Museum Standards by The UNESCO

Museum
Vol XXVI, n 3/4, 1974
Museum architecture
museum
Mtcsetcm, successor to Mouseion, is published
by the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization in Paris.
Mastam serves as a quarterly survey of
activities and means of research in the field
of museography.
Opinions expressed by individual
contributors are not necessarily those of
Unesco.
EDITORS
Chief Editor : Conrad Wise

Associate Editor : Anne Erds
ADVISORY BOARD
Om Prakash Agrawal, India

Sid Ahmed Baghli, Algeria
Raymonde Frin, France
Jan Jelinek, Czechoslovakia
iMichael Kustow, United Kingdom
Grace L. McCann Morley, Director,
ICOM Agency for South-East Asia
Georges Henri Rivitre, Permanent Adviser
of ICOM
Mario Viisquez, Mexico
The Secretary-General of ICOM, ex o@cio
Mz~ceiimquarterly review is available in

microform from: Xerox University
Microfilms, 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann
Arbor, Michigan 48103 (United States
of America).
Each number: 16 F. Annual subscription

rate (4 issues or corresponding double issues):
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Editorial and publishing offices:

United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization,
7 Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris (France)
0Unesco 1975
Printed in Swit-yerland
Presses Centrales S.A., Lausanne
Museum
architecture
'
Manfred Lehmbruck
Editorial
127
Glossary
128
Introduction
129
Policy Commissioning authority and master builder

Siting. Study and choice of the site
I3 5
Sociology. Social context and place of action

Physiology. Factors affecting the visitor
Psychology. Perception and behaviour
I5 7
I 73
191
Conservation. Physiochemistry of the objects

Functions. Space and circulation
205
22-1
Technology. Flexibility, extensibility
23
Aesthetics. Laws of form and semantics

Conclusion
I 3I
7
25 I
267
Appendixes
I
Programming and planning the construction of a museum (Georges Henri

Rivire) 268
II
Climate and museum architecture in South and South-East Asia (O. P. Agrawal
and Smita J. Bas) 269
III -New museums in the U.S.S.R. (Irina Antonova and V. Revyakin)

IV
The building starts with a programme-but

(J. Carter Brown) 2-77
Bibliographical notes 2-80
274
where does the programme end?
I 26
MUSEO
CAPITOLINO,
Rome.
Opened in 1734,the Capitol Museum was
the first museum of modern Europe.
It was founded by Pope Clement XII
to house his collection of Roman
antiquities and to make Romans aware of
the value of their heritage, already
threatened by the great collectors of the
Renaissance. Architect: Michelangelo
Buonarrotti.
Ed.to ria I
Museum and Architecture: For some time now it has been our intention to
devote a special number to this subject which has always been one of vital
c0ncern.l
Large numbers of museums are indeed being built throughout the world,
while others are taking up their abode in historic monuments that no longer
serve their original purpose, arresting their decline and giving them new
significance. Yet others, which can barely be classified as museums in the
ordinary sense and in fact prefer to be called parks, are occupying sites where
nature has been tamed by man or still reigns supreme, and here, the architects
role is to introduce system and order into the area that is to be visited, a task
requiring the utmost tact and sensitivity.
One number would not be sufficient to investigate all the different aspects
of such a vast and fascinating subject. We have chosen to begin with a particularly urgent topic-the new museum. Our writer is Manfred Lehmbruck,
himself an architect and builder of museums.
Professor Lehmbrucls has given us a well-balanced mixture of theory and
practice, explaining the why and the wherefore, without neglecting the important question of how. Where necessary, to give his text more clarity and
directness, he has enlisted the aid of ingenious pictorial symbols.
In his desire to make his contribution more relevant and up to date, the
author undertook a world study tour, financed partly by himself and partly
by the John D. Rockefeller III Foundation. He was thus able to inspect new
types of museums at first hand and discuss them with their creators and their
users.
would like to thank both the foundation which supported his
journey and those who were his hosts.
Contributions from other authors are given at the end of the number, each
extending the scope of the inquiry in its own way, whether dealing with a
different region of the world or a different field of specialization.
If, as a result of this number, fewer museums were to be dreamt up without
a programme or knocked together without a plan, something would have
been accomplished, and something all the more useful in that we should owe
it to a collaborator who is already working actively to this end.
I. This subject has already been brought up several
times in Miueirn. See, in particular: Museum
Architecture, Vol. XVII, No. I, 1964; Museum
Architecture: Projects and Recent Achievements,
Vol. XVII, No. 3, 1964; section entitled The Building
in Exchange of Views of a Group of Experts,
Vol. XXTV, No. I, r g p .
128
'Real things' (Man-made objects,

Specimens of nature)
((Chose relle)) (objet issu de l'homme,

spcimen issu de la nature)
Objekt (von Menschenhand);

Specimen (von Natur geschaffen)
Viewer
Individu (visiteur)
Individuum
Space utilization (for example, intensity

of supplementary information)
Utilisation de l'espace
(par exemple, densit de l'information
complmentaire)
Besondere Raumnutzungen
(z.B. Dichte ergnzender Information)
~~~
..........................
........
........................................................
.......................
..................
asa...!
%....I..Z
Lower intensitv
Densit plus faible
Rel. Dichte 1. Grades
Higher intensity
Densit plus forte
Rel. Dichte 2. Grades
Quality of the building (for example,

complexity of the air-conditioning
system)
Lower c o m ~ l e x i t v
Premier degr de complexit
Higher complexity
Deuxime dear
- de comdexit
Limits of areas (for example, walls,

partitions, optics, acoustics)
---
, - ,
--------- -- - - - - - Ill--.--.-.-.-.-
IV--.--.--.--.--.-
1
3
0,
o
o o OD
0 0
OD
\I/
Rel. Dichte I . Grades

Rel. Dichte 2. Grades usw.
Raumbegrenzungen (z.B. Wnde,
Raumteiler Oder optische
und akustische Mittel)
Dlimitation existante
Massive, opaque
Transparente (par exemple, verre)
Bestehend Begrenzung
Massiv, opak
Transparent (Z.B. Glas)
Extension
Solid, non-transparent
Transparent (for example,glass)
Extension
Massive, opaque
Transparente (par exemple, verre)
Erweiterung
Massiv, opak
Transparent (z.B. Glas)
Public
Semi-public
Semi-private
Private
Dlimitation conceptuelle
(par exemple, espace)
ldeelle Begrenzungen Oder

Konstruktionsachsen
ffentlicher
halbffentlicher Museumshalb interner
bereich
interner
Public
Semi-public
Semi-priv
Priv
Circulation
Visitors
Staff
Material
Air-lock, transition (Light, Climate,
Psychological, etc.)
Circulation
Visiteur
Personnel
Matriel
Sas, zone d'adaptation (optique,
climatique, psychologique ...)
Wegespuren
Besucher
Personal
Material
Schleusen, bergnge (Licht,
Klima, psychologisch usw.)
Technique
Technique
Technik
Air-duct
NV
Dlimitation des espaces (par exemple,

murs, cloisons ou moyens optiques
et acoustiques)
Besondere Flchenqualitten (2.B.

Dichte der Klimatisations manahmen)
Existing limits
Solid, non-transparent
Transparent (for example,glass)
Limits of planning zones (for example,

space)
I-.-.-.-.-.II-.-.-.-.-.-
Qualification des surfaces

(par exemple, complexit des mesures
de climatisation)
Gaine de climatisation
Klimakanal
Incident light and reflected light
Lumire incidente
et lumire rflchie
Lichteinfall + Lichtreflexion
North light
Lumire du nord
-,o-
South light
the reverse in the

Southern Hemisphere
Lumire du sud
l'inverse dans
l'hmisphre sud
(Das Gegenteil auf

der sdlichen Halbkugel)
Siicllicht
Angle visuel, contact optique
Blickwinkel, Sichtbeziehung
Ascenseur, monte-charge
Aufzug- Personen, Aufzug- Frachten
Circulation area
Usable area
Raw work: basic building structure
Surface de circulation
Surface utile
Gros Oeuvre
Verkehrsraum
N utzraum
Rohbau
Light work; mechanical, electrical

installations and finishes
Second ceuvre
Ausbau
Client, commissioning authority
Maitre d'ouvrage
Bauherr
Master builder
architect, design consultant team
Matre d'uvre
Baubeauftragter
Contractor
Entrepreneur
Bauausfhrender
Angle of vision, visual contact
Lift, elevator,
goods-lift, freight elevator
Introduction
The relationship between the museum and architecture is an extremely complex subject which can only be considered in a relatively short essay on condition that discussion is limited to common factors and specific problems, and
at risk of misunderstandings arising from incompleteness and simplification.
Museum work embraces such a wide variety of purposes, approaches and
achievements that the common basis could only be satisfactorily defined in a
very detailed and Comprehensive survey. We shall therefore concentrate on
a few questions which are central to the problems facing museums today.
One feature of modern museum work is a pluralistic approach both to the
visitors and to the exhibits. Having traditionally sought their stay and succour
in a like environment, men and exhibits must now find their way to a new and
constantly redefined relationship with one another. The danger of exhibits
becoming mere objects unconnected with the observer, which is built into the
Western concept of museum work, must be countered by discovering a connecting link of which architecture forms part.
Another feature of museum work today is the dynamic approach. The
exhibits have not been brought together so that they can occupy a quiet little
niche in the museum for the rest of time but to begin a new life among new
companions, whether these be museum visitors or the other exhibits. Architecture must create condkions which will make it possible to overcome, or,
more precisely, sublate, the unfortunate separation of past from present, of
the living from the dead.
Both problems arise with varying degrees of intensity in all museums,
providing material for conflict and being solved with varying degrees of
success. The considerations which follow have therefore been written with
particular reference to these two features of modern museum work. Mention
may also be made here of a number of other points which will help to indicate
the scope and subject-matter of the present essay more precisely. First, the
different types of museum are not examined systematically as this was impossible within such a restricted framework: the museum is examined as a species
rather than each individual museum being taken separately. Secondly, the
special problems of open-air museums, nature reserves, historic buildings or
the reconstruction of towns were considered too complex and far-ranging to
be dealt with in this essay. Thirdly, problems of a specialized or detailed nature
are discussed only when relevant to the general concept. Lastly, special areas
such as teaching and lecture rooms, laboratories and offices, to which other
architectural criteria apply, are considered only in relation to the whole and
not discussed in detail; on the other hand, museum areas set within structures
Manfred Lehmbruck
I ?O
Introduction
mainly used for other purposes are discussed in detail, as are cultural activities
of every kind designed to further the museums work.
As regards the second element in the relationship, namely architecture, this
is here understood as comprising the creation and organization of space by
static architectural methods, and also the organization of time by the analysis
of operational sequences following a pre-arranged pattern. In other words
what we are concerned with is the identification and assessment of the different
factors affecting the buildings final appearance rather than individual plans
and solutions.
The subject-matter is therefore further restricted in the sense that we offer
no architectural typology of museums, nor do we enumerate details of construction, interior planning and furnishing or technical details unless they form
a vital part of the over-all plan. On the other hand, we do present relevant
materials and analyses concerning the basic decisions of principle that have to
be taken before a museum is built.
Both museology and architecture are highly academic subjects which nevertheless involve emotional judgements over a wide field: personality, freedom,
spontaneity and numerous other imponderables are essential components of
the general picture. But in spite of the similarity of their fundamental premises
they are substantially different and self-contained systems: transfer of knowledge from one to the other cannot be taken for granted. We have therefore
tried in this essay to take our stance neither on the one nor on the other, but
on the, as it were, neutral territory afforded by the basic general disciplines.
From here our investigations will lead us in both directions but it may sornetimes be possible to subsume them under a single head. The advantage of this
approach is that both aspects can be related to a common scientifically established denominator. Our treatment will thus be centred on the fields of sociology, psychology or physics for example, striking out from here on either side
in the direction of museology and architecture.
By briefly defining, for each field in turn, the main points at issue, the
complexity of the museological and architectural factors is made less formidable. As everything is linked together, considerations relating to particular
points have to be brought within an over-all view so as not to get out of
perspective. The dialectical polarization of attitudes inherent in any purely
theoretical discussions is avoided by seeking solutions at a practical level where
an additional dimension, the reality of time and space, can be introduced.
Study of alternatives and contrasting approaches serves to stimulate discussion
and facilitate the solution of problems connected with space.
The chapter order leads from consideration of man as an individual and as
a member of society by way of the exhibit with its physical qualities to the
building and the functional and technological laws to which it is subject. The
discussion then comes full circle with a study of aesthetics as relating to
buildings.
Our aim is to throw light on the conflicts which arise in the sphere of
museum building and to provide a basis for discussion. An account of the
problems involved is all that can be expected at this level, not a collection of
formulas for instant application.
As the visual often has a more direct impact than the verbal, a few sketches
have been included, reducing superficially complex problems to bare essentials
and providing a useful adjunct to the theories outlined in the text. Other
diagrams are intended to indicate the kind of specific situation in which the
museum architect will be faced with particular types of problem, though here
it is not possible entirely to rule out the danger of extraneous factors influencing
the decision. This consideration also led us to exclude general descriptions of
individual projects or completed buildings. Where examples are given they
have been chosen for their relevance to a particular problem rather than for
their position on a general scale of values. An effort was made to refer mainly
to museums built during the last few years.
Policy
Commissioning authority and master builder
The planning and construction of a museum, as of any other building of

public importance, is bound to take on political dimensions. The many interested parties, which each view the problem from a different angle, must be
organized and their views co-ordinated. However, as those connected with
museum work express their views on this subject in detail in the Appendixes
we shall concentrate here on the architects view of the problem in his capacity
of master builder.
First a short definition of the sense in which the very broad term architect
is to be used in this essay may be in order. It may be used to refer to an individual or a team, to one or more private architects or to an administrative body.
In every case it designates a viable organizational unit, known as the master
builder, capable of entering into agreements, and responsible for planning and
carrying out a specific building project. As building projects have become
more complex and wide-ranging some of the responsibilities of the architect
have developed upon new, more specialized professions, such as that of the
co-ordinator or the programmer, which are generally interposed between
the building owner and the architect or between the architect and the contractor. Some of their activities will be referred to in this essay.
There are many different schools of thought regarding the distribution of
the tasks involved in planning and building a museum, but in the main the
architect is held responsible for producing a coherent plan based on all the
Plan of relationships between the different

specialized groups in the creation of a
museum. The work of all groups up to
and including that of the planning
committee must be problem-oriented,
whereas design and construction work
should be centred on the collection.
Co-ordination between the different
stages by means of over-all supervision
or feed-back is essential.
132
2. See Appendix I, Programming and Planning the

Construction of a Museum, by Georges Henri Rivire.
Policy
different requirements, studies and views expressed. This effectively brings
him into the corridors of power. He may be only a small cog in the administrative wheel but his role can vary from that of a technical assistant carrying out
other peoples decisions to that of a personality in his own right, and a genuine
partner. Good building can only be done when there is a healthy working
relationship between building owner and architect, with the modicum of
freedom needed for give and take on both sides.
Public building authorities are often commissioned as master builder as
they have the advantage of prior information. But, as we shall see, museum
design requires particularly intensive specialized training and a special awareness
of the problems involved. If public authorities are made responsible for
museum planning these conditions must be fulfilled and complete independence guaranteed.
Although the legal relationship between the customer and the architect may
take different forms there are certain rules which should always be observed if
the relationship is to be a fruitful one. First, it is desirable that the customer
should speak with one voice, at least towards the outside, and assume his
responsibilities. Anonymous bodies with no cut-and-dried machinery for
reaching decisions have a tendency to compromise which makes it difficult to
find a satisfactory architectural solution. Secondly, the customer should have
power to push through unpopular decisions as well as justifiable demands. In
museum planning it is particularly important that the customer should be able
to stand up against entrenched positions and selfish interests. Lastly, he should
be so involved in museum planning that it no longer presents any problems to
him. However, it is always advisable to consult museologists, museum administrators, etc.
Although there is a distinction to be drawn between States where all initiative and authority stems from the centre and those where political resolves
are dependent on majority decisions, the laws of modern technology ensure
that very similar procedures are followed in museum planning and building
everywhere. The final result is bound to be affected by the extent to which
individuals, groups or larger sections of the population are consulted, although
how effective their influence will be will depend on the general level of education and public awareness. The participation of the public is particularly
valuable in the elaboration of objectives but hardly feasible when plans are
already being put into operation.
In general collaboration between all involved in the building process should
begin as -soon as possible. Apart from all the organizational and practical
reasons for taking expert knowledge into account at the appropriate stage it
should never be forgotten that the final objective is the creation of a building
of bricks and mortar. It generally falls to the architect to translate words and
theories into visual terms. It has therefore proved useful for the architect to
convert ideas into concrete plans from the beginning, thus establishing the
possibilities and limitations of the three-dimensional immediately. Otherwise
there is a danger of being saddled with verbal specifications or formulae which
give rise to seemingly unending or even insuperable difficulties.
The working party should first work out a general programme in which the
underlying objectives of the project are defined. Expert assistance should be
enlisted to establish the background of area planning, educational structures,
town planning, population structure, economic capacity, etc., against which
the museum is to be set.
Some States have had model plans drawn up at national level by bodies on
which are represented the various professional and consumer groups involved,
including not only government departments, museum directors and architects
but also a large number of official bodies and private associations as well as
independent experts. This model plan lays down guidelines regarding the
nature, scope, purpose, special features, site, etc., of existing and future
mUSeUmS.
Commissioning authority and master builder

These prescriptions and recommendations should be neither too vague nor
too detailed in order to allow the individual museum scope to express and
establish its own personality. It would doubtless be desirable in the future
to strive also for international co-ordination and establishment of a worldwide plan, but this can only be decided at the political level.
Where a model plan is available, it will be useful at the next stage, wlich
consists in drawing up a detailed programme laying down specific objectives,
determining the amount of space required and describing its characteristics.
The working party to which this task is assigned will work on the lines laid
down by the general programme and concentrate on the practical construction
problems involved. The optimum requirements laid down in the general programme will have to be adjusted in the light of practical considerations when
the various experts concerned bring their specialized knowledge and experience
to bear on the discussion. This is the only way to prevent apparently trivial
. specialist problems from being left aside at this stage only to cause serious
prejudice to the project as a whole at a later stage.
The specifications and formulae contained in the detailed programme,
although clear, should be as broad as possible to allow adequate scope for the
creativity of the architect. A programme drawn up on too narrow a basis will
increase the risk of a sterile or stereotyped design. The architect should always
assist is drawing up this programme or, if the choice of architect is to be made
on the basis of a competition, the interest of the architect eventually chosen
should be represented by the person who is to judge the competition.
The design stage follows. This is based on the detailed programme and on
all other available information, whether obtained from inside or outside the
planning machinery. The broader the analytical basis the more comprehensive
the resulting synthesis is likely to be. But as the number of possible solutions is
theoretically well-nigh unlimited, the design will ultimately depend on the
power of the individual imagination.
At the plan preparation stage the basic idea is developed, its implications
checked and the project worked out in detail as a single operation, the outstanding feature of which must be continuous contact and consultation
between all the planners and advisers involved. At the implementation stage
the architect is usually the co-ordinator as he is responsible for bringing all the
problems into a single focus. He must therefore be given the customers complete confidence and full power to make decisions if he is to be able to put the
original idea into practice. All the collaborators and advisers must be in general
agreement on this point, which is the key to all successful team-work. Only
too often a variety of influences all pulling in different directions reduces the
impact of the original scheme and spoils what was originally a good design.
It is always advisable to draw up a master plan which looks beyond current
requirements to future developments, since later extensions may be seriously
hampered or even precluded as a result of short-sighted planning.
Execution of the project itself will require the closest supervision as high
aesthetic standards are set for museums and special materials and orders are
often necessary. Subsequent alterations to the structure are very seldom
possible. For large-scale projects it is important that the building owner and
architect should follow the original concept through to its conclusion, even if
this takes a long time.
Just as continuous feedback is necessary during the planning stage, it is
advisable to refer back to the original expectations once the building is complete. After a reasonable length of time the functions of a museum should be
examined, a survey made of visitors, costs compared with original estimates
and the results of these and other surveys made available to a wide range of
interested parties. These surveys should not be restricted to objective data but
should also analyse and assess the more intangible but all the more important
sociological, psychological and aesthetic aspects of the museums work.
I33
3
MUSEUM
OF MODERN ART,New York.
Amid the agitation and tension of urban life,
the museum may be considered a haven
of tranquillity. Here, the inner courtyard.
Sculptures by Calder and Moore and
in the background one of the old
entrances to the Paris Mtropolitain. In the
background neighbouring buildings.
Architect: Philip Johnson.
I3
Siting
Study and choice of the site3
In the past the sites of museums were generally chosen with an eye to the most
impressive location, the final decision often being made by the local prince or
municipality. Today the museum has acquired a new importance in society
as the level of education has steadily increased. It can now exercise considerable
influence on the individual consciousness, provided it is given opportunity to
do so. This means, among other things, that a new approach must be adopted
to the siting of museums with a view to attracting those who unti1 now have
never stepped across their threshold.
Figure 4, General criteria to be borne in mind when choosing the site of
a museum, shows that apart from the interest of a particular subject there are
only two ways of attracting potential visitors to a museum (and here we have
in mind the individual visitor rather than groups of tourists, school outings,
etc.): by the installation of additional attractions; by the positioning and layout
of the museum (Fig. j).
We shall consider the positioning of a museum in the urban or in the rural
area from the point of view of enabling it to carry out its internal and external
functions as well as possible. After classifying the various sites which are
theoretically possible we shall set out in tabular form criteria for the choice of
a macro-site (i.e. where there is a choice between different districts, regions
or provinces) and of a micro-site (where there is a choice between different
individual sites or plots).
We shall also indicate two practical methods of quantitative assessment
that can be used for comparing different plots.
Siting of museums in urban areas

Most museums are to be found in the centre of cities. Owing to continuous
urban spread older museums which were originally built on the edge of the
town are now part of the city centre and new museums also tend to be established in central areas.
The question of siting museums in city centres must be considered in conjunction with the provision of other amenities connected with culture, education, science and economic activities with a view to enabling the museum to
influence, whether directly or indirectly, as many areas of human activity as
possible. The risk of erecting barriers, whether mental or physical, between
the museum and the population in general will then be avoided.
.A museum in a city centre, surrounded by office blocks, can hardly expect to
3. Co-author:
Ing. Bernd Rautenstrauch,
assistant to Professor Lehmbruck at the Gebaudelehre
u. Entwerfen Institute, Technische Universitt,
Brunswick.
Siting
136
4
General criteria to be borne in mind
when chosing the site of a museum.
have many visitors, as there is a mass exodus of ofice workers at j p.m. which
is in any case the time at which most museums close.
The more one-sided the activities of the city centre, the poorer the mix of
offices with living accommodation, shops and cultural activities, the more
desolate it becomes and the less justification there is for the existence of a
museum in such an area (Fig. 6).
As long as these factors are borne in mind a site in the city centre can nevertheless offer opportunities for the most varied types of communication: open
discussions, lectures in rooms attached to the museum, adult education a t
evening or day courses, further education in the museum library, music evenings, art happenings, refreshment in museum restaurants or cafs, childminding services providing painting and other classes including a carefully
planned introduction to museum facilities, together with many other arrangements for leisure activities. It should also be borne in mind that city-dwellers
avail themselves of leisure facilities offered by the city most intensively on
weekdays and then in the main in the evenings. If it is to survive the museum
must induce city-dwellers to use the whole range of its facilities. For this
purpose, a micro-siting study can be very useful in eliminating, on the basis
of a list of criteria, sites or plots which are in one way or another unsuitable.
lnternal f u n c t i o n s
External functions
Preservation of cultural
objects for future generations:
Presentation of exhibits
and relationship between them:
I.Collection
2. Research (interpretation)
3. Conservation
1. Exhibition
2. Publication
3 . Social and educational functions
Discharge o f museums functions
Proximity to university
Availability o f scientific
personnel and equipment
for discharge of
(section ot the public

which feels little inclination
t o visit museums)
[Exhibitions designed t o attract visitors
Study and choice of the site
Museums in urban areas
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
useum
Installed in a terrace house

On a town square
Next to a park
.
In a park
With a cultural centre
Museum in a city area
Museums in the countryside
1. Museum with no accessory

activities
2. Museum with facilities for
recreation and leisure activities
Museums attached
t o a particular site
I
II
J
The main categories of museum sites.
Apart from the opportunities afforded by a site in the city for communication at various levels and the advantage of being readily accessible for visits
undertaken on the spur of the moment, the structure of the city itself offers
little encouragement for the creation of leisure and recreation facilities around
a museum. Shortage of space or the high price which it commands in a city
makes it impossible except in very rare cases to allow a museum the extra space
it needs for many purposes, unless technical devices such as roof terraces or
sunken basements are used as a last resort.
Siting of museums in rural areas

Alongside the tendency to establish museums in city centres there is a trend
which could be described as back to nature. The city with its restless activity
is left behind and another type of museum emerges outside the town-often,
if a choice is available, in a scenically attractive area popular for holidays and
other leisure activities. The transfer of such an important cultural facility as a
museum leaves the town still further impoverished, and the museum itself
Siting
138
may suffer too as it risks being divorced from other cultural and educational
facilities and becoming a victim of its own splendid isolation, particularly if
the site chosen is a long way from the city. But in Europe and America at least
the advent of the motorcar has made it possible to speak of a mobile society
for which distance is of little consequence. Indeed it is often welcomed as an
excuse to drive out to the countryside at weekends. A museum in a rural area
will therefore receive most of its visitors at weekends and public holidays in
general. In addition to its traditional functions, such a museum must also
endeavour to preserve an atmosphere of informality and give the visitor a
feeling of freedom, at least from the routine and stress of everyday life. It
must offer the harassed city-dweller mental and spiritual recreation and renewal.
It could even induce the individual man-in-the-street to become a pilgrim for
the sake of art, seeking out a place where he will not be surrounded by city
traffic or need to be supplied with artificial air and light. In the countryside,
where peace and stability reign and the suns rays are not filtered through a
haze of exhaust fumes, an encounter between man and art can take place which
will enable man to rediscover his own true nature.
Modern man sees recreation as an escape or respite from the strains and
stresses of everyday life and work, a means of countering the tension they
generate by doing the opposite of what he is obliged to do in his daily round.
In short, he tends to cultivate whatever faculties and skills are furthest removed
from those he uses in his everyday environment in the course of a normal day
or year. This would all seem to indicate that some distance should separate
the museum from the town. A survey carried out in the Fedeml Republic of
Germany has shown that the average motorized city-dweller is looking for an
easily accessible area within a radius of 50 kilometres. Once this distance is
exceeded enthusiasm rapidly declines. Factors quoted as encouraging a visit
were good traffic connexions, a good road network, scenery of exceptional
beauty and recreational facilities. These factors should therefore be taken into
consideration when choosing a museum site in a rural area.
The third type of museum is one which is linked with a particular site. It may
have been built in the area in which the exhibits originated (for example on the
site of excavations) or be linked by its nature with a particular area or town
(for example a salt museum in a salt-mining area).
Valuable finds are often kept on the site of the excavations in order that
they should be made accessible to the public in their original surroundings.
The visitor will then be able to view them in their context and, by his seeing
where they originally came from or were used, his imagination will be stimulated to fill out the visual impressions he receives.
A museum linked with a particular site may be built in a locality where there
are no built-up areas nearby. This facilitates the building process as there are
no legal or technical difficulties to be overcome, though there may be some
problems connected with the preservation of nature and the landscape.
The main problem is, then, to attract visitors to such an isolated site. This
can be done: by making the museum easily accessible to traffic; by presenting
unusual exhibits; by exceptionally beautiful natural surroundings; by adjoining
facilities for recreation and leisure.
The objectives of a comparative study

0% museum sites
The founding of a new museum, like that of all major scientific or cultural
I39
establishments, calls for an appreciable outlay of funds, and the subsequent

upkeep of the museum is always a considerable burden on the public finances.
It is therefore the duty of those responsible for museums to ensure that the
smallest possible outlay of funds secures the optimum operating conditions,
which means discovering a site which meets these basic requirements.
The macro-site, that is the town or rural area in which the museum is to be
situated, should be in every respect suited for the purpose and should afford a
basis on which the museum can discharge its internal and external functions
satisfactorily.
When a new museum is to be built which is not linked by virtue of the
nature of its collections to a particular site or area a macro-siting survey
should be carried out.
Vital matters such as the powers of the local authorities should be checked
on first. It is also important to determine the financial situation of the region,
that is the revenue which it derives from rates and taxes, as the running costs
of a museum will be an extra burden on the rate and tax-payer. New roads may
have to be built and new pblic transport services arranged and thought should
also be given to the question of earmarking adjacent land for possible extension.
The cultural interests of the inhabitants of the potential macro-site and the
cultural and intellectual outlets already available to them should also be
investigated. An area which offers a wide range of facilities with secondary
schools and possibly a university forms a very favourable background for a
museum. Those attending such institutions are likely to be favourably disposed
towards museums and the universitys scientific equipment and facilities could
greatly assist the research work in which all museums engage.
The opposite approach is to establish a museum in a part of the town which
hitherto has been educationally and culturally deprived. In such cases the social
and educational role of the museum comes to the fore. Neighbourhood
museums of this kind have been founded in the United States by the Smithsonian Institution which provides the fund and the educational expertise
r e q ~ i r e d .Their
~
task is to work with and alongside the inhabitants of the
district as an integrating force, assembling a kaleidoscope of activities, enriching the cultural life of the neighbourhood and encouraging a rational use of
the leisuretime with which shorter working hours have endowed our society. 2
The museum can turn the flight from urban areas to its own advantage if it
chooses a site in the countryside, possibly connected with a recreation centre.
Another important factor is the cost of the project. The nature of the site,
in conjunction with the cost of purchasing it and of any necessary improvements to reduce existing limitations on its use, can give a rough idea of the
probable cost.
To sum up, the proposed study should seek to elucidate the following
points:
I . Decision: town or countryside.
2. Choice of basic objective: (a) to raise the cultural and educational level of
an area; (b) to be a centre for research and publication; (c) to be a centre for
leisure activities.
3. The best possible technical conditions for the work of the museum.
4. The best possible set-up within the urban or rural area.
5 . Determination of the population structure.
6. Minimum expenditure.
In comparing different sites, precise quantifiable data (type of soil, climate,
traffic, etc.) are considered together with more nebulous factors which will
also determine the future image of a museum and its ability to attract visitors.
But since the response of the visitor is determined partly by the building itself
and as neither internal organization nor the relationship established between
visitor and exhibit enters into a comparison of sites, the final result can only 4, See: John R.
and
Nighbert, The
Anacostia Neighborhood Museum, Smithsonian
be considered as a guide.
Institution, \Vashington, D.C., in: A h e w n ,
When seeking the best site it is important to examine the basic requirements VOL XXIV, NO. 2, 1972. P. 103-9.
Siting
Id0
and the different conditions separately before applying a single method of

optimization to both spheres.
Some factors, however, resist exact quantification by statistical or mathematical analysis. To take but one example, a museums decision to adopt an
educational approach to its work has an effect upon the visitor which it is
impossible to measure or even to demonstrate with any degree of certainty.
The factors which help to put a museum in the top division for productivity
are very difficult to determine and they can perhaps only be identified by
comparative analysis of existing museums-in so far as a museums output
is indeed capable of clear definition (Fig. 7).
aero-siting survey f o r 8 museum in 8118 urban area

The town in which the museum is situated must be capable of providing a
sound basis upon which the museum can carry out its activities and its inhabitants must be able to supply the necessary encouragement for its work. A
macro-survey will be needed only in the case of large museums covering more
than one region (e.g. national museums) or museums which are not tied to a
particular area (Table I).
A basic requirement is that the macro-site should have the economic and
financial resources necessary to support a museum, and the administrative
status of the town or region is also important, as it determines the speed with
which administrative decisions can be reached. The closer at hand the competent authorities are, the keener they will be to give both direct and indirect
support and to follow up matters of general concern to the museum. The
simplest way to assess an areas suitability in this respect is to take the population figures as a guide.
F I N A N C I A L CAPACITY
The cost of building a reasonably-sized museum, although often met partly

or wholly from outside the region (by the State or by a private benefactor), can
be a severe strain on a local authoritys budget. This is quite apart from the
question of running costs, among which the cost of maintenance must be
counted a permanent item of expenditure. Non-recurring expenditure involved
in road construction, and development, land purchase and the alteration or
extension of local public transport systems must also be financed.
E C O N OM Y
The economic resources of an area are directly dependent on its financial

resources, if they do not determine them. In order to finance unscheduled
purchases or research missions museums are often obliged to turn for assistance to outside organizations, the most affluent of which are obviously most
likely to be found in heavily populated industrial areas. The best guide to an
areas economic resources is the gross product per head of population.
P O P U L A T I O N S T R U CTU-RE
In the first place the age structure of the population and movement of families
in and out of the area should be thoroughly investigated. It is important to
know, for example, whether the population is composed mainly of industrial
workers, of office and administrative staff or of retired people. The level of
education as ascertained by a statistical survey of school-leavers will also be a
good guide to the possible number of visitors and careful questioning of
visitors to other museums could give an indication of the number of visits to be
expected from the different socio-occupational groups. The younger generation
141
TABLE
I . Macro-siting survey for a museum in an urban area
~~
Type of criteria
Criteria
Factors to be taken into account
General factors Administration Influence on or remoteness of the responsible

authorities, speed of
their decision-making,
ability t o take independent decisions
Characteristics of the macro-site
Population
Powers of the local
authorities
Finance
Assessment of the financia1 resources of the

town (or region) from
the point of view of
supporting the cost
of founding and
running a museum
Annual budget
Taxable capacity
Debts
Economy
Assessment of economic
resources (directly
dependent on revenue
from rates and taxes)
Average total product

per inhabitant
Population
structure
Inclination to
visit museums
Determination of social
strata (or attitude
towards museums) as
an indication of number of potential visitors
Self-employed
Academic
Office workers
Manual workers
Schoolchildren and
students
Unemployed
(housewives and
pensioners)
Age structure of
population
Tourists
Supporting
facilities
Cul ture
Assessment of cultural
facilities available in the
region; evaluation of
local authorities
willingness t o spend
money on culture
Type of facility
Number
Capacity
Frequency of cultural
events
Public expenditure on
culture per
inhabitant
Education
School visits organized

Type of institution
on a regular basis now Number of institutions
accounting for a large
Future outlook
proportion of museum
visitors, educational
institutions must be
taken into consideration
Science
Scientific institutions in
the surrounding area,
seen partly as a pool of
potential visitors and
partly as assisting the
museums research work
Type of institution
Number of institutions
Future prospects
Further scientific
centres at the planning stage
Siting
142
---I-Museum installed
Residential area
Museum next to a park
6
Siting of museums in urban areas.
7
Block diagram of micro-siting survey
operations within the context of over-all
town-planning.
Id?
(aged 16 to 3 j ) would seem to show most interest in museums, and

tourists, whether from abroad or from the home country, should not be forgotten, although their support will depend on the other attractions offered by
the surrounding area.
SUPPORTING FACILITIES
Czdtaral. These embrace theatres and concert halls and also museums, as the case
for establishing another museum in an area already well provided with such
institutions must be very carefully weighed. A museum may on the other hand
be a very welcome addition to a range of other types of cultural institution.
The seating capacity of the theatres and the frequency of performances, the
number of concerts and of performances by visiting artistesall provide numerical
data which can usefully be brought together and interpreted in this connexion.
Another important factor is per capit'z public expenditure on culture, which will
demonstrate the authorities' willingness to spend money on cultural activities.
Museum planning
Town plan
t
~
~~
General goals of museum

planning, over-all plan
for the museum
Specific aims on
the 'micro-site'
General goals of urban

or regional planning
Analysis of
--t the region
Analysis of
space
utilization
Specific aims of
+- town planning on
the 'macro-site'
Formulation of aims in local

museum planning
Formulation of aims
in local town planning
I Harmonization of the interests of the various parties involved I

Museologists
Town planners
Visitors
+
I
Preliminary selection of 'micro-sites'
1.
Evaluation of sites on basis
of various criteria
4
Comparison of sites
and recommendation
1
Review of criteria and goals-possible

modification of recommendation
Final decision
Siting
I44
Editcational. As all schools, whether primary, secondary or technical, organise

compulsory visits to museums and as young visitors form the largest proportion of those who visit museums on their own initiative, the number of schools
in the area must also be determined.
Scientijc. As almost all museums have a very active research department, a

nearby university with all its scientific equipment and facilities can be very
useful and a brisk exchange of staff and expertise may ensue. Modern research
work offers many opportunities for division of labour and particular aspects
or stages of a research project are often farmed out to different specialized
institutes. This makes for greater sophistication and refinement of research
methods. The best results are obtained when communications between the
different research institutes are good, and particularly if research programmes
can be co-ordinated. When one considers the opportunities offered by such
co-operation the advantages of siting a museum close to other scientific
establishments, such as institutes, libraries or archives centres, become obvious.
Macro-survey dos a
~ U S B in
M a
~
rural area
The competent authorities must first decide whether the museum should be
established in a rural or an urban area, basing their decision on the specific
problems involved. The two possibilities should be considered equally valid
as it is almost impossible to find a rational justification for preferring a rural to
an urban area, or vice versa. This is a case where irrational factors which cannot be assessed either on a qualitative or on a quantitative basis play a very
important part. If it is decided to establish the museum in a rural area the next
step should always be a macro-survey, which will have to be followed by a
micro-survey where alternative sites are available within the area chosen.
Goals
Criteria for
evaI u ation
Evaluation
phase
Correction phase
r-!
ICorrectionl
OP 2 by 4
and revision
of goa Is
Evaluation of site
R
Method of constructing a micro-siting

survey.
I-----
141
Study a n d choice of the site
TABLE
2. Macro-siting survey for a museum in a rural area
Type of criteria
Criteria
Factors t o be taken into account
Characteristics of the macro-site
Scenic
Adjacent t o
woods and
water
Visitors will be attracted

b y a varied landscape
containing woods and
stretches of water
Extent of adjoining
woodland and
seashore or lakeor riverside
Use of space
Uses to which the land

The site is analysed in
is or can be put
order t o establish the
different possibilities it
affords for leisure activities. Determination of
the different types of
ground cover, wooded
areas and open spaces
Relief
The suitability of an area

for leisure activities is
also related to the
irregularity of the
terrain
Differences in altitude
Climate
The effect of climatic

conditions on the
exhibits and general
assessment of the
climate from the point
of view of rest and
recreation
Atmospheric analysis
Sunshine
Temperature range
(and retentive
capacity)
Rainfall
(days per annum)
Cultural
The concentration of
tourist traffic in areas
of cultural interest
Type of cultural
attraction
Number
Distribution
Image
Number of visitors
Timing of visits
Future outlook
Leisure and
recreation
Location of main centres

for leisure and recreation in relation to the
macro-site
Type of facility
Number
Distribution
Number of visitors
Timing of visits
Future outlook
Population
centres
Location of heavily popu- Number of housing

units
lated areas or development areas
Density
Future outlook
Inhabitants
Profile of the leisure-time Number of short

and weekend activities
excursions
of the local population Distance covered
Preferred time for
excursions
Supporting
facilities
Pattern of
settlement
and future
outloolr
Siting
ASSESSMENT O F T H E S C E N I C QUALITIES O F T H E AREA
Emotional descriptions such as beautiful, interesting or wild should not be

the only criteria used to determine the attractiveness of an area. A quantitative
assessment of the areas features must also be made.
It would of course be impossible to draw up a complete inventory of the
qualities of any landscape as this would involve consideration not only of its
configuration but also of its external appearance. In order to avoid becoming
too bogged down only the most important features should be taken into
consideration at the preliminary stage (see Table 2 ) .
The areas major assets must, basically, be identified and assessed. For
example, if an area is to attract large numbers of visitors factors connected
with recreation and leisure activities will be decisive.
The extent of adjacent forests and lake- or riverside could be measured and
compared as one way of gauging the relative attractiveness of the different
areas under consideration. Another method would be to draw up and compare
schedules showing different ways in which the land is or could be used.
The impression conveyed by a landscape also depends to a large extent on
its relief.
Vegetation and relief together give a fairly clear picture of the landscape and
of its effect on visitors.
It is also important to decide whether or not the climate is suitable for a
museum. A survey of climatic factors, including atmospheric analysis, should
therefore be the next step, and areas judged unsuitable on climatic grounds
will be eliminated or special counter-measures envisaged for incorporation
in the design.
SUPPORTING FACILITIES
The area under consideration may already contain a number of centres of

interest. A distinction should however be drawn between centres of cultural
and historical interest such as castles, palaces, historic towns and villages and
centres for such activities as winter sports, sailing and swimming or fellwalking, camp sites and villages popular for holidays and weekend excursions.
Surveys conducted among museum visitors have shown that often more
than half are tourists. Museums sited in holiday areas can therefore expect
large numbers of visitors in the holiday season, if at no other time.
VISITORS
If such centres of interest are not to be found in the area the analysis of potential
visitors will have to concentrate on neighbouring towns and villages. Surveys
carried out in the Netherlands indicate that those in search of leisure at weekends are seldom prepared to travel more than 3 0 kilometres, while German
motorists will not willingly drive for over three-quarters of an hour. In view
of the unattractiyeness of public transport over short distances, private transport is generally used for short holidays and weekend excursions.
The annual holiday is of course another matter: it is almost impossible here
to set any limit on the distance people are willing to travel.
There are therefore two possibilities if a museum is to be sited in the countryside and expect a reasonable flow of visitors: (a) the edge of a large industrial
area; (b) a holiday or recreation area.
DEVELOPMENT TRENDS
Development trends for the area under consideration must be ascertained, as

rhe future growth of towns and villages will affect the accessibility of certain
areas. Plans for recreation and leisure areas must also be obtained in good time
I47
so that museum planning can be integrated with the over-all plans for the area.
In the same way plans for the development or extension of recreation areas
already in existence should also be taken into consideration.
The landscape, the distribution of visitors, the climate and development
plans are all considerations of a more general nature. But each individual
recreation area has its own peculiar qualities and attractions which will have
to be assessed by means of a micro-survey so as to determine the advantages
and disadvantages of the actual site and also the image of the immediate
surroundings (Fig. 8, Table 3).
TABLE
3. Over-all goals and criteria for the evaluation of a museum site
Goals
A Optimum conditions for carrying out

internal functions
B Optimum conditions for carrying out
external functions
C Optimum position and layout for
reaching the public
D Study of the attitude of inhabitants
towards visiting the museum
E Minimum costs of implementing the
project
Category and criteria for evaluation
I Criteria relating to the internal

activities of a museum
II Criteria relating to activities
directed towards the public
III Criteria relating to positioning
and layout
IV Criteria relating to the structure
of the population
V Criteria relating to implementation
of the project
EvaIuat ion
To determine the site of a museum,
a large number of rational and irrational

factors have to be identified, examined and taken into account. Consequently
a siting survey must be regarded as a problem of optimization rather than an
exercise in maximization (see Table 4).
Characteristics of t h e site
Site specifications must be formulated; in the ideal case these requirements will
correspond to the characteristics of the site. In other words:
I. For the optimum site there exists only one set of relationships which is the
product of the sum total of requirements for the museum under consideration.
2. These optimum requirements can now be considered in isolation from the
geographical location and expressed as an as yet unknown mathematical
function, for which the geometrical representation will be sought. What
must be found is the sum of conditions which will yield the optimum set
of relationships.
3. We cannot exclude the possibility that, in the absence of a best fit between
requirements and conditions, several sites will offer similar conditions, with
the result that several optimum sites are available. This would make it
necessary to repeat once again the optimization process under more rigorous
conditions or to draw up more detailed requirements for the site.
Since it is impossible to quantify precisely all the factors determining the
choice of a site, the optimum requirements corresponding to the goal: Where
can a museum best fulhl its task? must be formulated in more general terms.
On no account should it be expected that conditions and requirements will
match perfectly; consequently we can rule out the possibility of an absolute
Siting
148
TABLE
4.Investigation of the micro-site for a museum in relation to over-all goals
Group of criteria
Criteria
Pvailable
surface
Urban site
Space requirements, etc.
Rural site
Museum
attached t o a
particular
site
Factors to be taken into account
lestrictions Environmental Environmental conditions

dangers
must suit the nature of
on use
the collection, its
restoration and conservation
Architects specifications
Building plot
Gradient
Provision of
amenities
Constraints limiting the

provision of suitable
amenities
Existing amenities
Present use
Estimated delay for
completion of the
amenities
Restrictions on use
Environment
With scientific Relations with scientific

institutions
institutions of all kinds
(frequency, propinquity,
etc.)
Type
Capacity
Development potential
Distance by public
transport
Accessibility for
pedestrians
Influen 2 on
design
Possible u of the
Topography
environment to the
Neighbouring uses
architectural design for Agricultural factors
the arrangement of
Industrial factors
Risk of spoiling the
open spaces for the
museum
view for other
residential areas
With cultural
ins titutions
Distance (accessibility) or Number of institutions

connexion with cultural Type
institutions
Capacity
Distance
Travel time:
by public transport
on foot
Future development
Relations with such

With leisure
and
facilities
(accessibility, frequency,
recreational
etc.), maximum availfacilities
ability in the immediate
vicinity of the microsite
ment
Climate
Noise
Vibration
Atmospheric pollution
Smells
Functional and architectural constraints

Gradient
Building category
nation
Size
Shape
Building plot
Vegetation
Legal restriction on use
Building
technique
Co-ordi-
Characteristics. of the site
Influence of
nuisance
factors
Number of facilities
TYPe
Capacity
Distance
Number of visitors
Possibility of developing amenities
Effect of nuisance factors Climate

on the attractiveness of Noise
the micro-site to
Dirt
visitors
Smells
Vibration
S t u d y a n d choice
I49
of the site
Group of criteria Criteria
Factors t o be taken into account
Characteristics of the site
Factors which do not

encourage visitors,
which are unattractive
Industrial zone
Railway
Airport
Cemetery
Urban
Accessibility
situation
t o visitors
Evaluation of the microsite from the standpoint of attracting

visitors most effectively
to the museum
Street site
Park site
Pedestrian flow
Traffic flow
Neighbouring buildings
Image
Co-ordination
Relations between central

institutions of the
macro-site and the
proposed micro-site
Type
Attractiveness
Proximity t o the centre
Travel time:
by public transport
on foot
Amenities
Environment
Unfavourable
factors
With central
institutions
Catchment Boundaries
area
Present boundaries of the Hills

Rivers
potential catchment
area of the micro-site Rail connexions
Miscellaneous
Educational level of
inhabitants
Purchasing power
Number of inhabitants
Age structure
Housing density
Social stratification
Image
Cultural interests
Leisure activities
Development trends
Population
Possibility of defining a
catchment area by
analysing the popula- .
tion structure in order
to ascertain public
willingness t o visit the
museum
With
educational
institutions
Relations with schools
Type of ownership
and other educational
institutions (frequency, Capacity
Age structure
distance, etc.)
Distance from micro
site:
by public transport
on foot
Number of owners
Estimation of the time
required t o free the site Type of ownership
Present use
Natural constraints on
use
Legal constraints on
use
cost
Calculation of costs
Purchase cost
Cost of freeing the site
Cost of providing
amenities
Building costs as a
function of the specific features of the
site
Other subsequent costs
Siting
150
optimum and make do with the formula: The optimum site for a museum
may be defined as the set of relationships which, in the light of the assigned
goals, offers the closest possible match between site conditions and site requirements.
Collection of d a t a
To determine the optimum site for a museum, the largest possible amount of
relevant information is required. An effort must also be made to ensure the
closest possible correlation between long-term requirements and conditions.
For this purpose a siting survey involving investigation of the present context
is insufficient; on the basis of the present context, research must produce projections for the future.
An exhaustive siting survey implies both theoretical and practical knowledge
of development planning methods and specialized knowledge of the
different aspects of museum management. The quantitative diversity, qualitative multiplicity and vaied goals of a given type of museums activities
require the siting survey to be as rational, thorough and methodical as possible.
To determine the optimum site, factors and conditions must be compared,
with the result that in collecting data the need for both types of information
must be taken into account.
The siting survey will begin with the establishment of a vast data field.
Since the collection of data on relevant site factors may present difficulties,
systematic recourse must be had to all appropriate sources, for example,
official statistics, surveys by research institutes, communications in specialized
reviews, architectural planning and surveying departments, cultural organixations, museum associations or institutes, housing services, building regulation
offices, architects, estatk agents, municipal authorities and so on.
Bart ici patiow

For the investigation of requirements the same list can be used as that employed
by museum specialists, architects, town planners, sociologists and ordinary
users. Thus, in addition to specialists, the general public is consulted and hence
laymen participate in the decision-making process.
Participation means taking part in, rather than initiating, a process. Participation begins only when a planning process is under way and when it may
be anticipated that people will be so deeply affected by the consequences of the
process that they will take action to protect themselves against any adverse
consequences.
The meaning of participation must be to exert a moderating influence on a
process in cases where decisions have to be taken or converted into action.
The factors which determine the choice of a site are too heterogeneous to be
uniformly expressed by the same mathematical quantities.
Many factors can hardly be quantified at all, but only expressed qualitatively:
for instance, good-will, attractiveness to visitors, the quality of staff, the grace
of the architecture, that is the over-all design (on which the optimization of the
site has no influence).
It must also be borne in mind that site factors never operate in isolation but
have a combined effect, which again stands in the way of a precise mathematical quantification, particularly as there is often no logical connexion
between the various factors.
151
The fact that these quantities cannot be precisely determined might lead to
the conclusion that no scientifically indisputable solution can be found and
that the search for an optimum site should be abandoned as unattainable. A
subjective evaluation, based on no firm evidence, would take its place.
It is impossible to undertake a mathematically precise deduction on the basis
of a single scale calibrated in whole numbers. Therefore suitable auxiliary
scales must be developed, so as to arrive, by means of secondary values, at
comparable numerical material from which site decisions can nevertheless
be derived.
Methods
A siting survey method based on a points system, in which five levels (o to 4,
4 being the highest) are distinguished, has proved its worth for higher edu-
cational establishments in the Federal Republic of Germany. A higher degree

of differentiation might give an illusion of precision which cannot in fact be
attained.
Each separate characteristic of the site is classified on a five-level scale in
order to obtain comparable values for each characteristic. In view of the great
diversity of the various characteristics the process of obtaining an aggregate
value by simply adding the points together is certainly open to question, but
it does provide something to go on for evaluating the sites under consideration, particularly when the scatter is pronounced. Table j illustrates the
application of the method in four stages.
The polarity prof le

Another method, which avoids most of the difficulties attached to the first
two, uses a similar procedure which once again has as its basis a comprehensive list of characteristics comprising the absolute value of all factors (or
related characteristics) present on the site in question. These absolute numerical values can then be converted by means of a polarity profile into values
which can first be used to assess whatever characteristic is being considered but
can also be used as a basis for other calculations.
T o use this method one proceeds as follows: A pair of antitheses is postulated
for each characteristic of the site, for example:
Fuctor: Ground.
Characteristic: Firmness.
Antitheses: good-poor.
The scope of the attribute under consideration is then defined in such a way
as to ensure that the absolute value, once its position on a graduated scale has
been established, clearly reflects the importance of the characteristicin question
in relation to that of other aspects of a site. The antitheses are then entered in
the polarity profile with the negative-positive gradation leading from left
to right.
This method makes it possible to take the time factor into consideration
as well. Instead of the values merely representing the situation at a single
moment of time, a trend towards improvement of a particular aspect could be
expressed by pushing the corresponding value up the scale, while the reverse
action would be taken if a change for the worse were anticipated. However,
this expedient .should be used with great discretion and values altered only
when the changes are relatively certain to take place, for example on the basis
of traffic plans, municipal development plans, changes in population structure, etc.
TABLE
5 . Imaginary
example showing the use of a point system in assessing alternative sites for a museum
Third stage: Calculation of aggregate index for a given category

of criteria by summing the indices for the relevant groups of
criteria.
First stage: Evaluation of individual characteristics

Category of criteria: III
Group of criteria: urban situation
Characteristic: distance from city centre.
"
<
Category of criteria: I to V
points
point
o points
site
Score
2
I
Easily accessible on foot (I 5 minutes walk)

Accessible on foot (15-30 minutes walk)
Easily accessible by local transport (I I minutes drive)
Accessible by local transport (15-30 minutes drive)
Over 3 0 minutes drive
A
B
C
D
I
Second stage: Calculation of total score gained in a given group

of criteria and establishment of an order of precedence on the
basis of index figures. For comparison of the various sites on
the basis of their different qualities the points awarded in
whole numbers are converted t o index figures, the highest
score counting as 1.0 and the others expressed as fractions.
~
Site
Group of criteria : I to n
Characteristic I
Characteristic 2
Characteristic 3
Characteristic 4
2
I
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Characteristic n
Score
Index rating
J
0.45
8
0.73
of
of
of
of
criteria
criteria
criteria
criteria
7
0.63
11
1.00
3
0.27
0.70
1.00
1.00
0.80
0.72
0.45
0.74
1.00
0.78
0.11
1.00
0.44
0.g8
0.22
3.34
3.16
1.50
4
0.37
0.30
0.28
0.20
0.23
0.37
1.27
J
2.22
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Group of criteria
Sum of the indices
Ranking
Category of criteria: I to V
Group
Group
Group
Group
-.
4 points
3 points
Site
Fourth stage: Calculation of aggregate index for all categories

of criteria so as t o give a final ranking.
site
A
Category of criteria I
Category of criteria II
Category of criteria III
Category of criteria I V
Category of criteriaV
Sum of the indices
Final ranking
14.30
28.40
17.40
21.14
7.30
90.j4
34.12
24.13
15.15
18.70
6.40
78.50
17.28
22.16
12.07
14.13
4.18
69.82
7.18 22.13
25.60 33.40
14.88 12.73
22.16 24.80
8.14
7.13
77.76 100.17
4
I
This method of assessing the different sites available enables

the most suitable site t o be identified by establishing a series
of index figures after systematic comparison of the alternatives.
I t does not: permit the determination of site requirements (to be
compared with the results obtained at a later stage).

ESTABLISHMENT O F A SCALE
The absolute values obtained in this way for the different characteristics are
converted into ordinal numbers and plotted on a scale rising in whole numbers
from one to seven. Each characteristic of the site under consideration has been
given a rating which can be read off the scale of polarity as an ordinal number,
and a profile of the site in question can be obtained by joining up all the
individual points.
According to its importance, each factor has a different number of characteristics associated with it which indicate its valence within the general structure of the site. The number of characteristics associated with each factor will
also affect the results when different profiles are compared at a later stage.
The purpose of establishing a scale is to make it possible to compare the
value of the different characteristics and use them as a basis for arithmetical
calculations, for if they are left as ordinal numbers there is no way of comparing
their content.
METHOD
We shall now attempt to illustrate the method without going into the detail
involved in taking a practical example (see Table 6 and Fig. 9).
The profile makes it possible to show graphically whether or not the requirements laid down in respect of each characteristic have been met. A first approximative choice can be made on the basis of the totals, as profile X (requirements)
represents a minimum beneath which profiles A, By etc., should not drop.
Only sites for which the sum of the conditions is equal to or higher than the
sum of the requirements can be expected to be found satisfactory.
This method provides a fairly rough assessment of the site.
We do not intend to describe the general method of calculation in detail,
for all mathematicians and statisticians are familiar with it and it can be looked
up in any handbook of statistics. Graphic representation of the polarity profile
has the advantage of showing the score awarded for each characteristic in
relation to the minimum requirement.
It also makes it possible to see at a glance the general outline of the profile
of minimum requirements (profile X) in relation to the profile of conditions
(profiles A, By Cy etc.), and to contrast those areas where minimum requirements are exceeded with those where they are not met.
Concluding remarks
Once the site offering the optimum conditions has been mathematically
determined, it is time to consider whether an even closer correlation between
requirements and conditions can be attained either by dropping some of the
requirements or by scaling them down. If the survey indicates, for instance,
that a noteworthy shift away from young couples is taking place in the age
structure of the town or area, this will have repercussions on the museums
action programme. If it reveals that the building plot is of poor quality,
expensive foundations will be necessary, the high cost of which will affect other
budget lines and possibly lead to a reduction in the over-all size of the building.
Thus the whole set of site requirements must be most thoroughly checked and
if necessary revised.
In practice, the optimum museum site will always be a compromise. However many specialists are called upon, each with masses of data, factors and
determining quantities, there are too many influences and interdependences,
with the result that only those partial relationships which manifest themselves
fairly clearly can enter into the forecast.
153
Siting
114
TABLE
6. Imaginary example showing the use of a polarity profile in assessing
alternative sites for a museum. First stage: Examination and assessment of the
different characteristics of the site.
Category of criteria: III
Group of criteria: urban situation
Characteristic: Number of pedestrians passing a site in the central area of the town
from 4 to 7 p.m. Monday t o Friday
7 points
6 points
j points
4 pofnts
3 points
2 points
I point
Site
Passers-by
Score
More than 1,700 passers-by

1,300 to 1,700 passers-by
1,000 to 1,300 passers-by
750 to 1,000 passers-by
joo to 7 j o passers-by
2 5 0 to
joo passers-by
Less than zjo passers-by
400
B
600
C
1,400
900
E
600
I,jOO
Interpolation is possible but it is doubtful whether much is t o be gained by such

accuracy.
9
Imaginary example showing the use of a
polarity profile in assessing alternative sites
for a museum. (See also Table 6.)
.-.wa,
u)
Lc
.-wo
.t
u)
Maximum
vlinimum
-ow
\legative
High
Positive
> - <
jhort-term
'oor
Long-term
Good
.I-
o
2
m
L:
c)
1
2
3
4
II
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
1
2
3
1
2
III
I
n
1
2
1
2
J
n
%afile X (minimum
Profile A: conditions
at Site A
15 5
Moreover, provided one is not blinded by figures, the methods used for
site investigation allow adequate scope for intuitive judgement. Since the data
governing the choice of site cannot be fully quantified, there are consequently
no objective probabilities that expectations will be fulfilled, so that decisions
concerning sites are necessarily taken to some extent on faith. In view of the
importance of the site for the museums future, the choice made may properly
be termed a management decision. Even so, a rigorous siting survey must
always precede the decision, for a museum that is not fully self-supporting is
an institution living on charity, whic:l, once it is established, can hardly change
sites for the next fifty years.
IO
MUSEDES CIVILISATIONS
NGROAFRICAINES,
Dakar.
This museum programme, which is at
present in the project stage, was initiated
by the President of the Republic of Senegal.
The museum will be part of a cultural
complex to be constructed on a
magnificent site overlooking the sea.
Architects: Pedro Ramirez Vaquez,
Jorge Carnpuzano and Thierry Melot.
Museologist: Jean Gabus.
II
MUSEDE LHORLOGERIE,
La Chaux-deFonds.
In one of the underground rooms of this
museum of man and time, the public
watches a team of experts repairing cloclrs
and watches.
Ij7
Sociology
Social context and place of action
Sociological questions today lie at the heart of intellectual debate; they influence and modify the museums view of itself and consequently its architectural
structure.
The museum is ,particularly well suited to serve as an experimental sociological model, since it is, on the one hand, a place where individuals develop an
awareness of self and society, a feeling of togetherness, while on the other it
exerts a three-dimensional effect within a verifiable and limited framework.
It can also serve as a sociological model because in a society regulated by the
division of labour it is one of the last free spheres of existence.
Since sociology deals with all human relationships, which are almost as
difficult to grasp in their complexity as reality itself, all we can attempt to do
is to formulate a few major points sufficient to trace the outline of pragmatic
spatial models. A familiar difficulty arises here since the sociologist speaks a
generalizing analytical language while the architect speaks a pragmatic lanl
guage incorporating spatial and material images, which means that specific
scientific concepts have to be accommodated within an over-all conception
forming a representational whole.
As stated earlier, this paper will deal with the complex web of problems
surrounding the modern museum largely owing to its pluralistic nature-as
regards both the content of the collection and the sociological composition of
visitors. It stands to reason that the smaller, more homogeneous and specialized a museum is, the easier it will be to solve the problem of co-ordination,
even though it thereby loses something of its specific character.
The museums position in relation to the public can be defined as an interaction between sociological self-representation and self-realization. The
museum curator here acts as a catalyst.
He and his few fellow-workers have to cope with a phenomenon of extreme
and baffling complexity.
It is therefore desirable that, whenever a museum is built, a systematic
sociological study should be carried out, including an analysis of structures and
trends and the formulation of value systems, leading to scientifically based
forecasts. The most difficult part of this task-the preparation of pragmatic
models-can
be accomplished only by an interdisciplinary team which is
capable of evaluating accurately and sufficiently far in advance the repercussions on the spatial representation.
The starting-point will be an analysis of the circle of people participating in
the museum-event. On account of his paramount importance, the visitor will
be the main object of discussion here, museum workers, scientists and so on
Sociology
158
being mentioned only in so far as they enter into contact with the visitor, as
informants or guides for instance.
From the sociological point of view a distinction can be drawn between
actual and potential visitors. Statistics should be collected on both groups,
including demographic characteristics, origin, occupation, education and ecological data. The question of catchment area should be studied in detail, for,
unlike schools and hospitals, a museum does not cater mainly for local users
but for widely-scattered groups, including tourists merely passing through.
Equally, a museum will not have the same features in an industrial society as
in an agricultural society. If the latter is progressing towards an industrial
society, its future sociological development must be thoroughly studied.
Research into potential visitors has an important part to play whenever a
new museum is built, giving rise to theories, hypotheses and forecasts. However desirable it may be to attract the largest possible number of people (in
theory, everyone) to the museum, the task of the sociologist consists in
recognizing limits and defining the circle of people who are likely to be
involved in view of their capabilities, attitudes or geographical circumstances.
In addition to determining the sociological set-up it is also necessary to carry
out an inquiry into the needs of visitors, who could, for example, be questioned
on the following points:
I . Interests and level of awareness.
2. Premises and expectations in regard to education.
3. Personal activities and self-discovery.
4.Human relations: (a) with groups of visitors or (b) with the museum worker.
j . Emotional needs.
6. Attitude to the environment.
It is extremely dificult to make a scientific evaluation of these needs, since
surveys are highly problematical (No man can see himself objectively) (see
Cameron) and must as far as possible be worked in such a way as to transcend the
conventional museum framework and be valid irrespective of any preconceived and known models.
It is, however, possible to site museums in their present-day setting empirically or on the basis of the development of knowledge and to deduce the
sociological trend to the point where this can be expressed in the form of
theses. On the assumption that these are widely accepted, they will not be
discussed further but are merely listed as follows:
I. The museum event is no longer regarded as the antithesis of everyday life,
but is integrated in the social and urban structure. As far as possible the
dividing barriers will be broken down.
2. The areas of contact will be extended in relation to the sociological and
museum event. The extent to which they induce communication depends
on individual readiness and appreciation. They should give rise to productive rather than consumer attitudes.
3. Two-way communication should be encouraged: (a) with the content,
through an effective system based on knowledge of the psychology of perception and behaviour; (b) with other persons and groups, who participate
in an intellectual exchange via the language of the object; and (c) with the
museum worker, whose task it is to supply the key to understanding.
The main aspects of relations with the public, which will be briefly illustrated
by means of examples showing how these find concrete expressions in the
architectural environment, are accordingly as follows:
PUBLICITY
Formerly the museum was based on a belief in values, whereas todays museum
helps in the search for values. It therefore stands open and inviting to the outside world, and tries to avoid giving the visitor the impression of crossing a
threshold. This could find concrete expression in the adaptation of existing

buildings, a transparent display-case architecture or semantically symbolic
forms.
I N F O RIvI A T I O N
Formerly the museum conveyed information solely through the dumb language of the object to educated middle-class citizens prepared to receive it.
Nowadays, the unprepared visitor, who may be from any social group,
expects to be offered information which he can call upon at any time. In concrete architectural terms this may mean providing special rooms or additional
space for information purposes. In the extreme case this can develop into a
type of museum which presents information only, and is thus more concerned
with breadth than depth.
INTERPRETATION
Formerly, the visitor interpreted the object subjectively whereas nowadays the
object comes complete with interpretations ready to hand. Emphasis is placed
on the intellectualviewpoint. The problem lies in the danger of dental maspulation. The architectural expression may consist in the creation of additional
surfaces for libraries, lectures, discussions and audio-visual media.
EVALUATION AND CRITICISM
Since no universally recognized scale of values is available, it is necessary to

focus attention on certain key images, justified on technical or artistic grounds.
These images are presented for debate and judgement. The individual can
compare, evaluate and assimilate them. The conflicts which arise in the process serve to clarify matters and to prevent alienation. In architectural terms
this can find expression in the various spatial possibilities offered by an agora.
ACTIVITY
Not only should the individual abandon consumer attitudes and achieve selfrealization through action; the sociological structure of society itself should be
reinforced through communal activity.
Extra experimental rooms and technical workshops, open to the public,
help the individual to identify with his work by their specially designed spatial
qualities. They can also help to bring together the public and the artist in the
creative process.
CONTEMPLATION A N D EMOTION
Whereas in former times the content of the collection tended to be overemphasized, the tendency nowadays is to underplay it. Surveys have revealed,
however, that there is still a need for undisturbed dialogue with the object.
This need can be met by, for instance, creating a special circuit with additional
surface qualities and rest areas.
PARTICIPATION
The visitor considers that the museum is his affair and that he has a certain
right to see into its inner workings. This can be given architectural expression
by allowing the visitor a look behind the scenes, at some of the restoration
rooms, laboratories and technical installations, as is done for example at the
Capodimonte museum (overhead lighting design) (Fig. II).
The extent to which these trends can be put into practice, and the form they
will take, must be examined afresh in every case.
Ij9
Sociology
I Go
schitectaasal expression
12
The visitor-exhibit relationship seen as a

quantitative problem. The smaller the ratio
of visitors to exhibits the more opportunity
for concentration and for each individual
to enter freely into a relationship with
the exhibit.
13
Group viewing an exhibit. Close contact
with the exhibit is no longer possible
without disturbing other members of the
group. Visitors must arrange themselves
around the exhibit keeping an equal
distance from it.
14
A large number of visitors viewing an

exhibit. The quality of contact with the
exhibit decreases with each succeeding
semi-circle of viewers. The spacing of
exhibits may be determined by the
extent to which the spheres of influence
of the different exhibits tend to overlap.
We have indicated by a small selection of examples the extent to which the

architecture of the museum can give appropriate spatial expression to certain
sociological trends. Further examples of actual spatial situations will be selected
as models of sociological behaviour and examined from the point of view of
the relation between ends and means.
The point is to achieve the most harmonious balance possible, that is the
greatest possible compatibility, between the architectural environment and the
needs and tendencies of the users.
The actual construction phase brings to light the diametrically opposing
nature of sociological-psychological requirements and of scientific requirements in regard to the individual exhibit or object. The realm of sociologicalpsychological requirements is characterized by constant evolution and change.
Since man has only a limited capacity to assimilate experience in consciousness,
tensions arise in the course of time within the individual and also within
society, for instance in the form of the generation gap. This inherent plasticity
of the mental realm is fundamentally and irreconcilably opposed to the durability in the material realm stemming from the inert character of building
materials.
It is the task of the architect to take decisions which will harmonize a large
number of contradictory requirements. The sociological position of the
architect is that of a servant of society, who must know his master very
intimately in order to create a proper framework for his peculiarities and
wishes, even though unconscious and inarticulate.
The architectural consequences of the museums new open character
vis--vis society consist in: (a) a need for additional space by comparison with
museums devoted solely to objects; and (b) an open architectural structure
which can be more readily modified.
The first is a surface problem, the second a construction problem.
The areas devoted to the sociological presentation of objects can be: (a) dispersed throughout the collection; (b) set aside for subsequent use in this way
in the plans; (c) built in as special sections.
The problem consists in integrating these sections in the world of the
object without disturbing its specific laws. Divergences in space requirements
are often considerable, depending on such factors as, for instance, optical
distraction, acoustic disturbance, security measures, visiting hours, etc.
Since these special sections can be included in other types of building not
specifically of museum character, they will be discussed here only to the extent
that they compete with the world of the object by virtue of their position, the
purpose they are designed to serve or the technical equipment they necessitate.
Attention should also be drawn to the danger of allowing these sociologically oriented installations to expand to the point where they risk undermining
the original and irreplaceable justification for the museums existence as the
guardian of authentic objects.
Exhibition
D I IvI E N S I O N S
The so-called open museum has introduced new standards of presentation,

which result from the large influx and varied composition of visitors. The
consequences of this situation, whether an individual, a group or a community
takes up position in front of the original, are primarily problems of space. The
necessary space and the distance from the object increase with the number of
IGI

observers, that is the number of visitors per unit of surface area is inversely
proportional to the number of objects.
The individual observer and the small group can come as close to the original
as they wish, in order to study and experience it to the full. The sociological
pre-requisite for effective contact is a high level of culture and awareness, corresponding to an equivalent social attitude. The historical model of private
collections of works of art and curiosities shows that the objects can be crowded
closely together, since it is possible to concentrate attention on the object,
regardless of the surroundings. The psychological importance of a unique
encounter with the original is preserved. The space required can be reduced
to the objects own living space (Fig. 12).
The larger group must stand at a certain distance from the object, which
makes it more difficult to enter into possession of it. Dialogue with the object
is still possible, but has all the advantages and disadvantages of a roundtable discussion. The centre of gravity is necessarily displaced from contemplation towards information. Security measures and consequently the separation of the object from the observer assume greater importance. Viewing
space and distance from the object increase (Fig. 13).
Large groups visiting as such have no longer virtually any opportunity of
entering into close contact with the original, for the space they occupy is too
large and the restriction of movement makes observation in depth impossible.
The unique character of the encounter with the original is nevertheless still
observable, although noticeably less marked. There is a danger of superficiality
and disappointment, since each individual-of ,whom the mass is composedcame to the museum in the hope of making personal contact with the original
(Fig. 14).
This is a pressing problem wherever there are large numbers of visitors to
exhibitions or museums, in industrial countries and developing countries alike.
If this trend continues, intensive contact with the original becomes more
and more difficult or else the museum visitor is obliged to adopt an litist
behaviour. In some countries (China), experiments have been made using
excellent copies which cannot be distinguished from the original, and the
original itself is kept in store, where it benefits from optimum conservation
conditions. It is possible to regulate psychologically and physiologically the
contact with the copy substituted for the original, to dispense with security
measures and barriers, and to eliminate to a large extent the opposition between
consumption and conservation. The question whether such a solution is
acceptable is a philosophical rather than a technical one, depending on the
value which is attributed to the human observer and to the object in all its
uniqueness and on the possibility of reaching a generally binding social consensus on this matter.
This stringent yardstick can only be applied, we would recall, to precious
objects such as belonging mostly to archaeological and fine arts museums
(Fig. I/).
Another proposal must be mentioned in this connexion which has already
been made on several occasions with a view to establishing contact between a
large group of visitors and a single object. In order to obtain satisfactory
viewing, the kinetic man-object relationship is reversed. The object is presented in dynamic fashion, on a kind of podium, to visitors who remain
immobile in an auditorium. Apart from the fact that in many cases questions
of conservation may arise, mobility of the object often runs counter to the
creative intention and what we know from the psychology of perception.
This applies especially to art galleries, whereas such a formula could be considered for specimens in science and technical museums. In this case architecture ceases to act as an aid to interpretation (Fig. 16).
These considerations lead logically to the use of other communication media
such as the cinema, television, etc. It would doubtless be an advantage if the
main museums had their own television studios where informational activities
El
I,.
Division of groups among several

exhibits by means of copies. Copies
of the original can be scattered over a
large area and the relationship of a large
group to the original replaced by the
relationship of smaller groups to copies.
The opportunity for closer contact with
the exhibit must be weighed against the
fact that the exhibit in question is now
only a copy, the original of which is kept
in the museum store.
16
A way of dealing with the problem of
laige amounts of information and large
numbers of visitors. The exhibits are
brought to the visitor rather than the
visitor himself moving from one exhibit
to another. The advantages of presentation
of the exhibit with appropriate audiovisual effects must be weighed against the
need to restrict the amount of information
and the passivity of the viewer.
I-
l/
Co-ordination of exhibits and

supplementary information areas.
Parallel arrangement. The exhibits are
accompanied by information areas of
varying intensity. Exhibits are placed
along the main circuit and information
areas along a parallel circuit. If this
arrangement is readily comprehensible
to the visitor it makes for a varied and
evenly paced museum visit.
Sociology
162
could be carried on regularly with the collaboration of specialists who have

received scientific training so that their influence may be felt not only inside
but, even more, outside the museum.
As a television studio constitutes a special sector, and as its planning does
not form part of the specific functions of a museum, we shall not pursue the
matter further here.
ARTICULATION
18
The incorporation of information areas in the layout of a museum also raises

an architectural problem. The models are based on the assumption that the
layout will be determined by high aesthetic demands. If an arrangement of
objects is to be fully satisfactory as regards the psychology of perception,
much space is required, and it is therefore impossible to apply this formula
to the whole of a large museums collection. For the purpose of displaying the
exhibits the museum must be divided into areas of varying density.
Differentiated displq and interpretation areas
A number of points of special interest are thus placed along separate circuits,
to attract groups of visitors with varying tastes. Consequently the architecture
has not only to adapt to the various different spatial qualities, but also to
emphasize these differences. An effort must be made as it were to lead the
visitor on from one area to another (the pleasure of discovery must be preserved, for example), this having a direct bearing on the extent to which the
architectural structure is of the open type (see Figs. I O I and 119).
Integrated informtion areas

20
This formula is intended to ensure, in accordance with the sociological trend,

an even greater interpenetration between the visitor and the object. The
possibilities which it offers for the co-ordination of the three elements: (a) display; (b) visit circuit (in the sense of a guiding axis); and (c) information
sectors, are as follows: parallel arrangement (Fig. 17),rhythmic intercalation
(Fig. I), dispersal in relation to the exhibits (Fig. IS) and special sector-in
proximity to the exhibits (Pig. 20).
Reconcilitg the optimam m e of space with the need for information areas
2I
18
Intercalation of exhibits and information
areas. The disadvantage is uncertainty
as to whether information should precede
or follow presentation of the exhibit.
The exhibit-information axis is identical
with the main circuit. Difficulty in
understanding the arrangement of the
subject-matter may, however, oblige the
visitor to retrace his steps.
The problem raised by the increased amount of information provided must be

considered in conjunction with the need to make the most economical use of
space for technical reasons of conservation as weal as on psychological grounds.
As regards the distribution of space, there is a series of possible variants
according to whether preference is given, in the relationship between display
and information, to providing information in greater quantity or in greater
depth (Fig. 21).
PROBLEMS OF T H E RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DISPLAY
9.
Dispersal or grouping of exhibits.
Exhibits and information are not arranged
in a systematic way but information is
related to each exhibit separately. The
highway from one exhibit to the next is
clearly discernible but there are byways
through information areas as well. The
flexibility of this type of arrangement can,
however, result in visitors getting in
each others way as they follow different
itineraries.
AND INFORMATION
The spatial qualities of the information sectors differ in many ways from those
of the display sectors. When the requirements in regard to display are very
high-as in the case of archaeological and fine arts museums-the interference
caused by information media and their installation are a source of conflict.
I/erbal ilzformation. The difficulty of providing discreet but useful inscrip-
163
22
tions is a well-known problem everywhere. Inscriptions take on architectural

dimensions when they are presented in the form of large panels which serve
as a background to the object or counterbalance it. As the transition from the
visual sphere to the intellectual sphere requires a psychological effort, the eye
often sees panels from an aesthetic point of view (that is they must tone in
with the object or, where this is not possible owing to the nature of the object,
be set apart).
Three-dimem-ional models. Although these generally remain in the visual sphere

they must be clearly distinguished from the original and set apart from it.
20
Linkage and separation of display areas.

Grouping of exhibits and separation of
display and information areas. The path to
be followed by the visitor must be
clearly indicated. Under this system the
visitor is still free to decide whether or
not he wishes to inspect the information
area.
21
Isolation of information areas. An open

plan effect is created and the visitor can be
sure of not being distracted in the
information areas, but the feeling of
continuity is lost. The substantiality of the
information cubicles may indeed have an
adverse effect on appreciation of the
exhibits.
Aadio-visual media. Media such as cinema or television require physiological

and psychological adjustment (to darkness, noise, etc.) which may cause
widespread irritation in the display sector. In such cases, separation must be 22
METROPOLITAN
MUSEUM
OF ART,
achieved at the level of perception and measures taken to isolate these sectors New York. Lipchitz Exhibition.
Example of integrated audio-visual
architecturally (cubicles, etc.).
The installation of integrated information sectors may be an important factor
in architectural design, in the form of a fixed spatial element specially
equipped, or an element which may be moved around in the available space
(Figs. 22, 23).
information. Art exhibition featuring a

videotape interview with the artist. In a
glass booth set in one corner of the
room the visitor can concentrate his
attention on the audio-visual information.
The booth does not spoil the over-au
effect of the exhibition due to its
transparency.
Sociology
164
24.
ROMISCH-GERMANISCHES
MUSEUM,
Cologne.
Here the audio-visual information is
presented outside the field of vision
containing the works of art and therefore
does not interfere with it. Architect:
Heinz Rcke.
Original
Familiar
24
The form in which information is

presented must strike a balance between
originality and familiarity. It must teach
the recipient something new without being
so unfamiliar as to be incomprehensible.
Such are the basic dialectics of
communication. (From: Males, Information
Tlleoiy a n d Aesthefir Perception.)
The entrance to a museum is specially significant as a zone of sociological

contact. Since it plays an important part in providing a bridge between the
public and the collection, it should be designed as an independent but closely
integrated architectural element, drawing, from a sociological and psychological standpoint, on the fruits of experience with similar zones of contact in
central urban areas.
A museum should be so organized as to exert the greatest possible influence
on the surrounding community and at the same time afford the public the
freest possible access to it. Following on an analysis of the behavioural motivations to the community-which vary from case to case-a flow-sheet should be
drawn up indicating successive stages or levels of contact with the museum,
and this in turn will be transposed into a succession of architectural spaces.
In order to determine what this succession in space and time should be, we
can turn first to psychology, which tells us that innovation should be accompanied by what is already familiar, that is assimilation is made easier by a blend
of old and new (Fig. 24).
In this context the three most important stages are:
I. Enhancing the vicinity of the museum by providing appropriate additional
amenities such as shopping malls, recreational facilities and places for people
to meet (not necessarily designed as a single sociological structure but in
keeping with the environment).
2. Exploiting these amenities on behalf of the museum by using psycholo-
1%
gically-based techniques to gain wide publicity for, and interest in, the
services of the museum (transparency, action programmes aimed at the
public).
3. Psychological preparation by abolishing distance and gradually changing
the layout into harmonious space (Fig. 21).
In country districts (for example, for site museums), the town-planning
approach is replaced by contact with nature, which may have the opposite
psychological effect. Peace and solitude make the museum more attractive; in
other words, the same stages hold good, but in the reverse order.
The way in which not only the immediate vicinity but also the museum
building itself is presented to the psychological perception of the visitor acts
as publicity in spreading information about the works in the collection and
making it widely known to the community. Thus a show window for a temporary exhibition epitomizes the principle of the open museum; on the other
Sorting principle
Collection on show
Study collection
Storehouse
Object
Information
Contemplation
Third transition zone
Museum
/1 Sorting principle
Temporary exhibition
Special visitors
Action
Administration
Educational material
Conferences
Second transition zone
Action
Wall surfaces (do-it-yourself
crayons and paints)
Conversation corners
Day nursery
Painting school
Loop
Administration
Restaurant
Seated groups
Reception
Information
Sale of tickets
First transition zone

Outside advertisement
Films
Sculptures
Liaison with other

cultural institutions
Meeting-point
News-stand
Seated groups
Play area
Open area or green space

for leisure activity
Access to the park

Shops
Offices
Main street or square
Signs and direction

indicators (in town)
Posters
Sculptures
Il
Activities corresponding
to the environment
Surface of contact
with town life
Influence extended on
wider urban area
2J.
Diagram showing the possibilities of

integrating a museum in a town. Strategy
for introducing visitor to museum.
I 66
26.
VICTORIA
ARTSCENTRE,Melbourne.
The plain faade, set behind a moat
which adds greater mystery, osers no clue
as to the museums contents and arouses
curiosity. The opening of the entrance
and the single bridge over the moat create
a suggestive effect. Architects: Roy
Grounds and Alan B. Nelson.
L/
REUCHLINHAUS,
Pforzheim.
The entrance and approaches to the
museum complex, which consists of a
number of separate buildings, are designed
to attract the visitor. Note the use of a
variety of materials connected with the
museums contents. Architect: Manfred
Lehmbruck.
Sociology
167
hand, a treasure-house locked up on all sides can also be made to tell a story,
provided it is in keeping with its contents.
The use of materials, the choice of proportions and the juxtaposition of
configurations can convey messages which are perceived subliminally and
evoke associations with the contents of the museum, before one ever enters
it (Figs. 26, 27).
The same process is repeated in the entrance hall, with a wider range of
indications as to what is on show. Here a system of signs such as the display
of typical works, which convey visual information, is preferable to the use of
written panels or texts (Fig. 28).
Special areas
The new trend towards opening up museums vis--vis society is aimed at the
integration of the greatest possible number of activities. But its translation
into terms of architecture produces divergent requirements, which may give
trouble both as regards the space devoted to such activities themselves, and
more specially as regards the relationship between it and the space needed for
display purposes. In most cases -it has proved necessary to adjoin or append
these zones for conservation, study, etc., as special areas so as to ensure that
they are fully designed to meet their purpose (as regards acoustics, technical
equipment, etc.). Frequently too they are so organized as to have a life of their
own (use for several purposes, at different times, etc.), which makes independent access desirable.
It is symptomatic of open museums that such areas-which might be described as parasitic from the point of view of the museum as purely a place for
exhibits-tend to keep on growing. They have however proved to be of great
importance in making museums come alive, provided that their relationship
with the display area remains perfectly clear. Their purpose is to process7the
contents of the collection, in the widest sense of the term, and above all to
experiment with the resulting artistic, scientific or technical possibilities. And
it is not conducive to this purpose if they are used for activities that are no
longer related to the collection itself. For this reason it is desirable that visitors
should be able to move freely around them; easily handled mobile partitions
should be used which can be assembled or dismantled as necessary. A feature
of the architecture of these special areas will be its adaptability.
TEMPORARY E X H I B I T I O N S
Each temporary exhibition forms part of a series of widely differing events,

calling for rapid improvization and the possible use of all available facilities.
The diversity is such that there can be no question of providing different areas
for each event; the only possible solution lies in the direction of maximum
flexibility. The architect must thus give way to the civil engineer. We are no
longer dealing so much with a museum as with a trade fair or exhibition
building, with related but specific requirements such as neutral spaces, areas
clear of pillars, a modular system for the fixed and variable parts, and elements
which can be assembled-all commonplace features of contemporary building
practice.
The dif3culty is that for philosophical and psychological reasons, the museum
must remain as far as possible in natural surroundings. This means that daylight should also be used flexibly, hence it should ideally be admitted from all
sides under the best possible conditions. The necessary regulating and protective devices, such as slatted blinds and variable elements, together with
air-conditioning, are typical of the architecture of temporary exhibitions and
distinguish it from that of theatres or department stores, with their artificial
light and ventilation-which are relatively easier to provide.
A
28
A series of attractive vistas in the entrance
hall. Simplified ground-plan. From the
hall one can see objects represent2tive of
each section.
Sociology
I68
Thus the museum type of flexible architecture represents a particular form

which requires a certain financial outlay, but one which can be fully justified
by the philosophy of the museum. Its architectural value can be measured by
the extent to which it succeeds in incorporating the great quantity of technical
equipment required without obtruding on the visitors psychological perception or competing with the exhibits.
For these reasons temporary exhibitions tend to adopt the principle of free
arrangement in three-dimensional space, and are exceptionally well suited to
serve as a show window opening onto the outside world (Fig. 29).
AREAS F O R COMMUNICATION A N D ACTION
These areas are designed to free the visitor from a passive consumer role and
encourage creative action. It is here also that a deliberate attempt is made to
come to terms with the conflict inherent in communication. These areas should
enable the visitor to experience this conflict and formulate it.
A salient feature of the architecture is its absence of order, which should
break down inhibitions and stimuIate participation.
A special problem is that of artists studios (Fig. 14j).
In practice, the architecture is much the same as for temporary exhibitions,
but less attention is paid to the requirements of aesthetic perception and more
to the solidity of the construction. Communication is not only visual but also
acoustic and haptic. Sociological surveys and forecasts suggest that the overall flexibility of a large area can be replaced by a series of different types of
spaces leading into each other (big-small, light-dark, angular-round, etc.).
These can be used to serve the purpose of studios, stages, play areas or amateur
workshops, as required.
The criterion is the wide range of possibilities and easy adaptability. Depending on the type of museum, technical equipment will be needed approximating
in part to that found in a television studio (for example a battery of projectors),
in part to that associated with a workshop (a travelling crane, running water,
etc.). A comparison can also be made with a modern experimental theatre,
where the actors intermingle with the audience. Daylight is desirable, less for
aesthetic than for practical reasons; also access to a workshop.
The plans for communication and action areas (as also for temporary
exhibitions) should take into account the need for suitable backstage premises and large store-rooms, which should be located as near as possible to
the scene of action.
Access should also be provided for delivery vans.
Experience has shown the value of separate work-rooms and rooms for
painting, for both adults and children, in this category of premises. Rooms
for conducting experiments are specially worthwhile in technical museums.
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH
While the special areas set aside for communication are oriented towards the
sphere of action and emotion, those designed for education place the emphasis
on analysis and reasoning. The individual contents of the museum are approached scientifically and transposed into other media (writing, slides, sound);
for instance with an art gallery, vision becomes thought. There is a social
obligation to make accessible to the widest possible public the educational
potentialities which each exhibit possesses, both as a process and as a result.
This determines the location of the education area in the over-all plan, which
should also take account of the various groups of users:
I . Everyday visitors: easy access (lecture and reading rooms).
2. Special visitors, such as schoolchildren, students and research workers:
special classrooms should be provided where possible, with easy access from
the official entrance.
Social context and d a c e of action
I Gc,
29
3. Outside visitors for activities external to the museum (publicity value). In

this case a special entrance is desirable.
The spatial requirements are appreciably different from those of the areas set
apart for exhibits and action, being primarily peace and quiet, with little need
for flexibility (as much as in an office building):
The lecture room is designed in the light of its special functional requirements,
with stepped rows of seats, a projection booth, etc. Putting it to several
different uses gives rise to technical difficulties and is rarely satisfactory.
As it is much in demand for congresses and school activities, daylight is
desirable, in addition to essential lighting and ventilation installations.
The library and reading room are needed equally by the public and research
workers, and this determines their accessibility.
Classrooms and study rooms should not be designed solely with teaching
requirements in mind, but should also be fitted up with some degree of
comfort, so that those who spend some time in the museum may find it an
agreeable experience. For schoolchildren, this will be fundamental for their
subsequent identification with the museum.
The research premises and laboratories are variously designed and equipped
for each individual programme.
The research museum can be defined typologically by the high proportion of
ofices and laboratories. When the great bulk of its work is research, it loses
some of the specific features of a museum, and at the same time has fewer
multipurpose areas of sociological ~ o n t a c t . ~
There is a tendency to make the research function independent, and to regard
the museum as a collection of materials belonging to an educational institution.
WILIXELM
LEHMBRUCK
MUSEUM,
Duisburg.
Temporary exhibition used as a shop
window at the museum entrance (right).
As they approach, visitors have further
views of the sculpture section and a
glimpse of the sculpture courtyard.
Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.
ScbooI and zmversity ?nuseutns

Without going into a detailed study of the problem, it should be noted that in
these cases the museum loses much of its general multipurpose character, and
thus falls outside the scope of this paper. Sociologically speaking it ceases to
be an open museum, and runs the risk of becoming a special museum for an
lite public.
5 . See Appendix IV, page 277.
Sociology
170
Furthermore, as far as architecture is concerned, classrooms and research

premises come within the category of educational buildings, and are subject to
their special requirements.
n-
30
FORESTRY
MUSEUM,
Gvle (Sweden).
The restaurant area is in a central position.
It may be used as a meeting-place, a
recreation area within the museum or an
external area. There are several points of
contact with the circuit of the display
area. Access is therefore easy and a
variety of possibilities offered. Close
dependence on the museums activity.
Underground plan: I. Exhibition area;
2. Cafeteria; 3 . Reserves; 4. Store-rooms;
j. Corridor; 6. Cloakroom; 7. Unloading
area; 8. Laboratory; 9. Workshops;
IO. Archives; I I . Offices. Architects:
Sven H.Wraner, Erik Herlw and
Tormod Olesen.
The sociological effectiveness of the museum depends on its attractiveness,

that is to a great extent on the well-being of the individual visitor, which can
only be achieved if his physical and mental characteristics are together taken
into account. Hence the museum should physiologically perform the task of
catering for the visitors needs, and psychologically extend him an invitation
to linger and enjoy himself. The fact of finding himself at home in familiar
everyday surroundings helps him to assimilate the novelty of what he encounters there (Fig. p i ( b ) ) .
Thus a blend of private and public should be offered, a place where the
visitor forgets both the ego-relationship (of the home) and the feeling of being
lost (of the agora), and is transported to a psychological equilibrium which
enables him to enter into contact with people and objects.
In specific architectural terms, these functions may be performed by: rest
rooms for brief relaxation within the display area (see chapter on physiology),
refreshment areas (a cafeteria, restaurant, etc.). As the architecture of refreshment areas is not specific to museums, we shall here refer oniy to their location
within the museum complex:
I. In the centre of the collection. Here the advantage is that they can be reached
quickly from any point of the museum circuit; the drawback is that they are
closed in on themselves and do not take the visitor out of the museum
atmosphere. In addition, problems of conservation may arise in the case
of fragile exhibits (Fig. 30).
2. At the entrance. Here the advantage is that these areas constitute an added
attraction and create a lively, sociologically diversified atmosphere; the drawback is that usually they can only be visited at the beginning or end of the
tour. The question of access facilities is thus particularly important: whether
these areas should open only on to the outside, for the general public, or be
accessible only from the museum visiting area. The optimum solution is
undoubtedly to provide dual access from both the outside and the inside,
but special attention may then have to be paid to the checking of tickets
(Fig. 344).
It should be possible for tradesmen to have access to the kitchen premises
without going through the museum.
The lofty tone of museums and their disregard of relations with other spheres
of life in the first half of this century made it difficult to extend their action on
the sociological plane. The trend today is to discard the functional separation
typical of the past and to create the largest possible number of surfaces of
contact with other fields. As the points of contact with other cultural institutions are specially numerous, it is a short step to the idea of bringing people
together in a (cultural centre. This somewhat ill-formulated but by now wellrecognized concept should be defined and delimited in this context, as a form
of collaboration on an equal footing between different cultural activities, in
which each activity is represented over its full range, not merely associated
incidentally with another range of functions (for example a small exhibition
in the foyer of a theatre). It thus entails the interpretation of spheres of culture
such as: (a) education, libraries, archives; (b) theatre, cinema, music; and
(c) museums and the visual arts, with their numerous related fields.
171
31
LOUISIANA
MUSEUM
OF FINEARTS
(Denmark).
(a) The restaurant is situated at the end of a
linear circuit and commands a fine view.
Communication with a reading-room
heated by an open fire makes for a
relaxed atmosphere; rest, reflection or
discussion will form the conclusion to the
museum visit. Ground-floor plan:
I. Entrance from pre-existing house;
2. Connecting corridors (side-lit); 3. Twostorey high gallery; 4.Lantern-lit galleries;
5 . Kitchen; 6. Library; 7. Cafeteria; 8. Sea.
(b) The glass wall eliminates any sense of
separation between the tree outside and the
visitor inside. Children enjoy an
enriching game as they discover the work
of art (Tingndy exhibition). Architects:
Jrgen Boe and Vilhelm Wohlert.
Sociology
172
A distinction should be drawn between organizational and inteuectual

problems. The organizational and functional advantages are numerous: a
common reception point with a large contact area, use of the parking area, a
multifunctional entrance hall with a variety of facilities (serving at the same
time as a foyer), grouped areas for relaxation, catering facilities, conference
rooms and action areas, ofkes, store-rooms, studios, etc. Care will have to be
taken to ensure that the right balance is struck between communal and independent facilities: particular attention should be paid to the arranging of timetables (day and evening use).
From the intellectual point of view there are also many advantages. Integration provides both a stimulus and additional possibilities. Understanding can
be developed and extended through the interpretation of other realms of perception. The differing conditions under which the various activities are carried
on do however give rise to problems which call for adjustment of the sensory
faculties and maycause disturbances, such as noise and other transient factors
which drown the silent language of the exhibits, or an undesirable coming
and going, etc. From the sociological point of view the accumulation of contacts makes it possible to reach many different groups and interests, but there
is also the danger that too close an integration of different cultural spheres
may frighten away those who are interested in one sphere alone (Fig. 32).
It will thus be for the architect to find a balanced solution to these problems,
along the following lines:
An advantage of the cultural centre is that cultural activities are given a definite
and identifiable setting in the context of the town. The visitor should be
made fully aware of this by the location and design of the buildings.
The degree of independence of the different sectors and their special connexion
with each other must be worked out in each individual case.
The specific requirements of scientific, visual, acoustic and verbal activities
must be taken into account and integrated with the architecture.
Provision must be made for an adequate number of transition zones, with
lock chambers permitting physiological and psychological adjustment.
The plan should provide for flexible zones which allow free passage from one
sector to another, though it must be possible to shut them off hermetically
when necessary.
On account of the complex organization involved (control of visitors) it is
recommended for all activities that on stage and backstage activities
should be clearly separated.
To be successful a cultural centre should therefore leave room for both the
selective differentiation and the integration of activities.
Three models may be envisaged:
I. A system of pavilions. A loose grouping of sectors with the dimensions,
independence and potentialities of an identifiable single-function style of
architecture. Each pavilion can be extended irrespective of the others.
Spatial and functional integration is however practically impossible on
account of the distances involved (Figs. 32,33).
2 . A system of pavilions with a central entrance hall. A central grouping of
largely independent, architecturally identifiable sectors with flexible arrangements for close inter-sector contacts via intermediate zones and limited
possibilities of extension (Fig. 34(a), (b)).
3. A single block building. Limited independence of the different sectors, nonoptimal functional design (public sector), sectors identifiable only by the
interior architecture. The maximum amount of contact surfaces and
flexibility (the type of the information museum) (Fig. 3 ~ ) .
BnvoBvemewt w i t h the surrounding area

As already noted more than once, the museums new open stance vis--vis
society leads naturally to the so-called open museum, and an open-plan
173
32
NICOSIACULTURAL
CENTRE
(Cyprus).
Different cultural activities gradually
merge in a carefully structured central
contact area. Simplified ground-plan.
Theatre
I
Activity
Information
1 I I11
Publicity
33
NICOSIACULTURAL
CENTRE
(Cyprus).
Pavilion system with central entrance hall..
I. Entrance court; 2. Library; 3. Open-air
exhibition and performing arts;
4. Exhibition gallery; 5 . Theatre. Architect:
Manfred Lehmbruck.
Sociology
I74
34(a)
34(a), ( 6 )
Loose grouping of buildings devoted to
various cultural activities: I. Information:

2. Opera house; 3 . Opera studio;
4.Exhibitions; 5 . Museum; .6. Art gallery;
7. Garden restaurant; 8. Restaurant;
9. Parking. Model of a cultural centre in
Cairo. Architect: Fritz Bornemann.
JI
CENTRE
GEORGES-POMPIDOU,
Paris.
Compact system. Model. Architects:
Piano & Rogers; Ove Arup & Partners.
175
architectural structure. As an initial hypothesis it can be assumed that bringing

action areas geographically closer together (or merging them) and breaking
down spatial barriers are conducive to social contacts and facilitate the
psychological approach to exhibits. This is so only up to a certain point,
however, since complete openness is bound up with a loss of definition. This in
its turn results in a levelling of scales of value, which may lead to the museums
losing some of its drawing power. It is a question of proportion.
Even if openness is a relative concept, it is still at the present time the
justified aim of sociological analysis to sublate distance intellectually and
spatially (bring down what is too high) and integrate the museum in the
structure of the town.
Three models are suggested:
I. Elements of street architecture (shops, public and private installations of
all kinds) are brought into the approaches to the museum and intermingle
with or overlay the museum building. This gives a false impression of
integration, even though the museum remains organizationally unaffected
within its own separate climate. The aim is to make people feel at ease, but
the result may be that the museum does not stand far enough back to be
noticed (Fig. 36).
2. The street passes through the museum, that is a pedestrian way (footpath, split-level passage, etc.) is cut through it, climatically apart from it,
in the hope that this wider view of what the museum has to offer will encourage the man in the street to visit it. The museum itself remains organizationally intact, but the glimpses passers-by have of it produce a psychological
effect of publicity. There is, however, a danger of internal disturbances
(Fig. 37).
3. The museum as a street: public spaces and thoroughfares pervade the
museum. The advantages of this solution are operative only if it is possible
to walk through the museum, in other words when there are several entrances
and exits. The problem is a security one, which only a few types of museums
can afford to ignore. Here audio-visual surveillance systems and electronically controlled transport facilities (e.g. to and from cloakrooms) offer
new possibilities, though their practical implementation still calls for critical
study. A further matter calling for consideration is whether: (a) visitors and
exhibits can do without air-conditioning; (b) exhibits can be adequately
protected by individual localized air-conditioning (e.g. in showcases); or
(c) general air-conditioning is necessary. In the third case, the chambers
leading into .the air-conditioned areas again detract from the complete
openess which is aimed at (Fig. 38).
T
IL
INTEGRATION I N THE STRUCTURE O F THE TOWN

(PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE)
The museum ceases to be a separate building which is more or less on its own,
and becomes an urban area among others, without any special town-planning
emphasis. Any particularly frequented part of the town structure is used
temporarily or permanently for the purposes of a museum, and can be changed
at will. Public transport services come right into the district in question, which
is identified by flexible architectural furnishings. Conservation problems are
similar to those in 3 above, though even greater. If carried to the extreme, this
conception necessitates either a very effective system of surveillance and conservation, or a social order which has abolished material values. How far either
of these is desirable is a philosophical question.
This prospect is however typical of present trends, and indicates the line
of demarcation between intellectual discourse and architectural achievement
(Figs 39, fol 4).
r1
0.aw.e
37
36
Combination with other buildings.
Possibilities for integration in the urban
scene. External surfaces may be overlaid
with shops or similar urban enterprises and
windows set in external walls on the
shop-window principle.
37
A pedestrian way or bridge through the
museum gives the public a visual
impression of the museums attractions
and method of presentation. Problems
involved are the positioning of the only
entrance and the co-ordination of museum
areas located on different levels.
38
Extension of public thoroughfares into the
museum implies long opening hours.
Security is a problem which can,
however, be overcome technically,
perhaps by taking measures to protect
each object individually. The provision of
cloakroom facilities is another problem
which can only be satisfactorily dealt
with by installing automatic transport
systems.
Sociology
176
39
Integration in, the urban environment in a
large modern city. As a general rule
motor transport is allowed to run alongside
the museum. Pedestrian ways can be
integrated into the museum. Entrances
will be positioned to exploit the
possibilities of external features such as
underground stations, squares and
footpaths. On a large site individual
town-planning features can be amalgamated
in the internal connexions. The museum
complex can be integrated into the urban
scene, provided that its architecture is in
keeping with the character of the town.
40
HISTORY
MUSEUM,
Amsterdam.
A new street has been given a glass
roof and heating system and can thu s form
parr of the museum as well as being a
public thoroughfare.
Road
Street reserved for pedestrians
I77
4'
ECOMUSEUM
OF THE URBAN
COMMUNITY
OF LE CREUSOT-MONTCEAU-LES-MINES.
The fragmented museum covers an entire
region. It inspires various activities in
different places, for example: St Sernindu-Bois, 1974-75, field trip; The Forest;
Couches, summer I 972, exhibition-inquiry
Folk A r t and Traditions; and summer 1973,
exhibition-inquiry The T 4 z e and the IVine;
Le Creusot, February-May 1973.
Companions in Bnrgz& and Work and
Invention; June-November 1973, The Tree,
from Prehistoric Tinies t o the Present;
November 1973-February 1974, Fossilsfi-om
the Blanqy Coal Basin; December 1973March I 974, The Factory, Work and
Architectnre; January-February I 974,
Mexican Folk A r t ; April-May 1974,
Le Corbzisier; summer I 974, The Dogons,
opening of the evolutive exhibition The
Space of the Urban Comnzmity throtgh the
Ages; first stage of the adult education
programme on housing Luing in Le Crensot
in 1974;conservation and development
of one of the large industrial markets
and of the crane and engine construction
shop at Creusot-Loire; and 1975, Children
and Images; Le Breuil, 1975, Restoration of the
Traditional Home; Montcenis, summer 1973,
exhibition-inquiry From Bailliage t o Chief
Coztnt/y Town; Ecuisses, 1974-7 5 , field trip
The Canah Les Bizots, summer 1974,
Donzestc Animals and their Wild Coil"%
paris; etc.
42
However many great works there are

to be seen, and however splendid the
presentation, the visitor may still feel his
attention and his curiosity waning, and may
eventually begin to suffer from what
the museologists call visitor fatigue.
I79
Physiology
Factors affecting the visitor
When someone visits a museum, there is tension between the two poles
formed by human nature and the object. While conservation is based on the
creation and stabilization of a state, physiology is aimed at the activation and
variability of life. Nevertheless, since conservation and physiology both raise
unconditional demands, a relationship must be established between them.
Physiology and psychology are closely linked and function according to the
principle of biological balance, manifest in rhythmical wave movements. As
an exact science, physiology comes within the sphere of what is measurable,
whereas psychology leaves greater room for interpretation. For this reason,
despite their close interdependence, they must be considered separately.
The point of departure is the physiological constitution of the visitor which,
in accordance with the pluralistic tendency, may and must show extraordinary
hversity in respect of age, race, sex, state of health (motor handicapped, blind,
tc.). However, the bodily functions of all human beings have a relatively
small margin of fluctuation, if one considers factors such as temperature or
humidity, which may serve as a basis for planning. Differences in capability
and temperament from one group of people to another must also be taken
into account. We shall therefore limit our discussion here to general criteria
based n the hypotlieses of occupational psychology.
Difference between suitable conditions for visitors

and for objects
The museum demands a high level of concentration and sensitivity which
implies optimum conditions. Psychosomatic factors can only come into play
once 'the body is forgotten'. The stimulus afforded by the heightening of the
awareness and the emotions in a museum exercises a basically vitalizing effect,
but this is often outweighed by physiological phenomena. The latter must
therefore be compensated by an above-average degree of comfort (Fig. 42).
This is where the conflict between the object and the visitor may be seen
most clearly, for other demands for comfort, which the curator must define
with the greatest precision, may be formulated in connexion with the object.
This incompatibility may be more or less pronounced depending on the
ideology of the museum, but it is always present in a latent state. The function
of museum architecture is to help to find a solution through spatial differentiation. Both the visitor and the curator must understand fully that this can only
be a compromise within a certain margin of tolerance.
AIR-CONDITIONING
As geographical and demographic differences are considerable, it is impossible to establish an abstract and generally valid definition of optimum conditions. But the fact that the vasomotor regulation of the human body only
Physiology
I 80
Protective outer covering-humidity/erosion

Ventilation-humidity/heat
I nsulation-heat/oold
Wood covering
Temperature gauge and
air-conditioning control
Hygroscopic balance maintained
by wood covering
43
Multilayer wall with automatic air
conditioning.
External rot-protection
from natural climatic
factors
Internal rot-artificially
controlled atmosphere
covers a range of 2-3' C shows the difficulty of the task. Above this zone of
comfort, the excessive warmth provokes lassitude, and below it the cold
reduces the powers of concentration. Moreover, the appropriate relationship
must be maintained with the hygrometric level which differs according to
climatic area, season, etc. In a museum, special attention should also be given
to the relationship between light and temperature.
The temperature gradient between the outside walls and the centre of the
museum is especially important because fragile objects (paintings, etc.) may be
exhibited on the outside walls. As there is generally a difference in temperature
between the rooms and the connecting partitions, the same room may have a
different value for the object and for the visitor. Differences in temperature due
to radiance (heat or cold) should not exceed 2-3 O C. It is recommended that
outside walls should be of multilayer design (Fig. 43).
Moreover, the renewal of air by the induction of sufficient fresh air and
humidity, which is essential to the human being, is often contrary to conservation requirements. Just as the intensity of the lighting and the number of
lux are constantly increasing, there is a tendency in industrialized countries
for the temperature regarded as comfortable to become steadily higher. The
gap between the ambient conditions for the object and for man is constantly
widening.
These few examples are not exhaustive and are only mentioned to give an
idea of the problem.
Effort required f o r the visit

A number of attempts have been made to measure the effort which the
visitor may reasonably be expected to make (total length and duration of the
visit, distance covered per hour). This relationship between distance and time,
based on the study of the place in which the effort is made, cannot be used to
establish the general dimensions of exhibition surfaces in a museum, since the
diversity of the content of collections makes generalization impossible. According to circumstances it is less tiring to cover 3 kilometres in one hour, at a
brisk walk, while visiting an exhibition of sculpture in a park, than to spend
half an hour visiting an exhibition of jewellery which extends over 3 0 metres
and where the visitor is standing still most of the time. The programming of
exhibition buildings would certainly be facilitated if absolute figures could be
181
estimated for optimum surface and duration of visit, but this method is impossible to put into practice and must be replaced, for each case, by a calculation
of empirical values. The principle of a straight line being the shortest distance
between two points cannot be applied in a museum; on the other hand, the
waste of energy represented by having to go back over ones tracks is perceived more or less consciously and is therefore indefensible.
Man does not move continuously like a machine, but with interruptions
which follow a biological rhythm. Long distances in straight lines or in a circle
(regular spirals for example) should therefore be avoided. The standard circuit
demands a sustained effort which makes the visitor less willing to react. Consequently, the architecture should not only offer visual diversity, but should
suggest a rhythmic variation of movement, such as slow and fast walking,
sitting down and, if possible, also lying.
It is doubtful whether the radical proposal involving kinetic presentation of
the object to the visitor who remains immobile6 would bring any real physiological relief. The success of this formula will depend-among many other
factors-on the question of whether the visitor requires movement or rest as
a contrast from normal fatigue.
Vertical movement between two or three floors should present no problem
for visitors in good health. The architectural solution to this problem is,
however, important. It is a demonstrable physiological fact that psychic
stimulation, the cpromisey,reduces the subjective expense of physical energy;
in other words fatigue depends on motivation. A move to another floor
should therefore always take place in stages and a glance at the next floor should
convince the visitor that it is worth the effort. In museums with two or three
floors it is impossible to prove that lifts-which are necessary for other reasons
-increase the normal visitors physiological capacity for assimilation. In the
display area there should be the same effort to consider the visitors needs for
vertical movement as in regard to horizontal movement. Ramps provide
favourable conditions in this respect, but their slope should not exceed 6 per
cent, in other words they will, seem intolerably long unless broken by exhibits.
Visual stimuli
DAYLIGHT
In a museum it is the organ of sight which plays the determining role. Through
the epiphysis, visual stimuli exert a deep influence on the vegetative visual
system and consequently on the over-all efficiency and general state. In terms
of museum architecture, this means that the lighting of the exhibition influences
the visitors readiness to react and may induce activity or fatigue. Although the
eye has an extraordinary faculty for adjustment, it has been shown that a
rough adjustment from brightness to darkness requires only five minutes,
whereas complete adjustment requires about one hour. This may be taken as
proof of the fact that the physiological effects-intense and rapidly varying
luminous contrasts for example-are very persisent and soon provoke ocular
or nervous fatigue. We shall now examine a few of the innumerable problems
of daylight in museums.
The eye is capable of seeing clearly and selectively in lighting ranging from
a few lux to over IOO,OOO lux. Luminosity is as important here as intensity.
A conflict arises because, on the one hand, a relatively strong light intensity is
desirable in order to bring the exhibits to life but, on the other hand, the eyes
sensitivity increases rapidly if the intensity of the lighting is reduced. The
luminous interpretation must therefore be chosen in terms of the contents of
the collection (leaving conservation requirements out of account). The level
of general lighting must be such as to avoid excessive contrasts: balance does
not necessarily mean a levelling out but rather a rhythmic modulation avoiding
6. See the chapter on sociology.
Physiology
I82
44
The principle of an entrance-hall air-lock.
Simplified cross-section.
'
Collection
Entrance hall with air-lock
Air trap
Moving door-mat
extremes. The stronger the light intensity, the better the object will stand out.
In the cases where there is a sharp increase OL decrease in lighting, an intermediate adjustment (or transition) zone should be provided so as to enable the
visitor to become accustomed to the new level of illumination as it were in
two stages (Fig. 44).
For physiological reasons preference must be given to daylight wherever
conservation requirements aIIow this (for sculptures for example). In most
cases, however, a device should be interposed so as to subdue the light (e.g.
screens). The question of whether diffused light or moving projected shadows
are acceptable will depend on the aim of the presentation.
Similarly, the direction of the light should be determined first by the object.
Areas of light coming from the side or from above blend with one another
according to the latitude and there is no longer any question of a fundamental
choice, as was the case for many decades (Fig. 41).
\I
41
Incidence of light, Vertical light is
approximately twice as bright as
horizontal light and is generally 'diffused
by means of a special covering suspended
beneath and screening the outer roof
covering. Simplified cross-section.
-=
llD
CI
Sunshade
Light which is mainly horizontal may be better controlled from the climatic
point of view if one faces away from the sun. There is a great psychological
advantage in letting the light penetrate the rooms unchanged and unhindered;
care must be taken onIy to avoid reflection from the environment (houses,
trees, etc.).
Vertical light, especially when used to illumine surfaces, must usually be
subdued by sun-blinds, and therefore only reaches the exhibition area as
diffused light. The choice is thus not merely a matter of lighting techniques
and organization, but also evinces a philosophical and aesthetic preference
for simplicity and natural affects. A combination of diffused vertical light, as
basic ambient lighting, and oblique or horizontal light in order to pinpoint the
183
object, has proved satisfactory from the physiological point of view since it is
relatively balanced.
The direction of the light has a great influence on the over-all architectural
design. If overhead lighting is chosen, the exhibition' sector can cover only
one floor. When side-lighting is chosen, the depth of the buildi7g from back
to front i s limited and if a north light is preferred it is impossible to avoid a
. stereotyped positioning of the building. From the initial stage onwards,
therefore,'it is necessary to study the content of the collection in order to
examine the various possibilities for lighting techniques.
In this respect, the angle of incidence of the light should be studied. As
a general rule: light directed along the same axis as the line of vision gives
no contrast and makes perception of space more difficult; light coming straight
from above projects heavy shadows and distorts perception; light coming
46
The angle of incidence of light must

he carefully adjusted to the relief of the
exhibit. Simplified cross-section.
obliquely from above and from the side in relation to the line of vision facilitates perception. These considerations are valid not only for three-dimensional
objects but also for paintings with a thick surface, and on them depends eyestrain or fatigue (Fig. 46).
Contrast is necessary for perceiving the environment, but in a museum it
must be subtly regulated. A study of acceptable contrasts of surface luminosity
in the field of vision could serve as a reference point:
I. All objects and surfaces of a certain size, situated in the field of vision must
as far as possible be equally luminous.
2 . In the central areas of the field of vision, the contrasts of luminosity of the
surfaces should not exceed the ratio I : 3.
3. The contrasts between the centre and the periphery of the field of vision,
or between the different parts of its periphery should not exceed the ratio
I
: 10.~
4. Contrasts are more inconvenient at the sides and bottom of the visual field
than at the top (Fig. 47).

The importance of these questions from the physiological point of view
emerges clearly in extreme cases: rapid repetition of strong contrasts and overdramatic effects induces fatigue, since it obliges the pupil to dilate and contract
continually and thus suppresses the vitalizing effect which was originally
intended; lack of contrast makes the individual less disposed to react physiologically (half-dark).
Dazzling occurs when the illuminated object is eclipsed by the presence of a
more luminous element in the field of vision. It depends on contrast. The eye
tolerates dazzling more easily in daylight than in artificial light, because the
level of lighting is higher in the first case. When it is impossible to remove the
source of dazzling, the general level of lighting must be raised. Eye-strain
through dazzling plays a fatal role in museum architecture. The necessary
47
~ ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~ ~ , c k ; I
dazzling). (From: Granjean,
P~so'ogsc~eArei~sgesta'~~~n~.)
7. cf. Grandjean, P ~ ~ i o / o ~ i rArbeilrges/a///og.

rhc
Physiology
184
48
Dazzle from an overhead screen placed
too low.
49
Dazzle from a high side-light.
JO
Shadow-free overhead lighting (favourable

lighting conditions).
49
JI
Optimum distance of viewer from object

in relation to size of object.
Factors affecting the visitors
185
steps must be taken to avoid it in the initial stage of the design. It may occur
not only in relation to the object but also in the architectural space, wherever
the field of vision presents strong contrasts (Figs. 48, 49, JO).
The optimum distance of vision in relation to the object may be measured
from the physical point of view in average values. It must be regarded as a
minimum value, and at the same time constitutes one factor in determining
the dimensions of the room, though for this purpose account must also be
taken of whether the object ought to be seen from above or from below
(sculptures, etc.) (Fig. J I ) .
Indirect lighting is provided via surfaces which vary in reflecting power.
The colour, texture and structure of the reflecting surfaces (the partitions, for
J2
Attention should be paid to the colour

of reflecting surfaces.
J3
Skylight in a flat roof. A restricted area
of strong light falling in concentric circles
of decreasing intensity, reflected light
having been eliminated around this pool
of direct light which is surrounded by
shadows.
gispersal of light by reflection from the

extremities of a funnel which throws a
large circle of light. Light subdued and
dispersed by the so-called light gun.
/4
JJ
REUCHLINHAUS,
Pforzheim.
J3
example) critically affect the perception of light and space. A different treatment of surfaces may completely change the visitors impression of a space.
It is impossible to make any general recommendation on the reflecting power
of surfaces in a museum; the solution to the problem depends on the collection.
Indirect light plays a most important role in the general lighting of the room,
although if used exclusively it has a psycho-physiologically subduing influence,
the effect of which on the collection should be taken into consideration (in
some cases, it may produce a religious atmosphere). Where this effect is not
deliberate, it interferes with the visitors viewing.
Daylight is essentially difused when it is not in the form of sun-rays. It is
only with discretion, therefore, that it can be concentrated in a beam, including cases where it is artificially focused through an optical device. The expression light gun, which is often used in connexion with museum architecture,
is inexact in so far as the reflection inside the tube only results in dispersion
of light. The reduced effect of contrast or dazzling is less tiring from the
physiological point of view (Figs. JZ, j3, 14).
In a museum, reflection may be used deliberately or else may be a source of
interference. In the first case, light must be reflected with the least possible
loss. Depending on the thickness of the glass, 5 to 7 per cent of light intensity
is absorbed (Fig. 11).
Showcases using reflected daylight.

Exhibition wall for different objects,
consisting of an adjustable backboard
system for shelves, mirrors and artificial
lights with ceiling to floor glazing in
front. The glass front is painted with
easily removable black paint leaving clear
areas for display. View and cross-section.
Physiology
1SG
16
Rough ground-plan showing distribution

of side light. Reflection from exhibits such
as oil paintings and glass objects should
be avoided. The walls and/or exhibits
should be arranged in such a way as to
ensure that when exhibits are viewed in a
direct line of vision, only unilluminated or
light-absorbing surfaces are contained in
the field of reflection. In modern buildings
with flexible window openings this can be
done by judicious spacing, screening
sources of light, angling walls, etc.
When rows of windows are already in
position a special study by experts is to be
recommended.
I Light-absorbing surfaces
Direction of light
The second case will be illustrated by some appropriate architectural

examples:
Plan of a side-lit room, designed so as to reduce the reflections on oil paintings
or pictures under glass (Fig. ~ 6 ) .
Showcases. The glass covers are inclined so that the dark floor or ceiling is
reflected in the field of vision (Fig. ,r7(a), (b)); the inside of the showcase is
noticeably more brightly lit than the rest of the room (Fig. 18).
These details only form a small part of the problems which have to be taken
into account in the early stages of designing a museum lit by daylight, if any
excessive physiological effort is to be avoided.
ARTIFICIAL L I G H T
Light-absorbing surfaces
17
Light-absorbing surfaces: (a) floor;
(b) ceiling.
Technical considerations and conservation problems connected with the use

of artificial light have pushed its physiological aspects into the background.
Its advantages and disadvantages for human beings have not yet been sufficiently studied, partly because experience of the matter has not been sufficiently
long.
Additional artificial lighting is installed automatically today, if only for
sociological reasons (use of the premises in the evening, etc.).
In the case of simultaneous use, efforts are made to reproduce the direction
and spectral composition of daylight. However, this is only possible to a
limited extent, as artificial light is obtained from point or linear sources which
do not constitute diffusing surfaces of an intensity comparable to that of daylight. It is impossible in most cases to mask the dark window panes in the
evening by curtains which reflect the light projected on to them, because of the
high expenditure of energy which this involves. Artificial light can in other
words be used very effectively to supplement daylight, for example at dusk,
but it must be installed according to its own laws.
Parallel use of the two types of lighting must be organized in such a way
as to avoid slipping uncomfortably from one to the other, otherwise comparisons between objects placed under a different lighting may occur and
physiological perception may be distorted either favourably or unfavourably
according to the kind of light. Experience shows that a small quantity of
natural light hardly competes with artificial light in an artificially lit exhibition
and vice versa. Care must be taken at the planning stage, therefore, to see that,
in the dark areas of wide buildings for example, partitions and possibly screens
are arranged so as to separate off the sectors lit by daylight, and to apply this
formula systematically throughout the building.
The same is true for partial installation of artificial light, in cases where the
problems of presentation cannot be satisfactorily solved by the use of daylight.
Factors affectinp the visitor
I 87
A suitable layout and decoration scheme is needed even when the area involved
is small.
The exclusive use of artificial light presents great advantages: it is possible
to regulate to a large extent the intensity and the spectral composition of the
light; sources of light may be arranged flexibly and made to pinpoint the
objects. The disadvantages of this solution are as follows: monotony, which
deadens the physiological reactions; the difficulty in regard to how contrasts
are to be distributed; the resulting rise in temperature (especially where
incandescent lamps are used).
With regard to intensity, a painting placed under artificial general lighting
of I 50 lux gives rise to very different physiological reactions from a painting
exposed to daylight of the same intensity. In comparison, the artificial light is
insufficient, for the following reasons:
I . The human body is less responsive to artificial light.
2. The distribution of contrasts in the field of vision is unsatisfactory.
3. The general ambient lighting is insufficient. Daylight floods the room with
a diffused or modulated light which can only be reproduced artificially by
very powerful artificial light covering a vast surface. It is therefore necessary
to come back to the lighting of separate objects, which may however tire
the eye by its contrasts with the general lighting.
From this it may be seen that physiological perception of space plays a considerable role in the question whethx to use daylight or artificial light.
Artificial lighting has great advantages for freedom of planning. A study
in depth may make it possible to eliminate causes of discomfort such as dazzling,
reflections, viewing distance, etc.
From the physiologicalpoint of view it must be emphasized that a prolonged
visit in artificially ventilated and lit premises disturbs the biological balance,
as has been shown by many research studies on neuro-hormonal disorders
(stress).
The argument that modern man lives in any case in an artificial environment
is a further reason for refusing to accept this solution for museums. The
museum should be a place of authenticity, with regard both to the objects
and to the environment. The museum should not function according to the
laws of the world of production, but according to those of the natural environment.
The architectural consequences of the exclusive use of artificial light (buildings with several floors, flexibility, etc.) will be examined in another chapter.
We1axat ion
The fact that the visitor to a museum is always in the position of a recipient,
and the limitations imposed on his motor functions, easily lead to physiological constraints. The biological balance which has thus been disturbed must
be re-established by poles of attraction. For this purpose, passive relaxation,
intellectual assimilation and spontaneous activity must be taken into consideration. Theoretically, the psychological process can be distinguished from
the physiological process and bodily fatigue explained by different reasons
from intellectual fatigue, but in practice the interdependence of these processes is such that they are inseparable.
The sensory nervous system, represented by the visual organ, is subjected to
unusually heavy demands. It often happens-not only in the museum-that
general tiredness may be traced to optical effort. As the eye normally leaps from
one object to the other, the fact of concentrating on static forms and colours
requires an effort which may be measured by the contraction of the pupil. To
compensate, the eye must be given the opportunity of moving, according to a
certain rhythm, from near vision, which is fairly tiring, to distant vision, which
4--/8
REUCHLINHAUS,
Pforzheim.
All-glass showcase set against the wall,
with continuous grooves for holding
display fitments and shelves in daylight
and artificial light. Wall case, cross-section.
Owing to the use of both natural and
attifidal light the showcase is more
brightly lit than the visitor's area and
reflection cannot occur. Architect:
Manfred Lehmbruck.
I88
Physiology
I?
Diagram of area for relaxation (short
duration). Ground-plan. Area
connecting with the exhibition circuit.
is relaxing, from bright colours to restful neutrality, from light to dark, from
small to large and vice versa.
The motor nervous system registers general fatigue by reducing metabolism
and respiration. Like the sensory apparatus, it requires compensation such as
standinglsitting, walking/lying down, etc., and vice versa. The modern
museum encourages self-expression in areas reserved for activity and in special
sectors. This implies the visitors readiness to act, which must be aroused by
physiological stimuli such as empathic shapes, do-it-yourselfpaints, music, etc.
Logically, the corresponding rest sector should offer qualities the opposite to,
and no less diverse than, the possibilities of action.
Although the principles governing these relaxation areas are the same as
those governing relaxation areas in general, their installation and design are
matters specifically the responsibility of the museum itself. It is possible to
make a decisive contribution in carrying out this task by constructing judiciously arranged divisions which form a contrast with the collection from the
psycho-physiologicalpoint of view. They may be interposed along the visitors
path, following the divisions of the collection. They may also be grouped
together in a relaxation area offering many possibilities, including restaurant
facilities. A solution which brings the visitors into natural surroundings is
particularly advantageous (Fig. ~ 9 ) .
So far, we have considered the visitor who is able to make a normal effort.
But today it is obviops that the weak and the physically handicapped must be
able to enjoy the same possibilities. As these problems have already been dealt
with in detail in specialized publications, they will only be examined here in
relation to the over-all architectural design.
Children should be made familiar with the museum at an early stage. A
childrens centre including a painting school or a handicrafts room, rapidly
accessible from the museum entrance and easily visible, is quite usual today.
Furthermore some museums which have been specially designed for children
have proved a success. Their characteristics are as follows: presentation which
takes into account subjects of interest to the child; didactic organization; scale
appropriate to children (easier contact); objects on show which may be handled
(copies which may be touched); possibilities of activity in relation to the
objects; separate play and relaxation areas (sound-proofed).
It may be asked in this connexion whether it is better to integrate the
childrens museum within the museum complex, or whether to build it separ-

ately on another site. The latter solution makes it possible to meet the abovementioned requirements as fully as possible, without let or hindrance, and to
extend freely in all directions. It has the disadvantage, however, of making it
impossible for the museum for adults to use certain installations (painting
class, etc.) as well as making it that much more difficult for children to regard
their museum as a stepping-stone to the main museum. Thus the best solution
is a site in the immediate vicinity which nevertheless affords a large measure
of architectural autonomy (Fig. 60).
The question of the physically handicapped who cannot leave their bed or
wheel-chair, has considerable influence on the general design. There is an
increasing number of physically handicapped as a result of road traffic accidents.
When drawing up the plans, due attention must be given to seeing that the
main levels are accessible by means of lifts with minimum dimensions of
1.3j x 1.3 5 metres or, better still, 1.35 x 2.20 metres, and that ramps with a
slope not exceeding G per cent, or special lifts, are available in order to bridge
minor differences in leveLS
Many museums have a department for the blind situated near the entrance.
189
8. See, for example, the Israel Museum, Jerusalem, and

the Victoria h t s Centre, Melbourne.
60
BROOKLYN
CHILDRENS
MUSEUM,
New York.
Model.
The museum, situated in Brower Park,
is seen from street level as a group of
individual single-storey pavilions, rest
areas and girders erected on a plateau,
Paths leading to other parts of the park
take the visitor via the plateau or via the
observation bridge where one can look
down on an open-air exhibition space
about twenty feet below.
Psychology
Perception and behaviour
The prime importance of psychology is immediately apparent from the fact

that the museum's fundamental tasks are to arouse and sharpen sensitivity. In
this article we shall deal with two aspects: the psychology of the perception of
objects and that of architecture. Psychosociology and sociopsychology are
involved in these two aspects, but should nevertheless not be considered
separately. It is an established fact that the way one looks at an object is
governed by psychological laws similar to those governing the way one looks
at architecture, since both fall into the category of eco-psychology. Furthermore, in the museum the two should merge in a single experience (Fig. 61).
The museum provides US with an ideal opportunity to study the relationship
between the environment and the mind, for its demands-both varied and
lofty-are circumscribed within a limited spatial and temporal framework.
Moreover, there are wide areas in which research of this kind, though highly
necessary, is still in its infancy, and the margin of interpretation is great compared with the measurable values of physiology, for example. In this field,
however, as in others, statistics, questionnaires, the way in which the pupil
dilates and contracts, and so on, give us clear information about the interdependence between the internal and the external world. Architectural alterations should be carried out step by step, and should be based on scientific
data. It is a matter of urgency
- . that definitive conclusions be drawn from such
research, in order to counterbalance the certainties of the exact sciences and
technology. Indeed, it is in the field of museum architecture that psychological
knowledge should be recognized as providing decisive criteria; it should supply
sound arguments for making the 'conservation machine' work more efficiently.
The following analyses will concentrate on the part played by the unconscious, for its role is central although it seldom receives much attention. The
interaction between consciousness and the psyche-as may be shown, for
example, in the so-called 'reward' test-should form the basis for all architectural planning.
Human perception obeys the rule of biological equilibrium; in other words,

contradictions are not eliminated, but are maintained in a state of tension and
simultaneously counterbalanced. Furthermore, these contradictions must be
recognizable as such through a structure which contains them.
61
GALERIES
NATIONALES
DU GRAND
PALAIS,
Paris.
T h B h and Yehw V o h ? m Space, t h M d i e ~
We Evoke in. Temporary exhibition. Work
was carried out by the Acadmie de France
from 1972 to 1974 in R c " on a system
of graphic expression of global space,
consisting of the construction of images
by synthesis. The following points are basic
to the study: light gives access to the
space containing the perceived forms; the .
work shown attempts a study of the form
in its own construction, implantation and
use; the form is approached with the aid
ofthe Potential d ~ m e of
s 'dead angle
spaces', 'passages of transparency' and
'bodies of light'; these elements constitute
a plastic language giving infc"tion
on the space as a milieu for evolution;
considering them as wholes, one can
proceed to the creation of a synthetic
image with precise geometric definition;
L~
B / ~jaZNte
~ ~is a covered area
in which one is -nade to feel the space
by means of coloured markings on the
walls. This worlc, shown in Rome in
June-Jul~1974. can be Seen in Paris
from 15 March to j May 1975 in the
~
~Nationales
l of the
~ Grand
~ Palais.
i
~
It was also the subject of a paper read
before the Acadmie des Beaux-Arts of
the Institut de F
~Above,
~ synthetic
~
~
~
image of IF', facing south.
Psychology
192
62
Continuity of perception completes

overlapping sectors which cannot be
objectively perceived and brings them
together in a clearly structured
consciousness of the area as a whole.
The same psychological pattern also governs the museum visitor, who must
find a balance between the drives which urge him on and those which restrain
him-between emotion and criticism. All perceptions are accompanied by
intellectual activities, which may be described as a configuration of forces. The
latter are based on constants, such as direction, size, shape, colour and so forth,
which underlie the visitors reaction. One of these surprising constants is the
phenomenon whereby objects, although their retinal image is distorted, are
seen as being approximately their actual physical size (Fig. 62).
The individuals experience of three-dimensional space is the result of a
perception gradient which can be grasped more easily, and with less fatigue,
in a clearly structured environment than in a space whose poorly defined configuration is due to intersecting forms and complicated colour or lighting
effects.
Since the object, and not the space, should be in the foreground, one should
be able without difficulty to gain a clear idea of the space by means of the
surfaces which limit it or by other guidemarks. This is not the case if the central point is inadequate to define the space without ambiguity. That is why a
circular space is not satisfactorily grasped when perceived. As long as the
space is not easily perceptible, the visitor will continue to search, albeit unconsciously. The resulting uneasiness renders contact with the object more
difficult.
The museum is a special kind of space in that, besides the man-space relationship, there is also a complex space-object relationship. Ideally, architecture and
object form a whole, usually such a whole as may have existed at the moment
of creation. In a museum with several different departments this whole cannot
be reconstituted, because the object has been removed from its context. However, it is quite possible to reproduce the inherent conditions of the environment of a work of art, for example, when these remain abstract: scale, light,
direction, etc. Only the recognition of the harmony between the object and
the space, inasmuch as this is a discovery of identity, can constitute an aesthetic
experience. Moreover, a display which has been carefully planned down to the
last detail may very well conflict intolerably with the space. For this reason it
is essential to remember that space-object identity strengthens the visitors
capabilities from the point of view of the psychology of perception
(Figs. 63, 64).
Behaviour is determined by the fact that the movement-structures latent in
space are mentally grasped one after the other with the speed of lightning. Eye
movements are a pre-programming of the bodily movement which is to follow;
in other words, perception and reaction are connected. A museum, where
optical reactions are relied upon, is the very place in which perception and
behaviour are almost identical, and this means that the exhibits and the space
in which visitors move around must be planned together. The incitements to
movement embodied in the architecture must be made more effective, and
must be perceived by the visitor as a form of subliminal guidance and encouragement.
Psychic motives and reactions associated

w i t h movement
The need to move is- an elementary drive in the human being; the pleasure
which he takes in his own abilities generates a feeling of freedom. In space, a
subliminally perceived restriction causes a profound disturbance (cf. experiments carried out on rats). Transposed into the context of museum structure,
this means that the structure should always clearly invite the accomplishment
of an appropriate task and offer a possible satisfaction, which should coincide
with the suggested circuit to be followed.
I93
goom lit from overhead with lighting

projected exclusively on to the walls.
Tests have established that in spite of
some technical advantages the over-all
impression on visitors is oppressive and
' off-putting.
. Taking possession should follow curiosity, conquest and assimilation, in

accordance with a psychological gradation consistent with a 'space strategy'.
An opportunity should be provided for the closest possible contact with the
object.
Biological rhythm requires fragmentation and alternation of both the quantitative aspects of perception (pauses) and its qualitative aspects (reading of the
phases of the configuration). Since continual change may give rise to tedious
stereotypes, the psycho-physiological element is a determining factor.
The role of architecture is not only to provide a variety of forms of space
and light (large-small, light-dark, etc.) but also to impose a psychological
order on the series by the following means: (a) connexions and focal points;
&$IvERSIIY
ART MUSEUM,
Berkeley,
California.
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ u , " h f
~
~
~
Architects: Mario J. Ciampi, Richard
L. Jorasch, Ronald E. Wagner..
Psychology
I94
(b) use of three-dimensional movement structures throughout the space (Figs.

6 ~ 66).
, The following models are suggested: (a) perpetual motion, biologically
against nature (working of a machine) (Fig. 67); (b) same pattern of movement,
but with biologically desirable breaks in rhythm (Fig. 68); (c) variation for a
small museum (Fig. 69).
Bdentification and pllace of movement
.,*mms
oome
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For the well-being of the visitor, it is very important that he should be able
to find his bearings, that he should be able, at any moment, to see where he is
in relation to a known point. Direction-finding is a primary instinct in man,
who gradually becomes master of his environment by means of a system of
guidemarks. By its very nature, the museum tends towards the principle of
spreading out (breaking up of the distance to be covered according to direction, distance and time) rather than towards that of compression (shortening
of the route by technical means such as lifts, escalators, etc.).
f......:...
.OW.....
i.......
! P:
6J
A standard type of museum circuit which

discourages and exhausts the visitor.
66
Suggested circuit for a large area.
Biologically satisfying variety, broken
rhythm. Organization based on focal
points.
67
Spiral or rotating circuit involving

biologically unnatural regularity of
movement (working of a machine).
!!B
A similar model with biologically desirable

breaks in rhythm and changes o direction.
69
MUSEUM
OF FINEARTS,Louisiana
(Denmark).
Plan for the circuit of the visit which
introduces a biologically desirable degree
of irregularity.
The importance of psychological identification with the place is clear from

the limiting states which characterize a positive or negative impression:
Negative reaction: agoraphobia (empty, light), claustrophobia (small, dark),
irritation (unexpected, confused).
Positive reaction: euphoria (presence, energy), security (appropriate, harmonious), surprise (release of impulses).
Space in the museum also oscillates between these extremes according to
whether it is, for example, too high or too low, tidy or untidy, closed or open.
The resulting impressions of pleasure or displeasure are automatically transferred to the object.
It is a fundamental requirement in museum architecture that the visitor
should be able to have an over-all view of the space in which he moves. Nothing
can take its place, not even electronic guidance devices. Nevertheless, considerable attention should be paid to proportions and to modulation, for the
visitor must perceive and decide step by step.
The requirement that the space in which one moves should be open is
derived from a conception that is the opposite of the surprise effect which is
sometimes sought after and which can be achieved only through a deliberate
lack of visibility. The contents of an exhibition may very well be like a dance
of the seven veils. It is of the essence of architectural solutions to enable this
intellectual contradiction to be removed by spatial means; for instance, a
diversion from the circuit may connect up with the current of the over-all
space. It is a matter of the means at ones disposal and the way in which these
are applied (Fig. 70(a), (b)).
We shall now make a brief analysis of a few spatial situations from a directionfinding point of view:
Symmetry is very effective as a factor of order; however, it requires a hierarchical organization of the collection which is seldom justified (Fig. 71).
19j
70
PREFECTURAL
MUSEUM,
Utsunomia (Japan).
As he crosses the internal courtyard
before entering the museum, the visitor
gains a charming general impression of the
museum. (a) Ground-plan; (b) view on
arrival at point A. Architect: Kawasaki,
Kyoto.
196
Psychology
/L
PASADENA
ARTMUSEUM,
Pasadena.
Symmetrical ground-plan: I. Exhibition
room; 2. Temporary exhibition room;
3 . Books; 4. Meeting room; 5 . Members'
room; 6. Auditorium; 7. Stage; 8. Foyer.
Architects: Ladd Br Kelsey.
72
The fan shape. Too many alternatives may

confuse and discourage the visitor.
73
Rectangle. Although the circuit is freer,

the visitor retains an over-all impression.
<-
73
71
Circle and curve. The dynamic nature of

the background makes concentration
difficult and makes the visitor uncertain
of his own position.
71
The fan shape, symbolizing freedom of choice, can be used only in so far as it
does not make too heavy demands oln the visitor, that is so long as he is not
irritated and discouraged by being offered too much (Fig. 72).
The rectangle is the most easily perceived, with its simple and unambiguous
lines (Fig. 73).
The circle and the curve have no fixed axes, and it is difficult to perceive them
steadily (Fig. 74).
Free forms may be considered unsuitable in a large organized space, but they
may be introduced into a limited space which provides an over-all view
(circuit which encourages strolling) (Fig. 71, 76).
An arrangement in cubicles as a series of inward-looking spaces, deliberately
aims to make the visitor linger in them. A sort of compulsory circuit is
necessary in order to avoid the 'labyrinth complex' (Fig. 77).
Continuity corresponds to what is happening in the museum: (a) Space which
extends horizontally creates many guide-marks which ease the process of
direction-finding; although a certain margin of freedom is perceptible,
judicious arrangement makes it possible to suggest the desired decision
regarding the circuit (Fig. 78). (b) A space which mav be traversed vertically
7/
I07
76
has similar characteristics, which should also reveal the upward development
in its entirety and turn this into an experience (galleries, vistas, etc.) (Fig. 79).
The idea of fluid exhibition space has already been interpreted literally several
times, resulting logically in exhibition rooms with curving shapes (no corners,
unbroken transition from ceiling to walls and to floor). Here, two psychological principles are in conflict:
I. The visitors awreness of place and sense of direction lose their simplicity
and clarity owing to the interpenetration of shapes. Lacking systematically
arranged guidemarks, he is in a state of uncertainty.
2. The blurring of outlines reduces the number of intersections of surfaces,
which are a nuisance. The background is calmer and contemplation of the
object is freed from surrounding optical interference.
The highly formal treatment of space requires very careful placing of the
object reminiscent of baroque ideas. Thus the collection is the determining
factor: flexibility is almost impossible (Fig. 8 0 ) .
7/
Free forms. Complex, difficult to take in

at a glance.
76
AQUARIUM,
ZOOLOGICAL
GARDEN,
Basle.
The visitor is stimulated by the large
polygonal form of the presentation and
soothed psychologically by the clearly
discernible circuit. Architects:
Burckhardt & Partner.
Museum circuit
The visitors feet may follow a wide variety of circuits which may be analysed
as psychological seismograms. We shall deal only with movement in a straight
f.
..............................
1
s.
..............
..............
a
*S..
e..
Ii...............
4
. -
......
...............
***.*.
El
;*
.....-........................................
77
A nest of small cubicles. The obligatory
circuit must be emphasized by formal
means so as to compensate psychologically
for the maze of small rooms.
78
79
Space traversed vertically.

Spaces extending horizontally. The
desired circuit is suggested through the
careful arrangement of partitions (opening/
closing the space) and the objects (visible/
concealed.)
Psychology
198
.. . . ... . ..
3
80
WORLDHOUSE
GALLERIES,
New York,
'Fluid' shapes necessitating an interpretative
emotional response. Architects: Frederick
J. Kiesler & Bartos.
SI
(a) Circular itinerary ; (b) linear itinerary.
. ..
line and with a winding track, which are the manifestations of different types
of behaviour in response to the environment. Because of haste and lack of
time, a visitor may follow a straight track in which he gains little from a sensory point of view; if he is unpreoccupied and makes real contact with the
exhibits, he will take a winding path, resembling the subtle movement of
animals. Conversely, the circuit traced out by the architecture suggests the
corresponding behaviour.
In the initial stages as in the final stage, the pattern of tracks also has various
psychological aspects, which we shall now attempt to describe, setting aside
questions of organization:
I . The circular pattern leads back to the entrance, and raises the following
problems: the goal suggested is identical with the point of departure, it is
possible at any moment to estimate approximately the amount of effort
needed to complete the circuit, and a 'return crisis' may occur (Fig. SI(LZ)).
2. The linear pattern has the following advantages: entrance and exit do not
coincide, the amount of effort needed is unknown, and the goal may be
unconsciously considered as genuine 'progress' (Fig. SI@)).
It should also be emphasized that, for reasons of psychological economy, the
visitor should never pass the same way twice.
'Gestalt psychology' of architecture
82
MAEGHT
FOUNDATION,
St Paul de Vence.
Systematic layout of exhibition rooms.
All visual processes spark off forces in the human brain which tend towards
equilibrium. The experience of three-dimensional space arises from tensions
which are primarily the effect of the proportions of the space and which may
be elicited in a twozdimensional structure.
For instance:
Rest
Movement
Horizontally:
Round shape
Oval shape
Square
Rectangle
Parallelism
Convergence or divergence
Vertically:
Same level
Variation in level (floor of ceiling)
The psychological intensity of the space is thus defined and articulated in

terms of 'mood', for instance: narrow/broad, oppressive/generous, etc.
For example:
The exhibition rooms are arranged according to a pattern in which rectangular
rooms and rooms that are almost square alternate, with corridors leading
from one to the other; in the highest rooms, opaque walls and overhead
reflected lighting = concentration; in the intermediate low rooms, walls
I99

open to the courtyard = relaxation and an opportunity to take ones bearings (Fig. 82).
The position of the entrance to the room determines the spontaneity of the
experience (Fig. 83).
The height of the ceiling may have an oppressive or a liberating effect according to its relation to the size of the room.
Non-parallel partitions, seen from point A, produce an optical impression of
depth and, seen from point Bythey have a foreshortening effect. The psychological quality of the space is not the same at point A as it is at point B.This
lack of uniformity makes it more difficult for those features which do not
vary to be appreciated (Fig. 84).
The variation in the level of the spiral staircase acts as an optical separation
between the entrance area and that of the cafeteria. The variations in height
create different spatial qualities (Fig. 8 ~ ) .
The relation between figure and background is of particular importance in a
museum, for the architectural form (as an element of space) is not only a
delimited rational surface which is situated at the top of the visual image;
it also actively affects and impinges on the background. A concave shape
elicits quite different reactions and associations from a convex shape. The
object must be in harmony with this psychological movement (Fig. 86(a), (b)).
U
84
83
(a) The visitor is drawn into the centre of
the room; (b) the visitor is drawn to the
right into the centre of the room;
(c) the visitor is inhibited by the difficulty
of making a decision.
84
Narrowing perspective from point A;
room appears longer. Broadening
perspective from point B; room appears
shorter.
8/
HENIEONSTAD
MUSEUM,
Oslo.
Variation of level in the entrance hall.
Architects: Jan Eikvar and Sven Erik
Engebretsen.
86
(a) Relation between figure and background.

The aim should be to achieve harmony.
(b) Difference between a background
integrated into the architectural structure of
the building and a background added by
means of decorative techniques at the
Wilhelm Lehmbruck Museum, Duisburg.
Space and object

Every object needs space if its qualities are to be brought out. Every visible
form projects itself beyond its limits and to a certain extent invests the empty
surrounding area with its presence. Only a few of the countless systems of
spatial relationship that it is theoretically possible to construct around each
figure are spontaneously perceived; namely those which give rise to the
simplest conditions for the figure and the observer. Since the spatia1 characteristics of the environment determine the shape and the position of the visible
object, space must be organized in a way which is in harmony with them.
From the point of view of the psychology of perception, the object and the
surrounding space must therefore form a whole, the exact definition of which,
however, is constantly changing. Just as man should determine his relations
with what surrounds him, an outstanding object should be regirded as a
Psychology
200
87
Dynamic equilibrium: into the space the

human mind projects zones of induction
and certain requirements concerning
proportions which must be taken into
account when placing the objects. Here,
zones of induction and lines of force of a
rectangular space.
living being whose environmental conditions should be the best possible in

each case.
In a museum the object exhibited indisputably has pride of place and not the
architecture; but the latter must be regarded as a decisive factor in the environment, and not merely as a visual accompaniment. It may be said, however,
that in many cases it is possible to reach a consensus as to whether a display is
good or bad-in other words, psychological dynamics has its own laws which,
unfortunately, have been insufficiently studied hitherto. The relations between
several objects and between objects and space form a constellation of sizes and
shapes, proportions and distances, etc., which is, in principle, subject to the
same criteria of gestalt psychology as a work of art. However, the environmental conditions, the relative masses and the structures induced are so complex that, in general, the goal can only be attained by way of an empirical
approach (Fig. 87).
On account of the close interpenetration of the object and the surrounding
space, the architecture must obviously be considerably influenced by the
fundamental spirit and conception of the display if the desired psychological
goal is to be attained. The complexity of the components makes it very difficult
to attain this ideal, which depends partly on whether the structure of the building is open or closed. In a static museum whose contents are fixed, the constructed form may tally directly with the object, but in a museum of a flexible
character this goal can be attained only by means of internal arrangements. In
view of the fact that the visitor perceives their difference at a more or less
subliminal level, the weight of the efforts to co-ordinate, and consequently
the result, is not the same.
A display model based on psychological viewpoints shows how the conception of the exhibition may influence the architecture (any other model of
an intellectual or organic kind would have similar effects on construction).
This model is based on the idea that, for the visitor, the museum is an experience which requires a certain amount of time, somewhat like the theatre, the
concert and so on, and which should consequently obey similar rules. This
results in situations which relate specifically to the art of drama, such as the
prologue, the exposition, the climax, the dzoziement, etc., and which succeed
each other in space. Architecture cannot neglect this; it must and can sustain
the visual drama by means of spatial information, accentuate certain passages
and divide the whole into parts. Kevin Lynchs ideas on town planning, which
he has set forth in his book The I#zage of the Cio,can be transposed to the
smaller scale of the museum. The power of suggestion obtained by dividing
space into sections serves at the same time to guide the visitor without his
noticing it.
It would, however, be over-simplifying the case to identify the museum
and the stage. The unreality of the performing arts and the reality of the object
and of the environment constructed for it are fundamentally different media
(Fig. 88).
88
Staging an exhibition in a time and
space sequence. Architecture serves as
scenery and off-stage area.
End
20 I
89
Museum project.
Interior. The architecture is very
simple and deliberately no more than
sketched in. Architect: Mies van der RLohe.
(Museum.fou a Small Ciel, 1942).
Space and time

The time factor is latent in all considerations about space, and isinseparable
from the concept of the circuit. As a physiological measurement, it has a
particular significance at the level of aesthetic information. Since information
and behaviour are directly linked in a museum, knowledge about aesthetic
information, confirmed by scientific tests and generally accepted, may serve
as a starting-point for considerations .about space and time. The recording
capacity of human perception is constant, which means that within the compact mass of the present no more than a certain number of items of information
may be integrally recorded. The flow of information that human consciousness
is capable of absorbing is around sixteen bits per second. Of these sixteen bits
which enter the conscious mind every second, only one-thirtieth reaches the
preconscious memory. There cannot be more than 160 bits of information at
the same time in the conscious mind (capacity).
The fact that the capacity of perception is constant has the following consequences for the museum:
I. Time and space requirements depend primarily on the object exhibited.
2. The architectural space may either facilitate this inrush of information or
make it difficult by being non-committal.
3. Since the total number of perceptions per unit of time is constant, they must
be employed with discernment and economically, so as to serve the object
(less is more).
4. The proper relation between the surface area of the rooms, the size of the
walls, etc., on the one hand, and the time to be spent, on the other, cannot
be laid down for all cases. A circuit rapidly and extensively covered may
provide the same information as a circuit slowly and intensively covered.
From the physiological point of view, a large exhibition in which there is a
low degree of density of information may be less tiring than a small exhibition in which the visitor is mostly on his feet.
j . The quality of the information is enhanced by harmony between the object
and the surrounding space, when the visitor is prepared to receive the
messages, and receives them without agitation (Fig. 89).
It emerges from several surveys that, even in large museums, more than
j o per cent of visitors want to have seen everything. In reality, this is impossible, and it is in contradiction with the philosophy of the museum, since it is
not possible to increase the amount of information acquired in a given period
of time by quantitatively stepping it up.
Psychology
202
One way is to offer the visitor several circuits which are differently arranged
and staged from the point of view of gestalt psychology, but which, as units
each forming a whole, leave him with the impression of having seen what is
essential. The architecture must be such that these circuits are arranged so that
there are no watertight partitions between them, but, in each case, they constitute a clear spatial whole possessing its own particular qualities.
Light
Over and above the physiological aspect, we shall consider light from the
psychological point of view. Object and architecture live on light, which
Picasso described as a measuring instrument in a world of forms. In a museum,
light must perform a double function, since it must serve for the interpretation
of both the object and the surrounding space. If either one of these tasks is not
fulfilled, unity from the point of view of geJtalt psychology is lost. The danger
lies in partially solving one of the two problems, as well as possible, but without
taking the whole into account.
Light is capable of sending out a large number of messages whose effect
may be to guide, inform, separate or bring together, hide or reveal, enlarge or
reduce, produce gladness or sorrow. Whilst it is fairly easy to determine how
the object should be lighted ideally so as to be psychologically satisfying, this
problem raises the greatest difficulties with regard to architecture. The constancy law applies here too, that is to say the human capacity to see things (in
the light) as they are known to be and not as they appear in reality; thus, a
sharp variation in the intensity of light produces either a sudden change of
direction or an abrupt deepening.
If the light is unskilfully deployed, the interpretation of space may be
distorted since, according to the constancy rule, an impression of depth is
associated with each degree of luminosity.
The (psychological) evaluation of the luminosity of a space results from
adaptation and contrast. The light should be evenly distributed, so that the
museum space can be perceived as a whole. Diffused lighting reduces attention, whereas locally directed lighting increases the force of attraction. One
must of course be careful not to overdo it, for the repetition of a striking
theatrical effect is tiring. Indeed, the museum is the very place where accents
must be discreetly placed. The manipulation of light should not distort the
truth of the original. Similarly, colours should not be altered by the use of
tinted glass, reflective surfaces, etc.
DAYLIGHT
A window is not merely a source of light; it is also a psychological link with

the external world, which functions in two ways: (a) as a physical and mental
respite not calling for any effort of adaptation to the environment; (b) as the
placing of human internal space within the great cosmic order of horizontals
and verticals. An ordinary, fairly small window always poses a problem in a
museum (unless it is there for some historical reason), since it affords only a
small visual angle and has a pronounced dazzling effect; it does not act as an
opening, but as a rival figure on a dark background. The background lighting should be provided by an indirect source of light, and highlights can be
produced by direct lighting.
Building techniques have been so much improved that the question today
is not whether one should choose overhead lighting or side lighting, but what
proportion of overhead light should be used. For decades, specialists have
been debating the advantages and disadvantages, and are familiar with them.
As a result of the evolution of modern architecture, the window has lost its
ideological character and has become a glass aperture, just as the wall and the
roof (overhead lighting z 'a hole in the head') are no longer regarded as constituting guarantees of shelter. Associations have changed, the problem
centres today on the harmonization of object, space and light from the viewpoint of gestalt psychology. Thanks to technological progress, the resources
at our disposal today are so plentiful that a satisfactory solution can be found
for each case. Of course, the lessons derived from experience unconsciously
acquired over the years in this and in other areas of existence with regard to
perception and judgement play a part-and often a decisive one.
The yellow and red part of the spectrum (including summer light) is also of
great psychological significance, for it is keyed to life, and should consequently
be used as extensively as possible in the museum. Formerly, most paintings,
for instance, were intended for rooms in houses, and were not meant to be
seen in the northern light, which is.appreciated only for its relative consistency
(nor did Rembrandt have a studio facing north).
The quality of daylight should also be regulated in accordance with psychological considerations; one should use warm colours of the spectrum wherever
one wishes to produce an emotion and cold colours (northern light, for
instance) wherever objective and critical scrutiny is the principal aim. As a
rule, one should always seek to add warm components so as to avoid monotony.
The question of conservation as well as the problem of the choice between
natural and artificial lighting for a museum will be dealt with further on from
a general point of view.
ARTIFICIAL LIGHT
As artificial light does not correspond to the natural cycle, its ,use has an
entirely different psychological basis. Many studies have shown that percep- *
tion and behaviour are different with artificial light. The biological constant
starts off the mechanisms of nocturnal behaviour. As far as the relationship
with space is concerned, one is not biologically attuned to the cosmos if one is
in a completely closed-off room, and the system of co-ordinates does not
operate.
In general, the intensity of the light is incomparably weaker than that of
daylight. In order approximately to reproduce some of the qualities of natural
light, artificial lighting is organized in two ways: (a) dihsed general lighting,
which is usually dull and monotonous on account of its low intensity; (b) direct
illumination of focal points (objects), which produces an (excessive) theatrical
effects as a result of the low intensity of the light and its lack of effect on the
dark background.
Monotony, like violent contrasts, distorts reality and makes a visit to a
museum something between a dream and a trauma.
Colours
Colours actually play an important psychological role; they are, however, of
secondary importance at the planning stage. The complexity of all the issues
connected with them is such that we cannot examine them here.
203
90
Hygrometric chart, correlating tones of

comfort and security recommended
for different types of museum material. In
this chart defining conditions of the
atmosphere, an attempt is made to correlate
areas acceptable as zones of comfort with
those agreed to be satisfactory for museum
purposes. While there is much common
ground it should be noticed on the one
hand (to left of chart) that the zone of

comfort extends into regions that are
much too dry for many kinds of inanimate
object, being below 40 per cent RH.
The answer to this is to condition the
museum for the collections rather than for
the staff. On the other hand, archives, etc.,
can be safely stored under conditions far
outside the zone of comfort (see bottom
section of chart). As it is an established
fact that the human subject does not take

happily to sedentary work at temperatures
below 20" C, it would be necessary, in this
case, to provide sedentary staff with suitable
local heating.
Conservation
Physiochemistry of the objects
The museum as a meeting-place may be considered from either the objective

or the subjective point of view, according as to whether the emphasis is placed
on the social sciences or on the exact sciences of physics and chemistry. T o
deal with the problem, a combination of elements from both these fields of
knowledge should be employed.
The objects in museums may be divided into three groups: (a) real things
created by man or by nature and possessing original value; (b) reproductions,
models or copies which, in certain conditions, may have the same value as the
originals; (c) audio-visual and other aids to interpretation, which are becoming
increasingly important.
The conservation experts task is to preserve, with the help of physical
chemistry, objects whose unique character and fragility call for a great variety
of treatments. The greatest care must be taken with originals; the following
remarks in this connexion should make it possible to pinpoint the problems.
The archaeological museum, which calls for strict conservation measures,
serves as a fitting model in this context.
At the present time, faced as we are with a glut of information, original
objects are the only sources of information which are constant and authentic
and which cannot be tampered with. It is for just this reason that they never
cease to afford new possibilities of interpretation. The original is the basis of
the museum, its very raison dtre and the standard by which it is judged.
The science and technology which are involved here in a great variety of
ways make strict demands which can be clearly stated. It is not possible to deal
with all the details in the context of this article. From the point of view of the
architecture, however, one can, proceeding by simplification, reduce the fight
against the ageing process, which in itself is ineluctable, to a common denominator: all conservation work is aimed at protecting the object against the
depredations and the changing conditions of nature and placing it in a wholly
or partly artificial, constant environment.
In the same line of thought, the concept of conservation also extends to
protection against damage and theft, since this has similar architectural
implications.
It is here that we come into seemingly insurmontable conflict with that
trend in the social sciences which calls for the removal of all barriers and
maximum contact with the exhibit, free access from outside and integration
into the environment, free access to all objects inside the museum, open
display (including the problem of maximum capacity) and hence a normal
environment for the object and the visitor, and physical displacement of
206
Conservation
objects so as to extend their sphere of influence, for example lending out for
study purposes, etc. (Fig. 90).
All of this is in complete contradiction with the requirements of conservation which are based on the idea of there being a closed and constant environment. The most advanced trends in sociology, in which openness is a key idea,
and the demand of physical chemistry for a closed environment are diametrically opposed. It is therefore not surprising that the fundamental task of conservation should be called into question and that the idea of a conservationoriented museum clashes with that of a consumer-oriented museum. In this
controversy, the stakes are high on both sides, but, in one case, the loss is
irreparable. It is usually the exact sciences that win out, as they can offer a
verifiable demonstration of their case, but this demonstration should not take
the form of set formulae and simplifications, but of an intensive study of each
particular case, In the field of social psychology, it is not possible to give such
clear proof of destructions.
Museum architecture must unquestionably meet both requirements as best
it can, but placing the emphasis on one or the other, depending on the case.
The social and psychological aspects should be considered in relation to conservation and vice versa, this dialectical relationship determining the architecture of the museum. Moreover, building entails an irrevocable decision. It
is thus in the organization of space that the possibility of giving a new dimension to these irreconcilable principles, and providing, where appropriate, a
three-dimensional solution, is to be sought.
Starting off with total conservation and going on to intermediate adjustable
solutions, we shall present architectural models aimed at showing the different
degrees of priority given to human or material considerations.
91
Town skyline. A museum (or museum
store-room) which is closed on all sides
for conservation reasons, does not fit
easily into the urban landscape.
In order to get as near as possible to an ideal state of conservation, the objects

are kept in optimum technological conditions:
Hermetic sealing-off from the outside world, with no inlets for heat, cold, etc.
Temperature and humidity automatically maintained at a constant level by
mechanical devices.
Minimum access so as to avoid disturbances caused by the heat or humidity
given off by the human body. Extended visits being scarcely possible, even
for study purposes, special rooms with transition zones (air-locks) must be
installed for the objects.
Exclusion of most natural and artificial light.
Artificial ventilation with filtered air, etc.
When conservation is the chief concern, the architecture of the museum
becomes an essentially scientific problem and the architect an assistant to the
specialized engineer in its solution. Although a project of this nature does not
call for any differentiation in the use of space, as it is all intended for the same
purpose, the architectural implications, especially in relation to the environment, may be considerable. The various possibilities are usually as follows:
The storage building conceived as a closed and more of less independent unit
is, on the one hand, very important from the point of view of town-planning,
but, on the other, it is difficult to translate into formal terms and to express
its function (comparison with the silo) (Fig. 91).
Storage space surrounded by other premises, a solution satisfactory only for
small museums; when there are large stocks, functional deficiencies appear
in the surrounding sectors;
Underground storage rooms, installed beneath the museum or outside it,
cause, from the point of view of town planning, little disturbance to environ-
Physiochemistrv of the obiects

ments which may have some general value worth preserving. An intermediate solution consists in placing the storage premises in an accessible
building with a roof-garden, a childrens playground, etc., which fits into
the landscape (Fig. YZ(LZ), (b)).
If the reserves are placed in a separate building, they can be moved further
away at will (to the suburbs, for instance) since, in any case, transportation
is necessary. Objects should be transported to the museum in air-conditioned, shock-proof containers.
Since objects may require very different conditions for conservation, one thing
that needs to be done is to create separate climatic zones which continue right
into the display sections; this means that if the principles of conservation are
to be systematically respected, climatology will be a dominant factor in the
organization of the museum, which also has repercussions on the architecture.
It must be granted that neither the idea of establishing an order of priority
within the collection from the point of view of conservation nor the resulting
architecture can be satisfactory and that, in most cases, such solutions have to
be rejected on the grounds that they make the museum a mere machine for
conservation. The machinery of the museum is far too complex to be geared

only to this one function. It works properly only when all the cogs are
meshing. Optimum conditions-especially in towns-can be obtained only
by employing heavy technical plant at considerable expense. Such technical
means are, however, burdensome, and for this reason it is to be recommended
that, as far as possible, only natural means should be employed.
In the developing countries, research is being carried out into the protection
of museum collections by means of architectural climatology, that is to say
207
9 (a)
Underground store-room with car parks,

childrens play areas, etc., above. Simplified
cross-section:.
92 ( 6 )
MUSEUM
OF MODERN
ART,Brussels.
Underground museum in an historic
quarter. Simplified cross-section.
I . Entrance; 2. Reception; 3. Temporary
exhibitions; 4. Patio; >.Collections;
6. Museum square; 7. Museum road;
8. New sections; 9. Car park. Architects:
Roger Bastin and Leo Beeck; arch. ass.
Pierre Lamby and Guy Van Oost.
Conservation
208
2
1
I-/
---
6b
I-
93
Plan for the ideal museum with
environmental control: buffered core for
optimal environmental control. I. Core
(maximum control); 2. Insulating corridor;
3 , Work areas, public areas; 4. Acclimatization; 5 . Air-lock for main visitor
traffic flow; 6. Minimal control: (a) Main
foyer; (b) Shipping and receiving; 7. People;
8. Exhaust effect; 9. Works of art.
Simplified ground-plan by Duncan
Cameron (MzisezimNews, May 1968).
by applying the simple physical laws of construction so as to cut down the

need to rely on technology. The simple method practised by Chinese museums,
which consists in showing collections only when the seasonal macroclimate
corresponds to the constant climate required by the exhibits, is not applicable
everywhere. Figure 93 shows a museum in which the design emphasizes the
conservation function.
As has already been suggested, modern museum design for various reasons
calls for transition zones (air-locks), the functions of which are:
I. The physical acclimatization of objects when being moved from one climatic level to another. These spaces are situated mainly in the storage,
administration and workshop sections and, from the architectural point of
view, may be simply functional in design.
2. The physiological acclimatization of the visitor to the varying climatic levels
and to the relatively pronounced variations in lighting. The architectural
solution calls for special study and know-how, since the transition must
take place gradually by way of spaces which do not interrupt the tour of the
exhibition but give a certain pattern to it.
A distinction can thus be made between spaces serving to effect a transition
between different degrees of lighting and between different climatic levels;
these two kinds of intermediate space should not be the same. From the
technical point of view, it is difficult to achieve marked differences of climate
within the display section since the phenomenon of condensation, in particular,
has to be reckoned with.
Sections where the main concern is with display
94
Contact between visitor and exhibit:
(a) direct contact; (b) the glass curtain
effect.
The capital constituted by the contents of the museum is of value to mankind

only if it is in circulation, if it is productive. To achieve such productivity,
architecture, must overcome the antithesis between conservation and display.
The more extreme the two standpoints are, the more difficult is it to find the
solution, but the more interesting and pleasing will be the result.
Owing to the complexity of the problem, to which we have already drawn
attention, it is necessary, in order to arrive at the right solution, to begin by
studying the objects or groups of objects and determining their optimum
physical parameters. The physical and chemical relationship of three sets of
factors needs to be harmonized: the macro-climate, the micro-climate of the
exhibits, the human micro-climate.
Several combinations are possible depending on the degree of compatibility:
I . The macro-climate cannot be regulated to the artificial conditions created for
human beings and objects, which means that the outer shell of the building
must protect the whole of the interior against heat and cold, damp, dust, etc.
2. The micro-climates required for human beings and objects are not compatible and the physical conditions in which the collection is shown affect
the physiological well-being of the visitor or, conversely, the conditions
created for his comfort affect the exhibits. This being the case, a climatic
separation must be created between viewer and object which, for reasons of
presentation, generally consists of a glass screen (Fig. 94(a), (b)).
3. When there does not need to be any difference between the macro-climate
and the internal climatic conditions, one can do without the external climatic
shell and protect only the exhibits.
4. When there are only slight differences between the macro-climate and the
display area, only the space in which the visitor moves within the museum
may have to be provided with air-conditioning for reasons of comfort.
T. When the three climates are almost identical (with material providing a fair
degree of insulation-stone, for instance-in temperate zones), it is possible to envisage a free layout which avoids many constraints and makes
7-09
9J
direct contact possible, although certain restrictions may need to be imposed

for security reasons (Fig. 91).
Each of these possible combinations calls for fundamentally different architectural solutions, the separation of the different types of environment being
a problem of architectural technique. Basically, there are two possible ways of
organizing space:
I . Separate rooms or groups of rooms with independent and diversified airconditioning. The collection is exhibited in different sections with technical
installations specially designed for the contents of each. The architecture
must take this arrangement into account at the design stage. One problem
that arises is the need to use the same sections of the building for more or
less the same purpose and to keep the composition of the collections in them
more or less constant.
2 . The system of a space within a space, with air-conditioning for the object
(mini-climate).
In this connexion, a very free approach should be adopted to the use of showcases. There are two basic ways in which they can be used.
First, a set of showcases, freely positioned in space, with or without special
air-conditioning, may be used. The showcases should be arranged in such a
way as not to be directly exposed to the sun. Similarly, when artificial lighting
is used, steps must be taken to prevent heat being given off inside (special
filters for showcases) (Fig. 96).
Secondly, continuous mural showcases, large sections of the exhibition area
insulated by means of glass panels going right up to the ceiling and provided
with separate air-conditioning, may be used. The showcases are usually built
against the walls but may also be positioned in such a way as to be approachable on all sides. Since they have a greater volume, the air circulates better
inside them and it is easier to control the micro-climate (ceiling ducts, etc.)
(Fig. 97).
At a very early stage, a choice must be made between air-conditioned rooms
and air-conditioned showcases, and between the set of showcases and the
showcase-room. It should be clearly decided beforehand where the showcases
are to be positioned in the rooms and whether they will be connected to the
floor or to the ceiling.
HAKONE
OPENAIR MUSEUM,
Hakone.
Open-air exhibition. Approximate
harmony of conservation and presentation
from the point of view of physical and
physiological requirements.
96
The 'room within a room' system for

separate acclimatization of exhibits.
Macro-, micro-, and mini-climates,
separate air-conditioning ducts.
I
\ I /
- 0-
Macro-climate
,
,
,,;;,;;,;,::,::.~.~...
'I'
,,,,.#.
,',,'.I
I
II
'..'
I...,.
Micro-climate
&
4 V I
Mini-climate
showcase
4.
I
I
tj
Vlt
210
97
FEDERSEEMUSEUM,
Bad Buchau.
Site museum. The mural showcase extending
up to the ceiling imitates the form of the
window. (a) Interior view. The architectural
space extends right to the back wall of
the showcase. The panes, jutting in and
out alternately, allow the objects to be
seen from different angles. A combination
of natural and artificial light provides the
right intensity of illumination to prevent
reflection. (b) Exterior view. Because
of the very large windows one can
observe the direct relationship between
object and setting in which it was found:
visual transition mini-micro-macroclimate. Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.
Conservation

The creation of the greatest possible contact between the visitor and the
object depends on the architectural solution adopted and on the technical
characteristics of the dividing elements (transparent or opaque) (Figs. 9 8, 99).
Dual - purpose sections

The desire to balance conservation against display, considered to be both of
equal importance, may produce a variety of answers to the organizational and
constructional problems involved.
PHASING
The objects are normally kept in store-rooms in which optimum conditions

are provided and are shown in succession on a rotation basis for a relatively
short time. Conditions of transportation are assumed to be optimum. It is not
certain that this principle can be systematically applied, for the following
reasons:
I. Climatic conditions in the exhibition area must be the same as in the storerooms, and its architecture, which should be adaptable, is thus .fixed once
and for all.
2. Even a very short time spent under different conditions may cause irreparable damage.
3. In spite of every precaution, it is well-nigh impossible to avoid certain types
of damage (in loading and unloading, from the jolts to which they are subject on the way, abrupt changes in temperature, etc.).
4. The museum can only with great difficulty open itself out, in the sociological and psychological sense: chances of conservation are no better for
fragile objects (the only ones considered here), but the museum cannot
properly fulfil its social function (Fig. 100).
98
Large display cases forming movable
dividing elements. Simplified cross-section.
Air-conditioning of display cases (miniclimate) and of exhibition room (microclimate) by means of ceiling ducts.
Flexibility is possible.
99
A circular showcase which can be viewed

from all sides makes possible close
contact between visitor and exhibit.,
Simplified ground-plan.
ZONING
Since phasing in this way does not in itself provide a satisfactory solution, the
spatial factor should be exploited to help to limit the dangers to objects and
to achieve a compromise between conservation and display. This results in
intermediate solutions in which now one aspect and now the other is stressed.
These considerations lead to certain principles, one of which is the so-called
filtering principle, which opens up to the visitor sections in which conservation requirements are different. In the course of time, the collection may
filter from one zone to another without any serious risks by passing through
acclimatization rooms. It is thereby possible to obtain, if need be, several
routes through the collection, the predominant feature varying between conservation and display.
In the sections which make less demands on display techniques, it is possible
to accord more attention to the requirements of conservation. This could
result, for instance, in three zones, with: (a) systematic storage of objects close
together in darkened, entirely air-conditioned rooms; (b) less closely arranged
storage in sets of shelves or in showcase-rooms with adjustable micro-climates,
without too much attention to display; (c) widely-spaced display, designed for
the public in accordance with aesthetic and sociological considerations.
The size, the height, the lighting and the arrangement of the premises may
be adapted each time to the required conditions. Nevertheless, great adaptability must be ensured within the sections so as to allow for changes of objects.
It is possible, however, on the basis of the same principle to achieve not
only filtering but also static zoning, which means that the collection is
arranged more or less permanently in accordance with the considerations
mentioned above. The advantage of this arrangement is that it makes it
Store
Museum
100
Objects kept in store in optimum

conditions are exhibited in rotation.
Conservation
212
!
!
Many
HObjects
Few
Persons
IOI
Diagram showing a balanced relationship

between numbers of visitors and exhibits
by means of spatial zoning of exhibition
and conservation areas. This principle can
be applied statically or on a phased basis.
Presentation
Presentation
Conservation
II
possible to draw out the various qualities of the space and to harmonize them
in the best way possible with the objects.
These conservation-based models may be compared with public-oriented
models which are concerned with the size and the quality of a given space.
However, there is a conflict with conservation here in that it is just those
objects which most deserve to be on show that have to be exhibited in the
places least favourable to their conservation, although this objection carries a
little less weight now there has been a change of attitude towards masterpieces
considered as star attractions., The more art is seen in relation to its context,
the broader and more even the basis of the interest in works of art-including
those considered as secondary. The advantage of dividing the collection into
zones lies rather in the field of organization and social service than in that of
conservation. Most museums, if only for reasons of space, practise some such
form of zoning.
When the museum is being built, it is essential to analyse all the possibilities
and their implications in depth (Fig. TOT).
Lighting
9. See also: Robert R. Feller, Control of the

Deteriorating Effects of Light upon Museum Objects,
MllseKm, Vol. XVII, No. z, 1964; and ICOM,
La Lumikre et la Protection des obiets et SoCcimens
ExposCs dans les Muses et Galleries dArt:
Eclairage dcr CEiurex dArt, Paris, Association
Franaise de IEclairage, 1971.
We shall examine below a few special matters which relate to the principles of
conservation but which have a profound influence on architectural design.
Strictly speaking, all light is harmful to the object and contributes to its ageing.
The exceptions to this rule are only differences of degree, for example oil
paintings, which do not need to be kept in total darkness. It is necessary to
distinguish between: (a) damage resuIting from direct exposure to the action
of rays and which may vary according to intensity, duration, wavelength
(ultra-violet rays, for instance) and climatological conditions; (b) damage
produced by the effects of lighting on the climate (for instance, raising the
temperature of the rooms).
Scientific measurements show the following values are to be acceptable and
they are accordingly recommended: for organic materials, textiles, graphic
works, maximum of 5 o lux; for oil paintings, maximum of I 5 o lux; for other
objects, a higher or lower number of lux, according to the fragility, the thickness of the surface, the chemical composition, etc.
The reflectance of the objects and the colour temperature must be taken
into account. Ordinary daylight may exceed IOO,OOO Iux, which means that it
nearly always has to be reduced in a museum. The type of lighting and the way
in which it is installed are determined by the limit of tolerance of the object.
This should be scientificallv calculated in each case. thus makine it Dossible to
arrange exhibits in groups according to their t~lerance.~
Generally speaking, it may be said that the deflation in the degree of conservation contrasts with the mounting inflation in the number of lux which
is to be observed today.

Requirements thus differ not only within one and the same museum, but
also between various types of museums. Thus, the original objects in an
archaeological museum require quite different measures from those called for
by the reproductions and models in a museum of technology. The architectural
typology of the museum is strictly determined by the constructional measures
which have to be taken for the conservation of the collection.
Daylight varies greatly in intensity, direction, wavelength, etc., and is hence
difficult to regulate depending as it does on the climate. The problem of daylight is inseparable from that of space and for this reason it is responsible for
countless architectural successes and countless failures. Both static and mechanical means can be used to protect objects against the harmful effects and
fluctuations of this light.
Initial planning plays a decisive role. It goes without saying that an enclosed
building with fixed and well-insulated walls, small apertures and a low level
of lighting does away with many problems. But other, equally difficult problems arise. Harmony between the space and the source of light is of prime
importance. For instance, a very high room with a relatively small overhead
opening may be well lit by the light reflected on to the walls; in addition, the
height of the room facilitates the natural circulation of the air (Fig. 101).
An opening facing the side away from the sun may have advantages. In the
case of a saw-tooth roof or a similar structure, care must be taken that the
architecture does not 'killy the exhibit. It may be necessary to have a ceiling
through which the light is diffused, and this will have to be set fairly far away
on account of the undulating contours of the shadow. Then, the intensity of
the light will have to be checked to make sure it is adequate. In the case of a
lateral wall built on the saw-tooth principle, its deliberately discontinuous
character and the risk of dazzling and exposure to oblique light reduce the
flexibility of the display. For reasons explained elsewhere, it is doubtful
whether unilateral exposure, when a predominant feature, is a good thing
(Fig. 103).
IO2
There are various fixed appliances for the purpose of diffusing light and
providing shadow. Absorbent panes of glass or film, the density of which can
be chosen, go only some way towards reducing harmful radiation. In the case
of objects which are sensitive from the aesthetic point of view (paintings),
one must take into account the fact that they alter the colour of daylight.
Absorbent panes which at the same time diffuse the light greatly are not
suitable for objects whose effect lies in their form.
Slatted or latticed sun-screens are effective only if they are placed outside
the weather barrier (the pane of glass). Their shape depends firstly on the
sun's orbit-in other words, on the latitude-and, secondly, on the direction
I02
High room with relatively small skylight.

Good lighting due to: (a) the relatively
high proportion of room area covered by
the central light; (b) side light reflected
from walls from a considerable height.
103
Lateral wall built on the saw-tooth

principle. Risk of dazzling and exposure to
oblique light. Monotony, limited
flexibility of display.
214
Conservation
'
ro4
Claustra. The claustra casts a shadow on
the exhibits and often (as is the case here
this is not on the right scale, making the
objects difficult to see.
in which they are facing. If sun-screens are non-adjustable, it is difficult to

eliminate the disturbing effects of light and shadow caused by the sun's changing position, which can ruin a carefully planned display. The absence of maintenance costs is an advantage (Fig. IO$).
Adjustable regulating appliances are best suited to the variability of natural
light, and afford the great advantage that the apertures can be kept open when
luminosity is slight, and all the available light can be let in. They can be
regulated according to the angle of incidence of the light, and they perform
four functions: (a) they afford protection against the sun; (b) they regulate the
intensity of the light; (c) they diffuse the light; (d) they may be used to reflect
artificial light (inside). When fixed proportions are laid down, a single fitting
cannot perform all these functions. The diffuser is not effective unless it is kept
clean, which can only be done if it inside the building-but this is incompatible with its being used as a sun-screen to regulate the intensity of the light.
A dimming device is necessary, principally so that the effect of the light can
be reduced as far as possible outside visiting hours. If there are only a few
objects which need to be protected, it is possible to install a directed dimming
device (for showcases, for instance). Automatic control is preferable, to ensure
smooth running. It is often difficult to find room to install it, so it is as well to
think about it fairly early on. Unfortunately, the visual disturbance resulting
from the equipment available on the market affects the architecture considerably and also the intimate relationship between the object and the visitor,
which is most important. The way in which such fittings are designed is of
major importance for the museum using natural lighting. An unobtrusive and
accurate regulating mechanism is still to be invented.
Light coming from the side facing away from the sun (northern light or,
for the southern hemisphere, southern light) has the advantage of being
relatively constant with regard to both its physical quality and its physiological
eEect. A certain monotony is inevitable when it is used exclusively, especially
when the light is not very intense. This reduces the validity of one of the main
arguments in favour of daylight, namely that it is subject to variations, which
are the essence of life. One can perhaps go so far as to say that a choice must
be made between a complicated device to provide protection against the sun
and an excessively bleak monotony. Differences in the quality of the light open
up possibilities in the interpretation of the objects. In practice, when light from
the north has been chosen for reasons of preservation, it has proved profitable
to enhance it by means of a certain amount of southern light, possibly in the
'

form of reflected light. Lighting from one side throughout an entire building
has a leaden effect on the basic architectural design, and makes it necessary to
arrange the various rooms on the same lines. It is possible to introduce a
greater or lesser degree of variation between rooms, but the fact that the light
always falls on one of the sides and that the other side is invariably chosen as
the hanging surface is psychologically inhibiting and produces stereotyped
patterns of presentation.
Reflected light has a greater effect and significance than is generally recognized, owing to the fact that daylight, which in any case is diffuse, rebounds off
all the surfaces in the room. The reflectivity, the colour and the structure of
the surfaces give the whole room its tonality. In general-particularly in hot
countries-the lighting and heating effect will be still found to be pronounced.
One of the advantages of indirect light lies in the fact that the harmful ultraviolet rays are absorbed in the course of the phenomenon of reflection; its
disadvantage is that it alters the colours in a way which is not desirable in a
museum. In the architectural conception of the problem of lighting, indirect
light should be usd for background lighting and direct light to add emphases.
Reflections from surrounding buildings and trees can be very important,
and may become a decisive criterion in the choice of a site. For instance, many
of the opportunities of using daylight are lost if there is a skyscraper towering
up in front of the sun (Figs. IOJ, 106).
2IJ
2h
rol
Roughly speaking, daylight can be
considered adequate when the ratio of the
height of a neighbouring building to its
distance from the window is at least I : 2.
-0-
Humidity and temperature

Temperature and humidity are closely bound up with the problem of light.
The reader will get some idea of what this means from the fact that, in a
building in which 50 per cent of the surface area of the outer walls consists of
glass panes, the latter are responsible for as much as 80 per cent of heat-loss.
Here too, constancy is desirable. Fluctuations over a long period are less
harmful than sudden variations in temperature, as is shown by the relatively
satisfactory state of historic works of art that are kept in buildings in which the
temperature varies little (churches, for instance). Recommended temperatures
range from about 1 8 to
~ zoC for an atmospheric humidity of J O to 66 per
cent, with a maximum of 70 per cent in damp climates and a corresponding
temperature. It is to be noted that even these figures constitute a compromise
with the conditions of human physiology, since considerably lower temperatures are better for the preservation of more fragile objects. The measures to
be taken depend, on the one hand, on the geographical and urban situation
(dust, fumes, etc.) and, on the other, on the physiochemical make-up of the
object. If the temperature-humidity ratio is higher or lower than the appropriate figure, either dehydration, cracks, etc., or condensation, accompanied
by the formation of mould and bacteria, will result.
With regard to planning, it is to be borne in mind that it is basically easier
to humidify than to dehumidify. While it is possible, to a certain extent, to
achieve humidification by natural means (by providing water surfaces),
dehumidification can be performed only by mechanical means. At the stage of
architectural design, care should be taken to avoid the formation of stagnant
air-pockets which could give rise to mildew. This makes it necessary for
studies of fluid dynamics to be carried out, with a view not only to allotting the
space available but also to arranging the rooms. Fumes can be eliminated only
by ventilators provided with filters, which may be used for general air-conditioning or be specially designed for certain objects (for instance, an air-filter
which absorbs sulphur dioxide).
According to the nature of the exhibits, steps must be taken to ensure that
the whole of the museum is dust-proof, which means either installing an
artificial ventilation system or placing the exhibits in dust-proof showcases,
with or without ventilators. In manv countries-esDeciallv in troDical areas-it
106
The tendency of a reflecting wall to

affect colour and raise temperature
(particularly in warm climates).
Conservation
216
is recommended that visitors be made to pass through an unobtrusive device

which absorbs dust and humidity.
NATURAL VENTILATION AND DAYLIGHT
In museum architecture, the requirements of conservation can be met at very

different technical levels.
If natural ventilation and daylight are chosen (artificial lighting being used
merely to supplement it), efforts will have to be made to meet the main requirements by climate-adapted building, that is to say by using only specifically
building techniques to regulate the effects of the climate.10 These may be:
I . In the general planning of the project and the over-all design of outer walls
comprising a proportion of openings and of enclosed areas adapted to the
contents of the collection, providing for the openings to be facing in an
appropriate direction and, if need be, for an arrangement which is in accordance with the principles of fluid dynamics. It is also necessary to take account
of environmental engineering from the ecological point of view, especially
with regard to the humidity rate and the reflection of heat.
2 . Determining the dimensions of the rooms on the basis of the climate, for
instance: rooms with high ceilings in a hot climate, natural circulation of the
air both vertically and horizontally, etc.
3. Providing for weather-insulation and employing appropriate building
techniques (walls of several thicknesses, double glass panes, etc.).
4. Using materials capable of withstanding extreme climatic conditions, for
instance: hygroscopic materials in a dry climate, waterproof materials in a
damp climate, etc.
Such measures-which cannot all be dealt with here-have a profound influence on museum architecture, but they must be adapted to each particular
case. They afford the advantage of not giving rise to mechanical breakdowns
and not entailing large operating costs. If they are to operate economically,
however, a higher outlay on the building is necessary. Owing to considerations
relating to natural ventilation (high ceilings, air-cushion, etc.), the volume to
be built will be greater than other factors would necessitate (Pig. 107).
Although climate-adapted building makes it possible to obtain appreciable
results, its possibilities are limited. If one relies on its effectiveness alone, unsatisfactory conditions of conservation will often have to be accepted.
ARTIFICIAL AIR-CONDITIONING
IO.
See Appendix II, page 269.
AND DAYLIGHT
For this reason, most museums employ artificial atmosphere regulation,

while continuing to use daylight. Atmosphere regulation-or air-conditioning-may be partial or complete. In general, one starts from the principle that
the most important rules associated with climate-adapted buildings should be
obeyed, and that a mechanical air-conditioning plant should also be provided.
As one will certainly wish to take advantage of the excellence of daylight for
displaying the exhibits, the air-conditioning plant must perform the following
functions: (a) make it possible to obtain maximum benefit from the daylight
and to guard against its fluctuations; (b) offset sudden changes in the weather
that the building material (glass, for instance) cannot absorb; (c) in most cases,
overcome the effects of heat or cold; (d) keep fresh air circulating. In comparing
the cost of complete mechanical air-conditioning with that of a solution based
solely on climate-adapted building, it should not be forgotten that the first
may require as much as a third of the total volume of the building, depending
217
107
ff
,A L,ll
1111111
1111II
Diagrammatic suggestion for acclimatization

in a hot, dry tropical climate. Simplified
cross-section. Movement of air through
and up a central hall which acts as a
chimney, extending vertically the height
of the building. Humidity ensured by
air sucked in over water surfaces. Shade
from roof projections perforated for
ventilation. (Design varying according to
direction in which the museum is facing.)
on the size of the unit, and that, generally speaking, it does not lead to a
reduction in the volume built. From the technical point of view, it is recommended that the building be divided up into sections according to the different
types of environment and use (conditioning of the object, special sections).
In a museum lit by daylight, it is often difficult to house such bulky machinery.
For the sake of the psychological economy of the display section, the exhibits
should not have to compete with radiators, exhaust pipes and ventilation
shafts; in other words, the latter should be in the background or not visible
(concealed, for instance, behind false ceilings or walls). From the stage of
architectural planning onwards, allowance must be made for the large amount
of space required by the air-conditioning conduits, and this may in some cases
have a decisive effect on the project (Fig. 108).
ARTIFICIAL AIR-CONDITIONING AND ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING
Technological progress in the creation of an artificial environment has

finally reached a stage at which both lighting and atmosphere regulation are
entirely artificial. This poses problems which belong to the technical sphere.
Constancy, flexibility and regularity can undoubtedly be guaranteed within
fixed limits. The outer walls can be closed and can be well insulated; large
installations and pipe-systems can be positioned and controlled visually. Even
where there are undesirable light-rays, they can be investigated and dealt with
more accurately than can daylight; an artificially regulated atmosphere can be
kept constant.
The focal point of the architecture becomes the arrangement of internal
space, on which the relationship between the object and the surroundings
depends. The problem of light is really a question of the technique used for
lighting. If all the opportunities offered by artificial lighting are used, a large,
108
I-
I=
II_
II
Pressure gradient
II _ L
l
The pressure gradi.ent of air-conditioning

systems designed to meet conservation
requirements should lead down from
sensitive towards less sensitive areas or
exhibits. The arrangement of the rooms
should be taken into consideration at the
earliest possible stage in planning.
Conservation
flexible space (open plan design) must be chosen. Consequently, there will
be no appreciable distinction between this space and other neutral structures
which are used for all kinds of purposes and which are to be found throughout
the world.
109
Plan for a multistorey museum lit by

daylight. Simplified cross-section. Light
should preferably be obtained from
north-facing windows or skylights (southfacing in the southern hemisphere) in
order to avoid exposing the exhibits to
direct sunlight. Satisfactory lighting of the
lower storey is difficult.
The differences are so deep-seated that a basic distinction must be made

between a museum using daylight and a museum using artificial light.
A museum using daylight, establishing as it does a dialectical relationship
between man, space, light and object, is complicated and makes no claim to
perfection in the rational sense. Primary importance is accorded to man and
display, in their sociological, psychological and physiological interdependence.
There are many obstacles to the free development of this relationship, but they
call forth unexpected solutions. Two building problems predominate: first,
the number of storeys. If a museum using daylight is to be used effectively and
afford the same resources as a museum using artificial light, it must be able to
avail itself of the whole spherical horizon. Only a single-storey museum can
fully meet this condition; if similar conditions are to be obtained in a building
of several storeys, the different storeys must each be set back considerably.
It is not satisfactory to set them back a short distance, on account of the
oblique light and the reflection of the wall above.
II0
In multistorey buildings higher storeys may

be set back to allow daylight to enter
through the roof of the storey immediately
below. Oblique light, illumination
decreasing sharply from top to bottom
of the wall, relative darkness of the
middle of the room. Simplified crosssection.
There remains the problem of the middle area, which, in certain cases, is not
sufficiently well lit by daylight to meet the requirements of display (Figs. 109,
IIO).
Secondly, flexibility is much reduced.
h d
III
Museum lit exclusively by artificial light:

extensible on a vertical plane
(cumulative); extensible on a horizontal
plane; flexibility of presentation;
adaptable lighting (the direction,
intensity and nature of the light may be
changed at will). Conservation is
considered the first priority.
II. See
page
205.
A museum using artificial light places most emphasis on the preservation of

the exhibit, for the sake of which the visitor and most of the exhibits have to
exchange their natural environment for the artificial environment of the
museum. For this purpose the architecture offers the setting of a large, superimposable and highly adaptable space. The space within which the specific
museum experience takes place is arranged after the basic setting has been
established, like a theatrical setting. In the absence of overriding considerations,
the architecture can provide only a neutral structure resembling that of warehouse. As to its fitting into the urban framework, there are two possibilities,
which are mentioned at the beginning of this chapter.ll
A building which goes back a long way, which has glass walls, and is mainly
lit by artificial lighting, is in much the same position as an artificially lit museum
(Fig. I I I ) .
219
II2
DENVER
ARTMUSEUM,
Denver.
Artificial light only is used for presentation
of the exhibits. The scattered window I;lits
serve the purely psychological purpose of
providing orientation and a change of
scene. Architects: James Sudler
Associates, Denver; Gio Ponti, Studio
P.F.R., Milan.
Since ecological and sociopsychological considerations are also involved, an

interdisciplinary problem arises. The choice between daylight and artificial
light should be made in each individual case bearing in mind considerations
relevant to the human and the exact sciences. In one case, the architecture is
also a clear expression of what occurs in the museum; in the other case-if it
is to be consistent-its effect is neutral; the implications of the decision are
such that economic considerations should not be decisive (Fig. 112).
220
Side entrance
Hospitality
,
I
Creative activities
Temporary exhibitio
.....D
Main entrance
Public
II?
Schematic path diagram. The main lines

of communication between different
sections and areas, indicating varying
degrees of accessibility to the public.
Semi-public
Semi-internal
I
Internal
221
Funetions
Space and circulation
The foregoing chapters were concerned partly with man in his psychosomatic
complexity and partly with the object in its material substance. The considerations which follow stem from architecture, that is, from the laws governing
the ordering of space. Since things, in Goethes words, clash violently in space,
space must be so ordered that the desired operational processes may function.
The word function has its origins in the industrial way of thinking of the
previous century, and appropriates to itself the utilitarian logic of the machine,
which is non-stop and automatic. In any case, this interpretation soon came to
be contested, since the complexity of architecture cannot be compared with
the mode of operation of a machine, and it is possible to distinguish therein
both a utilitarian and a non-utilitarian aspect. In the following pages, we shall
endeavour to treat the subject systematically in so far as it relates to construction; in doing so we shall undoubtedly find it necessary to link those functional
qualities which can be measured in objective terms to those which call for
subjective interpretation.
The relative disposition of space and arteries and other channels of circulation (paths) necessarily derives from the basic concept elaborated by sociology, physiology and physiochemistry, which not only furnishes the decisions
of principle, but if one is to be consistent, must continue to serve as a guiding
directive, down to every detail. It is possible to deduce from this concept
operational processes and spatial qualities which must bear a structural resemblance to the mental construct, that is, must belong to a particular order. To
be sure, this order cannot be grasped in strictly functional terms in the
exhibition area. Order may be undesirable if the effect of disorder is consciously sought after, for example in contrast to the efFciency-minded world.
Clearly, then, in the museum as nowhere else, considerations of utilitarian logic
must be subordinated to certain guiding principles deriving from some higher
order. In the functional sphere also, the objectives must be so formulated as to
allow room for interpretation.
Display area
SYSTEMS OF
ARRANGEMENT
The holdings of a pluralistic museum can be arranged in accordance with

different internal schemata which entail extremely varied spatial forms and
relations. The following are but a few examples taken from the infinite number
of possibilities:
Topological arrangement, which may conform more or less closely to certain
internal sequences, but without any attempt to impose a geometrical pattern.
This principle of dispersal gives little indication as to the type of architecture suitable as its framework (Fig. 114).
Functions
222
Systematic arrangement, either horizontal (for example, according to the

materials) or vertical (for example, chronological). On the basis of scientific
considerations, a specific, continuous sequence of developments is posited,
which leads to the principle of the arrangement in series. The criterion of
serial arrangement may be didactic, thematic, or comparative (Fig. II)).
Systematic superimposition of two or more types of arrangement. Grossreferences are brought into evidence by means of the pattern of spatial
relations. This process may take place on one or indeed on several levels
(Fig. 116).
Division of the collection into groups of exhibits that are similar in nature or
belong together (depending on content, scale, materials, and so forth).
These groups are then housed in separate pavilions, which allows the
architecture of individual buildings to be adapted to each group of objects
w i d e 10 tho museum
. (Fig. 117).
II4
Arrangement based on visual (communicative) effect, the purpose of which is
Topological allocation of museum space
to display exhibits to maximum advantage. The architectural specifications
under a Buckminster Fuller geodesic dome.
Alexander Dorner, Architektzdr Wettbewerbe,
should be as conducive to the harmonious relationship between space, lightStuttgart, Icrmer, p. 38.
ing and exhibits as possible. Objects which are governed by similar conditions are grouped together, thus inducing a sense of the gradation of spatial
qualities (Fig. 118).
b
Arrangements admitting of interpretations from varying points of view, in
the light of additional information. These give rise to areas of varying
intensity and density, possessing focal points characterized by some special
spatial quality (where written oz audio-visual material may also be made
available) (Fig. I 19).
IIJ
Levels
of conservation, arranged in accordance with climatological consideraSystematic arrangement on the principle
of a series. Simplified ground-plan.
tions and grouped together for specific technical reasons (for example, a
Chronological
(vertical) arrangement
1r6
r16
Superimposition of several types of
arrangement (e.g. 'horizontal-vertical'
arrangements'oflthe collection or 1st
circuit-2nd circuit-store, etc.) by leading
visitors either along a radius of the
circle or in concenturic circles. Access is
from the centre of the circle. Simplified
ground-plan.
I I7
Exhibition area in the form of a complex

of pavilions allowing architectural design
to match content. Simplified ground-plan.
117
compact building is most satisfactory from the heat-exchange point of view).

The temperature (humidity, etc.) gradient may be dictated by considerations
relating to the public as well as to the exhibits. By sealing off the rooms as
appropriate, these various climates (macro, micro, mini) can be juxtaposed,
superimposed or enclosed one within the other (see Figs. 93 and 101).
Symbolization of an idea underlying the presentation. A system of arrangement
is chosen whose spatial structure generates associations connoting a particular semantic content. For example, a circuit spiralling upwards may be
compared with the progress of mankind; in other words, form is raised to
the rank of a sign (Fig. 1 2 0 ) .
I Artificial
light
223
! Sidelight
Overhead
1 light
I Daylight
II8
Arrangement based on visual effect,

display of exhibits to maximum advantage.
Here daylight is the determining factor.
Simplified ground-plan: gradation of
spatial qualities; courtyard containing
collection of sculpture; collection of
paintings-daylight; collection of
drawings-artificial light.
BI
M
L
!
/ Drawings
-.IL
iPaintings
Ql
Paintings
1I
! @ n
!
I
i m
Sculpture
! 3
I
II8
Staging of a collection, where diachronicity is used in the same way as in the

theatre. The spatial framework must be both neutral and flexible, in order
that it may serve for the performance of successive representations (Fig. 121).
In each of the foregoing systems of arrangement, quite different functional
relations emerge not only in regard to the mode of presentation, but in the
over-all context of the museum. The disposition of the rooms, their situation
in relation to each other, and their ordering, that is the general layout, will in
each case be radically different. It is not possible to evaluate the different
systems of arrangement in general, as there are always special circumstances
to be considered, and in this respect also each museum must work out its own
style. To be sure, conflicts with sociological, psychological or other criteria
may arise, which may prevent a functional conception from being put into
effect as a principle of spatial organization. A creative leap is always needed in
order to unite a theoretical system with an architectonic system, with the many
constraints to which it is subject.
The functions deriving from the type selected are necessarily reflected in
the programme as qualities of space or surface which have only to be defined
quantitatively at this stage, once they have been clarified in terms of the ideal.
In the same way, the nature and frequency of traffic flows between groups
of rooms must be established as exactly as possible.
In designing a museum, particular difliculties arise in establishing the exact
dimensions of the exhibition area, since generally valid, rational criteria are
relatively few and far between. For this purpose one can take as ones startingpoint, either space (for example, approximately 2.7 linear metres of hanging
surface or 7 square metres of floor surface per painting) or time (for example,
two hours taken as the average length of museum visits). Figures of this kind
are however valid only for the case in point, and are put forward at best as an
approximate guide, since both the objects and the system of arrangement tend
to vary considerably. Accordingly, the actual area needed can be determined
only by means of statistical comparisons with other similar institutes, trial
layouts and scientific experiments (for example using hodometers).
jkl- p
i
113
The architectural design conforms to the

type of interpretation aimed at. Here, for
example, the Ist, 2nd and 3rd (store)
circuits are each treated differently.
I20
WORLDMUSEUM
OF THE MUNDANEUM,
Geneva (Switzerland).
Human progress symbolized by an
extended spiral. Project 1929, Le Corbusier.
ACCESS
The functional capacity of the chosen form of organization is deduced from an

examination of the internal system of access and the distribution of visitors.
As this is a problem of traffic, the laws governing traffic management can be
applied i~zufatisizz&atzdis. The question can be approached in terms of a general
distribution along certain main directions of traffic flow and a more detailed
breakdown within groups of rooms-although the means of locomotion
(perambulation) is in both cases the same. The architectural spaces must be
planned accordingly, and must offer a variety of focal points, vistas and changes
of mood, as is done on a larger scale in town-planning policy.
121
Exhibits arranged as on a stage with

maximum flexibility: no supports within
the exhibition area, external bearing
frame; adjustable levels, e.g. podia
~
~
~
~
~
~
if necessary excluded by means of mechan~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
assembled and changed at will.
z2-
be
Functions
7-24
-A
123
A twisting circuit around a central hall.

Access from a staircase in the middle
which links the different levels.
I22
A rectilinear circuit.
The following is intended as a critical analysis of some of the basic possibilities which arise in this connexion. From the functional point of view, we
shall be mainly concerned with strictly objective and practical (working) considerations, since psychological and other similar factors are best left out of
account at this stage.
A basic distinction can be made between systems affording centralized and
decentralized access, according to whether there is just one entrance (and exit)
or, alternatively, the collection can be approached from a number of sides.
Centralized systeilzs of access
124
An itinerary which weaves in and out,
often involving use of a ramp, endeavours
to counterbalance the constraints inherent
in an exhibition by introducing an
element of surprise. Simplified groundplan.
A
1z.J
Comb-type layout. An entrance at one end

of the 'comb' leads into a central axis,
off which one can wander at will into
successive exhibition areas, varying in size.
The main advantages of such systems are the possibilities of control and surveillance which they afford. Only in such systems can the visitor be systematically guided along a predetermined path. A certain disadvantage lies in the
fact that before coming to a particular object he has always been subjected to a
number of other prior impressions.
A layout based on the principle of arterial flow implies that visitors have to
keep moving along, and thus to a certain extent entails the idea of a 'conducted
tour'. The visitor may be 'conducted', more or less noticeably, by means of
different architectonic forms, which will lead him on continuously, in what is
bound to be to some extent a stereotyped manner, from start to finish, even
though he may be able to cut short his visit at certain points.
The arterial flow may be:
I. In a straight-or
more or less straight-line, as in the case of the suites of
rooms (with or without interpolation of cubicles) to be found in old
museums, and also some new ones (Fig. 122).
2 . Twisting so as to follow the line of the atriums or meanders of the ground
plan, on one or on several floors; some two-thirds of all museums are built
on the lines of the classical atrium (in particular, museums depending on
daylight) (Fig. 123).
3. Curved in circular or spiral form, on one or more floors (Fig. 67).
4. Weaving freely about; here, the visitor may end by losing his bearings if
geometrical constraints are done away with altogether (Fig;-124).
In all these forms, the continuous nature of the artery offers relatively few
alternative possibilities of presentation; this is especially so in the case of
narrow arteries.
A comb-type layout functions according to the principle of a central axis,
with ancillary loops offering a graduated succession of alternatives which may
at the same time correspond to the system of classification of the museum's
holdings. Access may be either from one end of the 'comb' or through one of
its sides. In the case where access is gained halfway along one side, the visitor
can immediately turn left or right and thus has a greater range of possibilities
(Figs. 1 2 j , 126).
A chain layout represents a loose sequence of self-contained display units,
each of which may be designed to blend with the contents, in respect of configuration, lighting, and so forth. The transitions from one unit to another
can be so arranged as to enable short-cuts to be taken (Fig. 127).
A star layout (for the whole area or part of it) was extremely widespread
around the turn of the century. Radiating out from its central point, it provides
access to sections of more or less equal significance, which, as in the case of
225
1.26
126
Entrance halfway along one side of the

comb offers the visitor a wider choice of
alternatives than given in Figure I Z J .
27
Chain layout. The different units can each

be designed to match their contents.
128
Access from centre of a star shape.
1.29
Access from centre of a fan shape.

comb layout, have no through-flow of visitors and so can be isolated. The

symmetry of the axial configuration presents a problem, as it can only seldom
be brought into harmony with the different elements of the collection (Fig. 128).
A fan type of layout offers the visitor a broad range of possibilities, obliging
him to make*arapid choice. In the case of large collections, this may be asking
too much of him so that he feels overtaxed. In other words, the advantages
gained from the informational and technical (traffic management) point of
view are transformed into a psychological disadvantage. Furthermore, a bottleneck may be caused at the entrance as a result of visitors bunching together.
Access may be central or-less satisfactorily-through one finger of the fan.
Within certain limits, the different fingers may vary in their dimensions and
configuration (Fig. 129).
-I-
bd
1.28
Functions
226
I 30
Access to a block arrangement. Simplified

ground-plan. Variations: (a) a large block
offers the widest range of possibilities if
access is central (the area is large enough
for flexibility to be unimpaired); (b) in a
small block access must be from the side so
that the whole of the limited area mav be
available for use.
A block arrangement leaves the choice of circuit free, according to where

the point of access is situated. The distribution of visitors can be regulated as
desired. When access is central, the approach must be from a different level if
the most is to be made of available possibilities (Fig. 130).
As a rule, the square or circular design and central access offer the widest
range of possibilities in this respect. However, this is true only in the case of
extensive display areas, since to have a fixed central point of access in smaller
rooms considerably limits their use. The problems referred to here concerning
the circulation of visitors can of course also arise in intermediate forms, or in
combination.
Decentralixed systems of access
Here, since there are two or more entrances and exits, the visitor is not required
to follow a particular circuit. He could be allowed to move about freely, as in
the areas reserved for pedestrians in town centres (of which the museum
could form an integral part); and since it is not always possible to see everything
I31
Decentralized access. Simplified groundplan. This system has advantages if the

twin problems of security and cloakroom
facilities can be satisfactorily solved
(perhaps by using electronic devices).
in a free-range system at a single visit, further visits will be required, enabling

him to make further discoveries. Until now, the socio-psychological advantages
of such an approach have in practice been nullified by organizational difficulties.
The proposal continues to be mooted, in theoretical works and in competitions; it has, however, already been put into practice in the somewhat similar
form of the exhibition street (Figs. 131, 132).
Speciai areas
12.
See Introduction, page 129.
The internal functions of the areas devoted to communication (multipurpose

space, etc.), practical activities (experimentation and work rooms), educational
activities (lecture halls and classrooms), refreshment (cafeteria, etc.) or administration (offices, mailing service) will not be discussed here, as most of
these areas function according to their own laws and are not peculiar to
museums.12On the other hand, we shall consider their place in the layout, their
227
A
132
'
spatial relationship to the display area as also the ways in which they interrelate.
Ideally, the administrative services, laboratories, workshops and mailing
rooms should form a functional sector of their own, with a separate entrance,
which must however be integrated as closely as possible into the institution
as a whole. In the case of the other areas, the question arises as to whether,
and to what extent, they can be integrated. In certain cases-for example areas
given over to practical activities and refreshment areas-part of the area will
be integrated (and open to the public), part will be left separate (for instance
to accommodate the supply services). Two approaches are possible: integration and separation.
ONTARIO
SCIENCE
CENTRE,
Toronto.
Architecture designed to incorporate a
number of different specific functions and
making good use of the site. Plan and
section: A. Entrance building; B. Core
building; C. Exhibition and work core;
D. Future exhibition; E. Future studio,
laboratory and library; I. Cooling pond;
2. Parking; 3. Pedestrian bridge;
4. Service tunnel; 5 . Administration
offices; 6. Great hall; 7. Soo-seat auditorium;
8. Lecture rooms; 9 . Connecting link,
elevators and escalators; IO. Terrace;
I I. Galleries; I 2. Future arboretum;
13. Future rest area; 14. Future exhibit
halls; IT. Parkland. Architect: Raymond
Moriyama.
Functions
228
Integration into the collection, which, particularly in the case of smaller

museums whose layout can be taken in at a glance, and whose holdings are not
especially fragile, can be both expedient and attractive. The intimate, relaxed
character of the museum is accentuated. The pre-condition is that all areas
must be as freely accessible as possible, from outside the museum as well as
from inside. Otherwise, the rooms set aside for rest and refreshment and
practical activities are not certain to be used to full capacity. The precise mode
of functioning is a question of organization and (possibly electronic) security
and surveillance (Fig. 133).
Separation-or the possibility of separation-of the special areas from the
collection and from each other. There are many arguments in favour of this
course: the separate use made of these areas (for example for evening courses),
the fact that they have different spatial qualities and the need to prevent disturbance from noise, the coming-and-going of visitors, and so forth. Since,
on the other hand, the museum must retain the character of an open house,
the architect has at one and the same time: (a) to divide off the areas in question,
using fixed or movable partitioning; (b) to ensure that they can be used for a
variety of purposes; (6) to provide transitional zones which can be connected
alternately to one or other area.
I33
Special areas integrated in a small museum,
As the layout of the whole area can be
taken in at a glance there is no need for
rigid demarcation according to function.
A
This can be achieved as follows: (a) by using light, adjustable partitions
possessing adequate insulating capacity; (b) by a judicious arrangement of
space which allows people to move easily and without commotion from one
place to another as desired (for example, areas of quiet, contrasting with areas
of noise); (c) by designing the technical (for example, air-conditioning and
lighting) installations of the different areas so that they can be used equally
well for joining together and separating; (d) by ensuring that the architectural
treatment of the different areas (in regard to acoustics, finishing materials, and
so forth) remains varied, but blends harmoniously when they are joined
together.
From the functional point of view, it is important to decide which areas
must remain in direct contact, adjacent to one another, and which need link
up only indirectly (groups of rooms). The principle of separate utilization
requires that as many special areas as possible should link up directly to the
entrance hall. Depending on what part the various functions are expected to
play, fixed or movable channelling devices will be used (Fig. 134).
The location of the storage rooms can also be considered in terms of the
choice between integration and separation. In this connexion, the question of
zoning for sociopsychological or conservational reasons plays only a limited
role. Generally speaking, the grouping together of the storage rooms is, from
the point of view of organization and building technology (air conditioning,
security, etc.), the most appropriate solution (Fig. 1 3 ~ )In
. its relation to the
display area, this group of rooms can be: (a) added on alongside or on the
229
I3 4
Access to special areas from the entrance
hall. Functional interdependence of special
areas.
Exhibition
Reference collection
periphery, so as to enable both areas to develop unimpeded; (b) located centrally, thus permitting easy access by visitors and easy removal and replacement of objects, but on the other hand imposing constraints in regard to presentation and also tending to the neglect of other functions (research, laboratory
work, administration).
Transit (circulation)
Architectonic functions can mostly be expressed in terms of circulation or
path diagrams though, here again, subjective considerations have to be taken
into account alongside purely objective factors. The importance of the part
played in this connexion by psychology is evidenced by the well-known fact
that to traverse a given itinerary frequently appears to the person concerned to
demand a much greater effort than is justified by the actual distance covered,
and vice versa. In other words, the way in which an itinerary is plotted and laid
out automatically generates certain responses. In museums a basic distinction
must be made between the circuit followed by the visitor, on the one hand, and
the paths taken by staff and transport, on the other.
AS has already been shown in the chapter relating to psychology, the circuit
followed by the visitor is not subject to todays paramount principle of e&ciency, and may be characterized as a voluntary detour. Its efficacity lies in a
sphere quite different to that governing the paths taken by staff or for the
13J
Peripheral position of store, with display,
study and storage areas on different
levels. Cf.Figure 133 with store in
central position. (Visitors are able to
view store from outside or. where
appropriate, use it.)
Functions
230
movement of exhibits, where the laws of economy of effort prevail and the
aim is the diametrically opposed one of minimizing the distance to be covered.
The paths taken by staff and for the movement of exhibits must accordingly
be planned according to this principle and, in general, must of necessity be
kept separate from those used by visitors. With regard to vertical means of transport (lifts), every effort should be made to site these centrally in the ground-plan,
in order to keep the horizontal distances as short as possible. This theoretical
point of gravity can nevertheless be shifted in so far as the amount of traffic
is not the same to and from all areas and tends to be heaviest in the direction
of the administrative services, workshops and so forth (Fig. 136).
In order to assess the functional soundness of a building, it is common
practice to analyse the relationship between useful space and space used for
circulation or transit. In the case of museums, however, this practice is appropriate only when applied to what goes on behind the scenes, since as far as
the collection itself is concerned no space should be reserved exclusively for
transit, seeing that every square inch should be used for display or relaxation
13 6
Path diagram showing how the visitor
saunters (above) and how staff and
exhibits follow a direct route from the
most central point of access (below).
purposes. It is also important that access to the special areas should not be
through bare, tunnel-like corridors, but through space that is attractively used
for display or other museum purposes.
Attention has already been called, in the chapters on town-planning and

sociology, to the need for an effective link-up with the urban structure. Generally speaking, new buildings are required to fit into an existing situation, or
are erected as part of a larger urban complex. In the latter case, there is theoretically every chance of achieving a satisfactory solution. In practice, however,
the solution achieved is unfortunately rarely happy, since other planning components take precedence. This may be due to any of the following factors:
(a) adherence to a pre-established town-planning policy; (b) greater economic
importance of adjoining buildings planned at the same time; (c) purely quantitative assessment of utilization; (d) disregard for the not immediately apparent
demands museums make in regard to their surroundings.
The inadequacy of new museum buildings is largely to be attributed to these
factors, and can be overcome only by giving priority to the museum, both in
terms of time and space, from the very start of the planning operation. This is
not to be understood as meaning that museums should be sited like monuments in a commanding position, any more than that they should be placed
in the way of passers-by like some great department store. Most truly
231
contemporary museums have a particular, reflexive relationship to the present,

a relationship which should also be expressed in the general approach to the
museum. Due weight must be given to the appropriate use of spatial means to
prepare the visitor and condition him, in order that he may begin to apply
other standards or values than those that prevail outside, and so make such a
voluntary detour seem worth while (Fig. 137).
These subjective considerations are virtually independent of the objective
factors governing the transit (circulation) system. In all cases, efforts must be
directed towards ensuring ease of access; however, it is not necessary that an
underground station open directly into the entrance hall (as has already been
proposed) or that the visitor be obliged to traverse a gigantic car park in order
to reach the collection. As the visitor approaches the museum, the tyranny of
the concrete jungle should gradually fade. The immediate precincts of the
museum, which have the exceptionally important function of serving as interface between the museum and the outside world, are reserved exclusively for
pedestrian use. This is why the entrance to major museums can be approached
on two levels, an upper one reserved for pedestrians and a lower level for
motor vehicles; it is for this same reason, coupled with a concern to spare the
museums surroundings, which are generally worth preserving, that the car
parks are situated either at a considerable distance from, or beneath, the building. The problem of motor traffic being a general one, we shall not pursue it
further (Fig. 138).
The functional relationship between the reception areas (courtyards and
the like), the entrance hall and the collection itself is further affected by the
problem of security. Even if it is frequently disputed, and is not everywhere
an acute problem, this is a factor which must be taken into account. At all
events, as large an area as possible should be kept free, surveillance being
exercised only on the actual collection. It could also only help to make the
museum more lively and attractive if some form of streaming of visitors were
practised already in the entrance hall. A major museum should not be accessible
only through the eye of a needle. There should,therefore be either discreet
channelling within the entrance hall or several ticket barriers or check points
should be positioned on a single axis of distribution along which all visitors
must pass. The solution adopted to this problem can have a significant effect
upon the architectural conception as a whole. The principle that the entire
collection must be kept in view for surveillance purposes, which tended in the
past to be regarded as an absolute criterion, made it well nigh impossible to
design smaller, more intimate rooms. Thanks to electrical safety devices, this
principle has nowadays lost some of its absolute validity. From the functional
point of view, transit (circulation) within the museum is governed by the fact
that the museum is divided into an on-stage area and a behind-the-scenes
area, in other words, there exists a public domain and a technical-cum-operational domain, just as there is a visitors entrance and an independent service
I37
Design for an extension of,the
Schomburg Collection, New York.
Plan: I. Passage; 2. Exhibition; 3. OfTices.
Here, the road runs into the entrance
zone. The collection is reached by a
pedestrian passage situated in the middle
of Harlem and can also be seen from a
walkway. Architect: Roger De Conrey,
Glasgow.
13 8
Pedestrians and motor vehicles can
approach large museums at different
levels. Internal or external staircases,
depending on the position of the (single)
ticket barrier or check point.
212
Functions
entrance. In addition, there are certain border-line sections. The more responsive the museum is to sociological trends, the more fluidwill be the transit
areas and the more difficult surveillance will become. The public should also
be allowed a glance behind the scenes, for example by means of windows let
into the restoration workshops, storage rooms and technical installations (for
example the conducted tour of the sky-lights in Gapodimonte). For this purpose suitable arrangements must be made at the design stage to enable the
visitors circuit to touch upon such premises at various points without affecting the security system. This bi-partition should naturally be as little apparent
to visitors as possible; this is best achieved by ensuring that there are no crossjunctions. The architects difficult task is to bring both domains so unobtrusively into relation with one another that both the internal link-ups (means
of access) and the systematic divisions (stair cases, etc.) functions moothly.
I39
CENTRE
GEORGES
POMPIDOU,
Paris.
External escalators give access to different
areas of the cultural centre in turn. Model
).
Piano
(see also Fig. 3 ~ Architects:
& Rogers; Ove Arup & Partners.
140
MUSEDES ARTSET TRADITIONS

POPULAIRES,
Paris.
The urban appearance of this museum is
determined mainly by the multistorey
research department. The single-storey
display area affords great flexibility of use
and the basement contains a reference
collection which is open to the public.
Architect: Dubuisson. Museologist:
Georges Henri Rivitre.
Under this heading we shall consider only the specific requirements in regard
to circulation facilities in museums. Their efficiency can only be assessed in
relation to the psychological function. Since there is in theory no space reserved
exclusively for transit in the display area of museums, there should be no
corridors or staircase wells to constrict fluid movement, in other words, the
circulation facilities must be made part and parcel of the presentation itself.
This can be achieved by eschewing: (a) all constriction or interruption, which
means for example that broad staircases will be preferred to long ones (not
to be confused with changes in rhythm); (b) to great vertical intervals (hence
for instance a preference for mezzanines and split-level arrangements);
(c) stretches of waste-land, providing neither information nor emotional
impact.
On the other hand, the vertical intervals (changes of level) must not be too
small (however attractiye this may be in architectural terms), as they can easily
be overlooked by the visitor whose attention is engaged elsewhere as well as
constituting an obstacle for the physically handicapped, as also for transportation purposes. Likewise, suspended storeys and galleries are to be avoided,
as they may appear to the visitor at first glance as being unlikely to reward the
physical effort involved.
Ramps offer a means of countering certain of these difficulties and securing
continuity of movement. However, their gradient should not exceed 6 per cent,
and they are bound, as a result, to take up considerable space (for example,
60 metres in length for 3.60 metres difference in level. Moreover, it is difficult
over this relatively long distance to arrange displays that are compatible with
the gradient (cf. the Guggenheim Museum).
Mechanical means of transport always call for a psychological adjustment
on the visitors part, in the case of escalators and travelling platforms by
taking up his attention and in the case of lifts by constricting and interrupting
the continuity of his experience. When mechanical means of transport are used,
it must be borne in mind that: (a) they offer no contrast to the world of efficiency; (b) they generally call for some form of decision on the visitors part;
and (c) mechanization almost always means collectivization. How far these
effects are considered suitable or indeed desirable will depend upon the type
of museum and its particular pretentions (for example, technical museums).
There are no objections to the use of such means of transport outside the
display area (for example, in the entrance hall), provided that the congruity
of the whole is not disturbed (Fig. 133).
Needless to say, quite different laws apply to the technical services. The
principle of economy of effort may even make it expedient to allow vans to be
brought into the exhibition area (for example, the area devoted to practical
activities).
23 3
Functions
234
I4I
Proposal for a large museum with

predominantly single-storey display areas.
Division into sections linked by
electronically controlled means of transport.
Maximum flexibility, extensibility and use
of daylight.
In this connexion, it is instructive to compare the horizontal with the Vertical

development of the museum building. In doing so, however, we shall confine
our discussion to the display area, since in the case of research, education,
administration and so forth, special considerations apply which are not peculiar
to museum practice (Fig. 140).
The single-storey display area offers the maximum possibilities, as far as
adapting space and natural light in order to show exhibits to their best advantage is concerned. Differences of level can further enhance the advantages of
this type of layout, which allows considerable flexibility and scope for extension, whether of the museum as a whole or of individual sections. There is no
doubt that the single-storey arrangement is ideally suited for smaller museums,
particularly those depending on natural lighting. For the publics sake, however, the collection must not be too large, in other words, this ideal solution
is applicable essentially in the case of smaller museums and site museums.
Since a big single-storey museum is likely to extend over a very large area, the
physiological criteria are decisive. It is conceivable that recourse to various
technical and spatial devices would make it possible to overcome this limitation
to some extent, but this would entail additional expense, as would the location
of all non-display sectors in basements (Fig. 141).
142
ARTMUSEUM,
Denver.
Example of vertical layout. Standard floorplan. Seven storeys, relatively high.
Architects: James Sudler Associates,
Denver; Gio Ponti, Studio P.F.R., Milan.
142
23 5
By contrast, vertical, multistorey development affords the advantage of

economic use of land and profitability. The behind the scenes technical
services also operate extremely smoothly, since communications can be concentrated vertically, with numerous junction points and short distances. Since
the efficiency of museum operation varies in proportion to their height, a
conflict arises between the measurable values and criteria governing museum
architecture and those that are not (or not yet) measurable. In many or most
cases, it is no longer possible to make a free choice; however, in cases where the
decision has not yet been taken, the following considerations should be borne
in mind:
I. The division into storeys splits the display once and for all into hard-andfast sections. Even when, to begin with, the collection falls naturally into a
division by stories, it will be subsequently impossible to modify this arrangement to any satisfactory degree. Flexibility is thus reduced.
2 . Natural lighting is adequate only on the top-most storey; on the lower
storeys the only lighting available is that entering obliquely from the sides.
The decision in favour of the multistorey museum is thus tantamount to a
decision in favour of artificial lighting.
3. The rooms will necessarily be arranged in vertical flights, since approximately the same volumes must be superimposed upon each other. Regardless
of the nature of the exhibits, the ratio between surface-area and duration of
visit is fairly constant (Fig. 142).
Certain of these drawbacks can be alleviated as follows:
I. Visual links between the different storeys (possibly also split-level arrangements) transcend as far as possible the horizontal divisions and thus give
rise to a sort of vertical open-plan arrangement in which objects and spaces
are brought vertically and diagonally into relationship with one another.
2. Natural lighting can be improved by disposing the storeys in tiers, thus
allowing sky-lights to be built into the peripheral areas. When combined
with terraces, the resulting building is on the model of a ziggurat, and has
the additional advantage of giving on the outside world (Fig. 143).
The concept of the architectural landscape, which is today so current, is a
conjunction of ideas that harks back to mans original need for living space,
and is undoubtedly particularly applicable to museums. It can be interpreted
in either the horizontal or the gertical sense to enable the architect to devise
means of attenuating the concern with efficiency and output which is the hallmark of the multistorey building (Figs. 144(a), (b)).
143
WALKERARICENTER,Minneapolis.
A building in.dggurat style. Plan of the
fourth floor with a view over the terraces:
. Terrace I; 2. Terrace II; g.Terrace III;
4.Restaurant; s. Kitchen. Architect:
Edward Larrabee Barnes.
r44(a), (b)
A linear system of architecture with
standardized basic structures which is well
suited to a transport museum. Plan and
elevation. Design for a transport museum,
New Delhi. PrinciDal architect:
L. G. Toye, Luckhow.
I4.J
CENTREGEORGES
POMPIDOU,
Paris.
The experimental room of the IRCAM
project is a good example of a multifunctional space, offering great optical and
acoustical flexibility. Architects: Piano &
Rogers.
Technology
Flexibility, extensibility
Building .is both an intellectual and a material process. Where as the intellectplanning and reshaping-is constantly astir, the materials remain fixed in the
form imposed upon them. Present-day building techniques have for the first
time made it possible to keep pace, to a certain extent, with the ever-accelerating operations of the human mind. There undoubtedly exists a relation-the
origins of which remain unexplained-between the stability of a building, that
is the expenditure of energy required to effect the transformation in question,
and the duration of human needs, that is the validity of the form established.
On the one hand, technology has the task of ensuring that the currently
required specifications are such as to provide workable material; on the other
hand, it is at the same time hvanced technology which has stimulated the
intellect to carry out unending modifications and experiments. It is precisely
in the field of museum construction that a new philosophy has developed concurrently with the new operational methods available to architecture, including
the latitude they afford for imaginative innovation. In the planning of each
particular museum, it is accordingly essential to clarify at the very outset
whether, and if so what, modifications are necessary and what limits can be
drawn.
The reasons for this uncertainty have already been indicated in the foregoing
chapters; in the present chapter we shall take them for granted. They are of
three kinds: (a) practical, relating to the exhibits themselves, and involving for
example, the extension or modification of the collection (purchases, donations,
functional extension); (b) conceptual, deriving from a reappraisal or a new
approach (involving new correlations and focal points); (c) technological,
relating for example to new possibilities of conservation or interpretation,
including architectural possibilities (all too easily forgotten). The considerations which act as a check upon unbridled extension include: (a) the scientifically proven limit to mans receptivity; (b) the alienating effect and the inhuman scale of major complexes; (c) the need to anchor the object in some spatial
or temporal continuum. The concept of an infinitely expanding museum is as
frightening as that of a hypermarket stretching on and on. The primary
phenomenon of locality, rooted in the philosophical consciousness, must be
taken into consideration and the stability it implies must be brought step by
step into a dialectical relationship with the dynamics of development.
The properties that make it possible to modify the function of an existing
space to meet a new requirement-which must be organically integrated with
the over-all utilization of space-are adaptability and extensibility. These two
terms can be distinguished as follows: a building is considered (a) adaptable
if it is specially designed to allow its functions to be modified with a minimum
of technical resources and organizational work; (b) extensible if its design
principle is such as to enable structural uniformity to be preserved as the
building grows. (Fig. 14~).
Adaptability and extensibility are thus inseparable; in other words, a coherent
extension of the museum may be accompanied by a modification of the uses to
which it is put. The following possibilities may accordingly arise:
I . The museum can be enlarged without any major modification of the existing
building. For the purpose of this relatively simple process of adding on
238
Technology
146
Extensibility. Simplified ground plan:
(a) continuation of existing forms and
structures is not to be recommended
unless the building work can be done
quickly and the over-all architectonic
effect has been carefully structured in
advance; (b) a new building on the
reserved site.
it is necessary merely to reserve additional building land and to justify the

appropriateness of the extension in architectural terms.
2. It must be possible to enlarge the museum in such a way as to allow its
content and structure to be reorganized and integrated into a unified whole;
in other words, the new additions must be properly planned so as not to
disrupt existing relationships, while the exhibits are rearranged and reattuned to their new setting.
3. The museum is not enlarged, but the arrangement of the exhibits is constantly modified so as to allow the focal points to be shifted and new relations to be established between the exhibits and their setting.
W i l e in the first case a new, independent structure can be selected, in the
second and third cases an over-all structure is required which must be sufficiently neutral and adaptable to lend itself fully to the modified uses to which
it is put.
Moreover, a basic distinction must be drawn according to whether these
modifications affect the museum as a whole or only sections thereof. For
example, the different sections of the display area are more or less prone to
change depending on whether their content forms a finished whole or is in
process of development. The decision reached on this question is of considerable bearing, since it has the effect of diminishing or extending the range of
architectural possibilities. The problem of adaptability is one that dominates
modern architecture as a whole; in the case of museum architecture, however,
it is particularly acute, since: (a) the future uses vary considerably and are
difficult to anticipate; (b) requirements with respect to space and light are
particularly high as regards both the public and the exhibits.
Examples of possible forms of spatial modification and extension are as
follows:
I. A new collection forming a coherent, independent corpus is added to the
existing collections-or made up from them, as they grow in size-without
impairing the structural integrity of the old building. The link-up with the
existing circuit must proceed either from the central area of access or from one
of the main arteries of circulation; a reorganization of the traffic paths in the
old building does not necessarily entail the alteration of its structure.
To house the new collection, the design of the old building may be extended
without interruption, though in cases where the extension operation is spread
over a number of years, such a solution is fraught with difficulties, as the former
design is generally antiquated and the building materials are no longer obtainable (differences in ageing, and so forth). Alternatively, the architecture of the
new building may be designed to contrast harmoniously with the old building
(Figs. 146~147).
2. Provision is made at the initial planning stage for the autonomous growth
of the specialized departments which must remain in the same relationship
once and for all. When the content of the future additions is more or less
known beforehand, the extension can be planned in several stages. The main
difficulty lies in the fact that a central or radial system offers the best guarantee
of easy access; on the other hand, the nucleus round which extension develops
must itself be able to develop consequentially. In other words, the advantage
of a centralized entrance area must be weighed against the resulting check
upon the growth of the centralized installations (information, communication
and activity sectors accessible from the centre). This inevitably restricts the
extensibility of star- and fan-shaped layouts (Figs. 148, 149).
The less centralized the layout, the easier it becomes to effect an extension of
individual sectors. A linear distributor belt offers a greater number of startingpoints and more independence vis--vis the ground-plan. This central path can
be either rectilinear (for example in the comb layout) or annular (as in the chain
layout). The individual sectors, whose design will reflect the nature of their
respective holdings, can be planned and extended independently. This is a
point of major importance for the museum as a whole; however, it does imply
that the pavilion-type sectors will remain fixed and will not subsequently
encroach or overlap upon one another. Such an assumption is not always a
very safe one (Figs. 110, 1~1).
3. The focal points and scale of the future growth of the collection cannot be
extrapolated from the existing situation; in other words, a major shift in the
use made of the existing premises may possibly occur. In such a case, a structure
must be chosen that is as uniform and neutral as possible, designed to answer
variable requirements, and that can be enlarged as the need arises-like an
239
147
NEWMUSEUMS
BUILDING,
Cambridge.
A building complex which is divided into
sections can be built in separate stages in a
way which is technically as well as
visually acceptable. Architects:
Arup Associates.
148
Extension of a building with a clearly
defined centre is only possible to a
limited extent as the central nucleus itself
cannot be extended in an architectonically
convincing manner. The figure shown here
is a five-pointed star. Simplified groundplan.
Technology
240
I49
JURONG
SINGAPORE
SCIENCE
CENTRE.
Extension in several stages. Individual
extension of the various departments.
Site-plan: I. Main entrance; 2. Public and
student entrance; 3. Staff and service
entrance; 4.Control gate for ecological zone
and V.I.P. entrance; 5 . V.I.P. entrance;
6. Teachers and staff entrance; 7. Workshops
entrance; 8. Loading and unloading area;
9 . Life-science gallery; IO. Science and
. technology gallery; I I . Bridge; I 2. Workshops; I 3. Special exhibits gallery;
14.Void; I 5 . Cafeteria facing ecological
zone; 16.Future extension of the gallery;
17. Future courtyard; 18. Future extension
of store; 19. Park for 150 cars; 20. Park for
IOO motorcycles; 21. Future extension of
car parks; 22. Staff car park; 23. Ecological *!
zone; 24. Jurong Lake; 2 5 . Boundary line;
26. Future road to town centre. Architects:
Raymond Woo & Associates.
24
26
IJO
Extension of a comb-type system. A linear

axis of distribution makes it possible to
extend individual areas (to increase their
contents) or to add on other sections
without having to keep to a fixed system
of arrangement. Simplified ground-plan.
III
Extension of a chain layout on a site

reserved for museum use from the
outset. Independent design (or extension)
of individual buildings whose style matches
their content: I.Exhibition, old;
2. Lecture room, new; 3. Exhibition, new;
4. Research, new; 5 . Catering, new;
6. Administration, new.
industrial plant-using the same elements at different intervals of time. The

system of presentation is made flexible so that it can be adapted as appropriate
in line with the structural extensions. The crux of the problem is that the
technical constraints-particularly the regular repetition of the elements as in
a crystalline aggregate-may be detrimental to the free-ranging quality of the
presentation. For this reason, it is advisable in every case to space out the
supports at as wide intervals as possible and to design adjustable ceilings.
With this system there are no visual difficulties about subsequent extensions
(even after fairly long intervals of time) provided one has a fluid groundplan comprising projections and recesses (Fig. IJZ).
4. The growth of the collection is contained by a process of selection and
rotation. From the architectural point of view, extensions take place within
a pre-established framework providing functional adaptability over the entire
area (open plan). The advantage of this over the crystalline structure (see 3
above) is that all the load-bearing pillars can be located outside the main
stage, in or in front of the outside wall of the building, thus making available
a landscape, which can be adapted at will. Should an extension nevertheless
prove to be necessary, the approach taken should be that outlined in our first
example, since the system of supports is located on the periphery of the building and forms a self-contained whole.
j. In the case of continued growth, the exhibits can be split up and divided
among smaller museums in the region in question, for example in newly-built
satellite towns. This gives the subsidiary museums the opportunity to fill the
cultural vacuum created by new housing estates or which may exist throughout a particular province. Since there is not likely to be the same shortage of
land in such newly-planned estates, these satellite museums can be incorporated
into a wide-ranging programme of environmental development for cultural
and leisure purposes. A further advantage is that they will not be encumbered
with special sectors such as major storage rooms, or research and administration departments; in addition to display areas they will, however, need premises
for practical and other activities, workshops and amenities for visitors, if they
are to fulfil their task adequately. This method of extension can also be combined with the process of rotation, which has already been discussed in its
various aspects in the chapter concerning conservation.
241
It should be pointed out once more that we are dealing here again with the
extension of large museums according to the principle of decentralization and
not with museums relating to a particular site whose establishment and
operation are governed by quite different factors.
6. The extension of the special (non-display) sectors or areas gives rise to
Werent problems to those posed by the display area in that the framework
within which they must be tackled is not by and large very flexible. Given the
specific spatial qualities of these areas, it is very difficult to make any change in
the use to which they are put. The trend towards expansion is limited to the
individual sector and to the development of its particular functions. This
autonomy of development makes it advisable to separate the premises devoted
to practical activities, lectures and classwork, rest and refreshment, etc., from
the display area as such and to develop them as separate units, with their own
architectural forms which may serve to enhance the rest of the museum by
providing a contrast.
When the special sectors are housed predominantly in the centre of the
museum complex, provision must be made at the planning stage for adequate
reserve space into which to expand. It must also be taken into account in this
respect that a subsequent raising of buildings located within the ground-plan
is fraught with major technical difficulties and that non-built-up areas must
accordingly be kept free from the start.
Should the special sectors continue to expand, it may be found expedient to
I Jz
envisage complete spatial separation, which can be done either:
Extension of an open plan system based
I . By erecting on the available building plot self-contained, extensible pavion square units. Simplified ground-plan.
lions, and at the same time grouping together the presentation (Figs. 1j3,
1/41.
2. By foregoing all idea of spatial proximity and siting the special sectors in
another area of the town or of the region, where they will be able to develop
freely. This solution could be adopted whenever the building possibilities
of the plot have been exhausted. It should, however, be stated that such a
I3
WESTERN
AUSTRALIAN
MUSEUM,
Perth.
Building offering great flexibility in the use
of the premises, although optimum
adaptation to a particular function is
difficult.
Technology
242
II4
Extension by establishing a branch in a
different area of town. Plan of siting.
IJJ
MUSEUM
OF NATURAL
HISTORY,
Tokyo.
The research department is an extension
built approximately three miles from the old
museum.
solution means the end of the pluralistic, integrated museum as outlined in

the foregoing chapters (Figs. IJJ, 1~6).
In all considerations with regard to extensibility, a basic distinction must be
drawn between those relating to content and those relating to technical factors.
The collection can to a certain extent grow organically through the incorporation and exchange of cells. By contrast, the building process is always
one of addition, in which new crystals accrete to the old structure. Even the
so-called flexible building remains stable and limited as a construction, although
lending itself to a variety of different uses.
It is also to be noted that a master plan must be developed at the outset
with a view to possible future expansion of the museum (however unlikely
this may at first appear); such a plan should not go into too much detail, but
should at least establish the broad outlines of future extension.
It may further be noted that the various alternative layout systems are to a
greater or lesser degree conducive to extension depending on how far they are
compatible with a neutral design. A museum whose architecture possesses a
considerable symbolic value will find it more difficult to expand than one with
a neutral structure.
s y s t e m s of construction
The building of a museum consists in the twin processes of arranging the
materials of the collection and ordering the materials used in its construction,
the aim being to bring the two into harmony with one another. With the selfconfidence which was natural to an age not given to constant self-doubt, as is
the present age, earlier museum builders solved this problem with sovereign
authority. Our faculty for total recall has become so perfected that individual
convictions are accorded only minimal importance on the diachronic scale.
It is for this reason that museums in particular, whose activities bear upon
243
periods and intellectual spheres that are quite remote from one another, must
be on their guard against all rigid formalization of the type characteristic of
whatever is constructed. Museum architecture is thus torn between two
contrary requirements: (a) it must be as well suited to the exhibits as possible
(space, lighting and exhibits all forming a single unit); (b) it must make it
feasible to scrap existing units and replace them by others.
If architecture is understood in its strict sense, that is to say as relating to
the fixed structure, not the interior arrangement which can always be modified,
it becomes clear that it cannot meet both requirements in full at one and the
same time. The choice of the construction system will accordingly oscillate
within these two extremes, tending towards either a closed or an open system.
In order to make clear what are the advantages and drawbacks of these two
systems, we shall in what follows present them in the pure state.
CLOSED STRUCTURE
The closed structure is a self-contained, clear-cut system, such as is (judged

to be) best suited to a specific task at a particular moment in time. Architecturally, it is represented by specific, individual forms, which may be strongly
charged with a precisely modulated expressive value. Until quite recently, it
remained the sole mode of architectural thought. Not only was it the result
of a iertain technical incapacity of past ages; its conscious aim was to formulate
its own conception in all matters great and small, and to bequeath it as a legacy
to posterity. Similar aims may still be valid today in the field of museum
architecture and lead to the adoption of a closed system. Since by its very
nature such a system admits of a great number of individual variations, a general
technical description of it is not possible. We shall accordingly do no more
than illustrate it with a few examples (Fig. 1~6).
The architecture is suited to the chosen system of arrangement (see the
chapter on functions) and ideally embraces the object in a differentiated
environment (with respect to space and lighting). As each object finds its echo
in the architecture, everything goes to favour the dialogue between visitor and
exhibit. The psychological effect derives from the definitive character of the
constructed (realized) form, whose impact is thereby increased. The spatial
dimensions are determined in relation to the object, the constituent architectural elements being perceived as primary constructions in their own right; in
other words, the vision of the architect is reflected in every detail, right down
to the immediate surroundings in which each object is placed. R-evelation of the
static forces at work is the most important and most characteristic medium
of communication at the architects disposal. The visual link between construction and expression confers a convincing authenticity on the original
atmosphere of a treasure-house of original items (Fig. 117).
Accordingly, the walls and ceilings will be designed so as to ensure their
structural harmony with the exhibits, and their static function will be emphasized. The walls should be designed so that they are both suited to the exhibits
and also recognizable as stress-bearing structures, while the ceilings must be
constructed in such a way as not only to provide a protective canopy for the
exhibits but also to retain, visually, the character of supporting structures. The
building materials used in a museum do not serve merely as a back-drop; they
are also a determining factor in ensuring its cohesion. Masonry tends to find
expression in plane surfaces, steel lends itself best to linear structures, while
reinforced concrete possesses the property of linking horizontal and vertical
forces in a monolithic block. Thus each different building.materia1 bears a
different relationship to the object exhibited. An intractable brick wall, for
example, does not respond in the same way as a light concrete wall which can
be moulded at will (Fig. 118).
Solid-wall and skeleton construction processes are both quite feasible,
depending on the content of the collection. The former provides a subdued,
IJ6
Simplified ground-plan for a closed

structure.
244
r/7
NORTH
JUTLAND FINEARTSMUSEUM,
Alborg.
Here expressive forms and lighting make
the architecture striking, but they also
determine the space and presentation
possibilities. The ceiling sections are made
of a light material and could, theoretically,
be changed. Architects: Elissa and Alvar
Aalto and Jean-Jacques Barul.
118
MUSEUM,
Duisbourg
Modular system applied to a concrete wall.
WILHELM LEHMBRUCK
Technology
hermetic surface as back-drop, the latter thrusts into the visitors field of
vision-when it is systematically left visible-supporting pillars and props as
massive elements which may detract from the visual impact of the exhibits.
Generallg. speaking, the delimitation of space requires that recourse should
also be had to light elements whose role is visibly one of jointing and bonding.
The closed structure thus tends to find expression in walls rather than in pillars,
and the choice of the mzterials already constitutes a certain decision as to the
form.
In the actual construction process, conventional techniques tend to be
applied, the finishing work being done by craftsmen in a more or less durable
form. When the closed structure is used to maximum advantage, flexibility
becomes, in principle, of secondary importance. In practice, however, a variety
of intermediate solutions are encountered whereby partial modifications are
feasible:
I . Relatively large, high-ceilinged rooms, as are to be found in old mansions:
experience proves that these allow considerable scope for alterations, since
the load-bearing elements are spaced far apart from each other.
2. Alterations involving areas which do not bear any static load, using for
example light-weight structures that can be erected on the spot and taken
down at no great cost: the advantage of these, from our present point of
view, is that, thanks to their jointless, uniform surface, they appear to be
more permanent than they are.
3. Commutable sections, for example detachable ceiling panels and interchangeable transparent or opaque domed roofs.
All in all, the closed-structure system makes it possible to design a complex
which is custom-built. The ground-plan and elevation are worked out in
24 s
Flexibilitv. extensibilitv
considerable detail; a direct, optimal relationship between lighting and object is
also secured. Lastly, this system affords scope for an architectural interpretation of the collection which is not merely superficial, but penetrates to the
very structure of the building (Fig. 1j9(a), (b)).
The difficulty of this conception lies in the fact that the individual relationship between exhibit and architecture must necessarily be reflected in a design
that is unobjectionable both in static and in functional terms. Since he is also
working for posterity, the architect bears a considerable responsibility. There
is a great temptation to give free rein to personal interpretations or to take
the structural medium as an end in itself. In order to prevent any misunderstanding, it should also be stressed that we are not heie speaking of the creation
of a complex reflecting historical development, or of any kind of formalism,
but only of a conception which embodies the structural affinity between the
exhibit and architecture. Nor is this at all the same thing as over-emphasizing
--
/-----
I
\
19
This original design in the form of
ascending pyramids was developed to
solve the problem of displaying carpets of
varying length. Here large carpets can be
examined from galleries at various levels:
(a) section; (b) model. Design for
Government Museum of Decorative Arts,
Frunze, Kirgiz Republic (U.S.S.R.).
Architects: A. Marin, I. Michailev and
B. Revjakin. Engineer: B. Levinstein.
1/9 (It)
any particular elements of the building (for example the girders) as structural
motives, as this would run counter to the whole psychology of perception
as applied to museums.
OPEN STRUCTURE
The open structure does not have as its starting-point the differentiation of
functions and the careful study of individual sectors, which are finally integrated into an equally complex, architecturally closed system, but derives
rather from a general building principle which is made to subsume all functions, including those that will become known only at a later date. In order to
achieve this diachronic character, it is essential to be able at any moment to
Technology
246
review and readjust the available space in accordance with fixed architectural
and technical criteria. As a result, the conception itself is not based upon any
particular system of arrangement of the content of the collection, but upon
an empty, neutral cube, which ideally should be provided with power supplies
only (and the mains and other installations needed for this purpose should as
far as possible have no impact on the architecture).
The displays which succeed each other on this stage involve predominantly the use of interior design features similar to the wings of a theatre. The
requisite unity of space and exhibit is accordingly secured at the decorative
level, while the structure proper manifests an attitude which ranges from
passivity to tolerant goodwill. In accordance with the view that architecture
is primarily the search for forms that come to terms with the earths gravity,
no attempt is made to bring the object and the building into harmony with one
another-a harmony which is in any case unattainable since all true structures
are primarily fixed and can be flexible only secondarily in so far as they can be
put to a number of different uses. The relationship between the object and space
is therefore necessarily based upon contrast, which is particularly effective in
fine arts and archaeology museums, where it can be raised to the level of an
architectural principle, while in technical museums as also in museums of
modern art it need be emphasized less strongly.
This system makes it possible to match the interior architecture more or less
perfectly to the exhibit. By means of lightweight elements which can be
quickly put together, it is possible to adjust the spatial dimensions, the mood
and colours, as also the lighting-albeit only to a certain degree in the case of
natural lighting. In many cases, such an arrangement will prove satisfactory,
.and even highly desirable; it is not suitable, however, in the case of exhibits
of outstanding value or aesthetic appeal. The more dynamic the on-stage
action, the less solid must be the wings-not in the sense of their actual
fabrication but in their impact as judged from the standpoint of the psychology
of perception. For example, forms reflecting historical development cannot be
accommodated in a closed system, but can be accepted perfectly well as temporary arrangements and aids to interpretation. Moreover, desirable though
the establishment of a dialogue between visitor and object may be, in the case
of major exhibits there is a danger of its becoming non-committal and
superficial.
Open plan designs without pillars
The architectural conception of adaptable open plan design is based on broad
spans whose downwards thrust, concentrated on as few fulcra as possible, is
absorbed vertically. In order to avoid any reduction of the available area, the
load-bearing elements are placed in the vertical plane of the external boundaries,
or better still, outside the area demarcated. According to the same principle,
the trusses can also be situated above the roof, on the outside, in order to free
the entire area in the vertical as well as horizontal planes. This approach has
proved particularly effective in cases where it is desirable to avoid the visually
segmenting effect of shadows cast by beams or girders on a luminous ceiling
(Fig. 160).
Where multistorey buildings are designed without pillars but with ceilings
which are required to bear a relatively heavy useful load, the resulting supporting structures are likely, when the spans involved are considerable, to
reach storey height. These intervening storeys can be used for the purpose of
housing installations, which may just as well be situated relatively unobtrusively between the main storeys, since all the lower display areas will in any
case need artificial light. This will, however, appreciably detract from the
desired vertical continuity (see the chapter on psychology). It can therefore be
stated that the open plan arrangement without pillars lends itself best to the
single-storey type of construction.
247
I 60
Large open space with no pillars.

Simplified ground-plan. The wide bays
mean that the building can be enlarged in
two directions. The large area of available
surface ensures great flexibility and there
is no problem in adapting it to different
functions as the quality of the space
remains the same. See Figure 121.
From the functional point of view, maximum flexibility is obtained with a

modular system, which operates best when it embraces all three dimensions.
There are several reasons for this: (a) the neutral design is quite unrelated,
architecturally, to the objects; which are in any case interchangeable; (b) the
structure is self-sufficient and can as a result be erected in complete independence, from the rational and technical points of view; (c) the exhibits environment is made up of mobile components which can be handled most easily and
rapidly of they are modular; (d) the standard nature of the components facilitates
their assembly and fitting in place, as also their maintenance and servicing.
If the modular system is to be used to the best advantage, it is essential that
the ground-plan and elevation be split up into units of equal size, and that no
odd sections be left over. For this purpose, the following continuous geoI 61
metric systems may be used: the square grid with sub-components (for example, Extension of a hexagonal open plan
the isosceles triangle) (see Fig. IJZ), or the hexagonal grid with sub-components arrangement. Simplified ground-plan.
(equilateral triangles) (Fig. 161).
Modules of other shapes might also conceivably be chosen; by and large,
however, they result in over-complex structures.
Even if it is not considered practicable to divide up the whole interior into
equal units, an open plan design can still be achieved by use of other stereometric forms, since the buildings shell is in any case of secondary importance
only in the architectural presentation of the objects (Fig. 162).
With this type of design there should also be maximum flexibility in the
lighting arrangements. This gives rise to particular difficulties as regards
natural light, which should in principle be available at all points and from
every direction if one is to get the specific lighting desired in each case. Ideally,
therefore, the cube should be glassed in on all sides, like an enormous showI 6.2
case, in order that all possibilities may be left open. At a later stage, the hori- Open plan arrangement in a circulaithe boundary walls of which
zontal and vertical fields that are not used would be blocked out as conserva- area,
support the whole structure. Inside this
tional or psychological requirements necessitate or regulated by means of neutral space the exhibition can be
appropriate mechanisms. Reference has already been made to the technical arranged with a minimum of constraint.
Glass may be used in the construction or
difficulties which arise in this connexion. The problem becomes much simpler not, as preferred. Simplified ground-plan.
in the case of artificial lighting, which is available everywhere and can be
installed as required. It may therefore be concluded that an adaptable museum,
depending on natural lighting, will logically be open on all sides, while the
artificially-lit museum will be a closed structure.
With regard to the building materials, reinforced concrete or steel suggest
themselves for the main structure, and glass or lightweight materials for the
external partitions. The same or similar materials are used for the internal
divisions; for such purposes, prefabricated components such as those used in
department stores may suitably be employed. Two considerations should,
however, be borne in mind, particularly when a high artistic level of presentation has to be achieved: in all assemblies of prefabricated components
the joints are apparent, and may detract from the visitors aesthetic enjoyment:
the contrast with the everyday world or with trade-fair architecture should be
preserved.
Technology
248
A system must therefore be devised which avoids these dangers or gives the
impression of being specifically designed to serve permanently for museum
purposes even though it may thereby lose in flexibility.
Generally speaking, it can be said that all the advantages of the closed structure must be considered as being drawbacks of the open structure, and vice
versa. The strength of the open system lies in its rational approach and its
sociopsychological trend. The system in question also makes it possible to
handle a complete reversal in the organization or conception of the museum.
The architectural possibilities are limited to ensuring harmony of treatment,
down to the smallest details, and an impassive restraint towards the object
involved. The bigger the hall, the more adaptable it is; however, the integrated
extension of the building becomes that much more difficult. In other words,
this form of building tends to stand on its own, a fact which must be taken
into account from the outset.
Open plm desgm afforditg the possiblity of extensoti
It is possible to regard as an extension of the principle of adaptable open

plan designs a structure of the honeycomb type with units which can be
added on progressively as required. The aim is to create an open plan area
made up of modules, which is nevertheless limited in its all-purpose serviceability by the presence in its interior of stress-bearing elements. Such a system
makes sense essentially if it is planned to serve a dynamic function. It is
a relatively easy matter to reorganize the entire collection each time a new
extension is made. The conditions governing the presentation and the relation163
Open structure with variable ceiling and

roof levels, enabling side light to reach
central areas. Simplified cross-section.
IQ
MUSEUM
OF THE DEPARTMENT
OF FINE
ARTS,Panjab University, Chandigarh.
Combination of chain layout and openplan system based on square units. The
central pillar of the mushroom-shaped
structure poses a problem if the latter has
a small overhang. Architect: P. B. Mathur.
.
I
6J
Container-Museum I y j8. Design for a

fine arts museum in Antwerp (Belgium).
Architect: Franois Jamagne.
ship between the object and the building in which it is housed are similar to
those obtaining in the system outlined above, with allowance for the interior
pillars. The open structure has the further advantage of being extensible on
all sides and adaptable to irregular or uneven sites. It is possible to enhance
the impression of spaciousness by means f a vertical-and possibly itself
adjustable-staggering of the different sections, which would have the further
advantage of allowing light to enter the upper part of the central sector from
the side (Fig. 163).
What was said above regarding square or hexagonal modules is equally
valid in the present case. The number of pillars should be kept to a minimum;
the broadest spans will occur in the central sector. Mushroom-shaped constructions have the advantage of having only a single pillar; from the point of
view of presentation techniques, however, they are satisfactory only when
their overhang is considerable. For construction purposes, a steel or reinforced concrete frame must be used (Fig. 164).
As a result of weathering, etc., the plastic harmony of the fasade is visibly
broken if the successive additions follow one another at considerable intervals
of time.
Lastly, mention may be made of a proposal that is constantly being mooted,
which derives from other fields of building practice: the idea is to solve the
problem of extension and adaptability by means of interchangeable containers.
Quite irrespective of the fact that the wealth and diversity of the exhibits precludes such a solution being applied, if only for material reasons, in a pluralistic museum, it must be evident that it is at variance with all that we have
learnt from psychology concerning the museum, whose vitality depends upon
its uniqueness rather than its interchangeableness (Fig. I 6~).
In conclusion, it may be said that when a close and appropriate relationship exists between the object and the building, one can hardly look to prefabricated techniques for very satisfactory results, since the repetition of the
dimensions and forms is at odds with the innermost nature of the individual,
unique object. However, when only the interior design impinges directly on
the object, design of the structural frame can proceed according to its own laws,
and prefabricated components can in this case be used.
249
iGG
CENTREGEORGES
POMPIDOU,
Paris.
Once decisions of a functional, technical and
economic nature have been taken, the
material still has to take form, a form which
will say something of the collection
inside. Here the first struts of a cultural
supermarket in the heart of Paris
(October 1974).Architects: Piano
Rogers.
Aesthetics
Laws of form and semantics
It is common knowledge that the planning and building stage is dominated by

practical, technical and economic considerations, problems of form usually
being relegated to the background as less urgent, if they are not regarded with
outright suspicion.
Once plans are completed the tactics are suddenly reversed; pressures which
existed earlier are forgotten and no longer accepted as explanations or excusesin fact they can no longer be Gisualixed as they existed before. The majority
can now only see the plan as afait accompli existing in its own right, and expect
it to provide them with the key to an understanding of the building and the
collection.
This illustrates the great importance of the architectural design, which has
received particular emphasis recently for several reasons: (a) social trends are
placing the museum in a more central position in society and extending the
scope of its activities; (b) the museum is beginning to assume some of the
responsibilities of other cultural institutions which have now served their
historical purpose; (c) it has thus become a focal point for culture in action
and a mirror in which cultural values and ideals can be presented and assessed
in visual form.
I
-i
T 6.7
AA impression of strength combined

with irrationality is conveyed by this
heavily overhanging design. Plan for a
museum of the earth, Brasilia. Architect:
Oskar Niemeyer.
Museum building therefore affords an opportunity to transcend the functional or technical terms of the language of architecture and to put forward
interpretations and feelings which are in harmony with the social and aesthetic
aspirations of the times. The architectural style therefore has the dual responsibility of, on the one hand, conveying the museums central theme and indicating the diversity and general orientation of the cultural manifestations housed
there, and, on the other, finding an appropriate way of drawing attention to
and enhancing the role of cultural phenomena.
As the museum exists not primarily to meet objective requirements or to
serve any utilitarian purpose, but to satisfy subjective needs, museum architecture has occasioned a wide variety of .conceptions-indeed it has become a
testing ground for new, freer approaches to problems of form, as many
imaginative and original buildings of recent years bear witness (Figs. 167,1-88).
Aesthetics
168(a),
(61
WINNIPEG
ARTGALLERY.
Example OF a piece of modern architecture

which is irrational and formalistic.
Architect: Gustavo da Roza.
These trends can be taken as an indication of the place of the museum in

todays world. Nietzsches dictum, the museum is the church of the aesthete,
can be interpreted as meaning that particularly high standards will be set for
the intellectual and architectural superstructure, of the museum. It therefore
calls for an approach which is seldom needed today, one which over and above
the satisfaction of immediate requirements should branch out into the realms
of total art. This places great responsibility on the planner, as architecture of
this standard is as vulnerable to excess of zeal as to lack of it. The faceless,
purely functional warehouse style is as unsuitable as an obsessive and extravagant preoccupation with form.
Genera! approach to assthelie

As it is becoming more and more widely recognized that man is very sensitive
to form and shape, efforts are now being made not only to demonstrate these
categories philosophically but also to subject them to scientific methods of
analysis. The further this research work impinges on the realm of the exact
sciences the more confidently use can be made of the results. The different
approaches have already been dealt with in the chapter on psychology and
need only be briefly summarized here:
Gestalt psychology is based on a physiological study of human perception and
examines the demonstrable phenomena of visual reactions, so as to arrive at

qualitative statements about objects and space; its methods are empirical
and it calls for no prior knowledge on the part of the subject.
Information aesthetics is based on physiologically measurable units of perception which are recorded in a process oscillating between differentiation
and integration of the object. The length of time taken by this process
depends on the quality of the object. The amount of information received
and the time taken to use it gives an indication of the aesthetic richness and
complexity of the object and enables its aesthetic value to be described
quantitatively and even to be arithmetically measured.
The semantic approach is based on the assumption that visual communication
takes place by means of signs transmitted by the object which are interpreted by the receiver on the basis of a common code. As these reactions can
only be triggered by a learning process or previous knowledge, the impact
of the object is dependent on its context in time and space.
It is unfortunately not possible to give a more detailed account of these
attempts to reach a scientific understanding of this complicated subject at this
juncture. Each of the methods outlined, with its particular advantages and
weaknesses, serves to define a different aspect of this many-sided problem.
Their application to architecture therefore raises special difficulties-which
do not occur in connexion with painting and sculpture for example-as here
it is hard to disentangle the aesthetic from the rational processes. The interrelationship between seeing and thinking, which is difficult enough to grasp
at the best of times, is further obscured and complicated by the simultaneous
entry into the picture of other, non-aesthetic, categories.
Although relatively little research has been carried out into the impact of
architectural forms and shapes from the point of view of visual communication
there is no doubt that such an impact exists. In the following reflections on
museum architecture the three approaches referred to above will each affect
the final assessment to a different degree, according to the emphasis. While we
shall not here consider such obvious practical aspects as the problem of
unoccupied space, conservation requirements, etc., due attention will be given
to the close relationship between practical, organizational aspects and aesthetic
considerations.
Consequences of preceding chapters concerning

aesthetic form
Previous chapters have shown that decisions reached on the basis of sociological, psychological or conservation requirements already imply decisions
regarding form; in other words, the spatial organization of each category
already comprises a pattern of arrangement that displays particular formal
tendencies. The aesthetic problem could therefore be simplified by saying that
if a basic idea is taken to its logical conclusion the arrangement of space and
form will follow more or less automatically. However convincing this may
sound in theory, it does not give a full picture of the situation, as (a) each
programme contains a wide variety of possibilities which on closer examination
can be seen to constitute formulae of the both . . . and. . . type; (b) in a circumscribed space valuations are unavoidable; (c) the translation of concepts
expressed in verbal terms into reality, or into terms of nuts and bolts, is a
subject in its own right; (d) the language of form has its own laws which
open up new possibilities. Questions of form can only be discussed on the basis
of pictures as verbal metaphors are inaccurate and not to be trusted.
The conversion of theoretical schemata into building terms is accordingly
a creative process which, though it externalizes what is present in the mind,
cannot rest content with selecting one of several existing possibilities, but
must evolve something completely new.
It need hardly be said that although this chapter will discuss the architectural
implications of some of the topics considered earlier, such factors as the
2 <7
7-54
Aesthetics
environmental conditions in an urban or rural setting raise entirely different
questions, as regards their bearing on architectural design.
Whether the aim is to adapt the style to that of the surrounding buildings
or to create a contrast between old and new, both approaches being defensible
from an aesthetic point of view, measure and proportion must always be kept
as the guiding principles if the visual impact of the whole is to be effective and
recognizable, as an example either of unity or of polarity, in gestalt psychological terms.
As the pluralistic approach of todays museum requires it to play host to the
most varied activities, its content can only give the architect a rough guide to
the aesthetic approach to be adopted. A simple, open structure is the only one
which will enable the museum to fulfil its role in society today. The architecture only provides the external framework and leaves the articulation of
space within to the interior designer. This subservient role can be carried to
the point of self-effacement. As the technological limitations and possibilities
of all buildings which aim to provide maximum flexibility are roughly similar
at a given moment in time, the purpose for which they are intended is not
particularly important-in other words even museum architecture does not
try to impose a style of its own.
As we have already shown, an emphasis on flexibility leads to simple geometrical forms which lend themselves to economic use of internal space. It
follows therefore that the wider the variety of content and functions the more
neutral the style of the building will be, and the more limited and concentrated
the scope of the collection the more emphasis can be given to architectural
style as an expression of content. The smaller, more specialized museum would
therefore seem to offer the architect more opportunity to devise an individual,
original design based on the special characteristics of the collection.
Another result of social trends is that specialized fields such as research,
education, communication, etc., are taking up more and more of the museums
time and this should also be reflected in its external appearance. However, as
each of these specialized fields has its own architectural image, one of the
dangers to be avoided is that of superimposed themes obscuring the central
message of the exhibition building.
The conservation aspect of the museums work is expressed by the exclusion of the outside world. Although it is practically impossible to build a
block which is completely sealed off from the outside world, solid walls which
serve as hanging surfaces but also as protection are a feature of many museums
and the treatment of these surfaces on the outside in such a way as to indicate
what the museum contains is a constantly recurring problem (Figs. 169, 170).
The main responsibilities of the museum are not of a rational, functional
nature, requiring a high degree of internal organization behind the scenes.
There is therefore no reason to bring functional aspects into the foreground
in order to create the impression of a highly efficient museum machine. The
forms and shapes of purely functional architecture can therefore be considered
uncharacteristic of a museum.
Building techniques are closely linked with many fundamental questions
and to some extent supply the basis and lay down rules for the implementation
of the design. There is, however, a basic distinction to be drawn between manual
and industrial building techniques, which offer very different possibilities and
have quite a different visual impact. The former, which include all conventional
techniques using stone, bricks, concrete and steel, have the advantage that
practically any co-ordination of building with subject-matter can be achieved.
They allow special materials and orders to be envisaged to meet individual
needs, while monolithic structures provide a smooth, uniform background. It
is therefore clear that conventional building methods make possible the
emergence of meaningful configurations in gestalt psychological terms as well
as affording a high and complex level of achievement from the standpoint of
information aesthetics.
I 69
CULTURAL
CENTRE,
Randers (Denmark).
The introverted nature of cultural
experience can be expressed in architectural
terms as withdrawal from the
environment. Architect: Flemming Lassen.
Collaborators: Peter Brodersen, Per
Lassen, 0.2. Nielsen.
If industrial building methods are used the manufacturing and assembly

techniques which they imply lead to the dominance of neutral space using
geometrical structures. As it is practically out of the question to make structures correspond with content, the design options are severely limited and
must be concentrated on achieving clarity of outline for the complex taken as
a whole, making use of the simplification and repetition which industrial
building methods impose. This type of building will on the other hand allow
all the more scope for interior design complementing the external structure
and providing a high degree of plasticity making it possible to adapt the form
to the nature of the exhibits. The aesthetic choice therefore lies in the main
between external architecture lacking informational content and a style which
although more interesting and varied has less psychological impact. In order
to avoid t o D . great a discrepancy between external and internal styles, the
internal design should match the geometrical framework to a large extent and
echo its gestalt psychological effects.
The physiological effects of a museum vary between the two extremes of
concentration and relaxation. The architectural style may be reminiscent of a
cloister, encouraging meditation, or base itself on holiday styles of architecture. In the first case an introverted style radiating harmony and stillness
17 0
NEWHISTORICAL
MUSEUM,
Tashkent
(U.S.S.R.).
The use of glass walling throughout
establishes an effective though limited
relationship with the outside world.
Climatic reasons necessitate the use of glass
which is permeable to light without being
transparent or heat-absorbing.
Architects: Abdulov, Nikiphorov,
Rosenblom.
256
Aesthetics
171
SHELDON MEMORrAL ARTGALLERY,

University of Nebraska (Lincoln).
Symmetrical museum. Architect:
Philip Johnson.
is to be preferred, while features of the second should be openness to the outside world and lively, adventurous design. Two factors which will determine
the final decision are the immediate environment and the nature of the collection. From the point of view of the biological rhythm of the human organism
it may be desirable for both tendencies to be catered for and held in counterpoise by the architectural composition.
As psychological and aesthetic factors are very closely related, and indeed
often identical, we shall not give many examples of their interrelationship,
referring the reader to the chapter on psychology for more detailed discussion
of the subject. In general, arrangements designed to help the museum visitor
find his way, providing directions of which he may or may not be aware, constitute an aesthetic bonus. Emphasis on the need for a well-ordered articulation
of space with a recognizable system of co-ordinates, based on the constants in
perceptual behaviour, can itself be made into an architectural manifesto
establishing specific principles of design. In a rectangular system for example,
the desired qualities of simplicity and order can be reflected down to the
smallest details, resulting in a high aesthetic standard. As the regular shapes are
easily understood they are aesthetically as well as psychologically effective;
although they are strongly perceived, their familiarity prevents them from
becoming too dominant. The desire to make the structure of the whole area
comprehensible at a glance leads to an architectural transparency which further
enhances the aesthetic appreciation of space by introducing an element of
simultaneity. Symmetry, which embraces a host of related categories of design,
is also often used as a means of grounding and consolidating the consciousness
of locality. Attention should however be drawn to the difficulty of reconciling
the geometrical dominance exerted by symmetry with the pluralistic approach
of modern museum work (Fig. 171).
A completely different conception is that in which the museum visitor is not
called upon to take in the whole collection-or the whole museum area-all at
once, but step by step. Here, as for psychological reasons no attempt is made
to give a general impression, the visitors interest must be sustained by placing
new, stimulating features at intervals along his route. The stimulus of curiosity
will thus replace the effect of the over-all view and it must be kept alive by
features which have expressive content. The visitor will be led on by assymetrical, oblique or fluid shapes which keep him gently but firmly on the

preordained path. The architectural style should not be neutral but should be
involved in the life of the museum, overlying static shapes and drawing upon
a wide variety of free-flowing, dynamic configurations. The variety and
restlessness towards which this architectural conception tends should not,
however, be allowed to distract attention from the exhibits (Fig. 172).
Psychology understood as study of the whole system of biological stimuli
and responses also has a decisive bearing on aesthetic considerations. As we
have already said in the paragraph on information aesthetics, mans capacity
for perception and retention is limited and in a museum it must be allowed to
concentrate as much as possible on the exhibits. The architecture must aim to
avoid such optical interference and distraction as might be presented by
obtrusive architectural features, over-prominent backgrounds, or jointings
and unnecessary points of intersection. The philosophy of architecture on
which this view is based can be summed up in Mies van der Rohes words
less is more. Boldness in over-all design and simplicity in details is an architectural maxim which is particularly relevant to museum design. This integrating approach should not necessarily be taken as opposed to differentiation,
as contrasts can in gestdlt psychology contribute to simplification, leading to a
better aesthetic appreciation of the object. If a few elements are developed

individually and at the same time placed in a carefully-thought-out relationship with each other tlie twin dangers of summary treatment on the one hand
and fussiness on the other will be avoided (Fig. 173).
As we mentioned earlier, architecture can also be seen as a means of communication which uses different spatial arrangements and shapes to send out
its signals. This sign language can pass on information regarding the
contents and significance of the building and define its functions and its place
in time and in its environment. These messages may be made up of physical or
intellectual components, having in the one case a functional and in the other
257
17-2
The journey of discovery effect can only

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t~~~~
ensured by an architectural layout which
~
~
~
~
circuit also has emotional significance.
ground-plan*
I73
The Netherlands Davilion at the Venice
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c $simplicity
~ ~ &
of the
s ~ n d
architecture focuses the visitors attention
~
G. Ristveld.
z j8
Aesthetics
a symbolic character. As messages of the latter type call for a higher level of
sensitivity in the receiver they are clearly of an aesthetic nature.

The material features of an architectural style which act as signals receive
their semantic content from patterns of behaviour which are generally linked
with them, from comparisons with forms which are familiar in a similar context, from experience of different sizes, proportions and materials and from
all types of associations and affinities which are operative in the field of gestak
psychology. It is, however, extremely important for the aesthetic quality of
the architecture that the signal should not derive from literary vocabulary or
a mere representation of nature but should be a genuine transposition into the
abstract language of architecture, which only speaks through geometry, size,
shape, colour and material.
The form of the museum building should therefore be significant and, over
and above superficial, causal associations, send out decoded messages regarding
such subjects as the nature of the collection to be seen inside. It follows that
each museum can be distinct from other museums and have its own individual
design. It is not therefore possible, as with other types of building, to build a
series of museums on the same model.
The style of architecture must spell out as it were, in palpable and convincing fashion, what in the particular instance the concept museum denotes.
Ability to transmit other information will follow automatically to some extent
once museological requirements are met and presented in an artistically
unambiguous form. Confusion with buildings intended for other purposes,
for example offices or schools, should be out of the question.
The configuration of the building should also reflect the museums status
as a focal point for cultural activity in society. Experience indicates that this
requirement in practice allows a great deal of scope: thus it can be construed
as an invitation to monumentality, which has in a few extreme cases been
carried to the point of ostentation. Much as all signs of external power and
influence should be rejected, yet some degree of heightening is justified, as
long as its result is to show the museum as different, not as bigger (Fig. 174).
This is no doubt the basis for the widespread attribution of sanctity
to the museum, which has led to the adoption in Western countries
of the Greek temple and in Eastern lands of Asian temple architecture as a
model for museum architecture, an approach which persists even today. The
complicated problems raised by the imitation of historic buildings can only be
briefly mentioned here (Fig. 17)).
The fact that this is still a live issue even today is illustrated by the plans for
a tantra museum in India, which strive towards a synthesis of modern architecture and traditional forms of religious architecture. It is doubtful whether
this can be considered an example of the pluralistic approach to museum
work (Fig. 176).
The expressiveness of an architectural form can, if it is the subject of general
consensus, crystallize in the course of time as a symbol, as it were the seal or
hallmark of a complex intellectual concept. The only drawback is that formulae
handed down by earlier generations are accepted uncritically although they
may have lost their meaning. Museum architecture, which has a close relationship with the past, is particularly vulnerable to this danger. However the
symbol always retains its validity in semantic terms-either by the abstract
transposition of an ancient canon of design into the technology of our times,
in which case its meaning is only perceived subliminally, by association, or by
the development of new symbolic forms which can already be seen emerging
today in different places (Figs. 177,175, 179).
I74
NATIONALGALERIP,
West Berlin. Faade.
The serene but forceful character of this
structure is a modern architectural
interpretation of the desire for pomp and
solemnity. Architect: Ludwig Mies van der
Rohe.
7-j
I7.f
NATION.4L MusEuar, Seoul (Republic of

Korea).
This is basically a modern structure which
has been given a semantic content by the
use of traditional forms and copies of
ancient temples.
260
Aesthetics
176
TANTRA
MUSEUM,
New Delhi.
Ground-plan. The museum houses
a collection of works of art connected with
the tantra cult. Symbolic forms inspired
by the very specialized content took
precedence over museological considerations
in the design. Architect: Kavinda.
So far we have tried to identify what might be called outside influencesfor example from the environment, society or technology-which affect the
aesthetics of two- or three-dimensional figures. The translation of theories into
bricks and mortar is difficult because the real world of shapes and forms
operates according to its own completely independent laws. While gestalt
psychology enables us to investigate these laws, the majority of men react
quite spontaneously to visual stimuli and although their response is unconscious it is both rapid and unequivocal. The inexhaustible variety of material,
shapes and forms and the -equally innumerable rules governing their combination can only be hinted at in a verbal consideration of the subject.
We shall mention only a few examples which have specific significance in
terms of gestalt psychology:
I . Size is a means of establishing a scale of relativities in the world of things
and also places man in a fundamental relationship to his work. The observer
is therefore very sensitive to anything which infringes the established scale
of sizes and expects a different architectural style depending whether he is
viewing a collection of jewellery or monumental statuary.
261
I77
NATIONAL
MUSEUM,
Peking.
The modern horizontal design has been
overlaid with reproductions of historically
significant forms. Museum constructed
around 1966 at the beginning of the
Cultural Revolution in the Peoples
Republic of China.
178
NARAKOKURITSU
HABUTSUKAN
(Nationka1
Museum), Nara.
Japanese museum combining the most
modern of constructions with tradition:I1
Japanese forms.
Aesthetics
262
I79
MUSEO
DE ANTROPOLOGA,
Mexico.
This mushroom-shaped structure, situated
in the central hall and surrounded by
fountains, evokes the ancient Mexican god
of rain in a contemparary manner.
Architects: Pedro Ramrez Vzquez,
Rafael Mijirez and Jorge Campuzano.
Proportion is a biological fact which indicates that temion has been brought
into equilibrium. It can also be described in terms of information aesthetics
as a specific form of complexity. It has a definite role to play in a museum
building which is oriented towards visual perception and can serve as a
pointer to interior atmosphere and quality.
3. Dominance of vertical or horizontal lines is immediately interpreted by the
observer as signifying rest or tension, extension or intensity, etc., with the
associations and philosophical attitudes which these concepts imply
(Fig. 1 8 0 ) .
4. Every shape, whether it be a cube, a sphere or a quasi-organic form, represents a configuration of forces which is very individual and may or may not
be tolerant of neighbouring shapes and surroundings. For example the
juxtaposition of a straight and a sagging wall always creates a situation of
aesthetic conflict.
5 . The formal qualities of a linear, net-like system of containment, transparent
and permeable, are quite different from those of a solid construction, which
appears protective from the inside but discouraging from the outside. In
other words a ceramics museum will not resemble a museum which extols
the achievements of modern mathematics.
6. The variety of materials available will extent the possibilities we have mentioned here almost to infinity.
These laws of physical shape and form must be taken into account from the
outset in museum architecture.
This is just a small extract from the vocabulary of shapes and forms, which
can be put to a wide variety of uses but must never be applied arbitrarily or on
the basis of a purely intellectual approach. But there is also a grammar
2.
26 z

governing relationships between the different shapes and forms, for example:
(a) incompatibility, when shapes are mutually exclusive because there is no
common denominator; or (b) congruency when a form is adapted to its surroundings, assimilation when simplification is called for, combination when an
effect should be heightened; or (c) contrast when attention should be drawn
to a particular feature or when an element of tension is required.
As the impact of the innumerable possible visual antitheses varies in intensity, each must be chosen and used in accordance with the desired artistic
effect. It may be appropriate to set a geometrical outline against a featureless
natural landscape or to build a fluid structure to contrast with the stark cubic
background of the modern city. In the same way it may be necessary to screen
off the background to an exhibit carefully, so as to ensure that the different
values are set neither too close together nor too far apart.
Every shape is charged with aesthetic values and can only be combined
with others in specific collocations and juxtapositions. It should be possible
to work out an aesthetic equivalent of Mendels law for combinations of shapes
depending on the extent to which they produce the desired results.
Even the most summary review of design problems establishes that they are
subject to a wide vagiety of different influences. The quality of the solution
with regard to its informational content will depend on the number of aspects
which were taken into consideration when the decision was made. If it is
assumed that each object, each work of art for example, is a small cosmos, it
is museum architectures special task to ensure identification not only between
man and building but also between building and object. Every time a museum
is planned this exceptionally wide range of factors must be taken into account
and their importance carefully evaluated before a selection is made. However,
it should be emphasized that the right solution will not be arrived at merely
by systematic examination of each possibility in turn but-this being the way
the human mind operates-more by a series of hunches. This is one reason
why the team responsible for planning should begin to work together as soon
as possible.
Coexiste n ce-co m b i nat i on-syn t hesi s

These conflicts which necessarily occur in such a process are unfortunately
often left unreconciled in the name of coexistence, which may be expressed
both in the museums relationship to its environment and in a lack of harmony
between the different elements inside the museum, with adverse consequences
as regards the museum visitors initial impressions and his understanding and
appreciation of the collection. Although we take irreconcilable elements more
in our stride than earlier generations did, each visitor will still make a more or
less conscious effort to reconcile such visual discrepancies in his own mind,
thus using up mental energy unnecessarily (Fig. 183).
A more satisfactory solution would be based on the principle of combination
which enables the various elements to retain a considerable degree of independence although their interrelationship is shaped by selection and co-ordination.
This approach would be most suitable for the modern pluralistic museum.
It can be expressed in architectural terms as a carefully arranged group of
different types of buildings, for example a complex of pavilions combining
very different styles which, while keeping their distance, are brought into a
dialectical relationship with one another (see Fig. 117).
Alternatively the antithesis may be transposed to the plane of the building
itself, as when a flexible, modern structure has to be combined with the necessary adaptation to the environment. This problem often occurs when a new
museum is to be built in an old, historically interesting city district, a situation
which projects a problem familiar to designers working inside the museum
into the sphere of external design (Figs. 181, 192).
I80
HERBERT
F. JOHNSON MUSEUM
OF ART,
Ithaca, New York.
Architecture symbolizing effort. Surprising
for a museum. Architect: I. M. Pei.
264
Aesthetics
I 81
Matching the architecture to the
environment. External features. The
neutrality of style of a multipurpose
building inevitably conflicts with the
requirements of aesthetic design or
environmental desiderata in regard to use
of space. Embellishment of the faade by
skilful use of shape, proportion, material
or directioning or by deliberate recourse to
contrast is one way of solving this
problem.
I82
MUSEUM
OF ARTOF THE SOCIALIST
OF LITHUANIA,
Vilna.
REPUBLIC
Example of architecture relating to
environment. Around the outside shops
form an integral part of the museum.
Architect: Cekanauskas.
Solutions based on the principle of an all-embracing synthesis are however

by far the most satisfactory. A prior condition is that the circumstances must
make it possible to find a common denominator of form, and this is likely to
be a long and laborious process. Once the homogeneity of the whole has been
ensured by finding such an underlying motif, individual elements can be
worked in to enhance the general effect. As the basic specifications in this case
cannot be too unusual or too rigorous, this approach is most successful with
museums which deal with modern subjects (for example twentieth-century art
and technology) where man, the environment, exhibits and building all belong
to the same period. It is of the nature of a pluralistic museum however that
such an approach would be of limited use here.
The subjective components of the museums work offer scope which an
imaginative architectural approach must exploit to the full in a time such as
ours, which is so lacking in symbol and allegory. But this scope can be abused
by designers anxious to do their own thing. A satisfactory design always
seems obvious but is nevertheless the result of a long process of inner doubt
and hesitation between the numerous alternatives. It is never arrived at by
accident or as an afterthought but is gradually assembled piece by piece. In
no case is it permissible for: (a) eccentricity to be pursued as an end in itself,
as its appeal is short-lived and it does not reflect the essence of a museum;
(b) a preconceived form to be imposed which is not a reflection of the museums
content; (c) architectural design to be so emphasized that rather than being
subservient to the exhibits it competes with them for the visitors attention.
265
This largely answers the question of the originality of the building and the
influence of the architect's personality, for a design can only be valid and
creative if these limitations have been observed. But all that we have said
earlier makes it clear that museum architecture must be unique and unmistakable of its kind.
In the laborious process of museum design three groups of factors which
must be considered on'their own terms have therefore to be skilfully blended
and fused together. They are: (a) physical (functional) factors, and the objective
constraints resulting frbm them; (b) aesthetic aspects, with their emphasis on
wholeness and permanence; and (c) intellectual forces affecting the contemporary social, historical and ideological scene.
The architectural style must be such as to express in convincing fashion its
inherent structural affinity with these various spheres.
183
R~MISCH-GERMANISCHES
MUSEUM,
Cologne.
The adaptation to gothic architecture being
very difficult, the solution of contrast was
chosen, for the exterior shape of the
museum as well. Architect: Heinz RBcke.
266
184
MUSEUM
OF FINEARTS,Louisiana
(Denmark).
With careful planning by the commissioning
authority and an appropriate design by the
architect the museum today can carry
out to the full its role in education,
culture and enjoyment if the setting is one
of natural beauty. Architects: Jrgen Boe
and Vilhelm Wohlert.
267
Conclusion
In this essay we have tried to assemble the individual bricks needed to build
this thematically complex structure and to give some indication of the way in
which they should be put together to form an organic whole. The network
of requirements which we have been able to lay out so neatly here in theoretical
form will, after examination and assessment of the factors involved in the
here and now of building a particular museum, necessarily undergo a radical
shift of emphasis. In this process, however, the remaining joins holding the
whole fabric together must not be torn apart but-by analogy with the laws
governing half-lattices in mathematics-drawn together in the appropriate
relationship.
People often bewail the fact that the ideal museum has yet to be built. An
ideal museum can never and should never be designed, as the starting-points
are so different that an approximation to abstract values is all that can ever be
achieved. It would, however, be very much to the point to design a museum
of museums, an idea which has been put forward on several occasions.
We have shown that architecture can make a very substantial contribution
to a museums success in dealing with its problems in general, as man not only
shapes space but is shaped by it. Many plans to modernize museums and bring
them more to life can only be carried through if spatial requirements have
been met.
It must therefore be recognized that the architectural organization of space
is for the museum worker a means of communication which if properly used
can help him to achieve his goal. Architecture can be a very direct and immediate form of public relations in the best sense of the term.
As the conditions on which museum design is based vary so greatly from
one museum to another and as it is in any case a fairly unusual assignment for
an architect to be asked to design a museum, there are very few systematic
analyses of museum design, although a wealth of written material exists for
such buildings as schools and hospitals. The approach outlined here can therefore only be seen as an introduction to the subject, which must be subjected to
further analysis and expanded in many respects. It should also be noted that
in the absence of exact data in many spheres we have at times only been able
to base our discussion on unverified assumptions. In some spheres these
assumptions could be used as a basis for experiment, or at least for further
discussion. This work can therefore be regarded as a foundation on which
successive layers of new knowledge can be built, after first being checked by
experts in the basic sciences. We have indicated a way of tackling many individual problems, of closing gaps in our knowledge and of exchanging experiences in the sphere of museum design. Most work remains to be done in the
practical held, the surface of which we have only been able to scratch, and many
technical details will require closer attention before they can be built into the
final edifice. It is therefore absolutely essential that systematic research in the
field of museum architecture should be pursued on a world-wide scale, experi-
ments carried out and the results made available to all. Everyone concerned
should take part in this work and if our essay has helped to convince anyone
of this it has achieved its aim.
[Tradated from Germas]
is.;.
Appendixes
Museums are not institutions which can be

reproduced in an indefinite number of copies
from a single, specific model. Museums take
various forms, depending upon:
I. The relative importance given to, the
three major purposes of the museum:
study and documentation, conservation, and
education and culture.
2. The nature of the major discipline or
discipIines covered-arts,
the sciences of
man, nature and the universe, advanced
technologies-and the forms of presentation
-monodisciplinary,
multidisciplinary or
interdisciplinary.
3 . The architectural characteristics of the
museum, according as to whether it is:
(a) a new building or one adapted for the
purpose and which may or may not be an
historic building, with or without its own
surroundings; (b) a systematic open-air
museum, with or without the addition of
buildings; (c) a natural park.
There is, for example, a world of difference
between a museum which has a research
centre and one which has not, between an
American-style art- centre2 and a museum
designed to provide cultural cross-references
to the scientific activities of the university
to which it is attached, between an art
gallery and an open-air museum of sculpture,
between a museum of pre-history connected
with certain archaeological sites and a
museum of advanced technology, exhibiting
locomotives and aeroplanes in its enormous
halls, between a zoo and a natural park,
etc.
However various their forms, there is
nevertheless one thing that all museums
have in common, the process by which
they are initially programmed and planned.
Let us attempt to summarize the stages
of this process as it applies in the case of a
new building.
In the first instance, realizing that a
gap exists in the network of national
museums, a public authority, or a group of
citizens formitig themselves into an associ-
I. I? May 1974.
ation, decides to found a museum devoted to

a particular subject, with its own aims, its
particular size, its own statutes, on a given
site, and in accordance with the resources
which they are able to command for the
purpose.
As the client, they commission a museologist to establish the museums programme,
allocating suitable funds for the purpose.
In order to draw up the programme, the
museologist begins by obtaining all relevant
information from the client and from
other sources. With this information to
hand, and keeping in constant touch with
the client, he draws up the programme as
follows: specification of the museums
operational units and sub-units by categories
of premises, together with a summary
assessment of the respective surface areas and
the purposes of the premises (which may be:
public foyer ; exhibition galleries ; semipublic meeting-rooms and halls for organized activities; semi-private documentation
rooms; rooms reserved for specialists;
private workrooms; offices for the director
and the scientific, technical and admistrative personnel; technical equipment storerooms and stock rooms).
In drawing up this programme, the
museologist enlists the services of specialists
in the various technical fields; their assistance, and the necessary verifications which
this entails, continue to be provided
throughout the operations up to and including final acceptance.
The client adopts this programme,
pending the receipt of further information.
Then, in consultation with the museologist, the client organizes a national or
international competition for the purpose of
selecting an architect, or appoints an
architect directly, as the main contractor.
On the basis of the programme, and of
the estimated cost of the operations, the
main Contractor or architect draws up the
plan. This plan takes the form initially of
a summary specification, together with
outline plans, a study of the physical
characteristics and accessibility of the site,
an estimate of the cost and the time required

for completion,
After consulting the museologist, the
client adopts the plan, pending further
inquiries.
During the second phase, the main
contractor, who remains in constant touch
with the museologist, draws up a detailed
project, including working plans and an
indication of the estimated cost of the
carcassing, the finishings and the fittings
and fixtures.
Finally, after consulting the museologist,
the client adopts the final plan, the financing
arrangements and building schedule.
Work then begins on the implementation
of the plan, in accordance with the agreed
schedule. The main contractor remains
responsible until completion of the work
for the building operations carried out by
the individual contractors and for the cost
of the operations.
The client is kept constantly informed
of the progress of work jointly by the
main contractor and by the museologist.
Minor changes may possibly be made
during the execution of the plan, on the
initiative of the museologist or the main
contractor, subject to the approval of the
client concerning the nature and costs of
such additional operations.
Once work has been completed, the
client goes through the procedure of
provisional acceptance, then, after the
necessary time for inspection tests, final
acceptance.
The client is likely to be spared a great
many technical and financial difficulties,
legal complications and frustrations if the
work of programming and planning thc
project is carried out properly, whilst the
architect can derive great satisfaction from
applying his professional skills to coping
with the technical problems involved.
GEORGES
HENRIRIVIBRE
Appendixes
269
II
Climate and museum architecture

in South and South-East Asia
The problem
It is well known that preservation of art
objects is intimately connected with the
climate of the environment surrounding
them. Too high a temperature coupled
with low humidity produces a condition
in which many types of objects deteriorate
rapidly. Palm leaves loose their flexibility
and start crumbling; cracking in woodwork
starts and paint layers in paintings tend to
flake off the support. Similarly, high
temperature and constant high humidity
create a condition in which micro-organisms and insects thrive; paper becomes
limp, and corrosion of metals is rapid.
Sudden or repeated fluctuations of temperature and relative humidity, the two main
factors designating the climate of a place,
may spell disaster for susceptible types of
objects. Wood, for example, expands when
the relative humidity of the atmosphere is
increased and shrinks when the relative
humidity is reduced. Constant movement of
the grains of wood gives rise to permanent
strains and cause it to crack eventually.
Air-conditioning is often recommended
as a solution for the control of climatic
conditions inside a museum building. It is
no doubt the best means of ensuring a
uniform climate in a closed space, but its
high cost-both
capital investment and
maintenance-makes
its adoption in museums of South and South-East Asia almost
impossible. There are instances where airconditioning units were installed, but had
to be abandoned later because the museum
found the monthly bill of electricity and
the salaries of maintenance staff too high
for its budget. The majority of museums in
developing countries will unfortunately find
themselves in this category.
It is therefore of great importance to
consider whether any system other than
air-conditioning would have a sufficient
effect on the museum climate, whether
anything can be done, through orientation
and designing of the museum building,
to control the indoor climate, if not fully,
at least to a certain extent. It is not often
realized that proper siting, orientation,
designing of roofs and windows, ceiling
heights and many other factors can have a
tremendous inAuence on the microclimate.
Climate features
Climate is the result of many elements,
the main ones being temperature, humidity,
precipitation and sunshine. The climate of
any region is not determined by a single
climatic element. It is the result of the
combination of all the climatic elements
there prevailing and is controlled by several
factors such as latitude, land and water,
winds, altitude, mountains, oceans, etc.
The area lying between the tropics of

Cancer and Capricorn is known as the
tropics. Climatically, this area has been
divided into several zones, bit the region
in which we are interested, South and
South-East Asia, can be divided into three
main climatic zones.
These are: (a) the hot dry zones (Iraq,
Iran, Pakistan and part of India); (b) the
monsoon zones or hot wet-dry zones
(Burma, India, Thailand); (c) the hot humid
zones (parts of South India, Sri Lanka,
Indonesia, Malaysia, etc).
To these main climate types, we could
include two secondary climatic zones which
are due to the geographical position of
land: the mountainous zones (parts of
Afghanistan, Himalayas) and the coastal
areas.
Important characteristic of
climate types
HOT DRY ZONE
The hot dry zone is characterized by high

day temperatures (annual mean of maximum
temperature in shade 37" C), cooler nights
(annual mean 20' C) and low' relative
per cent). There is a
humidity (10-55
large daily variation in temperature (mean
daily variation approximately 23' C). The
annual temperature variation is comparatively low (mean value approximately
1 0 ~ - 1 7 C).
~ Land is very dry, giving rise
to wind-blown sand.
This type of climate produces desiccation
and is hazardous for all types of organic
objects. Loss of humidity produces splits
and cracks in wood.
HOT HUMID ZONE
The hot humid zone has a warm and

continuously moist climate. Relative humidity almost throughout the year remains
high (55-100 per cent). The annual temperature variation is not high (approximately
3"-5" C). The annual mean of maximum
day temperature in the shade is high (approximately 36" C). The daily variation is not
high (5'-7' C). The sky is usually overcast.
The landscape is green and there is consequently no dust problem.
The continuous wet climate accelerates
the growth of micro-organisms. The water
level is also very high, and difficulty is
experienced in the construction of basements. Conditions are not conducive
to human comfort.
M O N S O O N ZONE
The mnsoon zone has distinct dry and

wet seasons. Relative humidity is fairly
high during the rainy season (55-95 per
Appendixes
270
1x1
Vaulted roofs protect high windows,
shade walls and reflect a higher
proportion of solar radiation.
I 86
Wide roof projections keep the sun away
from the walls. The two-storey high
pierced screen keeps the windows and
walls behind cool and well ventilated.
I 87
Internal court with fountains and plants

cools the surroundings by evaporation.
It is roofed with a pierced screen which
helps to reflect solar radiation from the sky.
season
cent). It drops during the
(20-55 per cent).
Temperature during the summer season
is high (annual mean of maximum day
temperature in the shade is approximately
3 j C). There are three main seasons: cool,
hot and rainy. The hottest month is very
warm, and the coolest month is not very
cool.
Marked differences of humidity during
dry and rainy seasons produce swelling
and shrinkage of materials which are
moisture-absorbing. Wood, cardboard and
paintings suffer greatly in this climate.
O
MOUNTAIN ZONE
Because of their geographical position,

areas such as the mountain zone have a
special climate. The day temperature is
lower as. compared to the surrounding
climatic zone. It decreases with height at the
rate of approximately I' C for every zoo
metres. Humidity is on the high side
(45-100 per cent). There is likelihood of
frost in these areas. Dust is not a great
problem.
COASTAL ZONE
Again because of their geographical position,

coastal areas have a climate slightly different
from that of the surrounding climatic
Appendixes
271
XY
Traditional
roofscape showing
the wind scoops on
the terraces of the
buildings. These
channel wind into
the room and bring
the high
temperature down
considerably.
zones. The difference lies mainly in high

humidity ( 5 5-100 per cent). Annual temperature variation is lower. Air in coastal
areas is charged with salts which give
rise to many conservation problems.
Building design
and structural requirements
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
When construction is planned in the tropics,

the common characteristics of the different
types of climate, which affect buildings to a
great extent irrespective of tonal variations,
need first consideration. It will be seen
from the above description that all the
zones are hot with normally high air temperature, though some are hot humid, others
hot dry or hot dry-wet. Sun in the tropics is
a constant factor, though its position in the

sky may vary in different zones, but it is
much fiercer than in temperate or cool
climates. Protection from sun and solar
radiation is therefore the main consideration
as regards walls, roofs, window-openings,
as well as orientation of buildings.
In a museum building, orientation is all
the more important because normally north
light is recommended as the most suitable
natural light for galleries, and for conservation studios; the north light is uniform,
and the colours are distinctly visible.
But, naturally, the opposite wall facing
south has to be well protected from the
sun by large projections, , balconies or
sun-breakers which allow light but exclude
direct sun rays and heat. East-west orientation, which is a favourite of traditional
builders in India, is not suitable for museums,
unless the walls facing east and west are
protected by sun-breakers or wide projections.

Buildings in the tropics need protection
from direct and reflective solar radiation.
Roofs and external walls are the main
victims of solar radiation, and unless
these are protected the interiors would
also be affected.
Roofs and external walls can be used to
minimize the effect of solar radiation in
two ways. First, reflective materials and
white or near-white paint can reflect away
much of the solar radiation from the
building. Secondly, the methods of construction of roofs and walls can prevent
sunlight from reaching the interiors of the
buildings. Provision of external shades can
keep the buildings cool. Trees can provide
some shade, but in a museum building,
trees are a security risk providing easy
access to windows as well as to the roof.
Thermal insulation of roofs, a false ceiling
or a double roof can reduce solar radiation
considerably. Wide roof projections, use
of sun-breakers and proper materials of
construction can protect the external walls
to a great extent from solar radiation, and
the walls in turn will protect the interiors.
Exact sizes of the window openings
will be dictated by the requirements of a
particular zone, but in general they need
protection from the sun. Sun-breakers,
vertical, horizontal or a combination of
both, can protect windows from direct rays
while allowing much-needed glare-free light
inside the museum gallery. Windows
provide natural ventilation, which is needed
to some extent in all the zones of the
tropical climate. (Figs. 18j, 186, 187).
Ventilation can also be provided by
channelling the wind. Foz this purpose
windscoops or special,screens are installed
on the roofs to divert the wind to channels
which reach the rooms. This technique has
been use in certain very hot dry parts of
India for centuries. Normally one windscoop
is provided for each room, and in multistoreyed building the channels reach all
the way down. This type of ventilation is
possible if the wind blows regularly in the
same direction. By providing such ventilation, temperature can be brought down
from 48" C to 35' C . (Fig. 188).
Before planning a museum building,
it is necessary to decide whether the
building will be provided with air-conditioning or not. This decision will influence
the planning. If a building is designed
in order to obtain natural lighting and
ventilation, which can be supplemented
with additional artificial lighting and ventilation, it will be moie functional than a
building which has not been so planned.
In a museum building, natural lighting,
with all its faults, cannot be discarded.
It can be reflected, screened and diffused so
that it is without glare and with less ultraviolet rays. Judicious use of natural light
can be most profitable and inexpensive.
Light entering through high windows
reflected by the ceiling is adequate for
galleries. (Figs. 189, 190).
Ceiling fans, different types of aircirculators and unit ventilators are helpful
to the circulation of air, but their location
should not be disturbing in the galleries.
They can be built in.
Amendixes
272
I 89
A traditional example of the pierced
screen with an opening which allows
diffused sunlight and air into the building.
The interior is kept cool by the breeze.
Hot air can be kept out by covering the
screens with reed curtains; these can be
rolled up to allow a cool breeze to enter.
I9 0
An example of the protection of the

ground-floor wall by a verandah. The
upper-floor wall and the windows are
protected by the projecting roof and the
sun-breakers.
Special csaasideratiows
HOT-DRY ZONE
This climatic zone has high air temperatures,

dry air and dry ground. Absence of cloud
or vapour intensifies solar radiation, which
dries the air still more. Owing to dryness of
ground, very little vegetation or plant life
is possible, and solar radiation is reflected.
Use of dark colours for exposed ground
near the buildings will decrease reflective
radiation. Fountains and trees should be
added in order to cool the surroundings,
but they should be kept away from the
building to avoid termites.
Humidity being low in this zone, doors
and windows are kept closed; this restricts
the entry of hot air into the building. Small
window openings high up in the wall
allow the necessary air to enter and reduce
the solar radiation. During the daytime,
windows are kept closed, but cool air
should be introduced at night, particularly
in the museum galleries, to cool the interiors.
Windows on the east and west sides should
be smaller than south windows, but should

have adequate screens, shutters and sunshades. North windows need protection
from wind in winter.
West facing walls in particular need to be
thick. A 1j1/2-inch thickness of walls
normally provides a ten-hour time-lag.
Alternatively, cavity walls are considered
effective for blocking out heat transmission.
East and south walls can be of light construction if protected by overhangs or
sun-breakers.
A 41/3-inoh thick R.C.C. slab with 3 to 4inch lime-concrete or mud-concrete layer
provides an eight-hour time-lag for flat
roofs.
For maintenance of desirable humidity
inside galleries and for cooling the interiors
by circulation of cool air, desert-coolers can
be used.
Airborne sand or dust storms, high
temperatures, higher fluctuations of diurnal
temperatures and sudden chilling during
winter months create great stress in the
surface of building materials, and it is
advisable to use only such materials as
will withstand these conditions.
High ceilings do not make any apparent

difference in the temperature unless there is
a double roof. In museums such a roof can
provide top-lighting introduced into the
space between ceiling and the roof. The
lighting can be natural as well as artificial.
Courtyard planning of a compact type
would function effectively for this zone.
Enclosed courtyards retain heat during
winter and allow quick radiation of heat
and cooling during summer. They can be
landspaced with fountains and green plants
and can be utilized as sculpture courts or
relaxation areas in museums.
HOT-HUMID
ZONE
This zone has moderately high temperatures

but moist air and damp ground. Cloud and
vapour act as a filter to solar radiation;
and damp ground, with a lot of vegetation,
plants and shrubbery, reduces the heat
of the surrounding area, which does not
heat up easily. Air movement also helps in
cooling surroundings as well as interiors.
For human comfort natural ventilation
Appendixes
is a necessity, and breeze at body level
is desired. External air must continually
replace internal air. This can be ensured
by wind-oriented large windows. In the
planning of museum galleries, this creates
problems, as most of the walls have to be
spared for exhibitions and the display of
objects; but if the orientation of the galleries
is planned in view of the wind direction,
comparatively smaller openings can provide
enough ventilation. However, windows need
protection in the form of sunbreakers or
overhangs which should allow ventilation
and light but not glare and rain. The
angles of sun-breakers and window projections need particular care because they
should not obstruct the breeze. While
preparing an exhibition layout for the
galleries, it should be seen that partitions
or screens are not erected which would
obstruct natural ventilation. Cross-ventilation of the galleries is most important.
Thick walls protect galleries from solar
radiation but external walls need protection
from the rains. Water penetration can be
avoided by adjustable louvers which should,
however, allow much-needed breezes.
High humidity can be mastered for
personal comfort by introducing air movements through fans, and air circulators.
Good air circulation prevents the growth
of micro-organisms. High humidity also
affects building materials, and exposed
metals or timber should not be used in this
climate.
MONSOON ZONE
This zone combines the characteristics of a

hot-humid climate during the rainy season
and has a hot-dry climate during the rest of
the year.
A special effort is needed in this zone to
maintain surroundings like green lawns
and fountains which are a great help in the
dry season in cooling the surroundings and
reducing solar radiation.
Windows should be in generous proportion as compared to hot and dry zones but
need protection from the hot summer sun
in the form of sun-breakers and wall or
roof projections. Pierced screens covering
the windows or verandah are very useful
in this zone, allowing enough ventilation
in the,rainy season but cutting down direct
sun rays as well as solar radiation from the
sky and the ground. In winter, they allow
much needed sun during the daytime. But
behind the pierced screens, it is necessary
to provide shutters to the windows, which
can be closed when necessary to keep out
the sun, cold wind and dust prevalent in
this zone. Windows or ventilators as measures of permanent ventilation in the form
of pierced screens are a popular feature of
traditional Indian architecture. However,
such ventilators are always without shutters.
In museums they not only create cleaning
problems but allow the entry of dust,
which is very harmful to museum objects.
The building should not be compact,
but open and well ventilated. Walls of
galleries should be of heavy masonry,
but should be protected by verandahs or
balconies of lightweight construction; this
slows down the rate of cooling or heating
of internal galleries in extreme seasons.
'73
Humidity fluctuates severely as per
seasonal variations and causes wood and
comparable building materials to shrink
and split. It also affects shrinkable clays. The
building materials have to be selected
carefully. Owing to heavier construction
of outside verandahs, i t may be necessary
to shut up the building during the day
and open it up during the night. This
needs special attention in museums.
M O U N T A I N ZONE
In this zone, the temperature is low because

of high altitudes; humidity is high, and the
range of diurnal temperature is also fairly
high.
A heavyweight structure with a higher
time-lag will prove satisfactory, as the
temperature drops considerably at night.
Ceiling insulation is useful in preventing
rapid loss of heat by radiation at night.
Sunlight is strong at higher altitudes and
contains a higher proportion of ultraviolet rays, the sky being clear. Ventilation
is a necessity, as the humidity is high.
Measures for the hot humid zone can be
adopted to a certain extent, depending on
exact situation.
COASTAL CLIMATE
Humidity in coastal areas is very high

throughout the year. Rainfall is also generally high. Ample provision of windows
to provide ventilation is subject to penetration of rain-water and needs careful designing. Wind is normally strong and some
areas are also affected by cyclonic storms.
This necessitates compact structures and
closed walls with adjustable window openings on the windward side. The construction
must be sound to withstand storms.
Building materials which can resist penetration of rain-water and corrosion due
to sea-salts should be used.
In the museum galleries most of the
museum objects should be displayed in
closed showcases, as sea-salts are very
harmful to them.
Conclusion
The ideas presented here are only preliminary, showing that there is a close relationship
between the design of the museum building
and the conservation of the material.
This relationship is notable in the tropics
because the climatic factors are extreme.
Since air-conditioning is difficult for most of
the museums in South and South-East
Asia, museum designing to meet the
requirements of conservation assumes still
greater importance. It needs much more
research and practical experimentationbefore
concrete results can be achieved and firm
recommendations made. Traditional architecture in South and South-East Asia as
elsewhere in the world is very much
influenced by the climate. Analysis of
traditional measures to counterbalance the
extreme climate provides some solutions
which can be adapted to the present
conditions.
O. P. AGRAWAL
and SMITAJ. BAXI
New museums in the URSS
191
V. I. LENINA(Lenin
DOM-MUZEJ
Memorial Museum), Ulyanovsk, I 970.
Architects: B. Mezentsev, M. Konstantinov,
G. Issakovitch.
The spectacular revival of interest in along with problems pertaining to musemuseums observed almost everywhere in ology, such as the constant extension of
the world today shows that this institution, collections and the development of the
one of the oldest in the history of human main functions of modern museums: conculture, is becoming more attractive and servation, study and education.
The U.S.S.R. now has a long-term plan
is entering upon a new phase in its existence.
The flood of information distributed by the for the development of museums between
mass media, far from supplanting our 1975 and 1990. This document was prepared
first source of knowledge, the historic by museum specialists and architects workbuilding, seems on the contrary to cast ing in collaboration. Particular stress is
a new light on its intrinsic merits of unique- laid on the organization of new museums
ness and authenticity. The lesson of the in the major new towns. The various
museum is indeed unique in its way, for specific suggestions made in the document
within its walls instructive information is can be summed up as follows: (a) a museum
combined in the most natural manner is one of the various institutions whose
with sensual impressions to offer that special function is to provide information and
intellectual pleasure which makes a museum which are essential elements in the nucleus
visit such a memorable event. A museum is around which a city is built; (b) museum
neither a mausoleum nor a temple. However, architecture should reflect the particular
by the very nature of its function, which nature of the collections and of the national
is to perpetuate the historical experience of and climatic conditions; (c) the interior of a
the human race, it selects the most significant museum should be so arranged as to ensure
of such buildings and presents them in the that the main administrative and functional
form of models or plans. Hence the vast areas are linked in the most convenient
potentialities of the museums contribution way for both visitors and staff, and that the
widest use is made of new display techniques.
to mans spiritual world.
The present network of museums in the The development plan also provides for the
U.S.S.R. consists of a multitude of vari- systematic training of specialists in museously specialized museums amply covering ology.
The implementation of this programme
the different branches of culture, art, science
and technology and systematically distributed must be organized in a different way at
over the whole country. All the admin- each stage. At the first stage, the work
istrative and cultural centres of every consists in calculations: the figures concern
republic, territory and region possess the size and type of the collections of the
museums, special attention being given to future museum, the proportion of exhibits
their organization in the national republics. to reserve stocks, annual acquisitions, all
In the Soviet Union, the building of these being the factors which determine
new museums and the modernization of old rhe areas of display rooms and storage rooms.
ones are included in State plans for cultural Provision is made for special rooms for
development. In drawing up these plans temporary exhibitions, which occupy an
all the diverse requirements of modern increasingly important place in the activities
life are borne in mind. Specifically, this of a modern museum. The number of
means taking into account changing social visitors, the rate of growth, the amount,
conditions, urban growth, increasing leisure types and methods of public information
time (the working day is continually being work are assessed in order to compile the
shortened), the trend in general educational list. of ancillary areas, defning their functions
and cultural level (in I972 general secondary and parameters-lecture rooms, club rooms,
educati6n became compulsory for all), entrance hall. This is the task of the museum
Appendixes
27 5
I93
GOSUDARSTVENNYJ
LITERATURNYJ
MUZEJ
(Museum of Russian Literature), Moscow.
The individual rooms are arranged
according to themes round a central hall.
General view (model). Architects:
Y . Rabaev, V. Talikovski, G. Savchenko,
I. Diachenko, L. Enchenko, E. Shpakovskaya, T. Itkina, A. Lvov. Engineers:
M. Schwechman, I. Kritchevskaya,
V. Vanag.
staff, who also specify their needs in regard

to services premises, restoration workshops,
laboratories.
At the next stage, the design study is
entrusted to the architects. The figures
are now turned into concrete shapes.
Museums cannot be standardized: the urban
site and the nature of the collections are
taken as the starting-point for the work of
finding an essentially original answer to the
architectural problem. In preparing their
design, the architects draw on both national
and foreign experience. Nevertheless, the
creation of a new museum is always the
outcome of a long search for the best
architectural solution and a careful study
of the functions to be catered for, due
allowance being made throughout for
possible future extensions.
The work on the design itself is preceded
by a detailed study of the collections.
Architects and museologists hold joint
discussions from which the general plan
should emerge. The purpose of their
consultations, which will not be discontinued until the study is completed, is to
determine the functional layout of the
premises, the itinerary for visitors, the

arrangement of displays. The wide variety
of types of museum obviously affects the
details of the preparatory study. The
installations, functional organization and
architectural problems which are related
to museum work are the subject of analytical
surveys and synoptic reports undertaken
at the Central Institute for Research on
Buildings for Cultural Purposes and Sports.
This institute is responsible for reviewing
and testing the application of scientific
principles in all types of public buildings,
including museums.
Many new museums have sprung up in
the U.S.S.R. over the past decade. Memorial
museums, which are very popular, are by
far the most numerous. Their purpose is to
perpetuate the memory of great historical
events, individual or collective exploits and
great personalities, and this is why they
hold a particularly strong appeal for the
public. For the same reason, the style of
the architecture and the aesthetic quality
of the design play a leading part in the
success of this kind of museum.
The group of buildings forming the
Ulyanovsk Memorial and the branch of the

Lenin Museum in Tashkent, inaugurated on
the centenary of Lenins birth, are major
architectural works. Both are situated in the
centre of important towns which are rapidly
developing and have a rich history. (Figs.
190, 191).
At Ulyanovsk, Lenins birthplace, the

great mans memory is bound up with
the steep banks of the Volga and the
peaceful lanes lined with cottages, mostly
timberbuilt. How was a monument on a
grand scale to be fitted into the dilapidated
setting of Lenins childhood and adolescence? The architects have fully succeeded
in solving this problem: the memorial has
merged into its urban environment as if
it had always been there. The design of
this multipurpose complex, comprising
the museum proper, a large concert hall and
a political education centre, conveys a
strong sense of unity. In the centre are
preserved the cottages which were the
homes of the various members of the
Ulyanov family. This is the memorial
part of the exhibition. The original features
of each cottage have been restored, inside
Appendixes
194
MuzEJ T. % & E " m J
(T. Sh"-Iko
Museum Of Art),
(Kazakhstan)*
Architects: E. Kuznetsova, O. Naumova.
Engineers: M. Kashlarski, 2. Sukhanova.
as well as out. In this way, history is woven

into the fabric of the architectural plan to
form a monument which is harmoniously
designed around a sing1e theme'
The Lenin Memorial exhibition occupies
a room in the central building which lends
itself to all manner of modifications in order
to accommodate the steadily increasing
number of acquisitions. Its sixteen sections
are spatially differentiated only by the
arrangement of the material displayed.
Monumental art plays an active part in
the exhibition by contributing stained glass,
sculptures and mosaics. The visitors'
itinerary ends in the Lenin Room, which is
the thematic and architectural heart of
the museum and of the whole memorial.
(It is in this room that official ceremonies
take place, investitures are held, etc.) The
function of the memorial is not solely
to perpetuate the memory of the past: it
incorporates important public institutions
necessary for modern urban life, such as
an institute of education, a cultural centre,
an opera-house, an hotel, a shopping centre.
The Lenin Museum in Tashkent is the
first memorial of this kind in Central
Asia. The project features the national
characteristics of Uzbek architecture, which
is distinguished by the simplicity of its
general form and the very elaborate style
of the decorative elements.
In particular, the link with tradition is
implicit in a ground-plan boldly designed
around one central point and in the ornamental character of the faades. The central
point is the great hall around which display
areas are provided on two levels. The red
stone surface of the walls, broken by the
white stone of the plaques bearing inscriptions, combines with the abundance of
light to create a most impressive atmosphere of majesty. The exhibition, which is
not divided up by partitions, opens on to the
central hall. It includes nearly 3,000 texts,
first editions of Lenin's works, models of
memorial sites, works of art inspired by his
life, A great deal of the museum's activity
is concerned with lectures and excursions,
for most visits terminate in the lecture room.
The same desire to produce an original
monumental work is reflected in the

architecture of the Velikie Luki Museum.
This building, which perpetuates the
memory of the young people killed in the
Great Patriotic War, bears the name of
Aleksandr Matrosov, who met a hero's
death at the age of 19. The white wall area
rising above the entrance to the glassenclosed ground floor serves as a support for
a symbolic composition in sheet-steel.
The wall overhangs the spot where Matrosov's k.o7~~~onzaZmembership
card is displayed,
this being the centre-piece of the exhibition.
In the semi-darkness, a shaft of light falls
on it from above. The memorial also
comprises the tomb of the young hero
with a funerary sculpture and the obelisk
erected to the memory of the soldiers who fell
in action when the town was liberated in
1943.The centre of the complex is Aleksandr Matrosov Square, which is an open
space raised above the surrounding area, on
which there stands the main part of the
memorial, namely, the museum. The slope
down from the square has been made into
an amphitheatre for assemblies, meetings
and big demonstrations.
The memorial complexes and the museums
built at Salaspils, Krasnodon, Katyn,
Erevan and Baku are also famous. An
essential feature of this type of museum is
that it represents a synthesis of all the arts.
There is practically no end to the variety
of themes handled in museum work. It
is clearly the main task of the architect to
reflect the specific aspects of each theme.
The project for the new Museum of
Literature to be built in the centre of
Moscow has been prepared by architects
and museologists working together. The
aim of the exhibition is ro offer a panoramic
introduction to the history of Russian
literature, to throw the crucial periods
into relief, highlight the work of the great
writers, show the broad trends in modern
times.
The visitors' itinerary follows a vertical
pattern, starting on the third level and
going down in chronological order from
the beginnings of Russian literature to our
own time. A room is devoted to each
Appendixes
trend or school, all the rooms being arranged
around the central hall. The exhibition as a
whole is so designed as to give a very
comprehensive picture of the general
development of Russian literature (Fig. 193).
This museum will have a rich collection
of works of art and objects used in the
home, which recreate the atmosphere of a
period. Lighting poses a special problem
in this type of museum. As the keepers
main concern is to ensure that the conservation of manuscripts and old books is
not jeopardized by exposure to full daylight, there are no windows in the walls.
Skylights in the ceilings spread a diffused
natural light, which is combined with
artificial lighting. The highly varied layout
of the internal display areas contributes to
the effectiveness of the exhibitions.
More and more art museums are bcing
designed and constructed in most of the
Soviet Republics. Fine arts museums are
being completed at Tashkent, Frunze,
Nukusgand Erevan. At Alma-Ata, capital of
Kazakhstan, the construction work on the
Taras Shevchenlio Art Gallery is nearing
277
completion. This museum will put the
finishing touch to the general appearance of
the centre of the city, which already has a
theatre, a circus and a wedding hall.
The gallerys collection comprises 10,000
works by artists from Kazakhstan, Russia,
the U.S.S.R. and Western Europe, and
includes products of the craftsmen of India,
China and Japan. The collection is steadily
increasing, at the rate of about 300 items a
year.
The display areas are arranged around an
inner courtyard so that all the sections
are easily accessible to visitors enabling
them to choose whether to see them
consecutively or selectively. The building is
completed by the glass-sided pyramid of
the central hall, which houses the display
of sculpture. The museum is also equipped
with a group of special exhibition rooms,
storage areas, studios, a library, restoration
workshops and technical services (Fig 194).
A large number of smaller art museums
have also been opened recently in many
places. The Csurlionis Museum at Kaunas is
a noteworthy example. The intimate cha-
racter of the exhibition devoted to the

work of the remarkable Lithuanian painter
and composer of that name dictated the
simple compact lines of the building and
the quiet style of the interior decoration.
Works by Csurlionis can be heard in the
music room, while his pictures are hung in
display areas built as projecting units on
different levels rising from the entrance,
each row representing one period. The
distemper painting on cardboard is protected
by special glass frames.
A series of new museums is to be built in
Moscow in the next few years. The Academy
of Sciences is to have a Museum of Palaeontology and museums are planned for
music, the theatre and the applied arts.
Construction work on the U.S.S.R. Art
Gallery is being completed. Lastly, we
should mention the events of major importance which are the competitions organized
recently for designs for the new premises of
the countrys biggest museums, the Lenin
Museum and the Museum of the Revolution.
IRINA
ANTONOVA
and V. REVYAKIN
IV The building starts with a programmebut where does the programme end?
You have been given the responsibility of

producing the programme for a new
museum building. Simple?No. Just put down
on a piece of paper a list of all the functions
you would like to see included, with a
number next to each item for the amount
of space it should have. Then hand it
over to the best architect you can find,
and he will translate thcse concepts into
I
beautiful forms.
There are, in reality, at least three basic
fallacies to such an Arcadian formulation.
The first is that the god Mammon raises
his head from the very outset, and that
whatever is done must involve an analysis
of the available and potential resources in a
world where construction costs may be
rising, as in the United States, by I per cent a
month, or 12 per cent a year. To match the
scope of a project to its probable cost requires
the involvement from the outset of an architect (not necessarily the eventual designer of
the building), people versed in construction,
and people involved in the provision of the
funds. At this stage it seems that the
costs cannot be known until the building
is designed, and the building cannot be
designed until the costs are known. The
only solution is to recognize that program-
ming is a process, and to proceed by successive approximations, starting with the

roughest ratios of cost per square unit
of floor space.
The second fallacy lies in the reality
that, in practice, the flow of even programmatic ideas is not one way. As the
building begins to take shape, it is apt to
suggest functions. Some space allocations
are negotiable according to opportunities
introduced by the design and priorities set up
by the client. Whatever the fashionable
shibboleths of our post-Bauhaus age,
function follows form in the real world as
much as the other way around (although a
well-kept secret among the architectural
fraternity). There is no need to feel guilt;
symbiosis is just as fashionable and probably
healthier. The key, however, is again the
recognition that programming is a process,
analogous in some ways to the more
familiar one of expository writing. The
architect, too, proceeds from a very rough
outline through succeeding stages of greater
and greater specificity, down to the final
working drawings for every centimetre of
the finished structure.
The character of the undertaking as
process is further dramatized if the owner
Appendixes
278
I9J
NATIONAL
GALLERY
OF ART,Washington.
Left, the ancient building; right, the new
extension building. Plan of the concourse
level, underground.
chooses ro construct the project by the

so-called fast-track method. In a period
of rising costs, the most economical way
to proceed may be to begin the timeconsuming excavation before the building
is designed in complete detail. Particularly
if the project is large and complex, one
saves the money otherwise eaten away while
waiting for the finished plans. This method
precludes putting a final set of documents
out for competitive bidding; but the theory
is that in the case of a unique building
such as a museum, which is apt to be out
of the experience of most builders, a
contractor would have to put such a
large contingency factor inro bis bid that
the owner is better off with a contract
based on cost plus a fixed percentage.
Priorities for design completion are then
set by the critical path of what needs to be
built next, and the programming thus
continues actively long after the basic
design of the building has been arrived at.
The third fallacy is in many ways the
most important, the most complex and the
most unexpected. It is that any architect
good enough to be chosen for a project of
the cultural importance of a museum is
going to be subtly but fundamentally a t
cross-purposes with his client. This phenomenon is all the more unexpected since,
particularly in the case of an art museum,
both client and architect share to such an
unusual degree an aesthetic orientation. One
of the functions prescribed in a museum
buildings programme should be beauty;
the structure should embody in its design
the standards of visual imagination and
cultural excellence that the institution
it houses strives to foster. By virtue of its
civic importance, and the values the
museum strives to preserve, a degree of
monumentality is inevitable. But no one
in the business of operating a museum need
be told that beauty and monumentality are
not enough. To end with a museum that
works takes more than presenting an
architect with a sheet of paper. The museum
professional must, as a continuing process,
fight for every function that he wants the
new building to perform.
From the early days, some six years ago,
in which the writer was assigned by the
trustees to begin planning for a second
building for the National Gallery of Art in
Washington, everyone consulted who had
recently completed a building project of
his own gave the same advice. One cannot
Appendixes
be too Careful about reviewing what the
architect proposes, down to the placement
of a thermostat on an office wall. Some of
those asked even suggested hiring an
additional architect just to sit on the clients
side and review the plans. Not even the
professional designer can ever visualize
completely the effect of a finished structure
in three dimensions, and for the layman
it is all the trickier. The non-specialist finds
himself in a new medium, where he generally
must rely for alternative options on the
same designers who are pushing their
own solution as the best one possible
And that solution will be the best, if they
are competent, according to an underlying
set of criteria that do not, however, necessarily match yours.
To illustrate the range of functions the
process of programming must oversee
would be to fill this special issue of Museum.
Suffice it to touch here on the three basic
areas of display, public services and
behind-the-scenes.
If it is an art museum you are building,
the loyalty of the museum staff will be to
the individual works of art; that of the
architect, to the aesthetic integrity of the
building as a whole. As buildings are
experienced over time, inside and out,
in three dimensions, and at very large
scale, no individual art object can compete
with them. At the same time, the experience
of that object is this kind of buildings
ultimate point. The architect will naturally
want visual control over everything the
public sees; he must be led to realize that
the nearest analogy to what he is designing
is that of a theatre, where the beauty and
excitement of the building should put the
audience in a mood of heiglitened awareness,
but where, ultimately, other artists must be
allowed to take the stage.
Objects require settings of their own.
Most critical, perhaps, is the relationship
between the scale of the object and the
scale of the spatial volume with which
it must contend. The object cries out for
containment, dominance of its environment,
and insulation from an architectural schema
too large for it to handle. Modern architecture, on the other hand, revels in open,
interpenetrating spaces, and reminders of the
structural system that subordinate subspaces
to the total building.
As requirements for display will undoubtedly change in the future, the museum
needs flexibility, This is particularly true as
the activities of a museum develop, and
it comes to serve a variety of civic and
quasi-performing-arts functions. The architect, however, naturally wants to set the
forms once and for all.
The security and preservation of the
work of art on display will inevitably mean
more to the museums staff than to the
architect. Atmospheric control, the prevention of theft or of damage in times of
violence, all tend to require a building in the
form of an air-conditioned vault. Modern
architecture, on the other hand, cherishes
openness and a sense of invitation. Perception of the out-of-doors and the flow of
indoor-outdoor space rank high in the
architects desiderata; but if introduced at all,
they must be rigorously controlled as at the
Gulbenkian Museum in Lisbon, if the
7-77
visitor is to avoid being blinded and his
rapport with the imaginative world of the
object is not to be intruded upon unnecessarily. Lighting of the works of art is the most
difficult and controversial problem both the
architect and his client must face. It may well
be that no completely satisfactory solution
has ever been reached. Without attempting
to discuss it here, it should be remembered
that conservation of objects demands less
light; excitement by the architecture demands
more.
In the area of service to the public,
functions of the most prosiac kind must
be championed by the planning staff if
they are not to be ignored by architects
for whom they become blemishes on the
design purity of the conception. Drinking
fountains, lavatories, public telephones,
smoking lounges, checkrooms; shelter while
waiting for opening time, places to meet
others or have coffee in pleasant surroundings; wheelchair storage, ramps and lavatories for paraplegics; places to write a
postcard, and post it; information desks,
inventory storage space for the sales facility,
signs that communicate without clutteringthe lists never seem to end.
Finally, all the areas off view to the
public will naturally tend to inspire less
of the architects enthusiasm than the
public spaces. Here, therefore, the process of
programming the building must be particularly vigilant. Adequate art storage for the
future, designed for convenient study and
research; well-thought-out and secure spaces
for packing and unpacking; support for
heavy sculpture all along its route to display;
adequate space for the preparation of
exhibits and the storage of unused cases
and pedestals; elevators and corridors of
suitable dimensions for very large objects;
a logical flow from shipping dock to
registrar to photo lab to conservation to
storage; convenient places for guards to rest
and provision for both female and male
guards; conduits for possible future requirements of audio-visual and computer technologies; perimeter and internal security
systems; services for scholarship, including
provision for library growth and future
automated data retrieval systems; housing
for mops and floor-cleaning machines,
access to light fixtures for re-lamping, and
in general the maintenance implications of
every aspect of the design-here again no
amount of concentration will ever seem
to produce an exhaustive list.
Programming a new museum is thus not
an act. It is an ongoing, painstaking and
continuously interacting process. The ability
of a good architect to come up with
imaginative and functional solutions that
satisfy the programme and are also beautiful
is an uncanny phenomenon to watch. But
architects will often repeat the truism that a
building can be no better than its client;
and the opportunity of those engaged in the
professional aspects of museums to help a
new museum happen, and keep it from
happening wrong, presents one of the most
rewarding challenges that any career could
offer.
J. CARTER
BROWN
196
HIRSHHORN
MUSEUM
AND SCULPTURE
GARDEN,Washington.
This photograph reached us just as the
issue was going to press. It shows a new
and important construction by the
Smithsonian Institution to which we shall
return in a subsequent issue. We are hoping
that readers will keep us informed of
new museum ventures in differentparts
of the world so that we can draw
attention to them in the reviews Museum
Notes. (Editors note.)
1
.
:
280
MUSEUMS
ARCHITECTURE
Arcbitectzrral Forum. Whitney Publications

Inc., New York, N.Y. 10022 (United
States).
Architectural Revieiv. The Architectural
Press Ltd, London SWIH 9BY
(United Kingdom).
LArchitecture ZAzdourdbaL TechnicUnion S.A., y2100 Boulogne (France).
L'Architecture Franfaise. Editions
Ch. Rambert, 14 Rue de luniversit,
75007 Paris (France).
Arkhitektura S S S R , 3 Shchusseva Street,
Moscow K I (U.S.S.R.)
A r k i t e k t w . Arkitektens-Forlag, D1C-107 I,
Copenhagen (Denmark).
Azqourdbui. 5 Rue Bartholdi,
92100 Boulogne (France).
Bauen f Vohnen. Verlag Bauen
Wohnen GmbH, 8 Munich 80 (Federal
Republic of Germany).
Batwelt. Bertelsmann Fachzeitschriften
GmbH, West Berlin.
The Canadian Architect. Southam Business
Publications Ltd, Don Mills, Ontario
(Canada).
Dentscbe Baqeitscbrift. Bertelsmann
Fachverlag, 4830 Giitersloh (Federal
Republic of Germany).
Deatsche Bazqeitung. Deutsche
Verlagsanstalt GmbH, 7 Stuttgart I
(Federal Republic of Germany).
Int. Lightitzg Review. SpinlVan Mantgem,
B.V. Amsterdam (Netherlands).
Japan Architect. Shinkenchiku-Sha Co. Ltd,
Tokyo (Japan).
Kalohi. Royal South Australian Society of
Arts, Institute Bldg, North T.C.E.,
Adelaide, S.A. 5000 (Australia).
Progressive Architecture. Reinhold Publishing
Corporation, Stanford, Conn. 06904
(United States).
U.I.A. Information. Union Internationale
des Architectes, I Rue dUlm,
75005 Paris (France).
Perk. Zollikofer & Co. A.G., Buch- und
Offsetdruck, 9000 St Gallen
(Switzerland).
I . See also selective bibliography compiled by the

Unesco-ICOM Documentation Centre.
Neue Musmmskunde. VEB Deutscher Verlag

der Wissenschaften, 108 Berlin (German
Democratic Republic).
Masezmskzinde, Verlag Walter de Gruyter
& Co., I Bedin 30 (West Berlin).
Museum News. American Association of
Museums, Washington, D.C. 20007
(United States).
The Museam Journal. Collin Sizer, Museums
Association, London (United Kingdom).
Museum architecture: projects and recent

achievements. Mzisewz (Paris, Unesco),
vol. 17, no. 3, 1964, p. 1r4-41, illus,
plans.
Qupb icated
COU rses
Physiologie du muse: conservation. By

Georges Henri Rivitre, Universities of
Paris I and IV. (UER art et archologie.)
Books
v1 U S E U v1 S
ALOI,Roberto. Musei. Milan, Ulrico Hoepli,
Articles
GENERAL
1962.
BOTT,Gerhard. D a s Museum der Zukunft.

Cologne, Verlag DuMont Schauberg,
1970.
BROWNE,
Michael. Neue Mimen. Stuttgart,
Verlag Arthur Niggli, 1965.
LINICE,S.;NAGEL,S. Bautetz fur Bildung
and Forscbutg2 Museen, Biblotheken,
Instit&. Giitersloh, Verlagsgruppe
Bertelsmann, 1971.
BASIC SCIENCES
ARNHEIM,
Rudolf. KWst und Seherz. Berlin,
Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1965.
--. Anscbauliches Denken. Cologne, Verlag
DuMont Schauberg, 1972.
BAHRDT,
Hans Paul. Die moderne Grosstadt.
Hamburg, Christien Wegner-Verlag
GmbH, 1969.
Humaner Sfdtebaa. Hamburg, 1968.
JEAN, E. PhysiologischeArbeitsgestalGRAN
tang. Munich, Ott Verlag, 1967.
KIEMLE,Manfred. stbetische Probleme der
Arcbitektiir unter dem Aspekt der
Informationssthetik. Quickborn, Verlag
Schnelle, I 967.
LYNCH,Kevin. Das Bild der Stadt. Berlin,
Frankfurt and Vienna, Verlag Ullstein
GmbH, 1965.
MALES,Abraham A. Informationstheoriee und
sthetiesche Wahrnehminig. Cologne, Verlag
DuMont Schauberg, 1971.
SCHMIDT-RELENBERG,
Norbert. So?iologiee
Stdtebari. Stuttgart, Karl Kriimer Verlag,
1968.
SENKENBURG
MUSEUM.
Several publications.
Frankfurt.
-.
v.d. OSTEN,Gerd. Der Neubau von

ICunst- und ICulturmuseen. Celebration
speech for Rudolf Hillebrecht on
26 February 1970.
WAETZOLD,
Stephan. Planung fiir die
Museen am Tiergarten. Reprint from:
Jahrbuch Preussscber Kdtarbesit?,
vol. IV, West Berlin, 1971.
WALTERS,
Christian. Konservatorische
Gesichtspunkte im Museumsbau. From:
Em$>hlnngen der Sachversttzd&nkommissieon Jir den Bazr eines nezren
Walraff-Richart?- Museums.
I)O C U M E N T S P U B L I S I E D
BY M U S E U M S
Arcbifectwe of M2ise~1ms(MONA). New

York, November 1968.
Concours international pour la ralisation
du Centre Beaubourg. Rapport du jury.
Revne de ZUIA (Paris), no. 12, 1971,
p. 20-33.
The Denver Art Museum, Denver.
Japan Science Foundation, Tokyo.
Museum architecture. Masez{?~s-Assoctieo~z
of India. New Delhi, February 1971.
Das Museum fiir Vlkerkunde in BerlinDahlem, Berlin.
New Museums, Moscow.
Singapore Science Centre. From: S I A J
(Singapore Institute of Architects
Journal), November-December I 971.
Victorian Arts Centre, Melbourne.
Walker Art Center, Minneapolis.
ColZaborafor (Co-author of chapter on

'Siting')
Aufhor
MANFRED
LEHMBRUCK
Professor, Dr. Ing., born Paris 1913.(Son
of the sculptor Wilhelm Lehmbruck.)
Began his studies with the architect
Mies van der Rohe in Berlin and continued
them at the Technischen Hochschulen in
Berlin and Stuttgart. Obtained his doctorate
at the Technische Hochschule in
Hannover with a thesis on 'Fundamental
Problems of Modern Museum
Construction'. Worked with Auguste Perret
in Paris, until the war and afterwards
in several Swiss architectural offices.
In 1950 went to Stuttgart to work
independently as a freelance architect and
in 1967 was appointed professor of building
and draft plan at the architectural
university of Brunswick. Since 1962 has
been an active member of ICOM.
Constructions carried out: Reuchlinhaus
Cultural Centre, Pforzheim; Wilhelm
Lehmbruck Museum, Duisburg; Federsee
Museum, Bad Buchau; school, industrial and
residential buildings, hospital, library at
Hallenbad. Projects: Cultural Centre,
Rottweil; Cultural Centre, Nicosia
(Cyprus), etc. Work taken over from other
architects: Art Museum, Neuss; Literary
Archives, Marbach; etc.
AVAILABLE BACK ISSUES
Bilingual editions
1958.Vol. XI:
No. I International Campaign for
Museums
No. 2 Czechoslovak museums
No. 3 Regional and local museums
No. 4 General number
1959. Vol. XII:
No. z General number
1960. Vol. XIII:
1961.Vol. XIV:
No. I General number
1962.Vol. XV:
No. 4 Hungarian museums
1963. vol. XVI:
No. 3 African museums
1964. vol. XVIk
No. z Control of deteriorating effects of
light upon museum objects
1965.Vol. XVIII.
No. I Aesthetic principles and general
planning of educational
exhibitions
No. 3 The role of museums in
contemporary Africa
No. 4 Museums in India
1366. Vol. X I X
No. z Museums of Poland
No. 3 Museums in the Ukraine
No. 4 The development of museums:
Unesco Regional Seminar,
New Delhi, 1966
BERNDRAUTENSTRAUCH
Engineer, scientific assistant to Professor
Lehmbruck at the Technische Universitt,
Brunswick
Picttrre credits
I , Roger Viollet, Paris; 3, Leonard Freed/
Magnum; I I , Muse de l'Horlogerie,
La Chaux-de-Fonds; 22, Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York; 23, 183,
Hildegard Weber, Itln; 26, Victoria Arts
Centre, Melbourne; 27, Siorid Neubert,
Miinchen; 28, 86(b), Bernd Kirtz, Duisburg;
31(b), Jorn Freddie, Kcabenhavn; 34, Heinz
Oeberg, Berlin, 3j, Centre Culturel du
Plateau Beaubourg; 40, Stadsontwikkeling
Dienst Publieke Werken, Amsterdam;
41, Ecomuse de la Communaut Urbaine
du Creusot-Montceau-les-Mines;
42, Thomas HpkerlMagnum; 60, Gil
Amiac, New York; 64, University Art
Museum, Berkeley (Colin McRae);
7 o ( b ) , Ryoo Hata, Tokyo; 80, Sketch after
1967. vol. xx:

No. 4 Museums of Belgium
1968. Vol. XXI:
No. I Museums and education
No. 3 The technical organization of an
international art exhibition:
Man and H
is World, Expo '67,
Montreal
1969.Vol. XXII:
No. 314 Public attitudes towards
modern art
I970/71.vol. X m I k
No. I Museums and computers
No. 4 Models of museums of science
and technology
Separaf e latggage edifions
1972. vol. XXIV.
No. I Problems of the museum
of contemporary art in the West
No. 3 Museums and agriculture
1973. vol. xxv.
No. I /2 Museums and environment
No. 3 The role of museums in today's
Latin America. Round table
organized by Unesco, Santiago
( c u e ) , 1972
Back numbers may be purchased from

your Unesco publications national
distributor at current single copy rates.
Frederick Kiesler, Werk, February 1959;

SJ, Henie Onstad Museum, Oslo;
89, Collection, Museum of Modern Art,
New York; y j , Hakone Open Air Museum;
97(a), (b), Sepp Mayer, Rottweil; 104, 138,
170, I ~ J 177,179,182,
,
Manfred Lehmbruck;
112, Wayne Thom, Santa Barbara;
140, Muse des Arts et Traditions
Populaires, Paris (A. Guey); 147, Colin
Westwood, London; 1j3, Western
Australian Museum (Vera MacKay),
Perth; r j j , National Science Museum,
Tokyo; r j 8 , Rdiger Dichtel, Stuttgart;
I ~ J A.
, Pelegrie, Anvers; 166, Laurent
Rousseau; Paris; 168, Ernest Mayer,
Winnipeg Art Gallery; 169, Kulturhistorisk
Museum, Randers (Lars Johansson);
r71, Ezra Stoller Associates; 173, Fototeta
A.S.A.C. Biennale, Foto A.F.I., Venezia;
174, Reinhard Friedrich, Berlin, 178, The
Japan Architect (Taisuke Ogawa), Tokyo;
180, Cornell University Photograph, Office
of Public Information, Ithaca, N.Y.;
184, Striiwing, Birkerod; 18j-8, 190, Omar
Prakash Agrawal, Delhi; I 89, Archaeological Survey of India, Government of India;
191, Novosti Press Agency; 192, Filial
Central'nogo Muzeja V. I. Lenina,
Tashkent; 193, GosudarstvennyjLiteraturnyj
Muzej, Moskva; 194, Muzej T. SevEenkogo,
Alma-Ata; 196, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C.

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Museum Standards by The UNESCO

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Museum

Vol XXVI, n 3/4, 1974

Chief Editor : Conrad Wise

Om Prakash Agrawal, India

Mz~ceiimquarterly review is available in

Each number: 16 F. Annual subscription

Editorial and publishing offices:

Policy Commissioning authority and master builder

Sociology. Social context and place of action

Conservation. Physiochemistry of the objects

Technology. Flexibility, extensibility

Aesthetics. Laws of form and semantics

Programming and planning the construction of a museum (Georges Henri

III -New museums in the U.S.S.R. (Irina Antonova and V. Revyakin)

The building starts with a programme-but

where does the programme end?

'Real things' (Man-made objects,

((Chose relle)) (objet issu de l'homme,

Objekt (von Menschenhand);

Space utilization (for example, intensity

Densit plus faible

Rel. Dichte 1. Grades

Densit plus forte

Rel. Dichte 2. Grades

Quality of the building (for example,

Premier degr de complexit

Limits of areas (for example, walls,

Rel. Dichte I . Grades

ldeelle Begrenzungen Oder

Dlimitation des espaces (par exemple,

Besondere Flchenqualitten (2.B.

Limits of planning zones (for example,

Qualification des surfaces

Incident light and reflected light

the reverse in the

(Das Gegenteil auf

Angle visuel, contact optique

Aufzug- Personen, Aufzug- Frachten

Light work; mechanical, electrical

Client, commissioning authority

Angle of vision, visual contact

Commissioning authority and master builder

The planning and construction of a museum, as of any other building of

Plan of relationships between the different

2. See Appendix I, Programming and Planning the

Commissioning authority and master builder

Study and choice of the site3

Siting of museums in urban areas

Discharge o f museums functions

(section ot the public

Study and choice of the site

Museums in urban areas

Installed in a terrace house

Museums in the countryside

1. Museum with no accessory

Siting of museums in rural areas

The objectives of a comparative study

Study and choice of the site

establishments, calls for an appreciable outlay of funds, and the subsequent

and the different conditions separately before applying a single method of

aero-siting survey f o r 8 museum in 8118 urban area

The cost of building a reasonably-sized museum, although often met partly

The economic resources of an area are directly dependent on its financial