite. Magnetite, pleonaste, and perovskite ar
common accessories. Some of these rocks display evidence of l'etrograd metamorphism, with th development of rare secondary silicates
such as afwillite, tobermorite, foshagite, hillcbrandite, riversideite,
and cebollite.
Most of the aggregates show a finc- to medium-grained granoblastic
texture, with some of the constituents subhedral to euhedral. Porphyroblastic texture may also b developed. Under crossed nieols
multiple lamellar twinning is conspicuous in many of these rare silicates.
Magnesite Rocks
Magnesit rocks are formed by the metasomatic alteration of limestones, calcitic marbles, dolomites, or dolomitic marbles and form
lenses, layers, or irregular bodies. The associat d rocks may be \ll1metamorphosed sediments or they may be metamorphic rocks of differ nt grades-marbles, mica schists, graphite schists, and quartzites,
as is typical of the deposits in the Austrian Alps (Veitsch, Styria).
Other well-known magnesite d posits are in southern Manchuria, in
British Columbia, near Chewelah, Washington, and near Gabbs,
Nevada.
The rocks consist principally of magnesite, which in some occurrences is largely free of Fe 2 and in others contain isomorphous Fe 2 in
appreCiable amounts. Dolomit usually is present, in resorbed relicts
in the cor s of magnesite grains, as marginal replacements of magnesite grains, in veinlets, as corroded relict blocks, or in a zone marginal to the entire magnesite body. Thin plates of calcite or relict
calcite aggregates may also OCcur. Other minerals are talc, in grains
and pseudomorphs after magnesite; scales of graphit ; plates of
leuchtenbergite; and scattered quartz, serpentine, brucite, and pyrite.
Associated in sam places are talc mass s with porphyroblasts of magnesite and hlorite schists with phlogopite porphyroblasts.
Ro ks called sagvandites (Tromso, Norway) consist of mediumto fine-grain
granoblastic aggr gates of iron-bearing magnesite
(bl'ennnerite) and enstatite (bronzit ) with accessory phlogopite and
chromite.
The texture is usually granoblastic, with little or no orientation of
the magnesite anhedra. In some typ s the grain size varies markedly
over short distanc s, with som grains attaining a diam ter of an inch
or more. Other typ s (pinolite) consist of lens s of light- olored mag-
Petrography
11e ite grains in a netlike matrix of dark fin r-grained magn site. Along
the margins of some magnesite masses cataclastic textur ~s become
prominent.
Rocks named listwanites, which are widespread in the Ural M(luntains, consist of various carbonates-chiefly magnesit or ferroan magnesite but also dolomite, ankerite, and calcite, together with variable
amounts of quartz, talc, and accessory chlorite, antigorite, magnetite,
and chromite. Som of th talc appears to be ps udomorphous after
enstatite. Some of these rocks are considered to represent metamorphosed limestones or dolomites, whereas others may be hydrothermally altered serpcntinites.
M~croscopic
206
Definition. Quartzites are metamorphic rocks consisting predominantly of quartz, although some rocks labeled quartzites contain as
much as 40 per cent other minerals.
(0)
(b)
55. (a) Quartzite. Southern Ruby Mouotains, Montana. Nicols cross d, XIO.
(b) Quartzite.Henry's Lake, north ast rn Idaho. Nicols crossed, X 10.
FICo.
207
20
Microscopic Petrography
209
quartzite of northern New Mexico, the Siollx (pre-Cambrian) quartzite of northwestern Iowa and adjacent South Dakota, the Antietam
(Lower Cambrian) quartzite of Maryland, and the Baraboo (preCambrian) quartzite of Wisconsin. Fuchsite quartzites (pale to deep
emerald green) are known in the Medicine Bow Mountains of Wyoming (Medicine Peak quartzite, pre-Cambrian). Many and various
secondary quartzites have been describ d from the U.S.S.R.
Argillites
Microscopic Pet'l'Ogmphy
210
string rs. Banding of sedimentary inheritance may be at various angles
to th foliation. In addition to the primary foliation or slaty cl avag ,
which is th r suIt of mineral orientation, a secondary or fals cleavag'
may b present across the major structure. This secondary structure
results from the parallelism of the axial planes of numerous minute
folds or plications. In some places th corrugations pass into tiny
shear fractures. Small lenses of semiradial calcite, chlorite, quartz
( Fig. 56a), or muscovite appear in some vari ti s. Porphyroblasts
are not common, consisting of
magnetite, pyrit , or chlOIite
in euJledral Hakes transverse to
th foliation. Pressure-shadow
growths of quartz or of quartz
and chlorite may be d vcloped
on two sides of the magnetite
or pyrit crystals, elon gated with
the foliation dir ction. Chlorite
also forms rhombs pseudomor- '
phoLls after carbon at. Quartz
app ars both in rounded grains
and as irregular patches of cement. Rutile is an abundant
matrix mineral, forming minute
n edl s (clay slate needles) of
random arrangement within foliation planes. Many purple or
F IG, 560. Siale; coarser quartz lenses in
reddish slates have green spots
quurtz-sericit -chlorite-magnetite matrix.
Granville, New York. icol~ not crossed, of circular, ellipsoidal, or irregular outline, which range from a
x22.
fraction of an inch to several
inches in diameter. The diff renee in color is due to the absence of
hematite in th green areas, which usually contain more calcite.
Occurrence and Origin. Slates ar formed by low-grade regional
metamorphism of clays and shales, very rarely of tuffaceous rock '. Th
fine-grained texture is largely 1nb rited; recrystallization is minor.
Slates al' included in the chlorite zone of r gional metamorphism,
formed under the environment of tIle muscovite-chlorite subfacies of
the greenschist facies . In the United States slat s CCUl' in Pennsylvania
(Martinsburg formation, Ordovician age), in New York (Mettawee
formation, Cambrian age), in various othel' parts of the Appalachian
belt, and also in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan (pr -Cambrian).
211
Phyllites
FIC. 56b, c. (b) Phyllite; muscovite, q uartz, minor biotite, magn tite; plicat d
foliation. Albenlarle County, Virginia. Nicols not crossed, x22. (c ) Phyllite;
muscovite, ?rumpl d quartz hands, magnetite. Eastern Beartooth Mountains,
Montana. NI('ols crossed, X 10.
Mineralogy. Phyllites contain chieHy fin e-grained muscovite (sericite) (Fig. 56b), chlorite, quartz, and the acc ssori s magnetite, hematite, ilmenite, rutile, tourmahne, zircon, graphite, and pyrite. Some
types are calcar ous, with calcite and epidote relatively abundant.
Less common are albite, chloritoid, and biotite. Limonite is a common
secondary constitu nt. Phyllites fall into three convenient mineralogical types: sericite phyllites, chlorite phyllites, and sericite-chlorite
phyllites. Exceptionally rocks that are phyllites megascopically contain relatively abundant fin -grained biotite in bands or even scattered
212
Mict'osco'pic Pet1'ogl'ophy
MICACEOUS SCHISTS
Chlorite Schists and Related Rocks
213
Chlorite,
Chlori:e,
Chlorite,
Chlorite,
Chlorite,
The more common chlorite species are clinochlore, pennine, or prochloritc. If gam t is pr s nt, it is spessartitic in composition. Quartz
usually is abunuant but in som varieties becomes subordinate to albite
(b)
Flc. 57a, h. (a) Chlorite schist (gre nschist ); chlorite, epidotr. albitt!, muscovite,
<luurtz, sphene. Bluemont, Virginia. Nicols crosst!d, X22. (b) Chlorite-muscovite
schist; chlorite, muscovite, quartz, magnetite. Eight Mile Park, Fremont County,
Culorado. Nicols not crossed, XIO.
214
Microsc~pic
Petrogra1?hy
sericite, and carbonate. It is formed by the low-temp ratur hydrothermal alteration of andesites and basalts (rarely rhyolites). Adinole
is an albite-quartz-chlorite rock with accessory epidote, actinolite,
sphene, pyrite, magnetite, and calcite, formed by the low-grade contact
metasomatism of shales, argillites, and slates by diabases. Spilosite is
similar without quartz; d smosite is a band d spilosite.
Textures and Microstructures. The texture is usually fin - to mediumgrained, well foliated , witb a high d gree of orientation of the micaccous constituents. In some of the finer-grained types, which approach
phyllites, th chlorite shows a tendency to collect in aggregates and
patches. Chlorite also may b porphyroblastic in a mica-quartz matrix .
Albite forms minute anhedra to rounded porphyroblasts, with twinning absent or inconspicllous. It includes chlorite and magnetite. Garnet usually app aI'S as porphyroblasts, as may pyrit , tremolit , magnetite, and chloritoid. D cussate tcxtur s appear in some chlorite
schists, parti nIarly coar e-grained typ s.
Occurrence and Origin. Chlorite schists are formed by the ]owgrade regional metamorphism of p litic sedim nts, some ultramafic
ign ous rocks, basalts, and diabases, und er the environment of tlw
biotite-cbJorite subfacies of the greenschist facies. Some chlorite
schists are developed through retrograde metamorphism of biotite
schists Or arnphibolites. A well-known chlorite schist OCCllrs at Chester,
Vermont. thers are in northern Michigan, in the pre-Cambrian rocks
of Wyoming, Colorado, Montana, Utah, and N w Mexico, and in th e
low-grade zone of th Ammonoosuc Volcanics (Ordovician) of the
Littl ton-Moosilauke area, New Hampshire.
Chloritoid Schists
Definition. Chloritoid schists are schistose rocks containing chloritoid (or ottrelite, a manganiferous variety) as th principal micaceous
constituent, usually combined with a chlorite or mus 'ovit .
Mineralogy. Two common typ s ar chloritoid-muscovite scbist and
chloritoid-chJorite schist. Ottrelite schists are also included here.
Chloritoid commonly contains numerous inclusions or is zoned, eith r
concentrically or in hourglass structure. Twinning is common, and in
the same l'Ock sp imen 2V may be highly variabl , or both monoclinic
and triclinie chloritoid may OCCI1l' togcth >1'. Chloritoid ro ks may be
very rich in fine-grained mllS 'ovite (Fig. 57') , with or without chlorite; a w types contain chloritoid as the only essential micaceous
mineral. Quartz varies from a minor to a major constituent. Accessories are rutile, sphene, ilmenite, magn tite, tourmaline, zircon, hem a-
215
216
Microscopic Petrog"aphy
Stilpnomelane Schists
217
appears as porphyroblasts with cores crowded with inclusions of garnet, epidote, and magnetite; it is rarely twinned. Quartz, which may
display pronounc d undulatory extinction, also appears as blebs in
feldspar . Euhedral minerals includ actinolite and garnet. Actinolite
also forms porphyroblasts that may be inter grown with stilpnomelane
plat s. Sphene, calcite, pyrite, and epidote are usually anhedral, but
sphene and epidote may also be euhedral. Many stilpnomelane
schists show mineralogical banding.
Occur,.ence and 01igin. Sti]pnorn lane is formed by low-grade regional metamorphism (greenschist facies) of various quartz-feldspar
s diments containing a high ratio of Fe to Mg. WeIJ-studi d occurrences are found in Lake Wakatipu region, West Tn Otago, New
Z aland. B ' cause it is casily confused with biotite, stilpnomelane is
doubtless more Widespread than has been reported.
Muscovite Schists
Definition. Muscovite schists are schistose rocks containing muscovite as the principal micaceous mineral, in many ca ' s accompanied
by other micac ous minerals. Quartz normally is very abundant, without, or less commonly with, much f ldspar.
Min eralogy. Muscovite schists are conveniently grouped on the
basis of th main accompanying minerals:
Muscovite + garnet
Muscovit -chlorit
Muscovite-chloritoid garnet
M uscovit -biotite-chloritoid
Muscovite-biotite gam t
Muscovit -tourmalin (Fig. 58b) biotite + garnet
In this group also may be included the rare paragonite schists, but
paragonite cannot be distinguished from muscovite in thin section.
Also included are mica schists that contain a green chromian muscovite (fuchsite).
The proportions of the various constituents vary considerably. The
micaceous minerals may exceed quartz, but not uncommonly the r vers is true. Quartz normally dominates over feldspar, but in som
types ortho 'las (or microcline) and/ or oligoclas -andesine occur
abundantly. How vel', muscovit -rich schists in g n ral are poor in
potash f ldspar, and f ldspar may b absent or m rely accessory (Fig.
58~1 ). Other minerals that may be present in essential amounts are
almanditic gam t and epidote.
Microscopic Petrography
218
The accessories are numerou; common are magnetite, ilmenite,
hematit~, zircon, apatite, sphene, and rutile; less common are kyanite,
sillimanite, andalusite, staurolite, graphite, zoisite, cordierite, pyrite,
pyrrhotite, and spinel. Alteration minerals are sericite, kaolinite, limonite, leucoxene, and chlorite magnetite and sphene. Chlorite replaces biotite and garnet. Accessories reported from fuchsite schists
are oligoclase, chlorite, trcmolite, c1in ozoi site, sphene, tourmaline,
chromite, magnetite, pyrite, and pyrrhotite.
FIG. 58. (a) Muscovite schist; muscovite bands, quartz bands. Drill core, Porcupine Dome, Rosebud County, Montana. Nicols crossld, X 10. (b) Muscovit(-'tourmaline schist; muscovite, biotite, quartz, zoned tourmaline mctncrysts,
magnetite, minor feldspar. Black lliJis, Suuth Dakota. icols not crossed, X 10.
219
Biotite (quartz )
Biotite-muscovite
Biotit -chlorite chloritoid
Biotite-garnet
fliotite-andalusite
Biotit -hornhlende
Biotite-epidote
Biotit -plagioclase
The biotite is usually light or red brown in color, but green brown,
deeper olive brown, dark brown, and dark red brown shades also
appear. The common f Jdspar is plagioclase, albite to andesine, although in some rocks mOre calcic varieties may occur. Gamet varies
Microscopic Petrography
220
from a spessartite-almandite to an almandite-rich type (Fig. 59a).
Other min rals pr s nt in small to mod rate amounts are tourmaline,
microcline, sillimanite, staurolite, diopside, and rarely corundum
(Fig. 59b ). Accessories are also numerous and vari d: pyrite, hema tite, magn tite, iIm nite, graphit , apatite, zi rcon, sphene, rutile, calcite, corclierite, kyanite, actinolite, and anthophyllit. Secondary
minerals are chlorite chi efly from biotit , staurolite, garnet, and hornblende; sericite after feldspar , staurolite, andalusite, kyanite, and
FIC. 59. (a) Diotite-garnet schist; biotite, garnet, quartz, magnetite, minor feldspar. Latah County, Idaho. Nicols not cross d, X 10. ( b) Corundwn-biotite schist;
zoned porphyroblasts of corundum in biotite. Dillon, Montana. Nicols not crossed,
X IO.
221
Microscopic Petrography
222
amples arc widcspread, occurring in pr -Cambrian formations of
Idaho, Montana, Colorado (Idaho Springs formation), T xas, Nw
Mexico, and the Black Hills and also in the Appalachian belt, preCam brian and younger (Albee formation , Ordovician? and Fitch
formation, Silurian, New Hampshire). Good exampl s of andalusitebearing types are in the Littleton (Devonian) formation of the Sunapee Quadrangle, New Hampshire; near Bcrrenda, Madcra County,
alifornia; and in the llinconada member of the Ortega formation
( pr - ambrian) of 1I0rth-central New Mexico.
Grap hite Sch ists
FIG.
Tendoy
~1ol1n -
thc rock, its blackness and physical properties make it the most conspicuous mineral both microscopically and mcgascopically (Fig. 60a).
Many rocks includcd as graphite schists actually contain only 2 to
5 per cent of graphite. The other constituents are variabl , although
most graphitic schists are dominantly mi ac ous. Other essential minerals include muscovite, biotite, quartz, ortho lase, gam t, and silHmanite in various combinations. Accessories are plagioclase, apatite,
223
224
Microscopic Petrography
Textures and Microstructures. The rocks usually are markedly schistos , with parallelism of talc Bakes and oth r flaky or prismatic constitu nts. Talc also forms 1 nticles in which individual Hakes may lie
< Cross the foliation dir ction. Carbonates
( dolomite or magnesit )
appear in anh dra ' magnetit in nne dust or small euh edra. Corrod d
remnants of p)'rox ne appear rar I)'.
Occurrence and Origin. Talc is associated with serpentine (antigorit ) schists and rna grade into tremolite, anthophyllit , or cummingtonite schists . Talc is form d by low-grade regional meta-
FIG. 60b , c. (b) Talc-serpentine schist ; talc with band of cross- fiber antigorite.
Red Hock Quadrangle, New Mexit;o. Ni<.:ols crossed, X 10. (<.:) Talc-tremolite
rock; talc replacing tre1110lit . Turr "tl, Colorado. Nicols not crossed, X 10.
225
Definition. Pyrophyllite schists are markedly schistose to imperfectly foliated rocks consisting principally of pyrophYllite and quartz.
Mineralogy. The two most abundant minerals are pyrophyllite and
quartz, the proportions varying considerably. A distinction can be
made between pyrophyllite schists (less quartz) and pyrophylUtequartz schists (more quartz). Other minerals that may be present
in essen tial amounts arc chlorite, chloritoid, sericite, kaolinite, pyrite,
and feldspar. Accessories include hematite, magnetite, ilmenite, leucoxene, epidote, zoisite, calcite, alunite, diaspore, sphene, rutil , and
zircon. Relict minerals are potash feldspar, plagioclase, quartz, zircon,
and apatite.
Textures and Microstructures. Th textur may be strongly schistose
with marked parallelism of pyrophyUite Hakes and shred. This texture may be in part inherited from the platy 01' How structures of the
?riginal volcanic rocks. In only partly pyrophyllitized types th directional textur may be much less pronounced. Normally the rocks
ar fine-grained, so that the optical propel'ties of pyrophyl1ite are
measured with difficulty. Ghosts of quartz or feldspar phenocrysts appear in some varieties. Pyrophyllite, sericite, and chlorite ill' usually
in minute Hakes or shreddy plates. Rarely pyrophyllite forms minute
rosettes. hloritoid may appear in porphyroblasts. Quartz is mainly
interstitial, fine-grained to microcrystalline, with some single anhedra
and clusters, embayed by pyrophyllite.
Occurrence and Origin. Pyrophyllite is formed by hydrothermal alteration of felsic to intermediat volcanics, into which pyrophyllite
rocks grad . Parent typ 's includ rhyolite, quartz latit , dacite, and
andesite Hows and similar breccias and tuffs. In such rocks pyrophyllite bodies form elongate lens s to irregular masses. Pyrophyllitization,
which usually follows ext nsive silicification and is also accompanied
by silicification, is considered to take place at temp rutures below
400C. The Deep Riv r region of North Carolina, th San Dieguito
area of San Diego County, California, and th Conception Bay area
of Newfoundland contain examples of these rocks.
226
Microscopic Petrography
SILLIMANITE-GROUP SCHISTS AND GNEISSES
AND RELATED ROCKS
227
Definition. Kyanite schists and gneisses are kyanit '-rich rocks with
a well-developed schistosity or gneissic structure.
Mineralogy. Various combinations are common:
Kyanite-muscovite schist
Kyanite-biotite garnet (Fig. 6Ib) -+- staurolite schist or gneiss
Kyanite-biotite-sillimanite -+- garnet schist or gneiss
Less common are kyanite-ottrelite schists. Some varieties ar quartzose, others feldspathic; others contain both quartz and feldspar as
essenti al constituents. The feldspar is usually oligoclase or andesine,
but minor orthoclase or micro cline may also appear. Accessories are
andalusite, tourmaline, zircon, rutile, topaz, magnetite, ilmenite,
graphite, apatite, pyrite, and hematite. Sericite, kaolinite, chlorite,
pyrophyllite, hematite, and leucoxene are secondary.
T extures and Microstructures. The well-d veloped foliation results
chiefly from the parallel position of mica flakes and kyanite blades,
which usually lie with (100) within the schistOSity planes. Banding
228
Microscopic Petrography
is not common, although some types contain kyanite-rich and -poor
layers. Kyanit appears in prismatic crystals with irregular terminations; it may be poikiloblastic, porphyroblastic, or both, with quartz
the commonly included species. Kyanite also fOI'ms lenticular aggregates of blades and even fibers. Sillimanite replaces kyanite in
parallel growths Or corrodes it margin ally. Sericite also veins and replaces kyanite. Garnet forms both as a matrix min ral or in porphyroblasts. Not uncommonly the latter are poikilitic, including such speci s
as quartz, staurolite, biotite, muscovite, rutile, and magnetite, which
may be centrally segregated and aO'anged parallel with the foliation.
Occurrence and Origin. Kyanite rocks are formed from pelitic sediments by m clium-grade regional metamorphism (amphibolite facies,
kyanit ' -staurolite subfacies); lowor grade than sillimanite-rich rocks.
Examples are in the Orfordville formation (Ordovician) of New
Hampshire; in the Carolina gneiss of th e North Carolina BIue Rid g ;
in the Ennis area, Montana; and in th Petaca district of northern New
Mexico.
Sillimanite Schists and Gneisses
229
haVing, in some rocks, a divers orientation. Much sillimanite apparently formed late, replacing biotite or, less usually, garn et in curving trains ( Fig. 62a ) of fib rs or corroding kyanitc marginally. Subparallel needles of sillimanit are also crowded into quartz grains. In
some vari ti s sworls and radial clusters of cmving sillimanite fibers
r conspicllous (Fig. 62c). Almandite garnet app ars as spongy
matrix anhedra, highly pOikiloblastic, or as porphyroblasts which also
may include other minerals, especially quartz. Sillimanite shows varying d gr es of replacement-by sericit , pyrophyllite, and by shells of
quartz, muscovite, and staurolite. In some varieties sillimanite is
230
Microscopic Petrography
FlG . 62c. Massive sillimanit rock ; radiating blad s of coarse sillimanite, corundum, tipper center, rutH ( black) . India. Nicols cross d, X 10.
231
Troy, Idaho. Nodular sillimanite rocks have been reported from the:
Colorado Front Range and from n Jar Dillon, Montana. Massiv sillimanite rock also o(,curs nca r Dillon.
Cordierite Gneisses
Definition. Cordierite gneisses are gneissic rocks containin g essential and usually abundant cordierite.
Mineralogy. The main varicties include:
Cordierite-biotite sillimanite
Cordierite-muscovite
Cordierite-almandite
Cordieri te-anth opb yllite
Cordierite-andalusite
Some types are quartzose; othcrs carry both quartz ancl sodic plagioclase; and som quartz-poor varieties contain eonsiderabl micl'ocline.
Accessories are magnetite, pleonaste, sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite,
graphite, pyrite, epidote, allanite, zircon, and sphene. Chlorite, ehloritoid, and hornblende are rare.
Textures and Microstructures. Cordierite gneisses are usually medium- to coarse-grained, crudely foli ated, rarely schistose. Cordi rite is
anhedral and may form elongate grains. Lamellar twinning is common
in parts of the grains. Margins may be altered to a fin e-grained chlorite-sericite aggregate (pinite), which also veins the grains. Some
cordierite grains are jammed with minute inclusions of pleonaste or
of magnetite. Other cordierite crystals are strongly poikiloblastic, ven
netlike, including quartz and feldspar. In some varieties cordierite has
b en developed at the exp ens of biotite and in turn is partly r('pl aced
by a sillimanite-plagioclase aggregate. Garnet grains may be in part
r placed by a mixture of biotite, cordierite, and pleonaste. Some typf'S
show banding with biotite-cordierite-sillimanite layers alternating
with quartz-feldspar layers.
Occurrence and Origin. Cordierite is formed by high-grade regional
metamorphism, probably at high temp ratur s but under relatively
lower stress from pelitic sediments rich in magnesium. Some cordierite-anthophyllite gneisses are regard d as having resulted from
the metasomatism of quartz-feldspar rocks such as leptites. Some
cordierite gneisses with complex mineralogical assemblages may hav
undergone more than one p riod of D1 tamorphism, and the assemblage may not be in equilibrium. Anatexis bas been postulat d as
being important in th dev lopment of some coarse-grained cordierite
Microscopic Petrography
232
gneisses. Cordierite gneisses occur near Guffey, Colorado; in the
Laramie Range, Wyoming; and near Guilford, Conn cticut.
Sapphirine Rocks
Sapphiriue-bearing metamorphic rocks include gneissic to granulitic types, characterized by the presence of sapphirine either as an
essential or minor constituent. Other minerals commonly present are
biotite (1 ss usually phlogopite), spillel (pleonaste or hercynite),
basic plagioclase (labradorite to anorthite), hornblende, and enstatitehypersthene. Less common arc corundum, diaspore, korncfupinc,
cordierite, and orthoclase. The proportions of the various major and
minor constituents vary greatly. Uncommon associates includ anthophyllite, titanian magnetite, zircon, sillimanite, and garnet. The
rocks ar gneissic to granoblasti and may have coarse schlieren,
streaks, and I nticles of contrasting mineralogy. Rocks composed
mainly of anorthite, spinel, corundum, diaspore, and sapphirine have
been call d sakenites. Spinel-sapphirine rocks hav been call d sapphirinites. Th blue pleochroic sapphirine is anhedral to euhedral. In
some rocks it is closely associat d with spinel, even forming rims
around spinel grains and replacing them. Sapphirine rocks appear to
b formed chiefly under very high temperatur conditions. In some
cases they are hybrid rocks formed by metamorphism and m tasomatism of aluminous xenoliths by mafic magma, or contact migmatites
around a granitic intrusive, or mafic xenoliths included in granitic
masses. The more extensive sapphirin go isses of Madagascar are
believed to have been formed by the contact m tamorphism of magn sian marls and clays. Sapphirine apparently forms by the addition
of 5i0 2 to spinels or by th de omposition of biotite to cordierite and
sapphirine. The record d metamorphic Occurrenc s are at Fiskernas,
Sukkertoppen, and Avisisarfik, all three in Greenland; Val Codera,
Italy; Sakeny, Madagascar; Vizagapatam, India; Marignisandougou,
French Guinea; Dangin, Western Australia; and Blinkwater, Transvaal.
Topaz, Dumortierite, and Andalusite Rocks
Rocks containing abundant topaz (topazfels) are of high-temperature metasomatic origin, usually replacing a variety of other metamorphic rock . The topaz rocks of Kharsawan State, India, contain
topaz, muscovite, corundum, rutile, and magn tit. Those at Jhar
Gohindpur, Slrirbai, India, consist of topaz, mus ovite, kyanite, quartz,
rutil , and fluorite. A rock composed almost exclUSively of crypto-
233
crystalline to microcrystalline topaz occurs near Jefferson, South
Carolina, in association with a gold quartz lode.
Dumortierite rocks occur at Oreana, Nevada, and near Quartzite,
Arizona. At the former, lenses of andalusite rock in quartz-s'ricite
schist are replaced by dumortierite in tluee generations: ( 1 ) coarse
blue euhedra, (2) matted pink or lavender fibers, and (3) pink fibers
or single pink crystals. At Quartzite dumortierite rock that also contains
andalusite, kyanite, sillimanite, pyrophyllite, quartz, and rutile apparently resulted from the r plac ment of sericite schist. Hydrothermal
anclalusit rocks are exemplified by the occurrences at Oreana, evada;
at White Mountain, Mono County, California (with quartz and
diaspore) ; in Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.; and at Boliden, Sweden.
QUARTZ-FELDSPAR GNEISSES AND RELATED ROCKS
Microscopic Petrography
234
magnetite, ilmenite, calcite, tourmaline, allanite, sillimanite, and kyanite. Rare are anthophyllite, staurolite, cordierite, rutile, and graphite.
Common alteration minerals include kaolinite, sericite, and chlorite.
A rock name Widely used by European petrologists is kinzigitc,
which is a quartz-oligoclase gneiss containing prominent garnet and
usually biotite (Fig. 63b). Some also have essential microcline, and
others contain cordierite anthophyllite.
" ' f (. ~
.,.J.:
. .. .:....
'.
' f"
... ,
'
'
. ~.~ .
(a)
(b)
FIG.
235
236
Microscopic Petrography
237
Flc. 64. (a) Sillimanite granulite; sillimanite (high relief, diamond-shaped crystals), kaolinized orthoclase, lenticles of quartz. B1aeklail Deer Creek, Montana.
Nicols not crossed, X 10. (b) L ptite; porpbyroblastic quartz, oligoclase-quartzmuscovite matrix. Mauri, Finland. icols crossed, X 10.
zite, kornerupine, zircon, corundum, and spin I. Uncommon ar muscovite, epidote, chlorite, and scapolite. Th main mineralogical types
of felsic granulites are:
Garnet granulite ("normal" granulite or leptynite)
Garnet-sillimanite granulite (includ d here are the khondalites; kodurites are associated rocks consisting of orthoclase, sp ssartiteandradite, and apatite)
Garnet-kyanite granulite
Sillimanite granulite (Fig. 64.a.)
Gam t-cordierite granulite (laal1ilite)
Cordi rit -biotite granulite
238
Microscopic Petrog1"alJhy
Biotite granuli te
Hornblcnd granulit
Garnet-pyroxene (diopside, hypersthene) granulite
Graphite granulite
Magnetit -biotite grantllite
The horn blend , usually a gre nish brown type with strong
pleochroism, contains considerable Al in the Si positions and is relatively rich in Fe and Ti. The hypersthene, which is rather variable
in composition like th garnet, is usually strongly or moderately
pleochroic.
Textures and Microstructures. Many granulites are xenomorphicgranoblastic. In others the quartz is fiatt ned iuto plates or 1el1ticles
parallel with the foliation . In outcrops many ar> banded or layered
with alternating light (felsic granulitic) and dark ("charnockitic")
layers. In biotitic types som of the mica forms thin scams. Most are
even-grained rocks, but garnet, orthoclase, and oligoclase may form
metacrysts. The garnet commonly contains centrally concentrated
quartz inclusions. Plagioclase, usually not zoned, may have turbid
cores. Garnet rims on bypersthene or biotite are conspicuous in some
types; in others pyroxene is marginally replaced by hornbl nde. Sillimanite commonly appears in subhedral to euhedral grains with the
characteristic rhombic croSS section. Fibrolitic sillimanite is uncom mon. In many granulites local cataclastic eHects can be obs rved.
Occurrence and Origin. Felsic granulites ar formed by deep-seated
regional metamorphism under very high temp ' rature and pressure
(granulite facies ) from a variety of parent rocks:
Biotite granulite: rhyolite, granite, trachyt , quartz sy nite, syenite,
arkosic sandston
Quartzose garnet granulite: arkosic sandstone, rhyolite, rhyolite tuff,
gral1it s
Cordjerite-biotite granulite: arenaceous or Silty shale
Gra phite granulite: silty carbonac ous shale
Garnet-sillimanit (kyanite) granulite: shale
Sillimanite-rich granulite: kaolin
Som well-known localities include Saxony, Ceylon, and Lapland.
Leptites. Leptites, a term not much used in the United States but
wid 1y employed in Europe, particularly Scanrunavia, are fine-grained
quartz-feldspar metamorphic rocks whos nne grain refl ets the original grain size of the par nt rocks. The principal minerals are quartz,
239
oligoclase-andesine, microcline or orthoclase, biotite and/or hornblende. As such they are generally the mineralogical equivalen t to
fine-grained felsic granulites as the term is here used, but may be of
lower metamorphic grade. Some are plagioclase-rich, others contain
less plagioclase than potash feldspar. Quartz and feldspar together
usually constitute about 75 p r cent of the rock. Accessories are zircon,
magnetite, apatite, sph ne, epidote, and less commonly cordierite,
diopside, and grossularite. The quartz-feldspar aggregate is granoblastic ("pavement" texture) , with parallel biotite and amphibole.
Some types are banded, which may represent a modified fluidal t xture. HaJleflintas or halle.f:lint gneisses arc aphanitic porcelanoid types,
commonly banded . orne leptites show blastoporphyritic quartz (Fig.
64b) or feldspar or lenses of coarser quartz and feldspar ; in others
amygdaloidal or tuffaceous textures are relict. Most leptites result
from regional metamorphism of felsic to intermediate volcanic rocks:
rhyolites, quartz latites, dacites, and their tuffaceous varieties. Others
are formed from pelitic sediments or from contaminated tuffs, especially thos Jeptites that contain cordi rite, garnet, or pyroxene.
Metarhyolitcs are known from the pre-Cambrian of northern New
Mexico and northwestern Texas.
Alkali Gneisses
The rare rocks included in this group arc thos fonned chi fly by
the high-grade r gional metamorphism of alkali granites. The main
varieties include ricbeckite gneiss, riebeckite granulit , aegirine
granulites, and arfvedsonite gn iss. Riebeckitc gneisses contain alkali
feldspar, quartz, ricbeckitc, and aegirine. Some varieties are schistose
and largely feldspar-free. Others contain quartz, albite, riebeckite,
and garnet. A girine granulites containing orthoclase, albite, minor
quartz, a girine, rieb ckit , and garnet have also been formed by
alkali metasomatism of micaceous schists.
PYROXENE GRANULITES, CHARNOCKITES, ECLOGITES, AND
RElATED ROCKS
240
Microscopic Petrography
sabarovite.
241
FIC .
242
Microscopic Petrography
243
Eclogit s, which have a very limited compositional range, approximating that of gabbros or basalts, are th type rocks (and only representatives) of Eskola's eclogit facies, conventionally denoting high
temperature, xtl'eme pressure, and absence of water. Doubtless many
eclogites were formed by recrystallization (or crystallization?) at
great depths and were subsequently transported en masse to nearersurface environmen ts. Some petrograph ' rs prefer to regard them as
deep-seated igneous rocks. Many eclogites show conspicuous retrogressive mineralogicaJ changes between garnet and pyroxene accompanying the introduction of water. In the United States eclogites have been
d scribed from the glaucophan schist belt of the California Coast
Ranges. European examples occur in the Tyrol, Norway, France, and
in th Fichtelgebirge of Bavaria.
Jade
244
Microscopic Petrogmphy
245
Textures and Microst1'tlci;ures. Actinolite, other amphiboles, ch10rit s, and biotite usually are well orient d, parallel or subparallel,
except in thos varieties whose texture is in part relict. Bands rich in
albite alternating with those containing actinolite-epidote chlorite
are common. Actinolite forms sl nder prisms to fib rs, with irregular
terminations. It may retain ragged cores of green hornblende or cliopsidic augite. Inclusions of such min rals as epidote, albite, chlorite,
'lnd magnetite may result in a poikiloblastic structure. Some actinolite
is in porphyroblasts, usually with inclusions. Actinolite forms ps udomorphs after pyroxene, either in single crystals or in felted aggregates.
Chlorite and albite may replace actinolite. Albite, which generally
ranges from Ab",,, to about Ab fl5 , forms a mosaic of anhedra or euhedral to subhedral porphyroblasts, which may be crowded with inclusions of actinolite needles, epidote grains, and chlorite Hakes. Some
ar properly augen, having been broken, rounded, or granulated. Pressure shadows of terminal quartz may outline the porphyroblasts. ReBct
calcic plagioclase may app ar as irr gular cor s. Epidote forms granular anhedra and some larger subhedra; it may display zoning. Epidote
and calcite or epidote and quartz also app ar in lenses and veinlets.
Chlorite is replaced by biotite or stilpnomelane. Some chlorite appears
along shear planes.
Some rocks show relict diabasic, porphyritic, or amygdaloidal textures, with remnants of calcic plagioclase, augite, and hornblende.
om actinolite-rich rocks display a rosette texture, with radially
6brol1s prisms or needles of the amphibole. Nephrite consists of finely
felt d fib rs of tr moHte or actinolite, with some patches of coarser
prismatic amphibole and accessory chromite and magnetite.
Occurrence and Origin. Actinolitic schists result from the low-grade
regional m tamorphism of mafic rocks such as basalts; basaltic tuHs,
br ccias, and agglomerates; diabases; and gabbros. Calcitic actinolit
schists form by similar m tamorphism of impure dolomites or dolomitic limestones. The rocks are referred to the biotite-chlorite subfacies of the greenschist facies . Actinolite schists are locally abundant
in the Cherry Creek group (pr -Cambrian) of southwestern Montana.
Anthophyllite Schists and Related Rocks
246
Microscopic Petrography
Flc. 66b, c. (b) Anthophyllite schist; antbophyllit , biotite, minor quartz. Masons
Mountain, Franklin, North Carolina. Nicols not cross d, X ] O. (c) Cummingtonite
schist; quartz, hornbl nde, cummingtonite in semiradial groups. Jardine, Montana .
Nicols not crossed, X 10.
247
Although glaucophane rocks are relatively rare, they are characterized by a wide variation in mineralogical composition and texture.
Th y generally fall into two groups-glaucophane (and! or crossite)
schists and glaucophane (and! or crossite) amphibolites.
GLAUCOPHANE SCHISTS
Definition. Glaucophan schists are schistose rocks that contain glaucophane as one of the principal essential minerals. Other ch aracteristic
minerals are lawsonite and pumpelleyite.
Mineralogy. Glaucophane schists display a wide range in mineral
composition, but most can be grouped Llllder one of the follOwing
main types:
Microscopic Petrogmplty
248
Quartzose albite
Glaucopban -muscovite with quartz albite, epidote, chlorite (Fig.
67a)
Biotite-glaucophane with quartz
Albite-chlorite-epidote-glaucophane -+- calcite, muscovite, quartz; also
calJed prasinite
Chlorite-crossite
Albite-crossite
Lawsonite-glaucophane albite
Muscovite-Iawsonite-glaucophane sodic pyroxene
Lawsonit -albite-crossite
Epidote-glaucophane albite
Muscovite-epidote-glaucophane -+- albite
Chlorite-epidote-glaucophane albite
Muscovite-epidote-crossite
Chlorite-epidote-crossite
Garnet-glaucophane epidote
Garnet-lawsonite-glaucophane epidote
Garnet-clinozoisite-muscovite-glaucophane
Garnet-muscovite-gla ueophan
Garnet-erossite
Sodie pyroxene-muscovite-glaucophane
Glaucophane is the chief amphibole and is conspicuous b cause of
its blue violet pleochroism. It may app aT with crossite or Tiebeckite,
or crossite may be the sole sodic amphibole. Within an area the sodie
amphiboles may show a considerable range in composition. Actinolite
is common in some localitics, but hornblende is uncommon except in
corroded relicts. Zoned amphiboles are very common; some of the
relationships are:
Core
Blue green hornblende ... ... ...... . ........
Brownish gr(Jen hornbl'nde ...... . .. .. . ... . .
Actinolite . . ... ... . .. .. .. ... . ... . ........
Glaucophane ........ . ....... . . . .... . . . ....
Crossite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Irregular patches of cro$site in gluucophan ..
Crossite ...... . .. Intermediate zon
of glaucophane
Maroin.
Nn.rrow irregular glaucophane rim
Glaucophane
Glaucophane
Deeper blue crossit'
Glaucophane
Glaucophane
Crossite
LaWSOnite, which may show varying degrees of replacement by epidote, sericite, or chlorite, in some rocks contains cores rich in hematit
Bakes and also includes rutile ne dJes. It is usually polysynthetically
249
MicroscopiC Petrography
250
Some rock types are fine- and even-grained. Others contain both
fine- and coars -grained phases. Minerals that appear as porphyroblasts include glaucophane, crossite, epidote (inclusions of glaucophane, crossite, and rutile), lawsonite, muscovite (in some cases
mark dly poikiloblastic) , and garnet (inclusions of glaucophane and
sphene) . Some porphyroblasts of crossit or glaucophane are fringed
by pressur shadows of quartz and other min rals. Albite also forms
large porphyroblasts that usually are poikilitic, enclosing grains or
granular string rs of lawsonite, glaucophane, epidote, and sphene,
some of which trace sigmoid patterns.
Small-scale banding, conspicuous in many varieties, consists of mineralogically conh'asting layers. Some bands are monomineralic; others
are mineralogically complex: bands of muscovite, of fine-grained
glaucophan , of coarse porphyroblastic glaucophane, or bands rich in
epidote, or albite, or quartz.
GLAUCOPHANE AMPH.lBOLTTES AND RELATED ROCKS
251
Crossite amphibolites are uncommon types containing large unorient d crossite blades. Some varieties contain considerable albite.
Accessories are sphene, quartz, and rare zircon and stilpnomelane.
The rocks are nonschistose, with the amphibole blades in decussate
to poor orientation. Garnets may form porphyroblasts. Glaucophane
forms stout, broad prisms, generally subhedral, and includes sphene
grains. Crossite may be in more slender to fibrous crystals, enclosing
albite; varied zonal growths with glaucophane are common. In glaucophane m tagabbros th fabric is largely inherited.
O CCURIlENCE AND ORIGIN
252
Microscopic Petrography
Definition. Mark dly foliated rocks, usually dark-color d, consisting of dominant hornblende in association nonnally with plagioclas
and epidote.
Mineralogy. Tn addition to hombl nde, plagioclase, and epidote,
FIG.
other common ess ntia] constituents are quartz, biotite, garnet, and
I ss commonly microcline. Zoisit may proxy for pidote. Th hornblende is usually light green to deep bluish gr en, i.e., "actinolitic"
hornblende (Fig. 67b) , in contrast to the dark green and brown
varieti s of higher-grade amphibole rocks, although some quartzos
schists hay dark gr n hornblende. Th plagioclase is albite or sodi
253
oligoclase, rarely more calcic to and sine, or extraordinarily to labradorite. Garnet is almanditic. In mo:;t typps plagioclas exce ds quartz
0)' microcline. Acc ssories include magn 'tite, h matitc, ilmenit , apatite, sphene, and chlorite.
Textures and Microstructur s. The amphibole forms slead r prisms
and needles, with marked parallel ori ntation and with intergranular
epidote. In some cases hornblend also forms porphyroblasts with
rims of epidote granules. Biotite flakes also show distinct paralJelism.
Garnet, which may be concentrated in bands, forms rough porphyroblasts, in some cases poiki)jtic. Quartz and feldspar are anhedral, in
aggr gates or interstitial grains. "Feather amphibolites," or Hornblendegarbenschiefer, contain large poikiloblastic hornblende blades,
which include quartz, feldspar, and magnetite, and wbkb are flattened
in decLlssate or stellatc patterns on foliation planes.
Occurrence and Origin. Hornbl nde schists are form ed by ]owgrade regional metamorphism of eith ~r mafic igneous rocks such as
basalts, diabases, basaltic tuffs, gabbros, and some andesites and
diorites or of arenaceous sediments containing admixed dolomite,
kaolinite, and iron oxide minerals or chlorite and iron oxide minerals.
Most of the rocks are referred to the albite-epidote amphibolite facies,
chloritoid-almandite subfacies. Some types, with nonactinolitic hornblende and garnet and andesine, were form d under somewhat higher
int nsity conditions, Examples occur in the Van Horn area, Texas, and
in N w England.
Hornblende Gneisses and Amphibolites
Hornblende gneiss: hombl nde, plagioclase, quartz. Varieties: garnet, biotite (Fig. 67c), al1gite or diopsid , hypersthene,
epidote Or zoisite. Accessories : rutil , magnetite, ilmenite,
sphene.
Hornblende amphibolite: hornblende, plagioclase (Fig. 6Bb). Varieties: garnet, + biotite, diopside or augite, + epidote or
zoisite. Accessories: rutile, sphene, apatite, quartz, magnetite,
hematite, ilmenite, calcite, chlorite, edenite, actinolite, anthophyllite, pyrrhotite, pyrite, scapolite, tourmalin .
254
Mioroscopic Petrography
(0)
(b)
FIC. 68. (a) Banded horobl nde gneiss ; hornblende, an de ill , quartz, magnetite.
255
256
Microscopic Petrography
257
Definition. Piedmontite schists are schistose rocks containing piedmontite as an essential to major constituent.
Mineralogy. The main pCb'o]ogic types are all quartzose:
Microscopic Petrography
258
Piedmontite typically forms minute prismatic anhedra, parallelly
ori nted, in bands or disseminated. Cracks at right angles to the elongation (b) are typically present. Some prisms may be bent or broken.
Muscovite forms nne to coarse Rakes and plates, rarely interleaved
with chlorite. Spessarite appears in small euhedra or porphyroblasts
that include piedmontite, magnetite, epidote, magnetite, rutile, and
hematite. Hematite and magnetite are eith r anhedral or euh dral,
the former in deep red hexagonal plates, the latter in octahedra. Rutile forms rounded grains, euhedral crystals, and knee-shaped twins.
Uncommon barite appears in angular anh dral grains. Tourmaline
euhedra form singl crystals or clusters.
Occur-renee and Origin. Piedmontit schists are rare rocks, associated with epidote schists, chlorite schists, stilpnomelan schists, amphibole schists, glaucophane schists, and muscovite schists. Formed
by the low-grade, regional metamorphism (muscovite-chlorite subfacies of the greenschist facies) of impure manganiferous sandstones.
That Mn has entered epidote instead of forming spessartite may be
due to the presence of abundant water. W ll-shldicd examples occur
in Japan and in western Otago, New Z aland. Piedmontite-muscovitequartz schists also occur near Pilar in northern New Mexico.
Una kite, Epidosite, and Related Rocks
Among epidote-rich rocks formed by m tasomatism or by metamorphic differentiation are unakites, epidosites, and epidotites.
Unakites arc epidote-quartz-feldspar rocks formed from granites,
granodiorites, and quartz syenites by hydrothermal r placement of
plagioclase, potash feldspar, and mafics by epidote. Where all feldspar and mancs are replaced, unakites grad into epidosites. The
potash feldspar is either orthoclase or microcline. Oth r minerals in
unakites are r lict biotite, apatite, magn tite, and zircon. Secondary
constihlents in addition to the pidote are quartz, pyrite, rutile, sericite, kaolinite, chlorite, leucoxene, and limonite. Unakites arc mediumto coars -grained, usuaUy nonfoliated. Epidote occurs in irregular
patches of minut granules and in fine-grain d veinlets. Quartz is
commonly undulatory, may show mortal' structure, and is fiHed with
fin rutile needles. E Idspar also may be fractured. Some secondary
quartz veinJets may cut other minerals, including epidote. Unakites
occur as irregular masses, lenses, and veins in granitic rocks. In the
Unit d States th rock was first described from the Unaka Mountains
of western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. Other occurrences
are in western Virginia.
259
Helsinkites are "epidote granites and epidot quartz diorites" probably formed by metasomatic action similar to the development of unakites but on a larger scale.
Epidosites are metasomatic epidote-quartz rocks that occur as veins
in greenschists, amphibolites, and granitic rocks . They also contain
minor albite, chlorite, actinolite, calcite, and leucoxene. Their texture
is usually fine-grained anhedral, but albit may appeal' as scattered
euhedral tablets. Quartz veinlets cut the aggregate. The name pidosite also has been erroneously applied to quartz-epidote-muscovite
schists formed by low-grade regional m tamorphism of calcareous
graywackes.
Epidotite, a variably used term, may be appli d to massive or poorly
foliated rocks composed mainly of epidot , commonly with minor
hornblende, plagioclase, chlorite, quartz, calcite, and garnet. Many
are associated with amphibolites intruded by grauite sills.
FERRUGINOUS AND MANGANIFEROUS ROCKS
260
Microscopic Petrography
261
262
Microscopic Petrography
mite may be locally abundant. Accessory minerals are chlorite, muscovite, calcit , and apatite.
Hemaht schists, characterized by colorless, coarser quartz, contain
hematite as th main iron oxide but may also have some magnetite in
variable amounts. Muscovite, oligoclase, and apatite are acc ssory.
Some Sw dish types contain only moderate amounts of quartz but
more feldspar and biohte, with minor apatite. Itabirite is a variety of
banded sp cularite quartzite from Brazil. Rocks in which magnetite
becomes mor important can also contain accessory gamet, epidote,
or amphibole. There are all gradations between rocks containing
mainly hematite and thos consisting dominantly of magnetite. Secondary minerals are limonite, goethite, and psilomelane.
Textures and Microstructures. In banded jaspilit s quartz-rich layers alternate with layers richer in hematite. Individual quartz grains
may be slightly elongated in the plane of the banding. The banding
is very fine to coars , ribbonlike, or even crenuJated. In mottled jaspilites ovoid quartz masses with a nucleus clouded r d by hematit
Occur in th silica layers. Other mottled varieties have small rO\1nded
to lenticular patch s of fine-grain d quartz.
Some jaspilites are fragmental, containing piec s of hemahtic or
or of jaspery quartz in a matrix of homogeneous jaspilite. The ore
fragments are long oval or lenticular masses of v ry fine grained
quartz and tiny hematit flakes cut by veinlets of coarser-grained
quartz or hematite. The ore fragment usually is bordered by a rim
of dens hematite. Th matrix consists mainly of interlocking finegrained quartz with a few large patches of somewhat coarser grained
quartz marginally granulat d. Veinlets of finely cI),stalune matrix
quartz transect tb patches, which also contain some siderite and
hematite. Plates of chlorite may oCCur in the matrix. The term jaspilit has also b en extended to band d martite-jasper rocks in which
hematite is pseudomorphous after magnetite. These rocks may show
polygonal pattems in the jasper bands, in which dusty hematite areas
are bounded by clear silica or yen spherulites of fibrous sllica with
hematite cores.
Hematite schists are banded with quartz lay rs and hematite
(-+- magn tit )-quartz layers. Orient d quartz overgrowths may be
s en on dehital quartz grains. Disseminated carbonate rhombohedra
may be pr sent, and hematite-fr e quartz occurs pseudomorphous
after carbonate rhombs. In magn tite varieties iron layers can also
carry iron silicates, or these minerals may appear in separat streaks.
263
Occurrence and Origin. Iron-b aring rocks of various typ s are chaTacteristic of pre-Cambrian ar as in many parts of the world, including the Canadian shield, Venezuela, Brazil, India, Fennoscandia,
Australia, South Africa, and Man huria. Jaspilite are common in tlP
iron formations of the Lake Superior region in the Unit cl States and
in Canada, wh re they occur in association with greenstones, sideritic
slates, magnetite slates, carbonaceous slat s, arg.iJlites, quartzites, and
conglomeratic quartzites. The Brazilian itabirites are found with
quartzites, slates, marbles, and locally amphibolites. Th band d metamorphic hematite rocks of India are associated with phyllites, some
mica schist, chloritic quartzites, carbonaceous quartzites, and metatuffs. The Swedish hematite rocks, many of which contain some magnetite, occur in leptites.
In "cherty" rocks the original silica mineral was nonclastic, probably
chalcedony. Some investigators bclieve the original iron mineral was
siderite; others have stated that both iron carbonate and iron oxide
were original. Most jaspilites have b en subjected only to low-grade
metamorphism, as shown by the fine grain of the quartz and the retention of other relict structur s. One hypothesis suggests large-scale
metasomatic introduction of iron into porous sandy and shaly sediments followed by some metamorphism; another requires silicification
of ferruginous slates and schists.
Hematite schists (including itabirite) were formed by low- to medium-grade regional metamorphism of limonitic or h matitic sandstones or, in some cases, perhaps by somewhat more advanced local
metamorphism of iron rocks originally containing chalcedoni . quartz.
The pres nee of much magn tite is indicative of high r-grade metamorphism.
Magnetite Rocks
Defin.ition. In magnetite rocks abundant magn tite is the predominant iron oxide mineral; hematite mayor may not be present. In some
varieties quartz is essential, and in other types iron silicate minerals
are more common. A banded structure is typical of quartzose types; a
schistose structure generally typifies those with abundant iron silicates.
Mineralogy. The quartz-magn tite-iron silicate ratio may show considerable variation. Some types contain only accessory iron silicates.
Magnetite is variable in grain size, even in a single s ction, but usually is relatively coars grained. It occurs as octahedra or as rounded
particles in clusters or elongated groups. It may baIt red to hema-
Microscopic Petrography
264
tite (martite), and in some rare varieties it occurs as hexagonal plates,
pseudomorphous after hematite. Quartz is uniformly coarse grain d,
and rocks containing iron silicates in abundance usually hav th
coarsest quartz of any rocks of the "iron formations." The common
iron-bearing silicates include gnmerite, actinolite, and garnet. Accessory constituents are biotite, chlorite, epidote, fayalite, bornblende,
ri beekite, crossite, hedenbergite, iron-rich hypersthene, siderite, dolomite, pyrrhotite, apatite, barrandite, and zircon. Some South African
varieties contain minor muscovite and roscoelite.
Cruu rite varies in habit from fibrous to short prismatic with diamond-shap d basal s ctions. Prism faces can be well developed but
terminations are irregular. Cross striations roughly parallel with (001 )
are common. The mineral may show very fin lamellar twinning. Less
common actinolite is usually fibrous and somewhat finer grained . The
garnet is almandite, with a1mandit -spessartite appearing in rocks
richer in MnO, which also may contain a manganiferous amphibole.
Harely, where Ca was abundant, andradite may be formed. Alteration
minerals are hematite, goethite, limo'nite, and chlorite.
Common mineralogical associations are:
265
n rite-actinolit -magnetite, gl'unerite-riebeckite-magnetite, and gl'Uneritc-actinolite, but the bands may also consist essentially of only a
single silicate mineral stich as garnet or epidote. Banding may also
result from variations in proportions of the same constituents. In many
cases tlle needles of actinolite or grunerite ar randomly arranged or
may show prominent rosett structure; in other rocks their long axes
are parallel with thc banding, in which case the quartz and magnetite
FJG. 69. (a) Magnetite sehi t; magn tite, beU111ti te, quartz in variously prupurtioned bauds. Cherry Cr >k, Montana. ieols not crossed, X 10. ( b) Ma metitegruneritc schist; quartz, magnetite, gruneritc in variously proportioned bands.
Cherry Cre k, Montana. Ni ols Dot crossed, X 10.
grains at' also somewhat cIon gat d. Pyrox nes of th se rocks may
show ura}itizatioI1 or intergrowths with amphiboles.
Som > rocks ar massive, particularly the magnetite-garnet types. In
a variety from Kaymajarvi, northern Sweden, fine-grained magnetite
occurs in rounded blebs that arc regarded as metamorphosed greenalite granules.
Oecu,rr nee and Origin. Magn tit rocks are common in th pl'ambrian of many areas including the Lake Superior region, southwest I'D Montana, Norway, Sweden, outh Africa, India, and Australia.
ssociated rocks includ grun rite and actinolite marbles, hematite
266
Microscopic Petrography
schists, leptites, pyroxene-garnet gneiss, amphibole gneiss, garnet amphibolite, ulysite, sillimanite-quartz schist, and glassy quartzite.
Lower-grade rocks, such as spotted hornfels, calc-silicate rock, and
ill tatuff, occur with some contact types.
Magnetite rocks are usually formed by high-grade regional metamorphism of chert-siderite or chert-greenalite rocks. With increasing
metamorphism quartz tends to b eliminated through the formation of
silicat s. They are also formed by increased metamorphism of lowergrade hematite-quartz metamorphic rocks. Some types are of contact
m tam orphic origin ( Harz Mountains, Germany) and were limonitic
sandstones and shal s.
Eulysites and Related Rocks
267
tin olite, hornblende, CIocidolite, potash feldspar, pI onaste, pYlThotite, and apatite.
6. Other varieties: (a.) Fayalite, siderite, quartz, pyrrhotite. (b)
Tephroite, schefferite, manganoan vesuvianit . (c) Knebelit , man ganoan hornblende, spessartite, rhodonite, rhodochrosite, magnetite,
orthocla e.
The proportions of th ' various minerals in th se types may vary consid rably. Grunerite eulysites ( Fig. 70a ) grade into grun rite schists
70. ( a. ) Eu lys ite; large faya litc crystals enclosing grunerite and much rnagnetite, som in bands, minor quartz. Beartooth 1ounblins, Montana. Nicols not
cross d, X 10. (h) Emery; corundum, spinel, magnetite in streaks. axos, Greece.
Nicols not crossed, X 10.
FIC .
or gnmerite-almandit schists; anthophyllite eulysites pass into anthophyllite schists and anthophyllite amphibolites; and hype 'sthCll .
eulysites grad into hypersthene-grun rite-garnet rocks. Alt ration
minerals are chlorit , serp ntine, talc, epidote, magnetite, hematite,
and limonite.
Textu.res and Microstructures. The rocks are commonly rudely
foliated, but the textm varies from massive to well banded . Microscopically banding or foliation may a]so become conspicuous. A granoblastic texture is common, and the grain size varies conSiderably.
Olivine is typically anhedral, tending toward quidimensional, but
268
Microscopic Petrography
may form elongated grains. In massive olivin -rich eulysites a mosaic
texture may be conspicuous. In some rocks large formless olivine units
wrap around other constituents. Olivine may display lamellar twinning and cleavage; minute inclusions of quartz, magnetite, and amphiboles may be abundant. Anthophyllite and grunerit replace olivine. In banded types the layers show much variation in mineralogy:
fayalite-magnetite, garnet-pyrrhotite, gam t-apatite, quartz-mugn tite, magn tit , hedenb rgite, fayalite, and variable bedenbcrgite-fayalite cont nt. Fayalite and hedenbergite may form porphyroblasts.
In some vari ties garnet and hypersthene are poikiloblastic, the former
with such inclusions as grunel'ite and magnetite, th latter with included quartz, fayalite , and magnetite. Hypersthen may also contain
th typical oriented ilmenite inclusions, and grunerite includes zircon
with halos. Ps udohexagonal twinning characterizes cordierite, which
may have staurolite inclusions.
Grunerite can be secondary, in veinlets or fibrous group. or sheaves.
Prismatic crystals show well-developed lamellar twinning. In some
rocks grunerite replaces hypersthene and in others it forms rims betwe n fayalite grains or b tW'een pyroxene and quartz and r places
quartz as minut fib rs. Hornblende also appears in radial clusters of
neeelles. Finely lamellar intergrowths of pyroxenes are present in some
cases, as well as irr gular intergrowths of hypersthene in hed nbergite
Or zoned crystals with cores of hypersth ne and margins of hedenbergite. Pyroxene rims may s parate fayalite and quartz grains.
Magnetite of two generations can be present, especially in those
typcs in which the olivine is partly replaced by an amphibole.
Occurrence and Origin. Eulysites are commonly found in close association with other types of iron- or manganese-rich m tam orphic
rocks such as grun rite schists, grun rite-garnet schists, hypersthenegrunerite-garnet schists, hed nbergite-gamet-magn tite rocks, almandite rocks, magnetite-almandite 1'0 ks. quartz-magnetite schists,
quartz-pyrite rocks, and magnetitc-ilvait rocks.
Eulysites of regional metamorphic origin occur, for example, at Uttervik and Mansjo, Sweden; in northern Sweden; at CoUohri r s, near
Toulon, France (grunerite type) ; and at Loch Duich, Ross-Shire, Scotland. Contact eulysites have been found at th hase of the ultramafic
Stillwat r complex in the Beartooth Mountains, Montana; along the
Duluth lopolith near Gunlllnt Lake, Minnesota; and in the Harz
Mountains of Germany. Contact rocks containing manganiferous olivine have been record d from Macskomezo, Hungary, and Langban,
Sweden.
Descriptior18
of Metamorphic Rocks
269
Eulysites are products of high-grade regional or contact metamorphism. Contact types are associated with ultramaBc and manc
intrusives. The original rocks wer siliceous iron sediments containing
greenalite or ankerite and siderite or perhaps even limonite and hematite, in which reaction of iron oxide with silica pl'oduced fayalite.
Eulysites may also b form ed by contact metamorphism of iron sediments that were first regionally metamorphosed to quartz-magnetite
rocks. Some contact types giv evidence for limited meta omatism
with the introduction of OH, S, Mn, and Fe. Eulysites of replacement
origin do not contain quartz in association with fayalite.
Emery
270
Microscopic Petrography
5. Manganophyllit
phosphates.
271
The accessory suite shows wide variations: combinations of plagioclase, microciine, wollastonite, piedmontite, grunerite, graphit , apatite, rhodochrosite, calcitc, and specularite. Mangan se are minerals
are fouod in considerable amounts 10caUy, particularly braunite, pyrolusite, psiJomelan , hollandite, sitaparit , and vrenc1cnbergitc. The
rocks alter rather readily to mixtures of manganese oxide min rals and
quartz.
Textures a1ul Microstructu1eS. Manganese silicate rocks are commonly welJ banded with quartz layers alternating with silicate layers.
The quartz may be strained. Garnets ar rounded to idioblastic and
contain dusty inclusions. Quartz veinlets transect them. Rhodonite is
anh dral, and pyroxmangite hal> b en observed in porphyroblasts as
much as 12 em across, containing inclusions of quartz, calcite, graphitc, and magnetite. Some gondites are characterized by Dne-grained
idioblastic gamet in a quartz mosaic.
Occu1'rence and Origin. In India manganiferous rocks occw' as layers in quartzites, phyllites, mica schists, conglomeratic gneiss, and
piedmontite marbles. Some of the schists contain manganes tOtu'maline and ottrelitc. Similar rocks from the Gold Coast occur with quartz
schist, quartz-kyanite schist, quartzite, phyllite, and chlorite schist.
Pyroxmangite quartzites have becn found at Simsii:i, Finland.
Formed through medinm-grade to low-grade regional m tam orphism of manganiferous sedi.mentary rocks, perhaps from such typ s
as rhodochrosit -chert rocks, shales with manganiferous carbonate, or
manganese oxide nodules and coneI' tions.
Migmatites
272
Microscopic Petrography
be bell ved to include two genetic types: veinites, in which the vein
material was derived from th rock itself, and arterit s, in which it
was injected. French petrologists have attempted to distingnish thre
classes of migmatites on the basis of increasing intermingling of the
two phases:
L Diadysites: th igneous material forms a network of generally
connecting small sills and dikes (eruptive breccia ) or forms swarms
of parallel I nses , more or less isolated
2. Embrechites: the foliation of the metamorphic is still distinct but
partly desh'oyed or encroached upon by abundant parallel sills or pods
of igneous material (phI bites )
3. Anatexites: the metamorphic foliation r mains only as r licts,
and the rock in g neral approaches a granite in composition and texture
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GENERAL
274
Microscopic Petrography
J an
Verhoogen,
INDEX
67,
276
Microscopic Petrography
Argillaceous, 100
ArgilJite, 178, 209, 263
Arizonite, 33
Arkose_ 122-123
basal, 123
blanket, 123
brecciated, 185
definition, 101 , 122
examples, 123
mineralogy, 101, 122-123
occurrence, 123
origin, 123
residual, 123
tectonic, 123, 135
te"tur s, 123
Armoring (see Overgrowths of
nun rals)
Aroelor, 6
Arterite, 172, 272
Ash, 93-95, 128, 138, 167
ASSimilation, 18, 172
Augen, 172, 178, ]79, 208, 245
Authigenic minerals, 102, 112-113, 155
in dolomite, 145
in graywacke, 125
in llmestone, 139
in phospborite, 147
in sandstone, 2, 116, 118
Autohydrothermal. 257
Autoinjeclion structure, 77
Automorphic. 22
Axiolite, 38
Bakelit varnish, 6
Banding, in anorthosite, 77
in 'hert, 137
co\loform, 106
in dolomite, 146
in evaporites, 156-158, 160, 161,
164-168
flow, 23, 37, 40, 77
in gabbro, 77
in graywack , 125
in iron carbonate rocks, 150
in metamorphic rocks, 182, 196-200,
204, 208, 212, 217, 219, 221,
227, 228, 231, 234, 235, 241 ,
245, 254-256, 260, 261-265,
267, 269-271
in p ridotite, 91
relict, 209, 239, 250, 257
in sedimentary rocks, 104, 117, 131
in shale, 134, 135
Barite rock, 166
Basalt, 80-84
abundance, 16
alkali, 82
association, 38, 54, 84, 125, 167
contin ntal lood-type, 51 , 83, 84
definition, 80
examples, 84
feldspathoidal (see Foidal basalt)
faidal (see Foidal basalt)
leuci te, 18, 87
melilite, 87
mineralogy, 80-83
nepheline, 87
occurrence, 84, 97
oceanic, 51, 63, 84
olivin , 67, 82, 84
origin, 16, 17
orthoclase, 63, 82
picrite, 83
plateau, 84
quartz, 82
sanidine, 89
spilitic, 18, 125
submarine, 125
textures, 83-84
tholeiitic, 84
va ri eti s, 82-83
Bnsalt jasper, 189
Basalt jaspis, 189
Basalt scoria, 84
Basalt vitrophyre, 83
Basaltic glass, 39, 40, 82, 83
Basanite, 63, 86
lellcite, 86
ncphelinc, 86
Basic front, 19
Batholith, 34, 77
complex, 34, 43, 65, 69,77, 192
Bauxite, 100, 130-132
definition, 130
lateritic, 132
min ralogy, 130-131
occurr nce, 132
origin, 132
t na rossa, 132
tcxtures, 131
transported, 132
Belonite, 21
Bentonite, 96, 128-130
Binocular microscopic examination, 13
Bioclastic rocks, 100
Biotite-chlorite Stlbfacies, 214, 219, 245
Biotite scbist, 219-222
definition, 219
examples, 222
Index
Biotite schist, mineralogy 219-220
occurrence, 221-222
origin, 221
pllIent materials, 221
te,xtures, 181, 220-221
varieties, 219
Black sand, 116
Blastocataclasite, 186
Blebhy salt, 161
B.1ocks, 93
Bog iron oreS, J 5.1 , 153
Biihm lamellae, 176, 208
Bombs, 41, 83 , 93, 188
Bone beds, l21
Borates, 167-16
Bostonitc, 48
Boulder, 100
Bowen reaction series, 26, 27
Brpccia, anhydrite, 1fJ5
bone, 12(
carnallite, 160
cataclastic, 121, 172, 184-11:15
collapse, 121
ruptive, 172, 272
fault, 121
friction, 121 , 184
intraformatiotlal , 121
intrusion, 122
limes tone, 185
metamorphic, 121-122. 184-185
sec1inwntary, 99, 121-122
shale-pebble, 121
sulfur, 168
talns, 121
volcani c, 44, 93, 122
Brecciated metamorphic rocks, 184-185
Br cciation, 184, 185
Bromoform, 109, no
Brownstone, 116, 122
Buchite, 172, 189
Bugite, 240
Calc Binta , 198, 201 , 203
Calc schist, 199- 201
definition , 199
high-gmde, 200
int 'rmediate-grad " 199- 200
low-grade, 199, 201
mineralogy. 199-200
occurr nee, 201
origin, 201
parent material, 171, 201
textur '5, 181. 200-201
vari ties, 199-200
271
278
Microscopic Petrography
Index
Corrosion, in il,'llt'OUS minerals, 55, 61,
62, 70, 71
in sedimentary min rab, ] 06, 160,
166
( See aLyo Relict texture)
Cortlandt complex , 270
Cortla ndtite, 89
Cmst of th earth, 15-16
Cryptocrystalline texture (see Tt'xluTt' )
Cryptoperthite, 29, 45, 46, 55
Crystal differentiation, 17
Crystal flonting, 17
Crystal fractionation, J7
Crystal sinking, 17, 80
CrystalHnity, aegree of. 23
Crystallite, 21, 37-40, 83, 189
Crystallization, fractional, 17
sequence of, 26-28
Crystalloblastic series, ] 76-177
Crystnlloblastic textur , 176-177
Cumulite, 21 , 38
Cyclothem, 128
Dacite, 18, 36, 65-67
association, 67, 84
definition, 43, 65
examples, 67
mineral()gy, 65-66
occurrence, 61
textures, 66-67
varieties, 65-66
Dacite vitrophyre, 66
Daciti glass, 39, 66
Dactylic intergrowths, 33
Decomposition, 99
Degrce of crystallinity, 23
Delesse-Hosiwal method, 7- 12
Dcllenitc, 43
Dendrite, 155
Depth zon classification, 172-173
Desl1losite, 214
Detrital minerals, 102
accessory, 109- 112
in arkose, 122-123
in graywHck , 124
heavy, 2, 109-112
light, 2, 109, 110
m tbods of separation, 110
multi cycle, 111
provenance, 111-112
in sands and sandstones, 110, 114-
115
suites, 111-112
279
280
Microscopic Petrography
Erlan, 202-203
Erlanfels, 202-203
Essexite, 52, 74, 85 86
Essexite porphyry, 85
Etching of detrital grains, 102, lU)
Eucrite, 74
Euhedral, 22
Eulvsite, 266-270
a~thophyllite, 266
cordierite, 266-267
definition , 266
gruncrit , 264, 266, 267
mineralogy, 266-267
OCCllIfence, 268-269
origin, 268-269
par nt material , 171 . 269
textures, 267-268
varieti S, 264. 266-2(H
Eut,udtie texture, 23, 37
Euxenic environll1ent, 135
Evaporites, 143, 146, 156-1 51:)
(See alsn Sa lints),
Exsolution, 28, 62, 75, 76, 79
Facies, 173- .176
albite-epidote amphibolit , 174 . 201 ,
215, 219, 251 , 253
amphibolite, 174, 192, 199, 201 , 221 ,
223, 227, 228, 230, 255
eclogite, 175, 243
glaucophane schist, 251
granulite, 175, 20] , 221 . 23.'5. 238,
242
greenschist, 174,201, 210,212, 214,
217, 219, 221, 224, 245, 258,
261
metamorphi c. 173-176
pyroxene-hornfels, ] 75. 192, 197,
199, 204
sa nidinite, 175
F anglom erat , 121, 123, 167
Feldspatboidal basalt (.~ee Foidal
basalt )
F eldspathoidal gabbro (see Foidal
ga bbro )
F eldspathoida l monzonite (see Foidal
monzonite)
Feldspathoidal sytmite (see Foidal
syenit )
Felsic, 21, 26
Felsic granuHte, 233, 236-238
d Anition, 236, 239
mineralogy, 236-238
occurrence, 238
Index
Felsic granulite, origin, 172, 238
parent mat rials, 171, 238
textures, 181, 238
varieties, 237-238
Felsic min mis, 26
Felsite, 36
Felted texture, 25, 36, 44, 246
Fenite, 48
Ferrogabbro, 76
F erruginous metamorphic rocks, 259270
Ferruginous sedimentary rocks, 149155
Filter pressing, 17
Flagstone, 116
Flaser gn 'iss, 179, 186
"Flaxseed ore " 151
Fleckschider,' 179, 193
Flint, 135
Flinty crush-rock, 187
Flotation of crystals, 17
Flow handing, 23, 37. 40, 77
Fluids in metamorphism, 171- 172
Foidal basa lt, 86--89
association, 89
definition . 86-87
examples, 89
Jeucitc, 87
melilite, 87
mineralogy, 86-88
n pheline, 87
occurrence, 89
textures, 88-89
varieties, 86-87
Foidal gabbro, 84- 86
association, 60, 86
definition , 84-85
exampl s, 86
mineralogy, 84-86
occurrence, 86
textures, 85-86
vllri ties, 85-86
Foidal gabbro-foidal basalt family, 20,
84-89
Foidal monzonite, 54, 85
Foidal syenite, 54-60
association, 53, 60
definition, 54
ditroitic, 57-58
examples, 55, 57-60
foyaitie, 58
mafic, 54, 55
mineralogy, 54-57
nepheline, 55-56
occurrence, 60
2 1
282
Microscopic Petrography
Index
Granodiorite, examples, 43
min rulogy, 29, 41 - 42
occurrence, 42
origin, 16-J 8
l ' 'turcs, 42
varieties, 42
Granodiorite porphyry, 42
Granodiorite-quartz latitf' family, 20,
41-44
Cranophyr , 23 , 25, 3 1, 3.'3 , 34, 36, 37 ,
79, 80, 97
Granophyri c texture, 25, .'36, 37, 66
Gntnulation, 176, 208, 249
Granule, 106, 155, 259-261
Granulite, 193, 236-238
"acid," 233, 236
aegirine, 239
biotite, 238
eordierite-biotite, 237 , 238
felsic (see F elsic gra nulite )
gam et, 237, 238
graphite, 238
hornblende, 238, 25 1
intermediate, 236
mafic, 236
magn('titc-hiolite, 238
"normal," 237
pyroxene (see Pyroxene granulit
ri ebeckite, 239
sillimanite, 237 , 238
zoisit , 256
Granulite facies , ] 7.5, 201, 221, 235,
238, 242
Graphic intergrowth, 31, 33, 79, 180,
181
Graphite schist, 222-223
Graphitoid , 223
Grav 1, 100, 120
Gravitative settling, 17, 80
Graywacke, 119, 123-126
association, 98, 125-126
authi genic minerals, 125
definiti on, 123
mineralogy, 101, 123-12.5
sorting, 123, 125
varieties, 116, 125
Greenalite rock, 154, 155, 259-261
Greensand, 116, 155
Greenschist, 212, 213
aetinolitic, 244
(See also Gre Ilston )
Greenschist faci es, 174, 201 , 210, 212,
214, 217, 219, 221, 224, 245, 258,
261
Greenstone, 212, 247, 261, 263
283
284
Microscopic Petrography
Index
Jade, 243-244
Jasper, 125, 135-136
Jasperoid, 208
Jaspilite, 261-263
definition, 261
min ralogy, 261- 262
occurrence, 263
origin, 263
parent material, 171. 263
textures, 262
Johannsen classification, 20
Kainite rock , 166
Kakirite, 185
Kaolin, 126-127
Katabugite, 240
Kutazone, ]72-173
Kel phi tic rims , 23, 91 , 180, 1R2 , 242
Keratophyre, 50, 51
Kerogen, 134
Kersantite, 68, 69, 22l
Kl1ondalite, 237, 24l
Kies elguhr, ]38
Kieserite rock, 159-161
Kimberlite, 91, 243
Kinzigite, 234, 235
Klintit , ]41
Knotenschif'1er, 179, 193
Kodurite, 237
Kollolith, 6
K yanite gneiss, 172, 227- 22R
Kyanite schist, 172,223, 227- 228
Kyanitc-staurolite subfacies, 174, 221,
227, 228, 255
Laanilite, 237
Laccolith, 17, 49, 57
Lak side No, 70, 3
Lamination, 125
(See also Banding )
Lamprophyr s, classincaUoll, 20
dioritic, 68, 69
syenitic, 48
texture, 25
tonaliti c, 65
Lapilli, 83, 93
Lardallite, 57
Larvikite, 48
Latite, 18, 86, 53-54
association, 38, 54
definition, 43, 49, 53
examples, 54
feldspatboidaL 61
hypersthene, 89
285
286
Microscopic Petrography
Index
Metamorphism, grades, 173
high-I:,Tfade, 223, 230, 231, 235, 239,
247, 255, 256, 266, 269
hydrothermal, 172, 206, 214, 225,
233, 244, 251, 256, 258, 261
injection, 172, 230, 271-272
intensity, 170, 172-176
kinds, 170-172
low-grade, 102, 209, 210, 212, 214,
215, 217, 219, 221, 224, 24.5,
253,258, 259,261,263,271
medium-grade, 215, 219, 223, 227,
228, 247, 255, 263, 271
regional, 172, 174, 175, 197, 201,
204, 208, 210, 212, 214, 215,
217 219, 221, 223, 224, 227,
228, 230, 231 , 235, 238, 239.
245, 247, 251 , 253. 255. 256.
258, 259, 261 , 263, 266, 268271
retrograde, 178, 205, 214, 251 , 257
retrogressive, 178, 243
thermul, ] 72, 189
types, 171-172
Metaphenocryst, 178
Metarhyolite, 239
Metasomatism, 102, 170-172, 174, 175,
177, 178, 180, 186, 189, 197, 199,
204-206, 208, 213, 214, 225, 226,
231, 232, 251, 255, 258, 259, 263.
269-271
alkali, 239
chroll1ian, 219
lime, 203
olllgnesian, 247
in sedimentnry rocks , 109
soda, 189, 252
Methyl methat:rylate, 5
Miarolitic cavities, 26, 34, 189
Miascite, 57
Mica schist, 171, 172
Microbr cia, 125, 184
Microeoquina, J42
Mierocrystalline texture, 37
Microfold, 182, 186
Microgranite, 33
Micrographic intergrowths, 23, 25, 28,
31, 60, 63, 180, 188
Microlites, 21, 37, 39, 40, 47, 55, 56,
61, 66,73,76,83,94,189, 190
Micrometers, 8-10
Micrometric analysis, methods, Chayes,
9, 11
Glagolev, 9
linear, 8
287
288
Microscopic Petrography
Index
Phonolite, association, 51, 84
definition, 49, 60-61
mafic, 61, 63
mineralogy, 60-63
origin, 17
porphyritic, 63
pseudoleucite, 62
Phonolite porphyry, 63
Phosphate, land-pebble, 149
river-pebbl , 149
Phosphate rock (see Phosphorite)
Phosphoria formation, 148, 149
Phosphorite, 147-149
association, 138
bone, 147, 148
definition , 147
examples. 149
insular, 147, 149
mineralogy, 147
occurrence, 149
oolitic, 106, 148, 149
organic, 100
origin, 149
primary hcdded, 147, 149
secondary residual, 147, 149
secondary transported, ]4 7, 149
texhu es, 106, 148-149
varieties, 147
Phyllite, 211-212
chlorite, 21J
definition , 211
examples, 212
l1'ineralogy, 211-2 L2
occurrence, 212
origin, 212
sericite, 211
textures, 178, 212
varieties, 2lJ
Phyllite-mylonite, 186
Phyllonite, 172, 186-187
Picrite, 91
Picrit basalt, 83
Piedmontite schist, 257-258
Pikes Peak granite, 35
Pilotaxitic textur , 25, 36, 54, 63, 66,
69,73,83
Pinite, 231
Pinolite, 205
Pisolite, 106, 126, 130, 131, 143, 148,
153
Pitchstone, 41
Plagioclase, calcic, 21
sodic, 21
Plication, 182, 210
Plutonic rocks, 25
289
290
Microscopic Petrography
146
insoluble, 107-109
salin , 2, 108-109
Resorption of phenocrysts, 43, 44, 50,
53, 62, 66, 70, 71 , 82
Rhodonite-quartz rock, 270
Rhodonite rock, 270
Hhomb porphyry, 50
Rhyodacite, 43
Rhyolite, 35-38
alkali, 36, 51
as ociation, 38, 44, 54, 67, 84
Index
Rhyolite, definition, 35, 43
mineralogy, 35-36
oocnrlenc , 38
origin, 17, 18
potassic, 35, 36
sodic, 35, 36
spherulitic, 35
textures, 36-38
varieties, 35, 36
Hhyolit porphyry, 24
sodi c, 36
Rhyolite vitrophyre, 24 , 37
Hhyolitic glass, 39, 40
Rock anhydrite, 163-166
association, 162, 166
min era logy, 163, 166
occurrence, 165
origin, 165
textures, 105, 106. 163-165
varieties. 163
Rock bora tc, 167- ] 68
Rock color, chart, ] 3
Hock graphite, 223
Hock gypS UIl1, 161- 163
defi nition, ] 61, 165
min rulogy, 162, 167, 168
occurrence, 162-163
origin, 163
textures, 105, 162
Hock pho phate (see P.llosphoritf' )
Hock sa lt, 156-159
association, 158, 159, t6l , j 62, 165
definition, 1.56
examples, ISH
mitwra logy, 156
occurrence, 158-159
origin, 158-159
textures, 105, J56-158
varieti es, 156
Hock sulfur, 166, 168
Rosett ' structure, 180. 245, 246, 265
Hosiwal method, 7-12
basis, 11, ] 2
errors , in meaSUJ'elllCnt, 11- 12
in sampling, 12
foliated rocks , 12
technique, 8-9
Round d, ]03, 104
Roundness, 13, 103-104, 117, 123, 125
Rnda eous, 100
Hudit , 100
S surface, 182
Sabarovite, 240
291
292
Microscopic Petrography
Index
Siderite mudstone, 150, 151
Siderite rock, 149-151
Sieve structure, 62, 177,227
Sil xit , 32, 136
Silicification, 96, 135, 137, 138, 146,
225, 263
SilIimanite-aJmandite subfaeies, 175,
223, 230, 255
Sillimanite gneiss, 171, 181, 228-231
Sillimanite-group gneisses, 226-231
Sillimanite-group schists, 226, 231
Sillimanitc rock, massive, 228, 230, 231
SiIlimll nitC' schist, 180, 223, 228-23 1
Silt, 100
clayey, 117
Siltst()ne, 114, 116, 125, 166
origin, 120
particle size, ],00, 117
texture, 117, 119
Silver Plume granite, 35
Sima, 15, 16
Sinter, caJcareous, 144
siliceolls, l.'36
Skarn, 201- 203, 256
origin, 172, 204
Skeletal crystals, 21, 38, 84
Slate, 209-210
black, 261
Cllrbonaceous, 263
definition, 209, 211
examples, 210
ferru ginous, 261
magnetite, 263
mineralogy, 180, 209
occurrence, 210
origi n, 172, 210
parent materials, 171, 210
sideriti c, 263
spotted, 179, 192-193
texture, 178, 209-210
Slaty cleavage, 1B2, 209, 210, 212
Snowhllll garnet, 177, 221
Soapstone, 224-225
Soda niter, 145, 168
Sodium thiosulfate, 109
Soil, 100
Solution caviti s, 106, 143, 145, 157,
15B, 164
Soret effect, 17
Sorting, 13, 102, 104, 117, 120, 121,
125
Spastholith, 106, 155
Spergenite, 143
Spessartite, 6B, 69
Sphacrosiderite rock, 106, 150
293
29"4
Microscopic Petrography
245
chloritoid-almandit , 215, 253
('ordi rite-andalusite, 192
Index
Texture, agpaitic, 28, 33, 58
amygdaloidal, 25, 63, 69, 73, 82, 178
aphanitic, 24
aplitic, 24, 33, 58
autoclastic, 25, 91
banded (see Banding )
blastopelitic, 178
bias tophi ti c, 178
blastoporphyritic, J78, 186, 235, 239
blastopsa mmjtic, 178
blastops phitic. 178
bostonitic, 48
botryoidal, 153
boxwork, 153
cataclastic (see Cataclastic t('xturcs)
cellular. ] 31
colloform. 106, 137
cryptoerystalJinf', 23 , 36, 37 , 94 , 176,
187-189, 209
crys tallobla tic, 176-177
d cllssatt'. 177, 214, 246, 25 1, 253
ditroitic, 57..,58
eutaxitie, 23, 37
fplted , 25, 36, 44, 246
fibrous , 106
fluid al, 37, 42, 48, 53
foyaitie, 58
fragm ntai, 131 , 261, 262
glonwroporphyritic, 24, 37, 83
gneissoid, 25, 48, 53, 65, 69, 77, 186
granitic, 24
granitOid, 131
granoblastie, 176, 194 . 195. 199,
205, 207, 236. 239, 240
granophyric, 25, 36, 37, 66
gran uliti c, 83, 232, 239
hyalopilitic, 25, 69, 83
idioblastie, 176-178
ign ous rocks , 21-26
interlocking, 207
in tersertaJ, 25, 83
latticework, 91
lepidoblastic, 177, 182
ma culose, 179-180, 193
matrix, 24-25
mesh, 91
miarolitic, 26, 34, 189
lI1icrocrystalJine, 37
microgranular, 36, 44, 54, 73
mosaic, 24, 28, 91 , 143, 195, 220,
234, 267
mottled , 261, 262
nematoblastic, 177, 182
network, 91
ocellar. 6S
295
296
Microscopic Petrography
Tinguaite, 47, 63
Tonalite, 64-65
association, 34, 43, 65
definition, 41, 42, 64, 67
examples, 65
mineralogy, 64-65
occurrence, 65
Tonalit , origin, 17, 18
textu r s, 65
varieties, 64, 65
Tonalite-dacit family, 20, 64-67
TOD(llite porphyry, 64, 65
Topaz rocks, 172, 232-233
Topazfels, 232
Trachybllsalt, 82
Trachyte, 36, 49-51 , 189
alkali, 49, 50
association, 44, 51, 54, 63, 84
definition, 49
examples, 51
feldspathoidal, 60, 62
mineralogy, 49-5 t
normal, 49, 50
occurreoce, 51
origin, 17
pbonolitic, 50
textures, 51
varleti s, 49-.51
Trachyte porphyry, S]
Trachytlc glass, 39
Trachytic textur , 24, 36, 44., 48 , 51,
54, 73
Transformationist, 19
Trass, 96
Travertine, 106, 144, 145
Trichite, 21 , 39, 83, 189
Tripoli, 136, 138
Tripolite, IS8
Troctolite, 74, 76, 77, 89
Trondhjemite, 65
Tufa, 106, 144, 168
Tuff, 41, 93, 167, 16
accessory, 93, 97
accidental, 94, 97
alteration, 96
basaltic, 83, 94, 96, 97, 125
crystal, 93, 94, 96-97
essential, 93, 97
hybrid, 92, 98
lithic, 93, 94, 97
Silicified, 96, 135, 137, '188
varieties, 93-98
vitric, 93-96
welded,96
TRff h~ ccia, 9~
_ -........-........--_....