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Fluid Mechanics (Fluid Statics)

You could start your study of fluids in a variety of places, but one of the simplest examples of fluid
behaviour comes from investigating objects that float and objects that sink. To understand this behaviour,
why not begin with density?

Density
Density is defined as the ratio of an objects mass to the volume it occupies, and is frequently given the
symbol rho () in physics. Less dense fluids will float on top of more dense fluids, and less dense solids will
float on top of more dense fluids (keeping in mind you must look at the average density of the entire solid
object).

m
V

The density has a unit of kg/m3 in (SI system) and slug/ft3 in (Imperial system).
Example 1: The mattress of a water bed is 2.00 m long by 2.00 m wide and 30.0 cm deep. Find the weight of
the water in the mattress.
water= 1000 kg/m3

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Buoyancy and Archimedes Principle


As you can imagine, there is definitely more to whether an object floats or not than just average density. For
example, why do some objects float higher in the water than others? And why is it easier to lift objects
underwater than in the air? To answer these questions, you will need to understand the concept of buoyancy,
a force which is exerted by a fluid on an object, opposing the objects weight.
It is rumoured that the Greek philosopher and scientist Archimedes, around 250 B.C., was asked by King
Hiero II to help with a problem. King Hiero II had ordered a fancy golden crown from a goldsmith.
However, the king was concerned that the goldsmith may have taken his money and mixed some silver in
with the crown instead of crafting the crown out of pure gold. He asked Archimedes if there was a way to
determine if the crown was pure gold.
Archimedes puzzled over the problem for some time, coming up with the solution while he was in the bath
tub one evening. When Archimedes submerged himself in the tub, he noticed that the amount of water that
spilled over the rim of the tub was equal to the volume of water he displaced.

Using this method, he could place the crown in a bowl full of water. The amount of water that spilled over
could be measured and used to tell the volume of the crown. By then dividing the mass of the crown by the
volume, he could obtain the density of the crown, and compare the density to that of gold, determining if the
crown was pure gold. According to legend, he was so excited he popped out of the tub and ran through the
streets naked yelling Eureka! Eureka! (Greek for I found it! I found it!)
True story or not, this amusing tale illustrates Archimedes development of a key principle of
buoyancy: the buoyant force (FB) on an object is equal to the density of the fluid, multiplied by the
volume of the fluid displaced (which is also equal to the volume of the submerged portion of the
object), multiplied by the gravitational field strength. This is known as Archimedes Principle.

FB = fluid Vg
The unit of buoyancy force FB is N in SI system and lb in imperial system.
The density has a unit of kg/m3 in SI system and slug/ft3 in Imperial system.
The volume V has a unit of m3 in SI system and ft3 in Imperial system.
The gravitational field strength g is 9.8 m/s2 in SI system and 32.2 slug/ft2 in Imperial system.
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Archimedes Principle explains why boats made of steel can float. Although the steel of the boat itself is
denser than water, the average density of the entire boat (including the air in the interior of the boat) is less
than that of water. Put another way, the boat floats because the weight of the volume of water displaced by
the boat is greater than the weight of the boat itself.
This principle also accounts for the ability of submarines to control their depth. Submarines use pumps to
move water into and out of chambers in their interior, effectively controlling the average density of the
submarine. If the submarine wants to rise, it pumps water out, reducing its average density. If it wants to
submerge, it pumps water in, increasing its average density.

Example 2: How much force is needed to support a 100 kg iron anchor when it is immersed in sea water?
Vanchor= 0.0128 m3
sea water= 1.03103 kg/m3
Example 3: A 70 kg ancient statue lies at the bottom of the sea. Its volume is 30000 cm3. How much force is
needed to lift it? sea water= 1.03103 kg/m3

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Pressure
Everyones been under pressure at one time or another, or in certain circumstances has really felt the
pressure. From a scientific perspective, however, pressure has a very specific definition, and its exploration
leads to some very important applications.
In physics, pressure is the effect of a force acting upon a surface. Mathematically, it is a scalar quantity
calculated as the force applied per unit area, where the force applied is always perpendicular to the surface.

P=

F
A

The SI unit of pressure P, a Pascal (Pa), is equivalent to a N/m2 and the imperial unit of pressure is lb/ft2.
All states of matter can exert pressure. When you walk across an ice-covered lake, you are applying a
pressure to the ice equal to the force of gravity on your body (your weight) divided by the area over which
youre contacting the ice. This is why it is important to spread your weight out when traversing fragile
surfaces. Your odds of breaking through the ice go up tremendously if you walk across the ice in high heels,
as the small area contacting the ice leads to a high pressure. This is also the reason snow shoes have such a
large area. They are designed to reduce the pressure applied to the top crust of snow so that you can walk
more easily without sinking into snow drifts.

Fluids, also, can exert pressure. All fluids exert outward pressure in all directions on the sides of any
container holding the fluid. Even the Earths atmosphere exerts pressure, which you are experiencing right
now. The pressures inside and outside your body are so well balanced, however, that you rarely notice the
101,325 Pascals due to the atmosphere (approximately 10 N/cm2). If you ride in an airplane and change
altitude (and therefore pressure) quickly, you may have experienced a popping sensation in your ears
this is due to the pressure inside your ear balancing the pressure outside your ear in a transfer of air through
small tubes that connect your inner ear to your throat.
Example 4: How much pressure will be needed to produce a force of 1,000 pounds if the piston has an area
of 2.5 square inches?
Example 5: How much force will be produced when 3,000 Pa of hydraulic system pressure acts on a piston
having an area of 0.05 m2?

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Fluid Statics
Fluid statics (also called hydrostatics) is the science of fluids at rest, and is a sub-field within fluid
mechanics. The term usually refers to the mathematical treatment of the subject. It embraces the study of the
conditions under which fluids are at rest in stable equilibrium.
Fluid statics is all about pressure. Here are the rules;
1. Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all directions
2. Pressure at the wall of any vessel is perpendicular to the wall
3. Pressure is transmitted through static fluids without loss (Pascal's principle)
4. Pressure due to depth is P = gh, and is the same at any horizontal level of connected fluid.

Pressure in fluids at rest


Due to the fundamental nature of fluids, a fluid cannot remain at rest under the presence of a shear stress.
However, fluids can exert pressure normal to any contacting surface. If a point in the fluid is thought of as
an infinitesimally small cube, then it follows from the principles of equilibrium that the pressure on every
side of this unit of fluid must be equal. If this were not the case, the fluid would move in the direction of the
resulting force. Thus, the pressure on a fluid at rest is isotropic; i.e., it acts with equal magnitude in all
directions. This characteristic allows fluids to transmit force through the length of pipes or tubes; i.e., a force
applied to a fluid in a pipe is transmitted, via the fluid, to the other end of the pipe. This concept was first
formulated, in a slightly extended form, by the French mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal in 1647
and would later be known as Pascal's law. This law has many important applications in hydraulics.

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Pascal's Law
The foundations of modern hydraulics and pneumatics were established in 1653 when Pascal discovered that
pressure set up in a fluid acts equally in all directions. This pressure acts at right angles to containing
surfaces. When the pressure in the fluid is caused solely by the fluids height, the pressure against the walls
of the container is equal at any given level, but it is not equal if the pressure at the bottom is compared to the
pressure half way down. The concept of the pressure set up in a fluid, and how it relates to the force acting
on the fluid and the surface area through which it acts, is Pascals law. This fundamental characteristic of
fluids provides the foundation for hydraulic systems found in barbershop chairs, construction equipment,
and the brakes in your car.

Pascal's law states that when there is an increase in pressure at any point in a confined fluid, there is
an equal increase at every other point in the container.

The formulas that relate to this are shown below:

P1 = P2 (since the pressures are equal throughout).


Since pressure equals force per unit area, then it follows that

F1/A1 = F2/A2
Pressure is measured in N/m2 or Pa in SI system or lb/ft2 or sometimes used lb/in2 in Imperial system.
Force is measured in N in SI system or lb in Imperial system.
Area is measured m2 in SI system or ft2 or sometimes used in2 in Imperial system.

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Example 6: In a car lift used in a service station, compressed air exerts a force on a small piston that has a
circular cross section and a radius of 5.00 cm. This pressure is transmitted by a liquid to a piston that has a
radius of 15.0 cm. What force must the compressed air exert to lift a car weighing 13 300 N? What air
pressure produces this force?

Example 7: A two-piston hydraulic system, like that shown below, has an input piston with an area of 14 in2
and an output piston with an area of 15 in2. An input force of 50 lb is applied, and the input piston moves 30
inches. What is the pressure in the system, how much force is generated by the output piston?

References: http://aplusphysics.com/courses/honors/fluids
RMIT: Fluid Systems notes

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