ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING PRACTICE
GROUP B - ELECTRONICS

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:
1. Study of Electronic components and equipments Resistor color
coding, measurement of AC signal parameter (peak-peak, RMS period,
frequency) using CRO.
2. Study of logic gates AND, OR, Ex-OR and NOT.
3. Generation of Clock Signal.
4. Soldering practice Components, Devices and Circuits Using
general purpose PCB.
5. Measurement of ripple factor of HWR and FWR

EX. NO: 1(a)

DATE:

STUDY OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND

EQUIPMENTS

AIM:
To study about the following electronic component and equipments.
(i). Resistor color coding
(ii). Multimeter.

THEORY:
ELECTRONICS:
It is the branch of science, which relates to the conduction of electricity through a)
vacuum, b) gases and c) semiconductors. The electronic devices are fairly complex, they are
made of simple components such as: Resistors, Capacitors, inductors, tube devices and semiconductor devices.
RESISTORS:
It is a passive electronic component, which exhibits the property of the resistance.
Resistance is a physical property of the material, which opposes the flow of current. Resistors are
used in circuits to limit the flow of current or to provide a voltage drop. Its unit is Ohms ().

Fig. 1 Resistor Symbol

TYPES
Resistors are broadly classified in to two categories as
1) Fixed Resistors
2) Variable Resistors
Fixed Resistors:
Fixed resistors are those whose values cannot be changed after manufacturing.
Variable Resistors:
Variable resistors are those whose values can be changed after manufacturing.

(i) RESISTOR COLOUR CODING

Resistance is coded to indicate the value and the Tolerance. For axial type resistors, four
color bands are used as shown in figure.

Fig. 2 Resistor colour bands

The first three color bands indicate the resistance value and the fourth one indicates the
tolerance. The first colour band gives the first significant digit and second colour band gives the
second significant digit. Third colour band is the multiplier and gives the number of zeros that is
to be added to the numerical value obtained from the first two bands. The following table gives
the colour and its numerical value.
MULTIMETER
It is an instrument used to measure voltages, currents and resistances. It is
an
indispensable instrument and can be used for measuring D.C. as well as A.C. Voltages and
Currents. Multimeter is the most inexpensive equipment and can make various electrical
measurements with reasonable accuracy. There are two types of multimeters - analog and digital.
The digital multimeter is commonly used in laboratory and workshop because of its high input
resistance.
APPLICATIONS:
For checking the circuit continuity.
For measuring D.C. Current flowing through the circuits.
For measuring D.C. Voltages across various resistors in electronic circuits.
For measuring A.C. Voltage across power supply transformers.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
S. NO

APPARATUS

1.

Resistors

2.

Multimeter

RANGE
Unknown values

RESISTOR COLOUR CODING TABLE:

Digital

QUANTITY
As specified
1

TABULATION:

S. No

Resistor colour band

Theoretical value

MODEL CALCULATION:

PROCEDURE:
1. Get the unknown resistor whose resistance value is to be found.

Practical value

2. Identify the band of colours and note down the digit, multiplier and tolerance values
for the corresponding colour.
3. Obtain the theoretical value of resistor using colour coding table.
4. Verify the practical value of resistor using multimeter.

RESULT:
Thus the given resistor is verified both theoretically by colour coding method and
practically by using multimeter.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is resistor?

A resistor is an electrical component that limits or regulates the flow of electrical current
in an electronic circuit.
2. On what factors the value of resistance depends.
The value of resistance depends on length of the conductor, area of cross section of the
conductor and specific resistance of the conductor.
3. What is the unit of resistance?
The unit of resistance is Ohms ().
4. Why resistor is called a passive component?
Resistors do not required external source to their operation and hence it is called Passive
Component.
5. What are the applications of resistor?
In electronic circuits, resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal levels, and to
bias active elements.

EX.NO: 1(b) MEASUREMENT OF AC SIGNAL PARAMETER

DATE:

AIM:
To measure peak, RMS, peak to peak, period and frequency of an alternating
quantity (sinusoidal voltage) by using CRO.

THEORY
Alternating quantity:
A quantity in which the magnitude and direction change with respect to time is called an
alternating quantity.
Example: sinusoidal quantity
Peak value or Amplitude:
The maximum value that an alternating quantity attains during a cycle is called peak
value or Amplitude. There are positive and negative peak values. The magnitude between these
two peaks is called peak-peak value.
Cycle:
One complete set of changes in magnitude and direction of any alternating quantity is
called a cycle.
Period:
Time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called period. Its unit is
seconds.
Frequency:
The number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity per second is called
frequency. Its unit is Hertz.
Root Mean Square value (RMS):
It is that value of direct current which when flows through the given circuit for a given
amount of time produces same heat as that of an alternating current flowing through the same
circuit for the same amount of time .It is also called as effective or virtual value .

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S. NO

APPARATUS

RANGE

QUANTITY

1.

Function Generator

(0 20) MHz

2.

CRO

(0 20)MHz

FORMULA:
1. Vpp = 2*Vm
2. f = 1/T
3. Vrms = Vm / 1.414
where,
Vpp - Peak to Peak value in volts
Vm - Maximum value in volts
f - Frequency
T - Time Period
Vrms - Root Mean Square value in volts

MODEL GRAPH:

Fig. 1 Waveform with amplitude, peak to peak value and time period

Fig. 2 Waveform with peak and RMS voltage

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

The CRO is a versatile electronic testing and measuring instrument that allows the
amplitude of the signal which may be voltage, current, power etc., to be displayed primarily as a
function of time. It is used for voltage, frequency and phase angle measurement and also for
examining the waveforms, from d.c or very low frequency to very high frequencies.
CRO comprises the main sections of (i) Horizontal and vertical voltage amplifiers, (ii) Power
supply circuits and (iii) Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).
APPLICATIONS:
1. Measurement of voltage
2. Measurement of current
3. Measurement of frequency
4. Measurement of phase difference

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the function generator and CRO using BNC probe.
2. Switch on the function generator and adjust the frequency to view the ac waveform in
the CRO.
3. Measure the amplitude, peak to peak value and time period.
4. Calculate the frequency and rms value of voltage using suitable formulas.
5. Plot the ac voltage waveform in a graph sheet taking time in the x axis and voltage in
the y axis.

MODEL CALCULATION:

RESULT:
Thus, Peak, peak to peak values, period, RMS and frequency of a sinusoidal voltage
waveform are observed and measured by using CRO.

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is the other name of Maximum value?

Maximum value is also called Peak value.
2. What is the unit of peak to peak value of voltage and frequency?
The unit of peak to peak value of voltage is volt and frequency is Hertz.
3. Is frequency for dc is zero?
Frequency, as regards voltage, is a term applied to changes in Voltage per unit time.
Voltage does not change in DC, unlike in AC. Hence frequency of AC supply is zero.
4. What is the maximum value of voltage of a 230V rms ac supply?
The rms value of voltage is given by,
Vrms = Vm / 1.414
Vm = Vrms * 1.414
Vm = 230 * 1.414 = 325V
5. What is the difference between ac and dc supply?
Both AC and DC describe types of current flow in a circuit. In direct current (DC), the
electric charge (current) only flows in one direction. Electric charge in alternating current (AC),
on the other hand, changes direction periodically.

EX.NO.2

STUDY OF LOGIC GATES

DATE :
AIM:
To study the operation of logic gates (AND, OR, Ex-OR and NOT) and verify their truth
table.

THEORY:
Logic gates are digital circuits with one or more input signals and only one output Signal.
Gates are digital circuits because the input and output signals are either low or High voltages.
NOT GATE: IC7404
A NOT gate has a single input and a single output. It is also called as an inverter. The
output will be at logic 1 if its input is at low state, otherwise its output will be at Logic 0. Thus its
output is the complement of its input. The Boolean expression for NOT GATE Y =
AND GATE: IC7408
An AND gate is a digital logic gate with two or more inputs and one output that performs
logical conjunction. The output of an AND gate is true only when all of the inputs are true.
OR GATE: IC7432
An OR gate can have two or more inputs but only one output. Its output will be at Logic
1 if any or both of its inputs are at the high state. The Boolean expression for a two input OR
gate is:
Y= A+B
EX-OR GATE: IC7486
It has two or more inputs and a single output. The output of the EX-OR gate is high if the
inputs are different and low if the inputs are same. The Boolean expression for a two input EXOR gate is: Y = A+ B

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S. No

Apparatus

IC Number

Quantity

1.

AND Gate

IC 7408

2.

OR Gate

IC 7432

3.

NOT Gate

IC 7404

4.

EX-OR Gate

IC 7486

5.

Training Kit

Digital

6.

Connection wires

As Required

PROCEDURE:

1) Connections for all the gates namely NOT, AND, OR and EX-OR are given as per the circuit
diagram.
2) Pin No.7 is connected to ground and pin No.14 is connected to +Vcc of +5V.
3) Outputs are noted for various combinations of inputs and the truth table is verified.

AND GATE (IC7408)

NOT GATE (IC7404)

OR GATE (IC7432)

EX OR GATE (IC 7486)

RESULT:
Thus the logic gates are studied and their truth tables are verified.

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Define logic gates.

Logic gates are the basic building blocks of any digital system. It is an electronic circuit
having one or more than one input and only one output.
2. What gates are called universal gates?
NAND and NOR.
3. What is the meaning of universal gates?
A universal gate is a gate which can implement any Boolean function without need to use
any other gate type.
4. What is the other name of NOT gate?
Inverter gate.
5. Draw the symbol and truth table of NAND and NOR gate.

GENERATION OF CLOCK SIGNAL

EX.NO:3
DATE:
AIM:

To generate a clock signal using the IC 555 timer in Astable mode.

THEORY:
Multivibrator is basically a two stage amplifier with output of one feedback to the input
of the other. This integrated chip generates the clock signal of its own. It does not require
external pulse for its operation but a source of DC power. The width of the square wave and its
frequency depend upon the circuit constants.
The 555 timer has three operating modes:
Monostable mode: In this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot". Applications include timers,
missing pulse detection, bounce free switches, touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance
measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) etc.
Astable - free running mode: The 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED and lamp
flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse position
modulation, etc.
Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: The 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not
connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce free latched switches, etc.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S. No

Components

IC Number

1.

Resistor

10K

2.

Capacitor

0.01F

3.

IC

4.

CRO

5.

Bread board

6.

Connection wires

555
(0 20) Mhz

Quantity
2
2
1
1
1
As Required

Fig. 1 IC 555 PIN DIAGRAM

R1 = R2 = 10K and C = 0.01F

Fig 2. Circuit Diagram

TABULATION:

FORMULA:
f = 1/T
T = Ton + Toff
= Ton / T
where,
Ton on time in ms
Toff off time in ms
T Total time period in ms
f - Frequency in Hertz
Duty Cycle

MODEL GRAPH

Fig 3. Capacitor charging and discharging waveform and

timer output (square wave) waveform

MODEL CALCULATION:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram after designing suitable values of R1,
R2 and C for the desired clock frequency, ON and OFF times.
2. Pin.8 is connected to the supply.
3. Pin.3 is connected to the CRO for observing the output clock signal.
4. ON and OFF times are measured from CRO. Time period and frequency are then
calculated.

RESULT:
Thus a clock signal using the IC 555 timer is generated in Astable mode.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Why IC 555 is called so?
The timer got its name from the three 5 kilo-ohm resistor in series employed in the
internal circuit of the IC.
2. List the applications of IC 555.
The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse
generation, and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an
oscillator.
3. Define duty cycle.
The ratio of on-time period (Ton) to total time period (Toff) is called duty cycle.
4. What is a capacitor?
A device used to store an electric charge, consisting of one or more pairs of conductors
separated by an insulator.
5. On what factors capacitor charging and discharging depends.
The rate at which a capacitor can be charged or discharged depends on:
(a) the capacitance of the capacitor and
(b) the resistance of the circuit through which it is being charged or is discharging.

EX.NO:4
DATE:

SOLDERING PRACTICE COMPONENTS

DEVICE AND CIRCUITS

AIM:
To assemble, solder and desolder the electronic components on a printed circuit board for
the given circuit.

THEORY:
Soldering in electronics is a method of joining components permanently to a printed
circuit board (PCB). In other words, you use a metal that has a low melting point to adhere the
surfaces to be soldered together. Consider that soldering is more like gluing with molten metal,
unlike welding where the base metals are actually melted and combined. Soldering is also a must
have skill for all sorts of electrical and electronics work.
GENERAL SOLDERING PROCEDURE:
1. Setting up Work Area
a. Ensure adequate ventilation. If multiple people are soldering in a concentrated area, set up a
fan to gently blow fumes and vapors away from you and your co-workers.
b. Keep area clean around workplace at all times
2. Preparing Work piece
a. Clamp work securely while performing soldering or de-soldering. Use a vise or other approved
clamping systems to keep your hands free to work.
b. Use heat sinks to protect thermally sensitive circuit components.
3. Selecting a Solder and Flux
a. Solder
Solder commonly used in most laboratory environments contains tin and lead. A common
alloy for non - production electronics use is the eutectic mixture of 63% tin and 37% lead due to
its low melting point. This alloy melts at 361F /183C.
b. Flux
Flux is an agent that inhibits oxidation and helps the solder flow more easily. For
electronics applications, rosin flux or no - clean fluxes are used.
4. Setting up the Soldering Station
a. Select the proper sized solder tip for your work. As trace and pad size decrease, soldering tip
size must also decrease.
b. Turn the soldering station ON and set the temperature appropriate to the solder composition
you are using.
Note: higher temperatures lead to more rapid formulation of oxidation on soldering tip and will
shorten tip life.
c. Make sure the solder tip is cleaned and tinned.
5. Tinning Soldering Tip
a. Allow the soldering iron to reach temperature.
b. Apply flux to the tip first and then liberally apply solder to tip.

c. Wipe off excess older on sponge.

d. A properly tinned tip will be shiny and free of oxidation.
e. It is normal to have to re-tin a tip from time to time as oxidation builds up on the tip.
6. Soldering
a. Hold the soldering iron like a pen, near the base of the handle.
b. Touch the soldering iron onto the joint to be made. Make sure it touches both the component
lead and the track. Hold the tip there for a few seconds to heat the joint.
c. Unroll the solder and bring the end to the joint to be soldered near the soldering iron tip. The
solder should melt and smoothly flow onto the components to be soldered (component lead, pcb
trace, etc). Be sure to apply the solder to the joint, not the iron.
d. Remove the solder, then the iron, while keeping the joint still. Allow the joint a few seconds to
cool before you move the circuit board.
e. Inspect the joint closely. Be sure that the solder joint is good
7. Solder Joint Evaluation
A good solder joint
a. Will be shiny and concave in nature.
b. Will be clean and free of dirt and voids.
c. Will fully cover the pad the component lead lays on or passing through.
8. De - soldering
De-soldering is done to remove components that have been soldered together. Two
common forms of de-soldering are done through the use of a vacuum plunger device (solder
sucker).

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S. No

Components

Range

1.

Resistor

Required range

2.

Capacitor

Required range

3.

Soldering rod

4.

Soldering lead

5.

Printed Circuit board

(PCB)

6.

Connection wires

7.

Multimeter

8.

Soldering Iron Stands

9.

Soldering flux

Digital

Quantity
As per circuit
As per circuit
1
1
1
As Required
1
1
1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR SOLDERING

PRECAUTION:

Never touch the element of the soldering iron....400C!

Hold wires to be heated with tweezers or clamps.

Keep the cleaning sponge wet during use.

Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not in use. Never put it down on the
workbench.

Turn unit off and unplug when not in use.

PROCEDURE:
1. The terminal of the resistor and capacitor are thoroughly cleaned.
2. The joint to be made is tinned.
3. A soldering gun is heated using power supply till it attains the required temperature.
4. Using the heated soldering gun, the tinned joint is soldered.
5. Using the multimeter the continuity of the circuit is checked.
6. De-solder the components using plunger.

RESULT:

Thus, the electronic components via resistor and capacitor were joined through soldering
and continuity of a circuit is checked successfully using multimeter.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What 2 types of connections does a good solder joint provide?
Electric and thermal.
2. What is oxidation?
Oxidation was when oxygen was added to a compound. Example: Iron combines with
oxygen to form iron oxide or rust.
3. What is the function of flux?
Flux functions to assist cleaning of metal surfaces, and protect them from oxidization
during soldering.
4. What is the most common material for a soldering iron tip?
Copper
5. Explain the function of the soldering iron tip.
The function of the tip is to transfer heat into the joint, and provide the best temperature to
melt and flow the solder into it.

MEASUREMENT OF RIPPLE FACTOR OF

HALFWAVE & FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

EX.NO:5
DATE:
AIM:

To construct half wave and full wave rectifier circuits with and without filter and to
measure the ripple factor.

THEORY:
Half Wave Rectifier:
In a half wave rectifier only one diode is used in the secondary of the transformer, during
the positive half cycle the diode conducts and only the positive portion of the input signal is
delivered to the load. During the negative half cycle the diode will not conduct, since it is reverse
biased and there is no output delivered to the load.
Full Wave Rectifier Using Centre Tapped Transformer
The full wave Centre tapped rectifier uses two diodes connected to the secondary of
Centre tapped transformer. The input voltage is coupled through the transformer to the Centre
tapped secondary, half of the total secondary voltage appears between the Centre tapped and each
end of the secondary winding. For a positive half cycle of the input voltage, the upper diode D1
is forward biased and the lower diode D2 is reverse biased. The current path is through D1 and
load (RL), for negative half cycle of the input voltage the diode D1 is reverse biased and diode
D2 is forward biased. Now the current path is through diode (D2) and resistor (RL), because of
output current during both cycle is in same direction, the output voltage developed across the
load resistor is a full wave rectified voltage.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S. No

Components

Range

1.

Resistor

470

2.

Capacitor

470F

3.

Transformer

4.

CRO

5.

Bread board

6.

Connection wires

230 V/ (6-0-6) V
(0 20) Mhz

Quantity
1
1
1
1
1
As Required

7.

Diode

1N4007

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

WITHOUT FILTER:

WITH FILTER:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

WITHOUT FILTER:

WITH FILTER

MODEL GRAPH
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

NOTE: Diodes are used in a rectifier circuit to convert AC into DC. When only one half of the
AC cycle is rectified, it is known as half-wave rectification. When both the half cycles are
rectified, it is known as full-wave rectification.

TABULATION:
Type of rectifier

Without capacitor
Time

Half

Ripple Factor

Volt

wave

rectifier
Full

wave

rectifier

With capacitor

Type of rectifier
Time
Half

Volt

wave

rectifier
Full

wave

rectifier

FORMULA USED:
1. Average value of DC load voltage, Vdc= 2Vm/ (Full wave).
2. Average value of DC load voltage, Vdc= Vm/ (Half Wave).
3. Vrms=Vm / 2
.
4. RMS value of AC component, Vac= (Vrms2-Vdc2)
5. Ripple factor =Vac / Vdc

Ripple Factor

PROCEDURE:
Half Wave Rectifier:
(i) Without Capacitor filter:
1. Test your transformer: Give 230v, 50Hz source to the primary coil of the transformer and
observe the AC waveform of rated value without any distortion at the secondary of the
transformer.
2. Connect the half wave rectifier as shown in figure.
3. Measure the Vdc & Vac using DC and AC Voltmeters.
4. Calculate the Ripple factor
5. Compare the theoretical ripple factor with the practical ripple factor.
(ii) With capacitor:
1. Connect the half wave rectifier with filter circuit as shown in fig.
2. Assume r= 10% of ripple peak-to-peak voltage for R= 500 . Calculate C using the formula r
= 1/2 3fRC
3. Connect CRO across load.
4. Keep the CRO switch in ground mode and observe the horizontal line and adjust it to the Xaxis.
5. Switch the CRO into DC mode and observe the waveform.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:

(i) Without Capacitor:
1. Test your transformer: Give 230v, 50Hz source to the primary coil of the transformer and
observe the AC waveform of rated value without any distortion at the secondary of the
transformer.
2. Connect the full wave rectifier as shown in figure.
3. Measure the Vdc & Vac using DC and AC Voltmeters.
4. Calculate the Ripple factor
5. Compare the theoretical ripple factor with the practical ripple factor.
(ii)With capacitor:
1. To plot ripple peak-to-peak voltage Vs. Idc to choose C a ripple factor of 0.15 is assumed.
2. To get a variable load resistance a number of 500, 5W of resistance are to be connected in
parallel. Hence Idc = Vdc /(N X 500). Where N is number of 500 resistances connected in
parallel.
3. Plot the graph Idc Vs ripple peak to peak.
4. The above steps are repeated for the various values of capacitance.

MODEL CALCULATION:

RESULT:
Thus half wave rectifier & full wave rectifier, the input and output waveforms have been
plotted and ripple factor is measured.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Define Rectifier?
An electrical circuit used to convert AC into DC current. A rectifier is a diode that
causes the current to flow in only one direction. The output of the rectifier is essentially half-AC
current, which is then filtered into DC.
2. Define Full wave Rectifier?
A rectifier that flattens both positive and negative halves of the incoming AC to
pulsating DC. This design is used more often because it is more efficient than a half-wave
rectifier.
3. What is a Ripple Factor?
Ripple factor can be defined as the variation of the amplitude of DC (Direct current) due
to improper filtering of AC power supply. It can be measured by RF = Vrms / Vdc
4. What is Efficiency?
Rectifier efficiency is the ratio of the DC output power to the AC input power.
5. What is PIV?
The peak

inverse

voltage is

either

the

specified

maximum

voltage

that

a diode rectifier can block, or, alternatively, the maximum that a rectifier needs to block in a
given application.
6. What is filter?
Electronic filters are electronic circuits which perform signal processing functions,
specifically to remove unwanted frequency components from the signal.

CONTENT BEYOND THE

SYLLABUS

EX.NO:

VERIFICATION OF OHMS LAW

DATE:
AIM:
To verify Ohms law.

THEORY:
Ohm's law states that the current passing through a device is directly proportional to the
potential difference applied. Mathematically, this can be written I=V/R, where I is the current, V
is the voltage difference, and R is the resistance. The formula is also commonly rearranged as
V=IR, or R=V/I. Although commonly stated as a "law," it is in fact only true in certain situations
(for example, a diode does not follow Ohm's law). Ohm's law can be used to solve simple
problems with electrical circuits (a complete circuit is any closed loop with at least one source of
voltage and one potential drop).

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO NAME OF THE APPARATUS

RANGE / TYPE

QUANTITY

1.

Voltmeter

(0-30)V, MC

1 No.

2.

Ammeter

1 No.

3.

Resistor

1 No.

4.

Connecting Wires

As required

5.

Power Supply

(0-30)V, DC RPS

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Note: Choose the ammeter range based on the resistance value.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Find the value of unknown resistance by colour coding method.
3. Switch ON the supply and note down the voltmeter and ammeter readings.
4. Calculate the value of unknown resistance using Ohms law formula.
5. Verify the theoretical and practical value of unknown resistance.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
S. No

Voltage
V (V)

Current
I (A)

Theoretical
resistance

FORMULA:
V = IR
where,
V is the voltage difference
I is the current in amperes
R is the resistance in ohms

MODEL CALCULATION:

value

of Practical Value
R=V/I

RESULT:
Thus Ohms law is verified.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Define Ohms law.
Ohm's law states that at a constant temperature, current 'I' through a conductor between two
points is directly proportional to the potential difference or voltage 'V', across the two points.
That is, Thus, the ratio V: I is a constant. This constant is called as the resistance (R) of the
conductor.
2. What is the unit of voltage, current and resistance?
Voltage volt, Current Ampere and Resistance - Ohms
3. Define current.
An electric current is a flow of electric charge. In electric circuits this charge is often
carried by moving electrons in a wire.
4. What are the limitations of Ohms law?
1. This law cannot be applied to unilateral networks. A unilateral network has unilateral
elements like diode, transistors, etc., which do not have same voltage current relation for
both directions of current.
2. Ohms law is also not applicable for non linear elements.

Non linear elements are those which do not give current through it, is not exactly
proportional to the voltage applied.
5. Give the applications of Ohms law?
The applications of ohms law are that it helps us in determining either voltage, current or
resistance of a linear circuit when the other two quantities are known to us.

EX.NO:

VI CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

DATE:
AIM:
To study the VI characteristics of a p-n junction diode.

THEORY:
In forward bias, the p-type is connected with the positive terminal and the n-type is
connected with the negative terminal.
Connecting the P-type region to the negative terminal of the battery and the N-type region
to the positive terminal corresponds to reverse bias. If a diode is reverse-biased, the voltage at the
cathode is higher than that at the anode. Therefore, no current will flow until the diode breaks
down.

S.NO NAME OF THE APPARATUS

1.
Voltmeter

RANGE / TYPE
(0 1)V, MC

QUANTITY
1 each

2.

(0 30)V, MC
(0 100)mA, MC

1 each

Ammeter

3.
4.

Resistor
Connecting Wires

5.
6.

Power Supply
Diode

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
FORWARD BIAS:

REVERSE BIAS:

(0 500)A, MC
1K
(0-30)V, DC RPS
1N4007

1
As required
1
1

MODEL GRAPH:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Conduct the experiment in forward bias and reverse bias modes.
3. Note down the voltmeter and ammeter readings in respective modes.
4. Plot the VI characteristics of a p-n junction diode.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S. No

Forward Bias
Voltage
V (V)

Current
I( )

Reverse Bias
Voltage
V (V)

Current
I( )

RESULT:
Thus the VI characteristics of a p-n junction diode is studied.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What does a pn diode do?
A pn diode is a type of semiconductor diode based upon the pn junction. The diode
conducts current in only one direction, and it is made by joining a p-type semiconducting layer
to an n-type semiconducting layer.
2. What is knee voltage?
It is the minimum amount of voltage which is required to operate components like for
silicon diode it is 0.7 V while for Germanium Diode its 0.3 V.
3. Define reverse breakdown voltage.
The breakdown voltage of a diode is the minimum reverse voltage to make the diode
conduct in reverse. It is 400V for 1N4007 diode.
4. What is the depletion region?
Depletion region or depletion layer is a region in a semiconductor where no mobile
charge carriers are present. Depletion layer acts like a barrier that opposes the flow of electrons
from n-side and holes from p-side.
5. Give the applications of pn junction diode.

PN junction diode is a diode which can be used as a rectifier, logic gate, voltage stabilizer,
switching device, voltage dependent capacitor and in optoelectronics as a photodiode, lightemitting diode (LED), laser diode, photo detector, or solar cell in electronics.