CEMENT

In the most general sense of the word, cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens
independently, and can bind other materials together. The word "cement" traces to the Romans, who used
the term opus caementicium to describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from
crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick additives that were added to
the burnt lime to obtain a hydraulic binder were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cment,
and cement.
Cement used in construction is characterized as hydraulic or non-hydraulic. Hydraulic cements
(e.g., Portland cement) harden because of hydration, chemical reactions that occur independently of the
mixture's water content; they can harden even underwater or when constantly exposed to wet weather.
The chemical reaction that results when the anhydrous cement powder is mixed with water produces
hydrates that are not water-soluble. Non-hydraulic cements (e.g. gypsum plaster) must be kept dry in
order to retain their strength.
The most important use of cement is the production of mortar and concretethe bonding of natural or
artificial aggregates to form a strong building material that is durable in the face of normal environmental
effects.
Concrete should not be confused with cement, because the term cement refers to the material used to
bind the aggregate materials of concrete. Concrete is a combination of a cement and aggregate.

Types of modern cement

Portland cement
Cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with small quantities of other materials (such
as clay) to 1450 C in a kiln, in a process known as calcination, whereby a molecule of carbon is liberated
from the calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide, or quicklime, which is then blended with the other
materials that have been included in the mix. The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is then ground
with a small amount of gypsum into a powder to make 'Ordinary Portland Cement', the most commonly
used type of cement (often referred to as OPC).
Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and most non-specialty grout. The most
common use for Portland cement is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a composite material
consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. As a construction material, concrete can

be cast in almost any shape desired, and once hardened, can become a structural (load bearing)
element. Portland cement may be grey or white.

Portland cement blends

Portland cement blends are often available as inter-ground mixtures from cement producers, but similar
formulations are often also mixed from the ground components at the concrete mixing plant.
Portland blast furnace cement contains up to 70% ground granulated blast furnace slag, with the rest
Portland clinker and a little gypsum. All compositions produce high ultimate strength, but as slag content
is increased, early strength is reduced, while sulfate resistance increases and heat evolution diminishes.
Used as an economic alternative to Portland sulfate-resisting and low-heat cements.
Portland flyash cement contains up to 35% fly ash. The fly ash is pozzolanic, so that ultimate strength is
maintained. Because fly ash addition allows lower concrete water content, early strength can also be
maintained. Where good quality cheap fly ash is available, this can be an economic alternative to ordinary
Portland cement.
Portland pozzolan cement includes fly ash cement, since fly ash is a pozzolan, but also includes
cements made from other natural or artificial pozzolans. In countries where ashes are available
(e.g. Italy, Chile, Mexico, the Philippines) these cements are often the most common form in use.
Portland silica fumes cement. Addition of silica fume can yield exceptionally high strengths, and
cements containing 520% silica fume are occasionally produced. However, silica fume is more usually
added to Portland cement at the concrete mixer.
Masonry cements are used for preparing bricklaying mortars and stuccos, and must not be used in
concrete. They are usually complex proprietary formulations containing Portland clinker and a number of
other ingredients that may include limestone, hydrated lime, air entrainers, retarders, water proofers and
coloring agents. They are formulated to yield workable mortars that allow rapid and consistent masonry
work. Subtle variations of Masonry cement in the US are Plastic Cements and Stucco Cements. These
are designed to produce controlled bond with masonry blocks.
Expansive cements contain, in addition to Portland clinker, expansive clinkers (usually sulfoaluminate
clinkers), and are designed to offset the effects of drying shrinkage that is normally encountered with
hydraulic cements. This allows large floor slabs (up to 60 m square) to be prepared without contraction
joints.
White blended cements may be made using white clinker and white supplementary materials such as
high-purity metakaolin.

Colored cements are used for decorative purposes. In some standards, the addition of pigments to
produce "colored Portland cement" is allowed. In other standards (e.g. ASTM), pigments are not allowed
constituents of Portland cement, and colored cements are sold as "blended hydraulic cements".
Very finely ground cements are made from mixtures of cement with sand or with slag or other pozzolan
type minerals that are extremely finely ground together. Such cements can have the same physical
characteristics as normal cement but with 50% less cement particularly due to their increased surface
area for the chemical reaction. Even with intensive grinding they can use up to 50% less energy to
fabricate than ordinary Portland cements.

Non-Portland hydraulic cements

Pozzolan-lime cements. Mixtures of ground pozzolan and lime are the cements used by the Romans,
and can be found in Roman structures still standing (e.g. the Pantheon in Rome). They develop strength
slowly, but their ultimate strength can be very high. The hydration products that produce strength are
essentially the same as those produced by Portland cement.
Slag-lime cements. Ground granulated blast furnace slag is not hydraulic on its own, but is "activated" by
addition of alkalis, most economically using lime. They are similar to pozzolan lime cements in their
properties. Only granulated slag (i.e. water-quenched, glassy slag) is effective as a cement component.
Super sulfated cements. These contain about 80% ground granulated blast furnace slag,
15% gypsum or anhydrite and a little Portland clinker or lime as an activator. They produce strength by
formation of ettringite, with strength growth similar to a slow Portland cement. They exhibit good
resistance to aggressive agents, including sulfate.
Calcium aluminate cements are hydraulic cements made primarily from limestone and bauxite. The
active ingredients are monocalcium aluminate CaAl2O4 (CaO Al2O3 or CA in Cement chemist notation,
CCN) and mayenite Ca12Al14O33 (12 CaO 7 Al2O3, or C12A7 in CCN). Strength forms by hydration to
calcium aluminate hydrates. They are well-adapted for use in refractory (high-temperature resistant)
concretes, e.g. for furnace linings.
Calcium sulfoaluminate cements are made from clinkers that include ye'elimite (Ca4(AlO2)6SO4 or
C4A3S in Cement chemist's notation) as a primary phase. They are used in expansive cements, in ultrahigh early strength cements, and in "low-energy" cements. Hydration produces ettringite, and specialized
physical properties (such as expansion or rapid reaction) are obtained by adjustment of the availability of
calcium and sulfate ions. Their use as a low-energy alternative to Portland cement has been pioneered in
China, where several million tonnes per year are produced. Energy requirements are lower because of
the lower kiln temperatures required for reaction and the lower amount of limestone (which must be
endothermically decarbonated) in the mix. In addition, the lower limestone content and lower fuel

consumption leads to a CO2 emission around half that associated with Portland clinker. However,
SO2 emissions are usually significantly higher.
"Natural" cements correspond to certain cements of the pre-Portland era, produced by
burning argillaceous limestones at moderate temperatures. The level of clay components in the limestone
(around 3035%) is such that large amounts of belite (the low-early strength, high-late strength mineral in
Portland cement) are formed without the formation of excessive amounts of free lime. As with any natural
material, such cements have highly variable properties.
Geopolymer cements are made from mixtures of water-soluble alkali metal silicates and aluminosilicate
mineral powders such as fly ash and metakaolin.

Types of Cement
This guide covers the three major cement categories, Portland cements, which dominate the market,
Blended cements, which are starting to make their presence increasingly felt in the cement field, and
Expansive cements, which are often used in bridges and other important load bearing applications where
cracking must be minimized.
Both Portland cement and Blended cements are hydraulic cements, which means that they require the
addition of water in order to form the bonds which make them set hard and strong. Once formed, the
bonds are not soluble in water, which means that hydraulic cements can be used in situations where they
will be exposed to water (such as rain water, drainage water, or sea water) without fear of them breaking
down and washing away.
There are six main types of hydraulic cements, and both Portland and Blended cements can be
categorized into these types.
Type GU General Use. Suitable for general applications, except those where ground water may be
involved, or where moderate to low heat of hydration is required. Heat of hydration is a term referring to
the amount of heat that is given out as bonds are formed within the cement. The reactions which form the
bonds in cement are exothermic, which means they give out heat. In some projects, such as large scale
dams, it is advantageous to use cement that has a low heat of hydration, as cements which release a
great deal of heat whilst setting and hardening can cause major problems.
Type HE High Early Strength. High early strength cements set and hardens quickly, and can be used
as load bearing structures much more quickly than their counterparts. These types of cement are ideal for
projects which must be finished quickly.

Type MS Moderate Sulphate Resistance. Moderate sulphate resistance makes cement suitable for
use in applications where the concrete will be exposed to normal levels of sulphates which are present in
ground water.
Type HS High Sulphate Resistance. High sulphate resistance is useful for projects where the cement
will be exposed to unusually high levels of sulphates.
Type MH Moderate Heat of Hydration. Moderate heat of hydration cements are suitable for large
applications, such as small bridges, or retaining walls.
Type LH Low Heat of Hydration. Low heat of hydration cements are designed for relatively rare major
construction projects.
Blended Cements
Blended cements are produced by blending two types of materials together to produce a new type of
cement. Portland cement, natural pozzolanic compounds, blast furnace slag, silica fume, calcined clay,
and fly ash are all common components of blended cements. Blended cements have been developed in
response to various needs and market pressures, including the need to find means of recycling materials
left over from other processes, such as the production of iron, which leaves blast furnace slag. Blended
cements also have certain properties that make them more useful in some cases than ordinary Portland
cement, and they quite often reduce the cost of cement as well.

There are five main types of blended cement:

Type IS Portland blast furnace slag cement, where Portland cement has been ground with blast
furnace slag. Blast furnace slag content is usually between twenty five and seventy percent of Type IS
cement by mass.
Type IP or P Portland pozzolan cement, where Portland cement has been ground with pozzolanic
material. Pozzolan content is usually between fifteen and fourty percent of total mass.
Type I (PM) Pozzolan modified Portland cement.
Type S Slag cement.
Because there are no restrictions on the makeup of blended cements, they can be designed with specific
properties in mind to fit specific construction applications.
Expansive Cements

Expansive cements are a type of hydraulic cement which expand as they begin to harden. Expansive
cements are designated with an ASTM label of E-1, and come in three categories, K, M, and S, though in
certain regions, such as the United States, only K may be available. E-1(K) cement contains lime, calcium
sulphate, anhydrous tetracalcium trialuminosulfate, and Portland cement as its main ingredients.
Expansive cements are exceedingly useful in construction applications where structural cracks must not
develop. Normal cement types shrink during drying, which can cause problems in some construction
applications. Expansive cements compensate for this shrinkage by expanding slightly. There are three
main uses for expansive cements the first one being crack resistance, the second being induction of
tensile stress in reinforcement applications, and the third being as a means to ensure that dimensions of
post tensioned concrete structures remain static.
Portland Cement
There are many different types of cement available on the market today, but by far and away the most
popular type of cement is Portland Cement, which comes in a range of specifications to suit various
conditions. The basic ingredients of Portland cement are calcium and silicone, along with iron, aluminum,
and very small amounts of other substances. Gypsum is also a component of Portland cement, added at
the very end of production in order to control the rate at which the cement will set. Gypsum (the lay term
for calcium sulfate) has been used since Egyptian times to regulate setting of cement like substances.
ASTM Standards For Portland Cement
As has been mentioned, there are various types of Portland cement which posses different properties
which make them suitable for different applications. The American Society for Testing and Materials has
classified eight different types of Portland Cement.
Type I Portland Cement
Type I Portland cement is general purpose cement with no particularly special attributes. It is suitable for
use in general applications, however it should not be used in applications where the cement will be in
contact with the ground, or with ground water, as these substances tend to contain sulphates which can
attack the cement and make it expand and distort out of shape.
Type II Portland Cement
Type II Portland cement has some sulphate resistance, and releases less heat during setting and
hardening than Type I Portland cement. Type II cement is therefore suitable for construction projects
which involve exposure of the cement to ground water, such as pavements and drainage systems. Type II
cement can also be used for large scale work such as retaining walls and other such masses.
Type III Portland Cement
Type III Portland cement develops strength much quicker than other types of Portland cement. The trade

off is that its final strength tends to be slightly less than other forms of Portland cement which take longer
to set and harden. Type III Portland cement is very useful for projects which must be completed quickly.
Type A Portland Cement
Type A Portland cement refers to Type IA, Type IIA, and Type IIIA Portland cements. These cements are
simply cement types of the aforementioned categories which have had special additives added to them
which cause small pockets of air to be trapped inside the cement in a uniform fashion. This provides
greater freeze/thaw resistance to the cement, preventing it from cracking in conditions which experience
large variances in temperature.
Type IV Portland Cement
Type IV Portland cement is a relatively rare type of Portland cement which is specially designed to
release heat slowly during setting and hardening. Designed for use on very large scale projects, such as
dams, Type IV Portland cement can generally only be obtained by special order in very large quantities.
Type V Portland Cement
Type V Portland cement was designed to be used in high sulphate conditions, where Type I and Type II
Portland cement cannot successfully be used. It is not typically necessary to use Type V Portland cement,
except in extreme conditions. Most applications requiring contact with water are adequately satisfied with
Type II Portland cement.
White Portland Cement
Whilst not truly a separate type of cement, white Portland cement is a unique kind of Portland cement that
can be produced to meet the specifications of most types of Portland cement. It is different from ordinary
Portland cement in that it has a white coloration, instead of a dull grey one. This effect is achieved by
limiting the amount of iron and magnesium oxide in the mix during production. White cement can also be
colored to achieve various effects, and is quite popular as an alternative to the traditional drab grey
coloration of ordinary Portland cement, especially in projects which have a strong aesthetic component.
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