8/12/2015

Review: Design Abstraction Levels

SYSTEM

EE370 Digital Electronics

The Inverter!

MODULE
+
GATE

Yogesh S. Chauhan
Department of Electrical Engineering
IIT Kanpur
Email: chauhan@iitk.ac.in
Office: WL125, Phone: 7244

CIRCUIT
Vin

Vout
G
S
n+

DEVICE
D
n+

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

Review: The MOS Transistor

Switch

vi

Normal switch
Gate oxide
W

ON (Signal applied) = Low resistance (Ideal 0)

OFF = High resistance (Ideal )

Polysilicon
Gate

Source
n+

Drain
n+
L

Field-Oxide
(SiO2)

Inverted switch
ON (Signal applied) = High resistance
OFF = Low resistance

p substrate
p+ stopper
Bulk (Body)

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

8/12/2015

Inverter using switch

Voltage Swing

Inverters are implemented using switches.

Vswing= VOH-VOL
1

RL

RL

Swing should be maximized.

RL

RSL

RSH

Ideally VOH = VDD and VOL=0

Thus RSH as high as possible and RSL as low as
possible.

SimplestInverter
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

Performance Delay
/

V DD

V DD

RL

CL discharging to VOL.

RL

V out

Req
R SH

Propagation Delay

0.69

CL charging to VOH.

(a) Low-to-high
Vin goes from VDD to ground.

2
Asymmetric delays are undesirable.
To solve this (asymmetric delays),

CL

0.69

1
1

(b) High-to-low
Vin goes
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

V out

R SL

0.69

0.69

As RSH>> RSL, tpLH>>tpHL

Req

CL

Decrease RSH and Increase RSL

But there is a tradeoff
RSH VOH and RSL VOL
Noise margin and swing suffer.

from ground to VDD.

7

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

8/12/2015

Power

NMOS Inverter
MOSFET can be operated as a switch.

Ptotal = Pdyn + Pstat

Low to high transition (

and

Capacitor is charging from supply

Energy transferred by source

High to Low transition (

Capacitor is discharging
Energy transferred by source

and

VOH=VDD

To reduce power, reduce swing!

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

NMOS Inverter

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

10

NMOS Inverter

Visually, we can plot VTC of this inverter.

Lets find VIL,

For VIL, NMOS is in saturation.

1,

Differentiating and using

1

Where

Lets find VM, vO=vin=VM

Its not sufficient, Lets do calculation of VTC

critical points (VOH, VOL, VIH, VIL and VM).
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

2
11

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

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8/12/2015

NMOS Inverter

NMOS Inverter

Boundary of saturation (C)

Using
,

Lets find VOL.

2
Assuming v0 is small, ignore v02

Beyond C, NMOS is in linear region.

To find VIH, use

1 and linear current equation.

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

13

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

NMOS Inverter

NMOS Inverter Power dissipation

Power dissipation
Dynamic power in one complete cycle (T)

All NMOS inverter parameters are functions of

VDD, VT and VX only.
VDD and VT are determined by the process technology
Only design parameter available is

Static power dissipation (only when vI is low)

To place VM at VDD/2,

14

Total Power dissipation

|
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

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Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

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8/12/2015

NMOS Inverter Delay

NMOS Inverter

Output going low to high

MOSFET is in cutoff
tpLH=0.69RLCL

Using VDD=1.8V and VT=0.5V,

Output going high to low

Capacitor discharges through MOSFET

Req=(Rdis(0%) + Rdis(50%))/2

and
To determine RL, use
kn = 300 A V2 and W/L = 1.5

Average v0,

RL=25k

Inverter dissipates static power only when output is low.

=121W

Average power = PD/2=60.5W

tpHL=0.69ReqCL

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

17

Key observations

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

18

Saturated NMOS-Load Inverter

Lets replace passive resistance with an NMOS transistor.

Output signal swing, though not equal to the VDD, is reasonably

good:
VOH = 1.8 V, VOL = 0.12 V

Noise margins are far from the optimum value of

NML = VIL VOL = 0.47 V
NMH = VOH VIH = 0.74 V

Most seriously, the gate dissipates a relatively large amount of

power.
Million inverters in an IC (a very small number) will dissipate 61 W!
This is too large, especially given that this is static power, unrelated
to the switching activity of the gates.

Each inverter requires a load resistance of 25 k

This kind of value needs large chip area
Unsuitable for IC fabrication

tpLH>> tpHL
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

19

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

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8/12/2015

Saturated NMOS-Load Inverter

Saturated NMOS-Load Inverter

VOH = VDD VT
Q2 is always in saturation
1
2
As vI exceeds VT1, Q1 operates in saturation,
1
2
Using VT1=VT2=VT and equating,
1

All inverter parameters are function of VDD,

VT and kr.
Only design parameters is kr.

Output is linear function of input with slope = - kr

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

21

Saturated NMOS-Load Inverter

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

22

Key observations

Using VDD=1.8V and VT=0.5V

(W L)1 = 5, (W L)2 = 1/5

Body of Q2 is connected to ground, thus

,
2
2
VT2 will increase with increase in vo (i.e. during charging CL)
VOH is lower than VDD by VT2 and VT2 increases with vo.
Swing & NM decrease.
Body effect imposes a major disadvantage on this NMOS-load
inverter.

Noise margins are much lower than the ideal values of VDD/2.

Inverter dissipates static power only when output is low.

Average power = PD/2=42.9W

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

=85.7W

VM is far from VDD/2.

23

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

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8/12/2015

Improvements-1
Depletion load NMOS Inverter

Key observations
Like the resistively-loaded MOS inverter, the NMOSloaded inverter dissipates a large amount of static power.

Advantages
VOH=VDD

The sharpness of the transition of the VTC increases with

the value of Increasing kr.

VT2=0V

However, kr has the effect of increasing the silicon area.

Disadvantages

Since the circuit utilizes NMOS transistors exclusively, it is

certainly suitable for implementation in IC form.
All-NMOS technology was at one time (1970s) the
technology of choice for the implementation of
microprocessor chips (e.g. Intel 4004).
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

Body effect
Others similar to NMOS
load
DepletionloadNMOSInverter

25

Improvements-2
Pseudo-NMOS Inverter

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

26

Pseudo-NMOS Inverter
Ratio r
1
1
2

3
1

1
1

Avoids body effect problem seen in NMOS

loaded inverter
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

27

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

1
1

>0
1
1

2
3

Designparameter=r
Ratioed Logic
tpLH isr timeslargerthantpHL
VOL0
Standbypower

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8/12/2015

The CMOS Inverter: A First Glance

CMOS Inverter
N Well

Design Metrics:

V DD

V in

VDD

Cost=Complexity and
area
Integrity and
robustness Static (or
steady-state) behavior
Performance
Dynamic (or transient)
response
Energy efficiency
Energy and power
consumption

V out
CL

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

Reference:Rabaey book

In

Vin = 0

Out
Metal 1

Polysilicon

NMOS
GND

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

30

Full rail-to-rail swing high noise margins

VOL = 0
VOH = VDD
VM = f(Rn, Rp)

Vin = V DD
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

Out

CMOS Properties

Rp

Rn

Contacts

NMOS

Vout = 0

In

29

VDD

Vout = 1

PMOS

PMOS

CMOS Inverter:
Steady State Response
VDD

VDD

31

Logic levels not dependent upon the relative device sizes transistors
can be minimum size ratioless

Always a path to Vdd or GND in steady state low output

impedance (output resistance in k range) large fan-out
(albeit with degraded performance)

Extremely high input resistance (gate of MOS transistor is

near perfect insulator) nearly zero steady-state input current

No direct path steady-state between power and ground no

static power dissipation

Propagation delay function of load capacitance and resistance

of transistors
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

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8/12/2015

Review: Short Channel I-V Plot (NMOS)

Review: Short Channel I-V Plot (PMOS)

X 10-4

2.5

All polarities of all voltages and currents are reversed

VGS = 2.5V

VDS (V)

-2

-1

0
0

VGS = 2.0V

1.5
1

VGS = 1.5V

0.5

VGS = 1.0V

VGS = -1.0V

-0.2

VGS = -1.5V

-0.4
-0.6

VGS = -2.0V

-0.8
0

0.5

1.5

VDS (V)

2.5

VGS = -2.5V

NMOS transistor, 0.25um, Ld = 0.25um, W/L = 1.5, VDD = 2.5V, VT = 0.4V

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

33

-1 X 10-4
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

34

PMOS transistor, 0.25um, Ld = 0.25um, W/L = 1.5, VDD = 2.5V, VT = -0.4V

CMOS
Inverter Load Lines
CurrentthroughNMOSandPMOSaresame.

Want common coordinate set Vin, Vout, and IDn

IDSp = -IDSn
VGSn = Vin ; VGSp = Vin - VDD
VDSn = Vout ; VDSp = Vout - VDD

PMOS

IDn

2.5

NMOS

X 10-4

Vin = 2.5V

Vin = 0V

2
Vin = 0.5V1.5

Vin = 2.0V

Vout
Vin = 0

Vin = 0

Vin = 1.5

Vin = 1.5

Vin = 1.0V 1

Vin = 2V
0.5

Vin = 1V

Vin = 1.5V

Vin = 0.5V
Vin = 1.0V

Vin = 1.5V
Vin = 2.0V
VGSp = -1
VGSp = -2.5

Mirror around x-axis

Horiz. shift over VDD
Vout = VDD + VDSp
Vin = VDD + VGSp
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK
IDn = -IDp

35

Vin = 0.5V

Vin = 2.5V 0

Vin = 1.5V

0.5

1.5
Vout (V)

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

2.5 Vin = 0V

0.25um, W/Ln = 1.5, W/Lp = 4.5, VDD = 2.5V, VTn = 0.4V, VTp = -0.4V

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8/12/2015

CMOS Inverter Load Lines

CMOS Inverter VTC

All operating points are located

either at the high or low output
levels.
The VTC of the inverter hence
exhibits a very narrow transition
zone.

NMOS sat
PMOS res

Vout (V)

This results from the high gain

during the switching transient,
when both NMOS and PMOS are
simultaneously on, and in
saturation.
In that operation region, a small
change in the input voltage results
in a large output variation.

PMOS

1.5

In

NMOS sat
PMOS sat

NMOS
NMOS res
PMOS sat

NMOS res
PMOS off

0
0
37

CMOS Inverter:
Switch Model of Dynamic Behavior
VDD

Vout
CL

Rn

1.5

Vin (V)

2.5

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

38

When designing static CMOS circuits, balance

the driving strengths of the transistors by
making the PMOS section wider than the
VDD
NMOS section to

Rp
Vout

0.5

Relative Transistor Sizing

VDD

Maximize the noise margins and

Obtain symmetrical characteristics
In

Vin = 0

Out

1
0.5

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

CL

VDD

NMOS off
PMOS res

2.5

PMOS
Out

Vin = V DD

Gate response time is determined by the time to

Charge CL through Rp
DecreaseCL
Discharge CL through Rn
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

NMOS

and/orR
39

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

40

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8/12/2015

Static behavior Switching Threshold

VM where Vin = Vout (both PMOS and NMOS in saturation

since VDS = VGS)
2

VM where Vin = Vout (both PMOS and NMOS are velocity

saturated since VDS = VGS)
VM rVDD/(1 + r) where r = kpVDSATp/knVDSATn

Using |VTn|=|VTp|=VT, and

1
Switching threshold set by the ratio r, which compares the
relative driving strengths of the PMOS and NMOS transistors

Switching Threshold
(short channel)

Want VM = VDD/2 (to have comparable high and low noise

margins) So r = 1 for long channel.

Switching threshold set by the ratio r, which compares the

relative driving strengths of the PMOS and NMOS transistors

Want VM = VDD/2 (to have comparable high and low noise

margins), so want r 1
(W/L)p

knVDSATn(VM-VTn-VDSATn/2)

(W/L)n kpVDSATp(VDD-VM+VTp+VDSATp/2)

Thus
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

41

0.25mCMOS,VDD=2.5V

VM is relatively insensitive to
variations in device ratio

1.4

Vmb
Vma

ChangingWp/Wn ratio
shiftsthetransientregion
oftheVTC.
Thiscanbeveryuseful, as
asymmetricaltransfer
characteristicsareactually
desirableinsomedesigns.

setting the ratio to 3, 2.5 and 2

gives VMs of 1.22V, 1.18V, and
1.13V

1.3
1.2
1.1

42

Making VM asymmetric

Simulated Inverter VM

1.5

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

Increasing the width of the

PMOS moves VM towards VDD

1
0.9

Increasing the width of the

NMOS moves VM toward GND

0.8
0.1

(W/L)p/(W/L)n

Note: x-axis is semilog

~3.4

10

TomovetheVM to1.5Vrequiresatransistorratioof
11,andfurtherincreasesareprohibitivelyexpensive.
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

43

The incoming signal Vin has a very noisy zero value.

Passing this signal through a symmetrical inverter would lead to erroneous
values.
This can be addressed by raising the threshold of the inverter, which results in a
correct response.

Changing the switching threshold by a considerable amount is however not

easy, especially when the ratio of VDD/VM is relatively small.
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

44

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8/12/2015

Determining VIH and VIL

Noise Margins Determining VIH and VIL

By definition, VIH and VIL are
where dVout/dVin = -1 (= gain)

Vout
V OH

VOH = VDD

NMH = VDD - VIH

NML = VIL - GND

VM

VM

V in
VOL = GND0

V OL

Vin VIH
A piece-wise linear
approximation of VTC

V IL

VIL

A simplified approach
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

45

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

2.5

Vout (V)

2
1.5

0.25um, (W/L)p/(W/L)n = 3.4

(W/L)n = 1.5 (min size)
VDD = 2.5V

VM 1.25V, g = -27.5

VIL = 1.2V, VIH = 1.3V

NML = NMH = 1.2
(actual values are
VIL = 1.03V, VIH = 1.45V
NML = 1.03V & NMH = 1.05V)

0.5
0
0.5

Vin (V)

1.5

2.5

Output resistance
low-output = 2.4k
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK
high-output = 3.3k

46

Gain calculation in Long channel

CMOS Inverter VTC from Simulation

So high gain in the transition

region is very desirable

V IH

For NML and NMH, we need to find gain.

Gain is a strong function of the slopes of the currents in the saturation region. The
CLM factor hence cannot be ignored in this analysis doing so would lead to an
infinite gain.
1
2
2
Gain is dVout/dVin, Using |VTn|=|VTp|=VT,
2

Ignoring CLM and for Vin=VM,

This gives,

and using it in above equation

1

47

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

48

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8/12/2015

Gain Determinates
Vin
0.5

1.5

2.5

Gain is a strong function of the

slopes of the currents in the
saturation region, for Vin = VM

0
-2
-4

(1+r)
g ---------------------------------(VM-VTn-VDSATn/2)(n - p )

-6
-8
-10

Determined by technology
parameters, especially channel
length modulation (). Only
designer influence through supply
voltage and VM (transistor sizing).

-14
-16
-18

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

49

PVT

Nominal

Bad PMOS
Good NMOS

0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Vin (V)

CMOS Inverter Propagation Delay

0.2

VDD

tpHL = f(Ron.CL)

Vout (V)

0.15

Vout (V)

2.5

Process variations (mostly) cause a shift in the switching threshold.

Operation of the gate is notY.affected.
S. Chauhan, IITK
50

Forfixedr,VM isproportionaltoVDD.
GainincreaseswithdecreaseinVDD ( areconstant)!

1.5
1

= 0.69 RonCL

0.1

Vout
0.05

0.5

CL
Ron

Gain=-1
0

0
0.5

Scaling the Supply Voltage

Corners:
SlowFast
FastFast
FastSlow
SlowSlow

1.5

0.5

-12

PVT

Good PMOS
Bad NMOS

Vout (V)

Impact of Process Variation on VTC Curve

1.5

2.5

ln(0.5)

Vout
1

VDD

0.5

Vin (V)
Device threshold voltages are
kept (virtually) constant Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

0.05

0.1

0.15

Vin (V)
Device threshold voltages are
kept (virtually) constant 51

0.2

0.36

Vin = V DD
RonCL
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

t
52

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8/12/2015

Computing the Capacitances

Gate-Drain Capacitance

Gate-drain
capacitances
Diffusion
capacitances
Wire
capacitances

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

The gatedrain overlap capacitance of M1, Cgd1, can be replaced by

an equivalent capacitance between the output node and ground of
2Cgd1.
The factor 2 arises because of the Miller effect. As vI goes high and
vO goes low by the same amount, the change in voltage across Cgd1
is twice that amount.
Total Capacitance
53

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

54

Inadigitalinverter,thelargescalegainbetweeninputandoutputalwaysequals1.

CMOS Inverter Layout

Out

CMOS Inverters

In
VDD

metal1-poly via

metal1

PMOS

polysilicon

metal2

VDD

pdiff

1.2m
=2
Out

In

PMOS (4/.24 = 16/1)

NMOS (2/.24 = 8/1)

Metal1

Polysilicon

metal1-diff via
ndiff

NMOS

GND

GND

metal2-metal1 via
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

55

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

56

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8/12/2015

Transient Response

3
2.5

Propagation delay

tp = 0.69 CL (Reqn+Reqp)/2

ln 2

2
Very often, it is desirable for a gate to have identical
propagation delays for both rising and falling inputs.
Use

out

(V)

1.5

tpHL

tpLH

ln 2

and

0.5

0
-0.5

0.5

1.5

t (sec)

This condition is identical to the requirement for a

symmetrical VTC.

2.5
x 10

-10

OvershootscausedbytheCgd oftheinvertertransistors,whichcouplethesteepvoltagestepat
theinputnodedirectlytotheoutputbeforethetransistorscanevenstarttoreacttothe
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK
57
changesattheinput.

Design for Performance

Minimizing propagation delay

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

Delay as a function of VDD

DelayofagatecanbemodulatedbymodifyingVDD.Thisflexibilityallowsthedesignerto
tradeoffenergydissipationforperformance.

Keep capacitances small

5.5

Internal diffusion capacitance, Interconnect

capacitance, and the fanout.
Careful layout helps to reduce the diffusion and
interconnect capacitances. Good design practice
requires keeping the drain diffusion areas as small as
possible.

5
4.5

t (normalized)

Increase VDD Next slides

Increase transistor sizes

3.5
3

ForVDD>>VTn +VDSATn/2,delayisindependentofVDD.

2.5
2
1.5

Watch out for self-loading!

1
0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

V
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

58

59

DD

1.8

2.2

(V)

SharpincreasearoundVDD2VTn.

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

2.4

LargeVDD
reliabilityconcerns(oxide
breakdown,hotelectroneffects)
60

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8/12/2015

Minimizing propagation delay

Device Sizing

Increase the W/L ratio of the transistors.

3.8

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

61

Revisiting Propagation Delay

Design trade-offs

(for fixed load)

3.4
3.2

0.69

2.8

tp0 Intrinsic delay

of the gate (no
extrinsic load = 0).
S>> is not useful.

2.6
2.4
2.2
2

8
S

10

12

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

1
Widening both
NMOS and PMOS of
the driving inverter
with a factor S,

14

Self-loading effect:
Intrinsic capacitances
dominate

62

NMOS/PMOS ratio

Impact of Fanout:

Reqp=Reqn Symmetrical VTC and tpHL=tpLH

1
Extrinsic capacitance is a function of the fanout of the gate: the
larger the fanout, the larger the external load.
Assuming that each fanout gate presents an identical load, and that
the wiring capacitance is proportional to the fanout, we can rewrite
the delay equation as a function of the fanout N.
1

This gives Wp=3*Wn

This does not imply that this ratio also yields

the minimum overall propagation delay!
If symmetry and reduced noise margins are not
of prime concern, we speed up the inverter by
reducing the width of the PMOS device!

Large fanout factors should hence be avoided if performance is an

issue.
Increasing the sizing factor S of the driving inverter is appropriate
and recommendable in the presence of fanout.

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

Total Capacitance

-11

3.6

t (sec)

This is the most powerful and effective performance

optimization tool in the hands of the designer.
Increasing the transistor size also raises the diffusion
capacitance and hence CL.
Once the intrinsic capacitance (i.e. the diffusion
capacitance) starts to dominate the extrinsic load formed by
wiring and fanout, increasing the gate size does not longer
help in reducing the delay, and only makes the gate larger
in area. This effect is called self-loading.
In addition, wide transistors have a larger gate capacitance,
which increases the fan-out factor of the driving gate and
adversely affects its speed.

x 10

63

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

64

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8/12/2015

NMOS/PMOS ratio
x 10

-11

0.35

tpHL

0.3

= Wp/Wn

tp

t (sec)

tpLH
4.5

tpH L(nsec)

Impact of Rise Time on Delay

0.25

0.2
3.5

0.15
3

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

0.2

0.4
0.6
trise (nsec)

0.8

Homework Determineoptimalvalueof tominimizetp.

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

65

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

66

Inverter Sizing
Sizing up an inverter reduces its delay it also increases
its input capacitance.

Inverter Sizing

Gate sizing in an isolated fashion without taking into account its

impact on the delay of the preceding gates is a purely academic
exercise.

Lets determine the optimum sizing of a gate when

embedded in a real environment.
A simple chain of inverters is a good first case to study.
Relation between input gate capacitance Cg and the intrinsic
output capacitance both are proportional to the gate sizing.

Cint=Cg
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

67

is technology dependent and close to 1.

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

Cint=Cgd1+Cgd2+Cdb1+Cdb2=3fF
Cg=Cg3+Cg4=3.04fF

68

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Inverter Chain
In

Inverter Delay
Minimum length devices, L=0.25m
Assume that for WP = 2WN =2W
same pull-up and pull-down currents
approx. equal resistances RN = RP
approx. equal rise tpLH and fall tpHL delays
Analyze as an RC network

Out
CL

If CL is given:
- How many stages are needed to minimize the delay?
- How to size the inverters?

W
RP Runit P
Wunit

W
Runit N
Wunit

Delay (D): tpHL = (ln 2) RNCL

May need some additional constraints.

Load for the next stage:

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

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RN RW
tpLH = (ln 2) RPCL

C gin 3

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

Inverter with Load

2W

W
Cunit
Wunit

70

Inverter with Load

CP = 2Cunit

Delay

Delay

2W

RW
W
Cext
RW

Load (CL)

tp = k RWCext

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

Cext
Load

CN = Cunit
Delay = kRW(Cint + Cext) = kRW Cint(1+ Cext /Cint)
= Delay (Internal) + Delay (Load)

k is a constant, equal to 0.69

Assumptions: no load -> zero delay
Wunit = 1

Cint

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Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

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Delay Formula

Apply to Inverter Chain

Delay ~

In

Out
1

CL

Cint = Cgin with 1

f = CL/Cgin - effective fanout
R = Runit/W ; Cint =WCunit
tp0 = 0.69RunitCunit
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

Note that Cg,N+1=CL

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Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

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Optimal Tapering for Given N

Optimum Delay and Number of Stages

Delay equation has N - 1 unknowns, Cg,2 Cg,N

To minimize the delay, find N - 1 partial derivatives and
equate them to zero.

When each stage is sized by f and has same effective fanout

f:
f N F C /C

Effective fanout of each stage:

Result: Cg,j+1/Cg,j = Cg,j/Cg,j-1

Size of each stage is the geometric mean of two neighbors
,

gin ,1

F represents overall effective fanout = CL/Cg,1.

Minimum path delay:

Each stage has the same effective fanout (Cout/Cin)

Each stage has the same delay

Relation between tp and F is strongly nonlinear.

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

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It is linear only when N=1.

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

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Example

Optimum Number of Stages

For a given load, CL and given input capacitance Cin

In
C1

Find optimal sizing f (

Out
1

f2

C L F Cin f N Cin with N

C L= 8 C 1

ln F
ln f

t p 0 ln F f

ln f ln f
t p t p 0 ln F ln f 1 f

0
f exp1 f

f
ln 2 f

t p Nt p 0 F 1/ N / 1

CL/C1 has to be evenly distributed across N = 3 stages:

f 38 2

For = 0, f = e, N = lnF
Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

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Optimum Effective Fanout f

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Impact of Self-Loading on tp

Optimum f for given process defined by

WithSelfLoading=1

f exp1 f

fopt = 3.6
for =1

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

=0 means no self loading. This design scales consecutive

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK
stages in an exponential fashion.

79

For the typical case of 1, the

optimum scaler factor turns out to be
close to 3.6.
Choosing values of the fanout that are
higher than the optimum does not
impact the delay that much, and
reduces the required number of buffer
stages and the implementation area.
A common practice is to select an
optimum fanout of 4.
The use of too many stages (f < fopt),
on the other hand, has a substantial
negative impact on the delay, and
should be avoided.

Y. S. Chauhan, IITK

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