ThefollowingareallthedefinitionsyoullneedwhenstudyingforyourPhysicsALevelExam:

Measurement:
Randomerrorsareerrorsofmeasurementsinwhichthemeasuredquantitiesdifferfromthemeanvaluewithdifferent
magnitudesanddirections.
Systematicerrorsareerrorsofmeasurementsinwhichthemeasuredquantitiesaredisplacedfromthetruevaluebyfixed
magnitudeandinthesamedirection.
Accuracyisameasureofhowclosetheresultsofanexperimentagreewiththetruevalue.
Precisionisameasureofhowclosetheresultsofanexperimentagreewitheachother.
ThermalPhysics:
Theinternalenergyisafunctionofstateandthetotalmicroscopickineticandpotentialenergiesoftheparticlescomposing
thesystem.
Thespecificlatentheatoffusion,Lf,isdefinedastheamountofheatrequiredperunitmasstochangeasubstancefromthe
solidphasetotheliquidphasewithoutanychangeintemperature
Thespecificlatentheatofvaporization,Lv,isdefinedastheamountofheatrequiredperunitmasstochangeasubstance
fromtheliquidphasetothevaporphasewithoutanychangeintemperature.
Firstlawofthermodynamicsstatethatinternalenergyisafunctionofstateandtheincreaseininternalenergyisequaltothe
sumoftheheatsuppliedtosystemandworkdoneonsystem.

Kinematics:
Speedistherateofchangeofdistancetraveledwithrespecttotime.
Velocityistherateofchangeofitsdisplacementwithrespecttotime.
Accelerationofanobjectistherateofchangeofitsvelocitywithrespecttotime.

ForcesAndDynamics:
Normalcontactforceisaforceperpendiculartothesurfaceexperiencedbyabodywhenitisinphysicalcontactwith
somethingelse.
HookesLawstatesthatwithinthelimitofproportionality,theextensionproducedinamaterialisdirectlyproportionaltothe
loadapplied.
Theprincipleofmomentsstatesthat,whenanobjectisinequilibrium,thesumofanticlockwisemomentsaboutanypoint
equalsthesumofclockwisemomentsaboutthesamepoint.
Themomentofaforceistheproductoftheforceandtheperpendiculardistancebetweentheaxisofrotationandthelineof
actionoftheforce.
Acoupleisapairofforces,equalinmagnitudebutoppositeindirection,whoselinesofmotiondonotcoincide.
Centreofgravityisthepointonanobjectthroughwhichtheentireweightoftheobjectmaybeconsideredtoact.
Stabilityofanobjectreferstoitsabilitytoreturntoitsoriginalpositionafterithasbeendisplacedfromthatposition.
Pressureisforceactingperunitarea.
Upthrust/buoyancyforceisanupwardforceonabodyproducedbythesurroundingfluid(i.e.,aliquidoragas)inwhichitis
fullyorpartiallyimmersed,duetothepressuredifferenceofthefluidbetweenthetopandbottomoftheobject.
ArchimedesPrinciplestatesthattheupthrustexperiencedbyanobjectpartiallyorentirelyimmersedinafluidisequaltothe
weightofthefluiddisplacedbytheobject.
Newtonsfirstlawofmotionstatesthatabodywillcontinueinitsstateofrestoruniformmotioninastraightlineunlessan

externalresultantforceactsonit.
Newtonssecondlawstatesthattherateofchangeofmomentumofabodyisproportionaltotheresultantforceactingonit
andthechangetakesplaceinthedirectionoftheforce.
Newtonsthirdlawstatesthat:IfbodyAexertsaforceonbodyB,thenbodyBexertsaforceofequalmagnitudebutinthe
oppositedirectiononbodyA.
Theprincipalofconservationofmomentumstatesthatthetotalmomentumofasystemofobjectsremainsconstantprovided
noresultantexternalforceactsonthesystem.
Work,EnergyAndPower
Workisthemechanicaltransferofenergytoasystemorfromasystembyanexternalforceonit.
Heatisthenonmechanicaltransferofenergyfromtheenvironmenttothesystemorfromthesystemtotheenvironment
becauseofatemperaturedifferencebetweenthetwo.
ThePrincipleofconservationofenergystatesthatenergycannotbecreatednordestroyedinanyprocess.
GravitationalPotentialEnergyisdefinedastheamountofworkdoneinordertoraisethebodytotheheighthfroma
referencelevel.
Powerisdefinedastherateofworkdoneorenergyconvertedwithrespecttotime.

CircularMotion:
Angulardisplacement,?istheanglesubtendedatcentreofacirclebyanarcofequallengthtotheradius.
Angularvelocity,?istherateofchangeofangulardisplacementwithrespecttotime.
TheperiodTofanobjectincircularmotionisthetimetakenfortheobjecttomakeonecompleterevolution.
Thefrequencyfofanobjectincircularmotionisthenumberofcompleterevolutionsmadebytheobjectperunittime.

Waves:
Displacementisthedistancemovedbytheparticlefromitsequilibriumposition.
Theamplitudeofawaveisthemaximumdisplacementoftheparticlefromitsequilibriumposition.
Thewavelengthisthedistancebetween2successivepointsonawavewhichareinphasewithoneanother.
Theperiodisthetimetakenforaparticleonthewavetocompleteoneoscillation.
Thefrequencyofawaveisthenumberofcompleteoscillationsthatpassthroughagivenpointin1second.(Units:Hertz(Hz)
ors1 )
Acompressionisaregionwhereparticlesareclosetooneanother.(Highpressure)
Ararefactionisaregionwheretheparticlesarefurtherapart.(Lowpressure)
PhaseDifference(?)betweentwoparticlesortwowavestellsushowmuchaparticle(orwave)isinfrontorbehindanother
particle(orwave).
Intensityofawaveistherateoftransferofenergyperunitareaperpendiculartothedirectionoftravelofthewave.

Oscillations:
Periodicmotionistheregular,repetitivemotionofabodywhichcontinuallyretracesitspathatregularintervals.
PeriodTofaperiodicmotionisthetimetomakeonecompletecycle.
Frequencyfofaperiodicmotionisthenumberofcyclesperunittime.
Angularfrequencyofaperiodicmotionistherateofchangeofangulardisplacementwithrespecttotime.

Displacementofanobjectisthedistanceoftheoscillatingparticlefromitsequilibriumpositionatanyinstant.
Amplitudeofaperiodicmotionisthemagnitudeofthemaximumdisplacementoftheoscillatingparticlefromtheequilibrium
position.
SimpleHarmonicMotion(SHM)isdefinedastheoscillatorymotionofaparticlewhoseaccelerationaisalwaysdirected
towardsafixedpointandisdirectlyproportionaltoitsdisplacementxfromthatfixedpointbutintheoppositedirectiontothe
displacement.
Dampingistheprocesswherebyenergyistakenfromtheoscillatingsystem.
Naturalfrequencyofthesystemisthefrequencyatwhichitwillvibratefreely.
Superposition:
Diffractionreferstothebendingorspreadingoutofwaveswhentheytravelthroughasmallopeningorwhentheypassround
asmallobstacle.
ThePrincipleOfSuperpositionstatesthatwhentwowavesofthesamekindmeetatapointinspace,theresultant
displacementatthatpointisthevectorsumofthedisplacementsthatthetwowaveswouldseparatelyproduceatthatpoint.
Interferencereferstothesuperposingoftwoormorecoherentwavestoproduceregionsofmaximaandminimainspace,
accordingtotheprincipleofsuperposition.

Gravitation:
NewtonsLawOfUniversalGravitationstatesthateveryparticleintheUniverseattractseveryotherparticlewithaforcethatis
directlyproportionaltotheproductoftheirmassesandinverselyproportionaltothesquareofthedistancebetweenthem.
Gravitationalfieldstrengthatapointisdefinedasthegravitationalforceperunitmassactingonamassplacedatthatpoint.
Gravitationalpotentialenergy,Uofapointmassm,inagravitationalfield,istheworkdonebyanexternalforceinbringing
thatpointmassfrominfinitytothatpoint.
Gravitationalpotentialatapointinagravitationalfieldistheworkdoneperunitmass,byanexternalforce,inbringingthe
massfrominfinitytothatpoint.
EscapespeedistheminimumspeedwithwhichamassshouldbeprojectedfromtheEarthssurfaceinordertoescape
Earthsgravitationfield.

ElectricField
Thecoulombslawstatesthattheelectrostaticforcebetweentwopointchargesisproportionaltotheproductoftheircharges
andinverselyinverselyproportionaltothesquareofthedistancebetweenthem.
TheElectricfieldstrengthatapointinanelectricfieldistheelectrostaticforceperunitchargeexperiencedbyasmallpositive
testchargeplacedatthatpoint.
ElectricPotentialatapointinanelectricfieldistheworkdoneperunitchargebyanexternalagentinbringingapositivetest
chargefrominfinitytothatparticularpointwithoutacceleration.
Electricpotentialenergyofachargeinanelectricfieldisdefinedastheworkdonebyanexternalforceinbringingthecharge
frominfinitytothatpointadistanceraway.
Theelectronvoltisdefinedasenergythatanelectron(orproton)gains(orloses)whenitisaccelerated(ordecelerated)
throughapotentialdifferenceof1volt.

CurrentOfElectricity
ElectricCurrentistherateofflowofchargethroughaparticularcrosssectionalareawithrespecttotime.
Thepotentialdifferencebetweentwopointsinanelectricalcircuitistheelectricalenergyconvertedintootherformsofenergy
perunitchargepassingfromonepointtotheother.

Onevoltisthepotentialdifferencebetweentwopointsinanelectricalcircuitwhenonejouleofelectricalenergyisconverted
tootherformofenergyasonecoulombofchargepassesfromonepointtotheother.
OhmsLawstatesthattheratioofthepotentialdifferenceacrossaconductortothecurrentflowingthroughit,isaconstant,
providedthatitsphysicalconditions,suchastemperature,remainconstant.
Theelectromotiveforce(
acompletecircuit.

)ofasourceistheenergyconvertedfromotherformstoelectricalperunitchargedeliveredround

Internalresistance(r)ofanyrealsourceistheresistancethatchargemovingthroughthematerialofthesourceencounters.

DCCircuits
KirchhoffsFirstLawstatesthatthetotalcurrententeringajunctionisequaltothetotalcurrentleavingthejunction.ORThe
algebraicsumofcurrentsatajunctioniszero.
Kirchhoffssecondlawstatesthatthenetelectromotiveforcearoundaclosedcircuitloopisequaltothesumofpotential
dropsaroundtheloop.ORThealgebraicsumofthechangesinpotentialencounteredinacompletetraversalofaclosed
circuitloopmustbezero.

Electromagnetism
Magneticfluxdensity(B)isdefinedastheforceactingperunitcurrentperunitlengthonawireplacedatrightanglestothe
magneticfield.
1Teslaisdefinedasthemagneticfluxdensityofauniformmagneticfieldwhenawireoflength1m,carryingacurrentof1A,
placedperpendiculartothefield,experiencesaforceof1Ninadirectionatrightanglestoboththefieldandthecurrent.

ElectromagneticInduction
MagneticfluxthroughaplanesurfaceistheproductofthemagneticfluxdensitynormaltothesurfaceBNandtheareaAof
thesurface.
Theweberisdefinedasthemagneticfluxthroughasurfaceifamagneticfieldoffluxdensity1Texistsperpendicularlytoan
areaof1m2 .
MagneticFluxLinkageisdefinedastheproductofthenumberofturnsNofthecoilandthemagneticfluxlinkingeachturn.
FaradaysLawstatesthattheinducede.m.f.isdirectlyproportionaltotherateofchangeofmagneticfluxlinkageorrateof
cuttingofmagneticfluxlinkage.
LenzsLawstatesthattheinducede.m.f.willbedirectedsuchthatthecurrentwhichitcausestoflowopposesthechange
thatisproducingit.
AlternatingCurrent
Therootmeansquare(r.m.s.)valueofanalternatingcurrentisequivalenttothesteadydirectcurrentthatconvertselectrical
energytootherformsofenergyatthesameaveragerateasthealternatingcurrentinagivenresistance.
Rectificationistheprocessinwhichanalternatingcurrentisforcedtoonlyflowinonedirection.

Semiconductors
Bandgapistheenergydifferencebetweentopofvalencebandandbottomofconductionband.Itisalsoarangeofenergyin
asolidwherenoelectronstatesexist.
Anintrinsicsemiconductorisapuresemiconductorcrystalcontainingonlyoneelementoronecompound.
Extrinsicsemiconductorsdopedwithdonorimpuritiesarecalledntypesemiconductorsbecausetheydonateanexcessof
negativechargecarriers.

QuantumPhysics&Lasers
PhotoelectricEffectistheemissionofelectronsfrommetalbyelectromagneticradiation.
Photoelectronisusedtoindicatethattheelectronhasbeenemittedwhenlightfallsonthesurfaceofametal.
Theworkfunctionofamaterialisdefinedastheminimumamountoftheworknecessarytoremoveafreeelectronfromthe
surfaceofthematerial.
Thresholdfrequencyistheminimumfrequencyofanincidentradiationrequiredtojustremoveanelectronfromthesurfaceof
ametal.
Thescanningtunnellingmicrosope(STM)isanonopticalmicroscopewhichusestheconceptofquantumtunnellingby
electronstostudysurfacesofconductorsorsemiconducorsattheatomicscaleofabout2or0.2nm.

NuclearPhysics
Themassdefectofanucleusisdefinedasthedifferencebetweenthemassoftheseparatednucleonsandthecombined
massofthenucleus.
Nuclearfissionisthedisintegrationofaheavynucleusintotwolighternucleiofapproximatelyequalmasses.
Nuclearfusionisthecombiningofthetwolightnucleitoproduceaheaviernucleus.
Radioactivedecayisthespontaneousdisintegrationofthenucleusofanatomwhichresultsintheemissionofparticles.
Backgroundradiationreferstoionizingradiationemittedfromavarietyofnaturalandartificialradiationsources.
Theactivityofaradioactivesubstanceisdefinedastheaveragenumberofatomsdisintegratingperunittime.
Thedecayconstant?ofanucleusisdefinedasitsprobabilityofdecayperunittime.
Halflifeisdefinedasthetimetakenforhalftheoriginalnumberofradioactivenucleitodecay.