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INTRODUCTION
In diode symbol, the arrowhead indicates the conventional direction of current flow
the anode.
The N-side negative terminal for forward bias and is termed as cathode.
A PN-junction diode can be destroyed by a high level of forward current overheating the
device and by a large reverse voltage causing the junction to breakdown.
The forward and reverse characteristics of the diode are also called as the v-i
characteristics of the diode.
For silicon diode, the forward current IF remains very low (<A) until the diode forward
than 100 nA, and it is almost completely independent of the reverse-bias voltage.
IR is due to minority charge carriers and is called reverse saturation current.
When reverse bias voltage VR is sufficiently increased, the diode goes into reverse
For silicon diode, the forward current IF remains very low (<A) until the diode forward
Diode parameters:
The diode parameters are :
1) Forward voltage drop V
2) Maximum forward current IF(max)
3) Reverse saturation current IR
4) Reverse breakdown voltage VBR
5) Dynamic resistance rd
Each parameter is explained one below the other as follows
For silicon diode V = 0.7 V and for the germanium diode V = 0.3 V.
2) Maximum forward current (IF(max)):It is the maximum current a diode can pass under forward bias condition, without
permanent damage to PN junction due to over-heating.
3) Reverse Saturation current (IR):The reverse saturation current IR is the nominal current which flows through the diode
when it is reverse biased. For silicon diode, it is in the order of nA and for germanium diode
IR is in the order of A.
4) Reverse Breakdown voltage (VBR):The reverse breakdown voltage VBR is the reverse bias voltage at which the PN junction
breaks down & permanently damages the diode. For silicon diode, VBR is less than 50V and
for germanium diode VBR is about 100V.
5) Dynamic resistance rd or ac resistance:The dynamic resistance rd of a diode is the reciprocal of the slope of the forward
characteristics beyond the knee as shown in the Fig.
Vf
If
Slope of the forward characteristics =
Vf
If
Dynamic resistance rd = reciprocal of slope of forward-characteristics, i.e., rd =
26 mV
If
The dynamic resistance can also be calculated by r =
d
Exam Problem : Calculate the dynamic resistance for a diode passing = 10mA forward
current.
Given : IF = 10 mA
26 mV
26 mV
If
10 mA = 26
Sol : rd =
=
Exam Problem : Determine the dynamic resistance at a forward current of 70 mA for the
diode characteristics given in figure
Vf
0.25 V
I f = 60 mA = 0.42
rd =
26 mV 26 mV
I f = 70 mA = 0.37
rd =
Exam Problem : Calculate the forward and reverse resistances offered by a silicon diode
with the characteristic in figure at IF = 100 mA when VR = 50V.
Vf
0.75 V
I
Forward resistance RF = f = 10 mA = 7.5
At VR = 50 V, IR = 100 A
Vr
50 V
I
r
Reverse resistance RR =
= 100 nA = 500 M
Diode Approximation:
The diode approximations for 3 types of diodes are shown in the figures below.
The straight line approximation of the forward characteristics of a diode (Fig. ) is called
An equivalent circuit is a circuit that represents the device behavior. The diode DC
equivalent circuit consists of voltage sources and resistors.
Fig. : Diode
Fig. : Basic DC eq. circuit of diode
A conducting diode (Fig. 11) can be represented as a voltage source equal to constant
Exam Problem 4 : Calculate IF for the diode current in the figure assuming that the diode
has VF = 0.7 V and rd = 0 then, recalculate the current taking rd = 0.25 .
If
V VF 1.5v 0.7v
80 mA
R1
10k
IF = 80 mA
V I F R 1 I F rd VF 0
V VF I F R 1 rd 0
I F R 1 rd V VF
IF
V VF
1.5 v 0.7 v
R 1 rd 10 k 0.25
I F 78 mA
DC load line:-
VF
V IF R1
A DC load line is a straight line on the diode forward characteristics which describes all
the DC conditions that exists in the operation of the circuit as shown in the Fig. .
To determine DC load line points (i.e. A & B) as shown below in the 2 cases.
V = VF
V = IF R1
Vf
R
IF = 1
Now, point A & B are joined to get a DC load line.
Q-Point:
Q-Point is the point on the diode forward-characteristics, where the DC load line
V Vf
R
R1
IF = 1
VF V
R
R1
1
IF =
1
V
VF
I F
R1
R1
Exam Problem : Draw the DC load for the circuit in Fig. 20 (a). The diode forward
characteristic is given in Fig. (b).
Fig. (a)
Sol :-
IF
V VF
R1
i) When IF = 0 (Point A)
v = VF
V=5V
Fig. (b)
V
5
50 mA
R
100
1
IF =
IF = 50 mA
Exam Problem 6 : Determine the required load resistance for the circuit in Fig. (a) using
the device characteristics in Fig. (b).
Fig. (a)
Fig. (b)
IF
V VF
R1
IFR1 = V VF
Determining DC load line points,
When IF = 0, V = VF = 5 V (point A) . w.r.t. Fig.
Now plot Q-point in Fig. (b) at IF = 30 mA
VF
5V
IF 37.5 mA
From the load line, R1 =
R1 = 133
The product of voltage drop VF across the diode and the current IF flowing through the
diode gives the power dissipation in a diode.
Fig. : Power temperature curve of a diode
The slope of the curve in Fig (a). defines the de-rating factor as given by
P
Derating factor = T
The equation for the new maximum power dissipation when the temperature changes is
given by
P2 P1 at T1 T derating factor
where the change in temperature is given by T T2 T1 .
Exam Problem : A diode with 700 mW maximum power dissipation at 250C has a 5 mW/C
derating factor. If the forward voltage drop remains constant at 0.7 V, calculate the
maximum forward current at 250C and at 650C temperature.
Given :- P = 700 mw, T1 = 250C, T2 = 650C, derating factor = 5 mw/C, VF = 0.7 V
To find out :- IF = ? at 25 0C & IF = ? at 65 0C
Sol :i) At 25 0C,
VF IF
IF
P 700 mW
VF = 0.7 v
IF
1A
T2 T1 = 65 0C 25 0C
40 0C
P2
P1 at T1 T derating factor
500 mw
IF
P2 500 mW
VF = 0.7 v
IF
714 mA
ii) At 65 0C,
Junction Capacitance:
The junction capacitance is defined as
i)
When diode is reverse biased, depletion layer capacitance or transition capacitance, which
When a diode is reverse biased, the depletion region around the junction behaves like a
C pn
A
d
Cd
dQ
dV
AC Equivalent condition:
i) Reverse-biased condition:
A reverse biased diode can be simply represented by the reverse resistance RR in parallel
with the depletion layer capacitance Cpn.
biased diode.
biased diode.
Fig. : Forward biased condition equivalent circuits
A forward-biased diode is represented by two parallel circuits as shown in figure above.
Fig (a). comprises of forward voltage drop V in series with dynamic resistance rd in parallel
with Cd.
Fig (b). consists of the dynamic resistance rd in parallel with Cd.
Reverse Recovery time:
Consider a voltage pulse with a +ve and ve voltage applied to the diode as shown in Fig. .
When the diode is forward biased, it conducts, i.e., large number of electrons diffuses
from N-side into P-side and vice-versa. So, a large number of minority carriers exists in
instantly.
However, practically this does not happen because of large number of carriers in each
i.e.,
trr = Ts + tt
tp >> trr
The reverse-recovery time is kept minimal by ensuring that the fall time tr of the
applied pulse be much larger than the reverse recovery time trr as shown in the Fig. .
i.e.,
usually,
tf >> trr
tf (min) = 10 trr
Exam Question : Define reverse recovery time in a diode. How is the reverse recovery
time kept minimal ?
Reverse recovery time of a diode is defined as the time taken by the diode in reverse bias
condition to turn OFF the diode from the ON state.
Mathematically, Trr = ts + tt
i.e., it is the sum of the storage time and the transition time.
The reverse recovery time is kept minimal by ensuring that the fall time tr of the applied
pulse be much larger than the reverse recovery time trr as shown in Fig. .
i.e.,
Usually,
tf >> trr
tf (min)=10 trr
Fig. : How to keep the reverse recovery time minimal
Exam Problem : Find the minimal fall-time for voltage pulses applied to a diode with
reverse-recovery time of 5 ns.
Given :- trr = 5 ns
Sol: The minimal fall-time is given by
Tf(min) = 10 trr
Tf(min) = 10 5 ns
Tf(min) = 50 ns
Exam Problem : Estimate the reverse-recovery time of a diode for an input with 1 s falltime
Given:- tf = 1 s
Sol:-
tf >> 10 trr
Trr(max) = tf / 10 = 1 s /10
Trr(max) = 0.1 s
The change in the forward voltage drop at any temperature can be calculated as:
VF (T2 ) VF (T1 ) T2 T1 V
where
VF(T1) is the forward voltage drop at temperature T1
VF(T2) is the forward voltage drop at temperature T2
V is the voltage temperature co-efficient.
rd
26 mV
IF
rd
26 mV T 273
I F 298
Exam Problem : A silicon diode with a 0.7 V forward voltage drop at 25 0C is to be operated
with a constant forward current up to a temperature of 100 0C. Calculate the diode voltage
VF at 100 0C. Also, determine the junction dynamic resistance at 25 0C and at 100 0C if the
forward current is 26 mA.
Given:- T1 = 25 0C, VF1 = 0.7 V, T2 = 100 0C
To find : VF = ?, rd = ? @ 25 0C & 100 0C
Sol:- For a Silicon diode, V = 1.8 mv/0C
VF (T2 ) VF (T1 ) T2 T1 V
= 0.7 V + (100 0C 25 0C) (1.8 mv/0C)
VF(T2) = 0.565 V
At T = 25 0C, IF = 26 mA
rd
rd
26 mV T 273
I F 298
26 mV 25C 273 C
26 mA
298 C
rd = 1
At T =100 C , IF = 26 mA
rd
26 mV 100 C 273 C
26 mA
298 C
rd = 1.25
Zener Diode
Zener diode as voltage regulator:
Exam Question : With neat circuit diagram, explain zener diode voltage regulator.
Exam Question : Explain how zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator.
The zener diode is called as voltage regulator or diode because it maintains a constant
i.e., in terms of A.
When sufficient reverse voltage is applied, the zener breakdown occurs (zener diode
conducts) & a large current flows through the diode, which is called as avalanche
breakdown.
The voltage at which zener diode conducts is called zener voltage Vz. Under this
condition, the voltage across the zener is constant & equal to Vz. As Vz is connected
across the load, the load voltage Vo is equal to the zener voltage Vz.
V0 = Vz
Iz + IL
Iz
I IL .. (1)
Vi V0
R
..(2)
Iz
Vi V0
IL
R
Iz IL
Vi V0
R
Cross-multiplying, we get
Vi V0
Iz IL
RL
V0
IL
current.
Most of the electronic circuits require a stable DC voltage for their proper operation.
Hence, it is necessary to regulate the voltage before giving as i/p to the electronic
circuits.
FORMULAS
1)
2)
3)
Zener current IZ = I IL
4)
Vi = IR + V0
5)
Vi V0
R
R
6)
Vi V0
Iz IL
R min
7)
8)
9)
10)
i)
RL
Vi ( max) V0
R max
I z ( max) I L (min)
ii)
V0
IL
I z (max)
Pz (max)
Vz
Iz
Iz (min)
Iz (min) + IL
Vi (min)
IR + V0
IZ
Iz (max)
Vi ( min) V0
I z ( min) I L (max)
Iz (max) + IL
Vi(max)
IR + Vo
Exam Problem : Design a zener regulator to meet the following specifications: Output
voltage 10 V, load current 10 mA, Unregulated DC input voltage = 15 2 V, Zener voltage =
500 mW and Iz (min) = 5 mA.
Given :- V0 = Vz = 10 V, IL = 10 mA
Vi(min) = 13 V,
Vi(min) = 15 2 = 13 V
Vi(max) = 17 V
Vi(max) = 15 + 2 = 17 V
Izmin = 5 mA, Pzmax = 50 mW
ILmax = ILmin = IL = 10 mA, R = ? & RL = ?
Sol :-
RL
V0 10 mV
1 K
I L 10 mA
R max
Vi (min) V0
I z (min) I L (max)
I z (max)
R min
Pz (max)
Vz
13 V 10 V
200
5 mA 10 mA
500 10 -3
50 mA
10
Vi ( max) V0
I z ( max) I L (min)
17 V 10 V
116 .66
50 mA 10 mA
Fig. :
Exam Problem : A 24 V, 600 mW zener diode is used for providing a 24 V stabilized supply
to a variable load. If the input voltage is 32 V, Calculate.
i) The value of series resistance required
ii) Diode current when the load is 1200
Given:- Vz = 24 V, Pz(max) = 600 mW, V0 = 24 V, Vi = 32 V
Sol:-
R
i)
Vin Vz
I z I L ; Since, I & R is not given, so I = 0
L
1
L
Vin Vz
I z(max)
I z(max)
R
Pz(max)
Vz
600 mW
25 mA
24
Vin Vz 32 V 24V
32
I z(max)
25 mA
IL
V0
24 V
20 mA
R L 1200
IL
Vin V0 32 V 20 V
20 mA
R
400
WKT I = IZ + IL
IZ = I IL = 20 mA 20 mA = 0 A
When load is 1200 , current Iz = 0 Amps
Fig.
Exam Problem : Design the zener regulator for the following specifications :
Output voltage = 5V, Load Current = 20 mA, Zener voltage
Pzmin = 500 mW, Input voltage =125 3V
Given :- Vz = V0 = 5 V, IL = ILmin = ILmax = 20 mA, Pzmax = 500 mW
Vi = 12 V 3V, i.e., Vi(min) = 12 V 3V = 9 V
R = ? RL = ? Vi(max) = 12 V + 3 V = 15 V
Sol:-
RL
V0
5V
250
I L 20 mA
I z(max)
R min
Pz(max)
Vz
500 mW
100 mA
5V
Vi(max) V0
I z(max) I L(min)
15 V 5 V
83.33
100 mA 20 mA
Fig.
RL
V0
5V
250
I L 20 mA
R min
R max
Vi(max) V0
I z(max) I L(min)
Vi(min) V0
I z(min) I L(max)
12 V 5 V
70
80 mA 20 mA
8V 5V
120
5 mA 20 mA
Fig.
Exam Problem : In the zener voltage regulator shown in Fig., zener ratings are Vz = 10 V at
zener current of 32 mA with R2 = 0. Find the range of RL and IL for load voltage to be
constant. What is the maximum voltage of the diode ?
Fig.
Given : V0 = Vz = 10 V, Iz = 32 mA, Rz = 0 , Vin = 50 V, R = 1 K,
To find out : RL = ?, Pz(max) = ?
Vin V0 50 V 10 V
40 mA
R
1 K
I Iz IL
I L I I z 40 mA 32 mA 8 mA
RL
V0 10 V
1250
I L 8 mA
R min
Vi(max) V0
I z(max) I L(min)
35 V 12 V
287.5
45 mA 35 mA
R max
Vi(min) V0
I z(min) I L(max)
R L(max)
R L(min)
V0
I L(max)
V0
I L(min)
25 V 12 V
162.5
25 mA 55 mA
12 V
218.18
55 mA
12 V
342.85
35 mA
Fig.
Exam Problem : A zener diode has a breakdown voltage of 10 V. It is supplied from a
voltage source varying between 20 - 40V in series with a resistance of 820 . Using an
ideal zener model, obtain the minimum and maximum zener currents.
Given : R = 820 , V0 = Vz = 10 V, Vi(min) = 20 V, Vi(max) = 40 V.
To find : Zener equivalent model = ?
I min
I max
Vi(min) V0
R
Vi(max) V0
R
20 V 10 V
12.195 mA
820
40 V 10 V
36.585 mA
820
Fig.
Exam Question : Explain the difference between Avalanche breakdown & Zener
breakdown w.r.t. zener diodes.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Avalanche Breakdown
Take place in lightly doped diodes
Occurs at higher reverse voltage
Carrier multiplication is present
It destroys the junction
Depletion region is wider
It is gradual
Zener Breakdown
Take place in heavily doped diodes
Occurs at lower resource voltage
Carrier multiplication is absent
It will not destroy the junction
Depletion region is small
It is sharp & sudden
RECTIFIERS
Rectification :
Rectification is the process of converting alternating current (ac) into direct current (dc).
Fig.
Half wave rectifier consists of a single diode in series with a load resistance & the voltage
across the load can be taken as the output voltage V0. The ac voltage across the secondary
winding A & B of the transformer changes the polarities after every half a cycle.
Operation:
During positive half cycle of the ac input voltage, end A becomes positive with respect to
end B, the diode D is forward biased and acts as a short circuit, thus the current flows in
the circuit as shown in the Fig. 2. The load voltage is then given by V0 = IL RL
Fig 2
Fig 3
During negative half cycle of the ac input voltage, end A becomes negative with respect to
end B, the diode D is reverse biased and acts as a open circuit, thus no current flows in
the circuit as shown in the Fig. 3. The load voltage is given by V0 = 0 RL.
Therefore, V0 = 0 V
The dc output waveform is expected to be straight line, but the half wave rectifier gives the
output in the form of positive sinusoidal pulses. Hence, the output is called as a pulsating
dc waveform.
The load current is given by:
IL
where
Im
I m sin(in , 0 t
0, t 2
Vm
RL
Idc
1
I L d t
2
Idc
1
I m sin t.d t
2
I m sin t.d t
Im
cos( t ) 0
2
Im
cos() cos(0)
2
Im
1 1
2
Im
2
2
Im
Vdc
Idc RL ;
I dc
Im
Vdc
V
Im
Im m
RL
RL ;
Vm
R L . R
L
Vm
3) RMS value of load current (IRMS):- square root of the mean of the square of the
instantaneous values of the current.
2
IRMS
1
I 2L d t
2
1
2
1
2
Im sin t
.d t
I m sin
2
t .d t
sin 2
1 cos2
2
cos 2
sin 2
2
I 2m 1 cos 2 t
.d t
2
2
I 2m
4
1 cos2 t .d t 1 cos2 t .d t
I 2m
sin2 t
4
2
0
I 2m
sin2 t
0
4
2
I 2m
sin2 sin2(0)
4
2
2
I 2m
0 0 0
4
I 2m
; cos 2t = 0
=
=
I 2m
4
Im
2
VRMS
IRMS . RL
Im
RL
2
Vm
.R L
2R L
Vm
2
Im
; IRMS = 2
Vm
R
; Im = L
PDC
2
I dc
.R L
2
I 2m
Im
.R L
.RL
2
=
Vm
1
. .R L
2
RL
Vm2
=
R 2L 2
Vm
.R L
2
1
RL
PAC
I 2RMS . R L
Im
RL
2
7) Rectification efficiency (%):The rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of the dc power output to ac power input & is
given by
Pdc
DC o/p power
AC i/p power = Pac
0.406
40.6 %
I 2m
1
.R L
2
1 4
2
2 0.406
2
1
1
Im
4
.R L
= 4
WKT
WKT
I ac
I dc
IRMS
I 2rms
2
2
I ac
I dc
2
I ac
2
I 2rms I dc
I ac
IDC
.. Eq. (1)
2
2
I ac
I dc
2
I 2rms I dc
.. Eq. (2)
Im
Eq. (3)
I dc
I 2rms
2
I dc
1
1
=
r
Im
1
=
4 1
2
I dc
Im
2
I 2rms I dc
2
I 2rms I dc
I ac
I dc
I 2rms
2
I dc
2
I dc
2
I dc
2
1
4
1.21
This indicates that the amount of ac present in the output is 121 % of the dc voltage.
Peak Inverse voltage (PIV):PIV is the maximum voltage present across the diode, when the diode is reverse biased.
Fig. :
Applying KVL to the circuit, we get.
V2 + Vr IL RL
; IL = 0
V2 + Vr 0 RL
V 2 + Vr
Vr
V2
; V2 = Vm sin(mt)
Vr(max)
[Vm sin(mt)]max
Vr(max)
Vm
Vm
Disadvantages or demerits of HWR:1. The ripple factor is too high, i.e., = 1.21
2. Rectification efficiency is low i.e. 40.6%
FWR with centre-tapped transformer:Exam Question : Explain with the help of a neat circuit diagram the working of a full
wave rectifier & derive expressions for
i) Idc
ii) Irms
During +ve half cycle of the ac input voltage, and A becomes +ve with respect to end B,
the diode D1 is forward biased and conducts while the diode D2 is reverse biased and
acts as open circuit and will not conduct as shown in Fig 2.
The diode D1 supplies the load current. The conventional current flow is through diode
D1, load resistor RL & the upper half of secondary winding as shown by the dotted
arrows.
Fig. 3
During ve half cycles of the ac input voltage, end A becomes ve with respect to end B,
the diode D2 is forward biased and conducts while the diode D1 is reverse biased and
D2, load resistor RL & the lower half of secondary winding as shown by the solid arrows.
From fig 2 & 3 it can be observed that current in the load RL is in the same, direction for
I/O Waveforms:
Idc
1
I L d t
1
I m sin t.d t
Im
cos( t) 0
Im
cos() cos(0)
Im
1 1
Idc
Im
2
2I m
Vdc
Vdc
I dc
2 Im
Idc RL ;
V
2 Im
Im m
RL
RL ;
2 Vm
R L . R
L
2 Vm
IRMS
1 2
I L d t
I m sin t
.d t
Im sin
2
t .d t
I 2m 1 cos 2 t
.d t
2
Im
=
1 cos2
2
cos 2
sin 2
2
1 cos 2 t .d t
0
1.d t cos2 t .d t
Im
1
sin2 t
t0
2
2
Im
1
1
Im
1
1
0 0 0
2
2
= Im
1
2
sin 2
; sin 2t = 0
Im
Im
IRMS
Im
VRMS
IRMS . RL
Im
2
.R L
2 RL
Vm
R
; Im = L
RL
Vm
; IRMS =
Vm
2
=
5) DC output power (Pdc):-
PDC
2I m
; But, Idc =
2
I dc
.R L
2I m
.R L
4I 2m
2
Vm
R
; But, Im = L
.R L
2
Vm
1
. .R L
2
RL
4 Vm2
2 R L
PAC
I 2rms.R L
; But, Irms =
Im
=
Im
.R L
I 2m
.R L
2
7) Rectification efficiency ():- The rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of output dc
power to input ac power & is given by
I 2m
4
.R L
2
4 2
2
2 0.812
2
1
1
Im
2
.R L
= 2
4
Pdc
DC o/p power
AC i/p power = Pac
0.812
81.2 %
I ac
I dc
Im
I 2rms
2
I dc
1
4
=
r
2 Im
1
=
2 1
1 2
2 4 =
I 2m
4 I 2m
=
2
1
8
0.48
This indicates that the amount of ac present in the output is 0.48% of the dc voltage.
Peak Inverse voltage (PIV):PIV is the maximum voltage across the diode, when the diode is reverse biased.
; But, IL = 0
Vr
2 V2
Vr(max)
2 Vm sin mt
2 Vm
3. The dc output voltage and load current value are twice than HWR.
4. Large dc power output.
Fig.
During +ve half cycle of the ac input voltage, end A becomes +ve with respect to end B.
This makes diodes D1 & D2 forward biased, while D3 & D4 are reverse biased.
Therefore only diodes D1 & D2 conducts. The conventional current flows through the
load resistance RL and is shown by the arrows.
Fig.
During ve half cycle of the ac input voltage, end A becomes ve with respect to end B.
This makes diodes D3 &D4 forward biased, while D2 & D2 are reverse biased.
Therefore only diodes D3 &D4 conducts. The conventional current flows through the
I/O Waveforms:
1) Average or dc load current (Idc or Iac):Consider one cycle of the load current IL from 0 to to obtain the average value which is dc
value of load current.
Idc
1
I L d t
Idc
1
I m sin t.d t
Im
cos( t) 0
Im
cos() cos(0)
Im
1 1
Im
2
2I m
Vdc
Vdc
I dc
2 Im
Idc RL ;
V
2 Im
Im m
RL
RL ;
2 Vm
R L . R
L
2 Vm
IRMS
1 2
I L d t
I m sin t
0
.d t
;
sin 2
1 cos2
2
Im sin
2
t .d t
I 2m 1 cos 2 t
.d t
2
Im
=
sin 2
2
1 cos 2 t .d t
0
1.d t cos2 t .d t
Im
1
sin2 t
t0
2
2
Im
1
1
Im
1
1
0 0 0
2
2
Im
= Im
1
2
cos 2
; sin 2t = 0
Im
IRMS
Im
VRMS
IRMS . RL
Im
=
Vm
R
; Im = L
RL
Vm
; IRMS =
.R L
2 RL
Vm
PDC
2
I dc
.R L
2I m
; But, Idc =
2I m
.R L
; But, Im =
Vm
RL
4I 2m
.R L
V
1
4 m . 2 .R L
RL
4 Vm2
2 R L
PAC
; But, Irms =
Im
=
Im
I 2rms.R L
.R L
I 2m
.R L
2
7) Rectification efficiency ():- The rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of output dc
power to input ac power.
I 2m
4
.R L
2
2 4 2 0.812
1
I 2m
2 1
2
.R L
= 2
4
Pdc
DC o/p power
AC i/p power = Pac
0.812
81.2 %
I ac
I dc
Im
I 2rms
=
2
I dc
1
4
=
r
0.48
2 Im
1
=
2 1
1 2
2 4 =
I 2m
4 I 2m
=
2
1
8
2
2
This indicates that the amount of ac present in the output is 0.48% of the dc voltage.
Peak Inverse voltages (PIV):PIV is the maximum voltage across the diode, when the diode is reverse biased.
Therefore, for FWBR
PIV
Vm
Parameter
HWR
FWR
FWBR
.
1.
2.
3.
Peak Voltage
Peak load
current (Ideal)
Peak load
current
Vm 2 V2
5.
Vm
RL
Im
Vm
RL
Im
Vm
RL
Im
Vm
Rf RL
Im
Vm
Rf RL
Im
Vm
2R f R L
I dc
Im
I dc
2I m
I dc
2I m
I dc
Vm
1
.
Rf RL
I dc
2Vm
1
.
Rf RL
I dc
2Vm
1
.
Rf RL
DC load current
Load voltage
Vm 2 V2
Im
(Practical)
4.
Vm 2 V2
Vdc I dc . R L
Vdc I dc . R L
Vdc I dc . R L
RMS load
current
6.
or AC load
current
AC I/P power
7.
(Ideal)
AC I/P power
8.
(practical)
Percentage
9.
10.
regulation
RMS load Voltage
VRMS
I rms
Im
2
I rms
Im
I rms
Im
2
Pac I 2rms . R L
Pac I 2rms . R L
Pac I 2rms . R L
Pac I 2rms . R L R f
Pac I 2rms . R L R f
Pac I 2rms . R L 2R f
Rf
100
RL
Rf
100
RL
2R f
100
RL
Vrms
Vm
2
Vrms
Vm
Vrms
Vm
2
11.
2
Pdc I dc
.R L
12.
% efficiency
Pdc
100 %
Pac
Pdc
100 %
Pac
Pdc
100 %
Pac
13.
PIV
RMS value of the
Vm
2 Vm
Vm
Vac = r Vdc
Vac = r Vdc
Vac = r Vdc
fin
2fin
2fin
14.
15.
V
r ac
Vdc
Ripple frequency
Ripple factor
16.
17.
18.
I ac
Vac
I
V
r = dc = dc
Diodes
Transformer
I rms
I dc
Vrms
Vdc
1
2
1 nos.
No centre tap
2
Pdc I dc
.R L
2
Pdc I dc
.R L
I rms
I dc
Vrms
Vdc
1
2
2 nos.
Centre tap reqd.
I rms
I dc
Vrms
Vdc
1
2
4 nos.
No centre tap
Exam Problem : In a full wave bridge rectifier, the transformer secondary voltage is 100
sint. The forward resistance of each diode is 25 and the load resistance is 950 .
Calculate
i) D.C. output voltage ii) ripple factor iii) Efficiency of rectification iv) PIV across nonconducting diodes.
Given : Vs = 100 sin(t), Rf = 25 , RL = 950
Sol : WKT, Vs = Vm sin(t), where Vm = 100 V
Im
Vm
100
0.1 A
2R f R L = 2 25 950
I rms
Im
0.1
2= 2
0.0707
2I m 2(0.1)
= = 0.063 A
I dc
I rms
I dc
r=
1
=
0.0707
0.063
1 0.048
2
Pdc I dc
. R L = (0.063)2 950 = 3.85 W
Vs Vrms
Sol :
Im
Vm
2 ; Vm 2 Vs 2 100 141.42 V
Vm
141.42 V
R f R L = 950 50 = 0.141 A
I rms
I dc
Im
2=
0.141
2
0.0997 A
2I m 2(0.141)
=
= 0.090 A
Vdc
2Vm 2 325
206 .9 V
Im
Vm 325
3.25 A
R L 100
I dc
2I m 2(3.25)
2.06 A
=
Exam Problem : In a full wave rectifier, the input is from a 30-0-30 v transformer. The load
and diode forward resistance are 100 and 10 respectively. Calculate the average voltage,
rectification efficiency and percentage regulation.
Given : Vs = 30 V, RL = 100 , Rf = 10
Sol : Vm 2 Vs 2 30 42.4264 V
Im
Vm
42.4264 V
0.3856 A
R f R L = 100 10
I dc
2I m 2(0.3856)
0.2455 A
=
I rms
Im
2=
0.3856
2
0.272 A
Im
Vm Vf 33.941 0.7
55.4018 mA
RL
600
PIV = Vm = 33.941 V
Fig.
During +ve half cycle of the ac input, the diode is forward biased and conducts and charges
the capacitor to the peak value of Vm of the input voltage. When the input voltage to the
diode falls below Vm, the diode will stop conducting. Now, the capacitor starts discharging
through RL and the capacitor voltage decreases. The discharging of capacitor continues till
the diode starts conducting again and charges the capacitor in the next +ve half cycle of the
ac input voltage.
From the Fig. , we find that without capacitor filter, output voltage varies between zero and
Vm. With capacitor filter, the output voltage varies between { Vm Vr(p-p) } and Vm. This clearly
indicates that the shunting of R1 by C reduces the ripple content in the output voltage.
The ripple factor with C filter for a HWR is given by
1
2 3f c R L
voltage decreases. The discharging of the capacitor continuous until the diode D2 starts
conducting again in the next half cycle and charges the capacitor.
Figure shows the waveforms, we find that without capacitor filter, output voltage Vo varies
between zero and Vm. With capacitor filter the output voltage varies { Vm Vr(p-p) } and Vm.
This clearly indicates that the shunting of RL and C reduces the ripple content in the output
voltage. The ripple factor with C filter for a FWR is given by
1
4 3f c R L
r
I/O Waveforms
T1 Capacitor charging time
T2 Capacitor discharging time
1
4 3f c R L
Note:Let,
T Time period of the ac input voltage.
T T/2 + T/2
T1 Time for which diode is conducting.
T2 Time for which diode is non-conducting.
During T1, capacitor gets charged. This process is very fast.
During T2, capacitor gets discharged through RL. Since time constant RLC is very large,
discharging process is very slow.
Let Vr be the peak to peak value of ripple voltage, which is assumed to be triangular wave.
Vr (rms)
Vdc
(1)
Vr (rms)
Vr
2 3 (2)
To find the value of Vr:WKT the rate of change of charging is equal to the rate of change of discharging.
i.e.,
Q(charging)
Q = CV
Q=IT
w.r.t. charging
CVr
WKT
Q(dis-charging)
w.r.t. time
=
Idc T2
Vr
I dc T2
C .. (3)
T1 + T2
T2
>> T1
T2
1
f .. (4)
T2
Vr
I dc
V
I dc dc
f C ; Since,
RL
Vr
Vdc
f C R L . (5)
Vr
Vr(rms)
2 3
Vdc
2 3 f C R L .. (6)
Vdc
r
2 3 f C RL
1
Vdc
1
r
2 3 f C RL
Vr (rms)
Vdc
(1)
Vr (rms)
Vr
2 3 (2)
To find the value of Vr :WKT the rate of change of charging is equal to the rate of change of discharging,
i.e.,
Q(charging)
Q = CV
Q=IT
w.r.t. charging
CVr
WKT
Q(dis-charging)
w.r.t. time
=
Idc T2
Vr
I dc T2
C .. (3)
T1 + T2
T2
>> T1
T2
T
2
1
f
1
2f .. (4)
T
T2
Vr
Vr
I dc
V
I dc dc
2 f C ; Since,
RL
Vdc
2 f C R L . (5)
Vr
Vr(rms)
2 3
Vdc
2 f C RL2 3
Vdc
Vr(rms)
4 3 f C R L .. (6)
Vdc
r
4 3 f C RL
1
Vdc
1
r
4 3 f C RL
Exam Question : With necessary circuit and wave forms, explain a bridge rectifier circuit
with capacitor filter. Derive an expression for the ripple factor.
Exam Question : Draw the circuit of a full wave bridge rectifier with capacitor filter and
explain its operation. Derive an expression for its ripple factor.
Exam Question : Draw the circuit diagram of a bridge rectifier with capacitor filter. Plot its
input and out waveforms. Derive an expression for its ripple factor.
Ans. :
Fig. : Full wave bridge rectifier with capacitor filter
Operation:
During the +ve half cycle of the ac input, the diodes D1 & D2 conducts and charges the
capacitor to the peak value of Vm of the input voltage. When the input voltage falls below Vm,
the diode stops conducting. Now, the capacitor starts discharging through RL and the
capacitor voltage decreases. The discharging of the capacitor continues until the diodes
D1&D2 starts conducting again in the next half cycle and charges the capacitor. Figure 2
shows the waveforms; we find that without capacitor filter, output voltage Vo varies between
zero and Vm. With capacitor filter the output voltage varies between { Vm Vr(p-p) } & Vm. This
clearly indicates that the shunting of RL and C reduces the ripple content in the output
voltage.
The ripple factor C filter is given by
1
r =
4 3 f C RL
I/O Waveform:
T1 Capacitor charging time
T2 Capacitor discharging time
Note :Let,
T
T/2 +T/2
T/2 T1 + T2
T1
T2
Vr (rms)
Vdc
(1)
Vr (rms)
Vr
2 3 (2)
To find the value of Vr:WKT the rate of change of charging is equal to the rate of change of discharging.
i.e.,
Q(charging)
Q = CV
Q=IT
w.r.t. charging
CVr
Vr
WKT
where
T1 + T2
Q(dis-charging)
w.r.t. time
=
Idc T2
I dc T2
C .. (3)
T
2
T2
>> T1
T2
T
2
1
f
1
2f .. (4)
T
T2
Vr
Vr
I dc
V
I dc dc
2 f C ; Since,
RL
Vdc
2 f C R L . (5)
Vr
Vr(rms)
2 3
Vdc
2 f C RL2 3
Vdc
Vr(rms)
4 3 f C R L .. (6)
Vdc
r
4 3 f C RL
1
Vdc
1
r
4 3 f C RL
No.
1)
Parameter
Ripple factor
2)
DC o/p voltage
3)
Load resistance
HWR
1
2 3 f C RL
Vdc Vm
I dc
2f C
RL
1
4 3 f C RL
Vdc Vm
I dc
4f C
RL
4)
Load resistance
2 3f Cr
V
RL m
I dc
5)
Vm 2 V2(rms)
6)
7)
% Regulation
R0
100
RL
R0
100
RL
8)
R
Vm Vdc 1 0
RL
R
Vm Vdc 1 0
RL
I
Vm Vdc dc
4f C
Vdc I dc .R L
Vdc I dc .R L
11)
Vr (rms)
12)
13)
14)
15)
Vr(rms)
Ripple factor
Vm 2 V2(rms)
R0
9)
10)
4 3f Cr
V
RL m
I dc
Vr
Vr (rms)
2 3
Vdc
2 3 f C RL
Vr (rms)
Vr(rms)
r
Vdc
Vr (rms) r Vdc
Vr (rms)
1
4f C
I dc
2 3f C
Vr
2 3
Vdc
4 3 f C RL
Vr (rms)
Vdc
Vr (rms) r Vdc
Vr (rms)
I dc
4 3f C
Exam Problem : A full wave rectifier using centre tapped transformer supplies a resistive
load of 1K. The transformer secondary end to end voltage is 60 V rms at 50 Hz. The filter
capacitance is 500 F. Calculate:
i) Ripple factor ii) Output resistance of the filter (R0) iii) Vdc iv) Idc v) regulation
Given : RL = 1 K
Vrms = 60 V
r
Sol : Ripple factor,
f = 50 Hz
C = 500 F
4 3 f C R L = 4 3 1 10 3 50 500 10 6
00058
1
1
10
4f C = 4 50 500 10 6
R0
Vm 2 Vrms 2 30 42.42 V
R
Vm Vdc 1 0
RL
I dc
Vdc
Vm
R
1 0
RL
42.42
10
1
1 10 3 = 42 V
Vdc
42
42 mA
R L 1 10 3
R0
10
100
100 1 %
3
R
% regulation = L
= 1 10
Exam Problem : Design a full wave rectifier with C-filter for the following specification:
Output dc voltage = 35V; Maximum load current = 250mA: Ripple factor < 0.06
Given : Vdc = 35 V
Sol :
RL
r 0.06 f = 50 hz
Vdc
35
140
I dc 250 10 3
1
4 3 f C R L ; ,
Vm Vdc
Idc = 230 mA
1
4 3 f r RL
1
4 3 50 140 0.06
250 10 3
I dc
35
38.53 V
4 50 343.66
4f C =
Vm 2 Vrms , ,
Vrms
Vm
2
38.53
27.3 V
2
Fig.
343 .66 F
Exam Problem : A full wave bridge rectifier is supplied from the transformer secondary
voltage of 100 V. Calculate the dc output voltage and peak inverse voltage of the diodes
employed.
Given : Vrms = 100 V
To find : Vdc = ?
PIV = ?
Vdc
90 V
PIV = Vm = 141.42 V
Exam Problem : Draw the circuit diagram of a full wave rectifier with capacitor filter. The
circuit uses a capacitor of 1000 F and provides a dc load current of 500 mA at 2 % ripple.
Assume f = 50Hz.
Calculate: i) D.C output voltage ii) Peak rectified voltage and % regulation.
Given : C = 1000 F
r
Sol : Ripple factor,
RL
Idc = IL = 500 mA
f = 50 hz
1
4 3 f C RL
1
r = 2 % = 0.02
4 3f Cr = 4 3f Cr
1
4 3 50 1000 0.02
144 .34
Vm Vdc
500 10 3
I dc
72.17
74.67 V
4f C =
4 50 500 10 3
or
R
Vm Vdc 1 0
RL
72.17 1
74.67 V
144.34
=
R0
1
1
5
4f C = 4 50 1000 10 6
R0
5
100
100 3.64 %
R
L
144.34
% regulation =
=
Exam Problem : Design a FWR with a capacitor filter to meet the following specifications.
DC output voltage =15V, Load resistance =1 K. RMS ripple voltage on capacitor <1% of
DC output voltage. Assume the AC supply voltage as 230 V, 50 Hz.
Given : Vdc = 15 V RL = 1 K
r = 1 % = 0 .01
f = 50 hz
Vrms = 1 % of Vdc
1
4 3 f C R L ; ,
I dc
1
4 3 f r RL
1
4 3 50 1 10 3 0.01
288 .675 F
Vdc
15
15 mA
R L 1 10 3
Vdc Vm
WKT
Vrms
Vm
2
I dc
15 10 3
I dc 15
15 .25 V
V Vdc
4f C ; , m
4 50 288 .675
4f C =
15.25
2
10.31 V
Fig.
Exam Problem : Design a power supply using a FWR with capacitance filter to give an
output voltage of 10V at 10 mA from a 220 V, 50 Hz supply. The ripple factor must be less
than 0.01, i.e., 1 %.
Given : V0 = Vdc = 10 V
IL = 10 mA
f = 50 hz
r < 0.01
To find : RL = ? C = ?
Sol :
RL
V0
10
1 K
I L 10 10 3
1
4 3 f C R L ; ,
1
4 3 f r RL
1
4 3 50 1 10 3 0.01
288 .675 F
Fig.
Exam Problem : In a FWR with a capacitor filter, the load current from the circuit
operating from 230 V, 50 Hz supply is 10 mA. Estimate the value of capacitor required to
keep the ripple factor less than 1 %.
Given : V2 = 230 V
f = 50 Hz IL = 10 mA
Sol : Vm 2 V2 =
RL
Vdc
IL
RL
Vdc
207 .07
20.70 K
I L 10 10 3
r = 1 % = 0.01
Vdc
2Vm
Vdc
2 325.269
207 .07 V
1
4 3 f C R L ; ,
1
4 3 f r RL
1
4 3 50 20 .70 10 3 0.01
13.94 F
Exam Problem : A full-wave bridge rectifier supplies a load of 400 in parallel with a
capacitor of 500F. If the ac supply voltage is 230v sin 314t v, find the i) Ripple factor and
ii) D.C load current.
Given : RL = 400
Vm = 230 V
r
Sol :
C = 500 F
= 314 ; 2 f = 314
314
50 hz
2
4 3 f C R L = 4 3 50 400 500 10 6
I dc
2I m
I dc
2I m 2Vm 2 230
0.366 A
R L 400
0.0144 1.44 %
Exam Problem : A full wave rectifier has a load of 2 k. The AC voltage applied to the
diodes is 200-0-200 V. Assuming ideal diodes,
Calculate i) Average DC current ii) average DC voltage and iii) Ripple voltage.
If a capacitor of value 500 F is connected across the load, what is the new value of the
ripple voltage? Assume f = 50 Hz.
Given : RL = 2 K
Vs = 200 V
f = 50 hz
C = 500 F
Im
Vm
282.842
0.1414 A
R L = 2 10 3
I dc
2I m 2 0.1414
0.09 A
=
Vac
Vdc ; , V = r V
ac
dc
4 3 f C R L = 4 3 50 2 10 3 500 10 6
r
WKT
Vr(rms)
2.8867 10 3