Tibet Paleogeography

GEOLOGICAL JOURNAL
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)

Published online 15 July 2002 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/gj.911
MesozoicPaleogene sedimentary facies and paleogeography

of Tibet, western China: tectonic implications
KAI-JUN ZHANG1*, BANGDONG XIA1 and XIWEN LIANG2
1
Department of Earth Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, Peoples Republic of China
Institute of Petroleum Geology, Jianghan Petroleum Company, Jianghan, Hubei 433124, Peoples
Republic of China
In EarlyMiddle Triassic time, an abyssal sea covered most of the SongpanGanzi area, whereas a Central Tibetan Landmass,
up to 400 km wide, may have stretched across the Lhasa and Western Qiangtang terrains. In Late Triassic time, the Songpan
Ganzi sea closed, the Central Tibetan Landmass receded westwards away from southern Western Qiangtang, a littoral environment dominated Eastern Qiangtang, middle Western Qiangtang, and southeastern Lhasa, a shelf environment existed only in
northern and southeastern Western Qiangtang and northwestern Eastern Qiangtang, and abyssal flysch was spread along the
eastern BangonghuNujiang zone. In EarlyMiddle Jurassic time, SongpanGanzi had become part of the Eurasian continent,
abyssal flysch sediments stretched throughout the BangonghuNujiang zone, the Central Tibetan Landmass was only locally
present in southwestern Lhasa, and the Tethyan epicontinental sea nearly covered all Tibet southwest of the Jinsajiang suture. In
Late Jurassic time, oceanic flysch deposition existed only along the westernmost BangonghuNujiang zone, nearly all of Tibet
was covered by coastal deposits, and shelf deposits existed only in northern Western Qiangtang and westernmost Lhasa. In the
early stage of Early Cretaceous time, the majority of Qiangtang had become dry land, and a supralittoral environment dominated across the entire Lhasa terrain. However, during the late stage of the Early Cretaceous time, platformshelf carbonates
prevailed on southern Western Qiangtang and northern Lhasa. In Late Cretaceous time, the majority of Qiangtang had become
emergent land, and a supratidal environment dominated Lhasa, the western rim of Western Qiangtang, and Tarim. In Paleogene
time, the majority of Tibet became emergent land, and a supratidal environment existed only on the southern and western rims.
The dominance of Upper TriassicJurassic shelf carbonates on the northwestern Eastern Qiangtang corner and the northern
Western Qiangtang rim suggests a diachronous closing of the Jinsajiang paleo-Tethys ocean, first during latest Triassic time when
the Eastern Qiangtang terrain collided with Asia and finally in Jurassic time when the Western Qiangtang terrain was amalgamated
to Asia. Rich picotites in Upper Triassic sandstones of middle Qiangtang suggest that the Shuanghu suture could have extended
along the middle of Qiangtang, and stable shelf sedimentation during Late TriassicMiddle Jurassic time in the Western Qiangtang
terrain shows that the suture probably could not have formed until Middle Jurassic time. The opening time of the Bangonghu
Nujiang mid-Tethys ocean could be Late Triassic time due to the existence of the Central Tibetan Landmass across Western
Qiangtang and Lhasa during EarlyMiddle Triassic time. However, its opening was diachronous, at Late Triassic time in the east
and at EarlyMiddle Jurassic time in the west. Furthermore, its closing was also diachronous, first in the east at the beginning of
Late Jurassic time and later in the west in latest Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous time. Widespread upper Lower Cretaceous limestone up to 5 km thick over the northern half of Lhasa indicates that southern Tibet could have undergone an extensive backarc
subsidence during late Early Cretaceous time. Continuous shallow marine sedimentation through the entire Cretaceous time over
much of southern Tibet indicates that southern Tibet was intensely elevated only after the end of Paleogene time, its high topography being the product of the Indo-Asian collision. Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Received 20 March 2001; revised version received 6 November 2001; accepted 16 November 2001
KEY WORDS Tibet; Tethys; Mesozoic; Paleogene; sedimentary facies; paleogeography; tectonic reconstruction; Jinsajiang suture;
BangonghuNujiang suture; Shuanghu suture
* Correspondence to: Dr K.-J. Zhang, Department of Earth Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, Peoples Republic of China.
E-mail: kjzhang@nju.edu.cn
Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
218
k.-j. zhang, b. xia and x. liang
Figure 1. Sketch tectonic map of eastern Asia, revised after Sengor (1990) and Zhang (1997, 2000, in press). The dotted line indicates the
outline of the Tibetan plateau. Terrains: EQT, Eastern Qiangtang terrain; WQT, Western Qiangtang terrain. Main sutures or faults: A, Altyan
fault zone; B, BangonghuNujiang suture; J, Jinsajiang suture; K, Kunlun suture; L, Longmenshan fault zone; Qi, Qilian suture; Qn, Qinling
suture; S, Shuanghu suture; T, Tanlu fault zone; Ts, Tianshan suture; Y, Yarlung Zangbo suture; Ys, Yinshan suture. The eastern extension of the
Shuanghu suture (S) to 89 E is highly speculative.
1. INTRODUCTION
Tibet in western China has long been interpreted as a locus of continental collision and accretion since early
Mesozoic time (Figure 1; e.g. Allegre et al. 1984; Wang and Sun 1985; Chang et al. 1986; Liu et al. 1990,
1992; Burchfiel and Royden 1991). However, reactivation of intraplate orogens during and following interplate
collisions has profoundly complicated original structures and even obliterated some tectonic units marking sutures
between formerly distinct tectonic terrains. This has severely restricted our understanding of the tectonic history of
this largest plateau on Earth and has led to many controversies, such as the boundaries of accreted terrains, their
subduction polarity, and the origin and timing of the development of the Tibetan plateau.
An alternative source of data lies in the sedimentary sequences preserved in the several terrains, and within the
sutures between these terrains, that underlie Tibet. These deposits hold the singular advantage that they contain a
vertical stacked and relatively undeformed record of erosion and sedimentation and, therefore, obviate many of the
difficulties inherent in unraveling complex structural overprints. They often provide a more continuous and precise
record than data available from deformed belts, and reveal some of the principal attributes of the geology (Carroll
et al. 1995). Therefore, their study forms a vital approach to understanding the tectonic evolution of Tibet (Zhang
1997, 1999, 2000; Zhang et al. 1998).
Since the pioneering paleogeographic studies by Wang and Sun (1985), much sedimentary and stratigraphic data
have accumulated. In particular, during the summers of 199398, hundreds of Chinese workers conducted field
mapping on the Tibetan plateau, approximately at a scale of 1:200 000, sponsored by the China Petroleum
Corporation. This work has brought us voluminous useful sedimentary and stratigraphic information. Therefore,
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)
paleogeographic-tectonic evolution of tibet
219
it is possible to refine significantly the paleogeographic maps of Tibet. The present study focuses on the Chinese
areas of the Tibetan plateau, north of the Yarlung Zangbo suture, and provides new field data on Mesozoic outcrop
exposures of sedimentary rocks of the southern Tarim, SongpanGanzi, Qiangtang, and Lhasa terrains (Figure 2A
G). The sedimentary data from the Qiangtang and northern Lhasa terrains are mainly based on our own investigations during 19932001. In order to provide an overview of the Mesozoic and Paleogene sedimentary facies and
paleogeography of the Tibetan plateau, we also incorporate voluminous sedimentary data from several other terrains by Chinese investigations during the last few years. Although some data cited here are not unequivocal in the
determination of facies, they are helpful on the delineation of the overall paleogeography of Tibet. Because of the
poorly documented stratigraphy on the plateau with extremely difficult topography, we have paid great attention to
the biostratigraphic ages of the sedimentary rocks and incorporated radiometric data for rocks with volcanic interbeds, which constitutes a sound foundation for the facies and paleogeographic studies. In the localities where marine Mesozoic strata are well exposed, detailed studies were conducted, and these are listed below. Long-range
extrapolation is necessary to believe the facies reconstruction and the consequent tectonic reconstruction. The petrographic studies are based on field observations and more than 500 standard thin-section samples. Mineralogical
Figure 2. Sketch map of Mesozoic and Paleogene facies distribution and paleogeography in Tibet, China. T, Tarim. Terrain Sutures: BNS,
BangonghuNujiang suture; JSS, Jinsajiang suture; SHS, Shuanghu suture; YZS, Yarlung Zangbo suture. The eastern extension of the Shuanghu
suture (SHS) beyond 89 E is highly speculative. The area south to the Yarlung Zangbo suture is not included in this study. The arrows show the
sediment transport directions.
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)
220
Figure 2. Continued
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)
221
Figure 2. Continued
composition was determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD), carried out at the X-ray laboratory, Nanjing University.
Although preliminary in nature, the data presented here place significant constraints on evaluating and evolving
alternative hypotheses for the evolution of Tibet and provide a starting point for more comprehensive future studies.
2. TECTONIC FRAMEWORK OF TIBET
The Tibetan plateau is underlain by a major part of the Tethyan orogenic collage (Sengor 1990). It consists of four
or perhaps more terrains, separated by three main Mesozoic suture zones (Chang et al. 1986; Dewey et al. 1988;
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)
222
Sengor 1990; Liu et al. 1990, 1992) (Figure 1). The Yarlung Zangbo suture marks the boundary between the Indian
subcontinent to the south and the Lhasa terrain to the north (Figure 1). It is generally believed that the Lhasa terrain
was separated from the Gondwanan supercontinent around the boundary between Triassic and Jurassic time (e.g.
Allegre et al. 1984; Searle et al. 1987; Dewey et al. 1988). During Jurassic and Cretaceous time, a relatively wide
passive continental margin existed along the northern rim of the Indian Plate (Liu and Einsele 1994). However,
Carboniferous calc-alkaline volcanic rocks near Lhasa (Pearce and Mei 1988; XZBGM 1993) indicate that the
neo-Tethys ocean could have existed possibly much earlier than is generally believed. During latest Cretaceous
and earliest Tertiary time, the Indian subcontinent collided with an amalgamated Eurasian collage. After the collision, northward indentation of India since about 40 Ma caused about 2000 km of crustal shortening, giving rise to
the largest plateau on Earth (e.g. Allegre et al. 1984; Chang et al. 1986; Dewey et al. 1988; Burchfiel and Royden
1991; Liu and Einsele 1994).
The Lhasa terrain, bounded to the north by the BangonghuNujiang suture and the Qiangtang terrain (Figure 1),
belonged to the Gondwanan supercontinent during Paleozoic time (Liu and Einsele 1994; Zhang 1998, 2000), as
evidenced by voluminous late Paleozoic tillites and glacio-marine faunas and Glossopteris floras (CIGMRSCGR
1992; Zhang 1998). The mid-Tethys oceanic branch between the Lhasa and Qiangtang terrains was open by about
Late Triassic time (Allegre et al. 1984; Dewey et al. 1988) and was closed along the BangonghuNujiang suture
during Late Jurassic time (Girardeau et al. 1984; Chang et al. 1986). However, the evidence for subduction polarity
is ambiguous (cf. Dewey et al. 1988; Yu and Wang 1990; Liu et al. 1990, 1992).
The Qiangtang terrain, which is divided by the Shuanghu suture into an eastern and a western terrain (Figures 1
and 2) (e.g. Li et al. 1995; Zhang 2001a, and references cited therein), could be a composite continent
(e.g. Sengor 1990). The Western Qiangtang terrain has long been documented by rich late Paleozoic tillites and
glacio-marine faunas (e.g. Li et al. 1995; Zhang 2001a, and references cited therein), whereas the Eastern Qiangtang terrain is believed to be covered by late Paleozoic warm-water sediments and faunas and floras (e.g. Yin et al.
1988; Zhang 2001a, and references cited therein). Therefore, the Shuanghu suture zone could define the divide
between the Gondwanan and Cathaysian realms. In the central Qiangtang area (from about 84 to 89 E), the
Shuanghu suture is well exposed and is clearly marked by ophiolitic melange and high-pressure blueschists
(Li et al. 1995). However, in the other areas of the Qiangtang terrain, the suture is covered by Mesozoic sediments,
and so its location is highly speculative. The timing of the closing of the Shuanghu suture is possibly Mesozoic, but
is subject to debate (Li et al. 1995).
The Eastern and Western Qiangtang terrains are separated from the SongpanGanzi complex to the north by the
Jinsajiang suture and the Jiangda arc (Figures 1, 2A and B). The paleo-Tethys ocean, represented by the present
Jinsajiang suture, opened about Early Carboniferous time (Liu et al. 1992) and closed during latest Triassic time
(Chang et al. 1986; Dewey et al. 1988; Burchfiel et al. 1989). Two different opinions also exist about its subduction
polarity (e.g. Allegre et al. 1984; Dewey et al. 1988; Liu et al. 1992).
The main body of the SongpanGanzi area is entirely composed of Triassic flysch, but its northeastern part is
distinctly covered by coastal sediments (QHBGM 1991; SCBGM 1991), both units being in tectonic contact (Zhang
2001b, in press). Recent geophysical and geological studies indicate that the eastern part of the SongpanGanzi
complex is underthrust by Precambrian continental basement (Cui et al. 1996), and that the huge quantity of Triassic
flysch within the complex has been explained as allochthonous tectonic flakes (Zhang 2001b, in press).
3. MESOZOICPALEOGENE SEDIMENTARY FACIES AND PALEOGEOGRAPHY OF TIBET
3.1. EarlyMiddle Triassic time
LowerMiddle Triassic strata are only present on the southern edge of the Tarim terrain, within the SongpanGanzi
area, along the western edge of the Eastern Qiangtang terrain, within the middle of the Western Qiangtang terrain,
and at the southeastern corner of the Lhasa terrain (Figure 2A). Detailed observations about EarlyMiddle Triassic
stratigraphy and facies have been compiled mainly from ten locations and are briefly summarized in Figure 2A and
Table 1.
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)
Lithology

Carbonate
platformtidal flat
Supratidal
tidal flat
Entolium sichuanensis, Japonites sp.,

Paracrochodiceras sp., Plagiostoma beyrichii
Eumorphotis sp., Japonites sp., Natiria aff.
costata Munster, Neocalamites sp.,
Owenites sp., Paraceratites sp.,
Paranannites sp., Posidonia sp.,
Sageceras sp., Trigonodus sp.
Japonites sp., Natiria aff. costata Munster,
Owenites sp., Paraceratites sp., Posidonia sp.,
Sageceras sp., Trigonodus sp.
Eumorphotis sp., Neocalamites sp.,
Owenites sp., Paranannites sp.,
Posidonia sp., Sageceras sp.
Claraia concentrica,
Eumorphotis inaequicostata
Acromytilus sp., Judicarites sp., Myophoricardium sp.,

Mytilus sp., Parallerodon beyrichii, Promathilda
sp., Straparollus sp., Trypanostylus baueri Geibel
Acrochordiceras cf. carolinae, Arthaberites

alexandrea, Daonella bulongensis bifurcatea,
Haydenites hatscheki, Lepismatina cf. hsuei,
Mentzelia cf. subspherica, Nudirostralina griesbachi
Bakevellia exporrecta, Claraia aurita, Entolium,
Eumorphotis inaequicostata, Myophoria
laevigata elongata, Promyalina putiatensis,
Unionites canalensis
Slope
oceanic basin
Halobia convexa,
H. substyriaca
Carbonate
platform
tidal flat
Supratidal
lagoon
Beach
Tidal flat
lagoon
Supratidal
tidal flat
Supratidal
tidal flat
Shallow
supratidal
intertidal
Environment
Daonella, Posidonia wengesis
Main fossils
AB
CG
CD
EF
AB
Ref.
Terrains: T, Tarim; SG, Songpan-Ganzi; Q, Qiangtang; L, Lhasa. References: A, Guo et al. (1991); B, XZBGM (1993); C, Rao et al. (1987); D, Hou et al. (1991); E, QHBGM (1991); F,
Liu et al. (1992); G, CIGMRSCGR (1992).
9. 33 400 N Upper: oolitic limestone and calcirudite,

87 000 E (Q)
intercalated or interbedded with mudstone
sandstone, and siltstone; Lower: interbedded
sandstone and purple conglomerate, with coal seams
at the base. Cross-bedding, parallel beddings with
parting lineations, wavy bedding, ripple marks, and
mud cracks often observed. 21812566 m (Figure 3)
10. 29 360 N Upper: andesite; Middle: limestone, bioclastic
90 570 E (L)
limestone, sandstone; Lower: limestone, intercalated
with andesite. >1196 m
7. 33 450 N Bioclastic calcareous sandstone and sandy

80 200 E (Q)
limestone, medium- to massive-bedded dolomite
and dolomitic limestone. >100 m
8. 34 100 N Middle Triassic. Thin-bedded limestone,
83 100 E (Q)
sandstone, and siltstone, intercalated with
pebbly sandstone. >2666 m
6. 29 350 N Interbedded purple conglomerate, sandstone,

98 500 E (SG) and limestone, intercalated with andesite. >2000 m

1. 35 240 N Middle Triassic. Upper: massive-bedded argillaceous

81 050 E (T)
limestone and limestone; Lower: purple conglomerate
and sandstone, intercalated with limestone, with
plant fragments. >1809 m
2. 34 280 N Monotonous interbedded siltstone and shale, often
99 050 E (SG) Bouma sequences and sometimes olistostromes with
variable size observed. >7750 m
3. 32 500 N Siltstone and shale, intercalated with andesite
96 480 E (SG) and limestone. >625 m
Location
Table 1. Brief descriptions of marine LowerMiddle Triassic deposits in Tibet; location numbers as for Figure 2Aa

223
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)
224
On the southern corner of the Tarim basin, LowerMiddle Triassic sediments were formed in a supratidal
intertidal environment (Location 1). In the main body of the SongpanGanzi area LowerMiddle Triassic rocks
are characterized by a flysch association representing a slopeoceanic basin environment (Location 2; e.g. Rao
et al. 1987). In contrast, on the western rim of this triangular area the succession is composed mainly of interbedded shallow marine limestone, littoralcontinental conglomerate and sandstone, and andesitic volcanics, with
a thickness of more than 2 km (Locations 36; Rao et al. 1987; QHBGM 1991). In the middle of the Qiangtang
area, LowerMiddle Triassic strata contain mainly coarse-grained clastic rocks, and oolitic and dolomitic limestone, deposited in supratidallagoonal environments (Locations 7 and 9; Figure 3). Northwards, these strata
Figure 3. Representative Triassic sequences in central Tibet. Numbered as in Figure 2. See Figure 2A for the location for EarlyMiddle Triassic
(T12) sequences and Figure 2B for Late Triassic time (T3) sequences. Patterns: 1, conglomerate/sandy conglomerate; 2, sandstone/siltstone; 3,
mudstone/shale; 4, coal/limestone; 5, muddy limestone/breccia; 6, oolitic limestone/dolomitic limestone; 7, gypsum/andesite; 8, horizontial/
parallel bedding; 9, cross/wavy bedding; 10, graded/lenticular bedding; 11, hummocky/vein bedding; 12, water escape/laminated structure; 13,
birds-eye/herringbone structure; 14, marl/sand/mud lens; 15, marl/siliceous concretion; 16, desiccation crack/scour mold; 17, ripple mark/
stylolite; 18, plant fossil/broken animal fossil.
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225
change into thin-bedded limestone, sandstone, and siltstone, possibly reflecting a shelfbeach setting (Location 8).
In the southeastern Lhasa terrain, rocks of Early to Middle Triassic age consist of limestone and calc-alkine volcanics more than 1196 m thick (Location 10; XZBGM 1993).
Therefore, in EarlyMiddle Triassic time, the main body of the SongpanGanzi area is interpreted as an abyssal
sea or oceanic basin (Figure 2A). Simultaneously, a landmass, named the Central Tibetan Landmass, up to 400 km
wide, could have stretched across the southern Western Qiangtang and the majority of the Lhasa terrain, in view of
the stratigraphic hiatus there (Figure 2A). Sediment sources, which were determined by paleocurrent measurements (e.g. Figure 3), were located in the southern part of the Western Qiangtang terrain and the Lhasa terrain.
This means that the Western Qiangtang and Lhasa terrains were probably connected together then. In contrast, a
volcanic arc (Jiangda arc) existed at the western end of the SongpanGanzi complex along the Jinsajiang suture
(Figure 2A).
3.2. Late Triassic time

Upper Triassic sequences are present over much of Tibet (Figure 2B). Detailed observations of Late Triassic stratigraphy and facies were conducted at 22 locations, and they are briefly summarized in Figure 2B and Table 2.
Similar to LowerMiddle Triassic strata, on the southern corner of the Tarim basin, Upper Triassic strata largely
consist of argillaceous limestone and limestone up to 1370 m thick, possibly reflecting deposition in a tidal flat
environment (Location 1). In the main body of the SongpanGanzi area, lowermiddle Upper Triassic rocks
are characterized by a monotonous shale and siltstone turbiditic association, over 5 km thick (Locations 24),
whereas its southwestern rim is dominated by interbedded shallow-marine limestone, littoralcontinental
coarse-grained clastic rocks, and volcanics (Locations 5 and 6; Rao et al. 1987; QHBGM 1991). However, uppermost Triassic rocks over the entire SongpanGanzi area consist largely of purple conglomerate, sandstone, and
coal-bearing shale, reflecting a supralittoralcontinental environment (Location 4; Rao et al. 1987; Hou et al.
1991). Marine Upper Triassic rocks are preserved over much of the Eastern Qiangtang terrain and the majority
of the Western Qiangtang terrain (Figure 2B). Upper Triassic strata in the Qiangtang region can be divided into
three distinct areas of different sedimentary environments. On the northern (Location 8) and southeastern (Location 13) rims of the Western Qiangtang terrain and the northern rim of the Eastern Qiangtang terrain (Location 12),
Upper Triassic rocks are composed mainly of thin-bedded limestone, shale, and sandstone, which could have been
deposited in a shelfslope environment. However, on the middle of the Western Qiangtang terrain and the majority
of the Eastern Qiangtang terrain (Locations 7, 911, 1418), Upper Triassic rocks largely consist of carbonate and
continental purple conglomerate, sandstone, including coal-bearing shale in some locations (e.g. Location 11 in
Figure 3), reflecting a supratidaltidal flat environment. An Upper Triassic flysch-like association east of 87 E
along the present BangonghuNujiang suture largely consists of shale and siltstone (Location 19, Figure 3; Locations 13, 19, 21, 22. Figure 2). In the Lhasa terrain, Upper Triassic rocks are localized in its southeastern corner
(Location 20), and are composed of interbedded carbonate and clastic rocks, representing deposition in a shallowshelf environment (Rao et al. 1987; Hou et al. 1991; QHBGM 1991) (Figure 2B; Table 2).
These data can be used to delineate roughly the Late Triassic paleogeography of Tibet. In Late Triassic time, the
main body of the SongpanGanzi area maintained a bathyal or abyssal environment (Figure 2B). However, this socalled triangular sea (Wang and Sun 1985) could have closed and become dry land in latest Triassic time, because
of the widespread deposition of continental conglomerate (Location 4; Rao et al. 1987; QHBGM 1991). Littoral
environments dominated much of both the Eastern and Western Qiangtang terrains and the southeastern corner of
the Lhasa terrain, and shelf environments may have existed only in the northern corners of both the Eastern and
Western Qiangtang terrains and the southeastern rim of the Western Qiangtang terrain. The BangonghuNujiang
mid-Tethys ocean, now represented by the present BangonghuNujiang suture, may have opened along its eastern
segment. The Qiangtang and Lhasa terrains could have begun to split along the eastern segment of the Bangonghu
Nujiang suture, with attendant reduction in the Central Tibetan Landmass westwards from the southeastern rim of
the Western Qiangtang terrain (Figure 2B).
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)
Argillaceous limestone, limestone and

shale. 1370 m
Monotonous siltstone and shale. >5000 m
Monotonous siltstone and shale. >3500 m
Upper: purple conglomerate; Lower:
siltstone and shale. >7750 m
Upper: andesite and sandstone; Middle:
argillaceous limestone; Lower:
conglomerate and sandstone. 2587 m
Interbedded sandstone, siltstone, and shale,
intercalated with coal. 1562m
1. 35 240 N 81 050 E (T)

Upper: thick bedded limestone; Middle:
siltstone, sandstone, and shale; Lower:
dark massive bedded bioclastic sparite,
argillaceous limestone, intercalated with
chert nodules and beds. 3580 m
Medium-thick bedded oncolite and
oolitic limestone, shale, intercalated
with sandstone. >4700 m
Upper: coarse- and fine-grained
sandstone, shale, and argillaceous
limestone; Lower: dark thick-bedded
limestone. >1478 m (Figure 3)
Upper: sandstone, shale, and argillaceous
limestone; Lower: Limestone. >2900 m
Thin-bedded limestone. >1550 m
Interbedded sandstone, siltstone, shale,
intercalated with coal. >1500 m
Interbedded sandstone, siltstone, and
shale, intercalated with andesite
and coal. >476 m
Interbedded sandstone, siltstone, and
shale, intercalated with coal. >2805 m
9. 34 000 N 85 100 E (Q)
15. 34 100 N 92 000 E (Q)
16. 33 420 N 92 200 E (Q)
13. 32 350 N 90 000 E (Q)

14. 33 220 N 91 100 E (Q)
12. 34 400 N 89 120 E (Q)
11. 33 030 N 87 450 E (Q)
10. 32 350 N 86 200 E (Q)
8. 34 100 N 83 100 E (Q)
Algal reef, coral reef, bioclastic limestone,

and dolomitic limestone. >1000 m
Limestone, argillaceous limestone,
and shale. 2670 m
7. 33 550 N 80 260 E (Q)
6. 30 540 N 98 200 E (SG)
5. 31 320 N 98 250 E (SG)
2. 35 550 N 88 300 E (SG)

3. 34 56N 92 450 E (SG)
4. 33 400 N 99 000 E (SG)
Lithology
Location
Clathropteris meniscioides,
Drepanozamites nilssani,
Keuperinus, Taeniopteris sp.
Palaeocardita langnongensis,
Thecosmilia sp.
Thecosmilia sp.
Clathropteris meniscioides, Drepanozamites
nilssani, Keuperinus, Pterophyllum cf.
aequale, Taeniopteris sp.
Drepanozamites nilssani,
Pterophyllum cf. aequale
Entolium cf. quotidianum, Palaeocardita

langnongensis, Thecosmilia sp.
Montlivaltia norica, Palaeocardita

langnongensis, Thecosmilia fenestrata
Arietoceltites cf. arietitoides, Burmesia sp.,

Discotropites sp., Eoseptaliphoria tulungensis,
Indopecten sp., Qilianoconcha curvifrons
Amphiclina intermedia, A. taurica,
Indopecten sp., Plagiostoma nuitoense,
Rhaetinopsis pentagonalis
Clathropteris meniscioides, Drepanozamites

nilssani, Neocalamites cf. carrerei,
Pterophyllum cf. aequale, Taeniopteris sp.,
Trigonodus cf. keuperinus
Neomegalodon ladakhensis, Diderocadium sp.
Protrachyceras sp.,
Trachyceras sp.
Myriophyllum sp., Thecosmilia cf. clathria

Thecosmilia cf. clathria
Myriophyllum sp., Thecosmilia cf. clathria
Caucasorhynchia baliana
Main fossils
Table 2. Brief descriptions of marine Upper Triassic deposits in Tibet; location numbers as for Figure 2Ba
Continentalsupratidal
Tidal flat
Shelfplatform
interior
Shelfslope
Tidal flat
Lagoontidal flat
Tidallagoon
Restricted
platformlagoon
Shelf or platform
interior
Supratidal lagoon
Supratidaltidal flat
Oceanic basin
Oceanic basin
Upper: continental;
Lower: oceanic basin
Supratidaltidal flat
Tidal flat
Environment
AE
C
C
D
AB
Ref.
226
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)

Upper: purple conglomerate, and sandstone,
intercalated with shale; Lower:
interbedded limestone, shale, and sandstone,
with basal conglomerate. >500 m
Shale, sandy shale, intercalated
with coal streaks. >395 m
Interbedded sandstone, siltstone, silty
shale, pelitic siltstone, and shale. The
beds thinner than 1 cm usually. An
incomplete Bouma sequence observed
and only planktons such as ammonites
and planktonic bivalves discovered.
>810 m (Figure 3)
Interbedded sandstone, shale, and
thin-bedded limestone. 1651 m
Monotonous siltstone. 1800 m
Monotonous sandstone and shale,
intercalated with thin-bedded
limestone containing chert bands. 2661 m
Elegantinia sp.
Prorotrigonia sp.
Epigondolella, Procyclolitidae
Elegantinia elegans
Halobia cf. superbescens, Tylotrochus sp.
Ectolcites qabdoensis, Rhaetinopsis ovata,

Robinsonella sp., Sanquiaothyris aff. elliptica,
Septaliphoria sp.
Slope
Slopeoceanic basin
Tidal flat (?)
Slope
Supratidalbeach
Terrain: T, Tarim; SG, Songpan-Ganzi; Q, Qiangtang; L, Lhasa. References: A, Rao et al. (1987); B, Guo et al. (1991); C, XZBGM (1993); D, QHBGM (1991); E, CIGMRSCGS
(1992).
21. 31 500 N 93 050 E (L)

22. 31 200 N 95 400 E (L)
20. 30 150 N 91 220 E (L)
19. 31 580 N 87 550 E (L)
18. 30 400 N 97 300 E (Q)
17. 31 130 N 96 350 E (Q)

227
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Limestone, sandy mudstone, sandstone,

and conglomerate. >579 m
Lower Jurassic. Sandstone, sandy
conglomerate, and conglomerate. >600 m
Middle Jurassic. Shale, sandstone, reefal
limestone, and calcirudite. >750 m.
Limestone, intercalated with calcareous
sandstone. 2400 m
1. 35 300 N 77 500 E (T)

Sandstone, limestone, and siltstone. 648 m.
11. 29 100 N 98 050 E (Q)
10. 31 150 N 97 150 E (Q)
9. 33 550 N 91 100 E (Q)
8. 32 300 N 89 500 E (Q)
7. 33 400 N 88 000 E (Q)
6. 34 100 N 87 500 E (Q)
Shale, intercalated with thin-bedded

limestone, mudstone, calcisiltite, and
argillaceous limestone. Ripple marks,
wavy bedding, and locally chert nodules
observed. >1932 m (Figure 4).
Thin-bedded limestone, intercalated with
shale. 1660 m
Middle Jurassic: medium-massive bedded
sandstone and bioclastic boundstone,
intercalated with conglomerate (>120 m)
and 13 layers of anhydrite (>74 m), massive
bedded dolomite and dolomitic limestone.
Herringbone bedding. >2900 m (Figure 4).
Lower Jurassic: interbedded shale,
sandstone and andesite. >300 m
Shale, intercalated with siltstone,
argillaceous limestone. Only ammonites
discovered. Horizontal and wavy bedding,
ripple mark, and hummocky cross-bedding.
2121 m. In the middle there is a 292 m
thick micritic limestone and calcarenite
segment and at the top there are subaerial
exposure structures (Figure 4)
Middle Jurassic. Mudstone, siltstone,
sandstone, conglomerate, calcarenite, and
bioclastic and oolitic limestone. 3200 m
Purple sandstone and conglomerate. 3287 m
5. 35 000 N 83 050 E (Q)
4. 34 350 N 80 150 E (Q)
3. 33 450 N 80 200 E (Q)
2. 33 400 N 99 000 E (S)
Lithology
Location
Damalasaurus magnus, Lufengosaurus

changduensis, Hybodus changduensis,
Plesiosaurus changduensis, Scelidosaurus sp.,
Steneosuchus microobtusidens
Astarte sp., Burmirhynchia shanensis,
Holcothyris sp., Modiolus sp., Plagiostoma sp.,
Pleuromya sp.
Astarte elegans, Corbula sinensis,

Protocardia truncata
Avonothyris distorta, Burmirhynchia,

Holcothyris, Liostrea birmanica
Top: Corbula sp., Lamprotula
(Eolamprotula) cf. guangyanensis,
Myopholas multicostata, Undulata
cf. tangulaensis.
Lower: Burmirhynchia,
Holcothyris, Liostrea birmanica,
Lopha asella, Pholadomya socialis,
Pseudolimea cf. duplicata
Camptonectes lamintus, Dorsetensia,
sp., Parvamussium cf. pumilum,
Witchellia sp.
Burmirhynchia tenuiplicata Reed,

Holcothyris tanggularica Ching,
Protocardia sp., Trocholina cf. umbo
Chlamys tipperi Cox, Corniceras
sp., Pholadomya socialia Morris
and Lycett, Protocardia
qinghaiensis Wen
Monticlarella, Phacellastrea
rotogensis, Thecosmilia tibetensis
Cladophlebis nebbensis, Hausmannia
ussuriensis, Neocalamites sp.
Montlivaltia sp., Stylina cf. kutchensis
Main fossils
Table 3. Brief descriptions of marine LowerMiddle Jurassic deposits in Tibet; location numbers as for Figure 2Ca
AB
Ref.
Beachtidal
Continental
tidal
Tidal
Slopeshelf,
platform
interior
Shelfplatform
interior
Supratidalrestricted D
platform
Shelfplatform
interior
Shelf
Coastal
Alluvial
Beachsupratidal
Environment
228
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)
Middle Jurassic. Rhythmic intercalations

of dark shales, slates and yellow sandstones
with scarce bio-detritic limestones forming
lenses several meters thick. >1000 m.
Limestone, shale, and sandstone,
intercalated with coal, with 30 m
thick basal conglomerate. 630 m.
Middle Jurassic unconformable on the
Paleozoic. Upper: dark limestone, intercalated
with bioclastic limestone; Middle: gray
dolomitic limestone, intercalated with purple
sandstone, conglomerate, and shale, with plant
fragments; Lower: interbedded gray sandstone,
siltstone, and slate, with basal conglomerate.
Typical lenticular tidal-bedding observed in
the lower (Figure 4). >3628 m
Middle Jurassic. Interbedded shale,
siltstone, and thin-bedded sandstone,
intercalated with andesite. Mainly
ammonites. >800 m
Shale and siltstone. 8223 m
Middle Jurassic. Dark shale,
intercalated with lenticular siltstone.
>349 m. Mainly ammonites
16. 31 180 N 90 350 E (L)

Sethocyrtis sp.
Alligaticeras sp., Kinkeliniceras sp.,
Macrocephalites sp.,
Reineikenia, Subkossmatia
Alligaticeras sp., Macrocephalites sp.,

Reineikenia
Coniopteris sp., Equisetum cf. sarrani,

Neocalamites sp., Rhactipollis germanicus,
Todisporites minor
Inoperna sp., Plicatostylus sp.,
Ptygmatis sp.
Dioloptyxis sp., Nerinea sp., Nerinellacea,

Nododelphinula sp., Obornella sp., Parepismilia
amdoensis, Pleurotomaria sp., Trochoptigmatis sp.
Gutnicella (Lucasella) cayeuxi,
Haurania sp., Nauticulina sp.
Cenosphraera sp., Dictyomititra sp.

Praeexogyra acuminata
Archicapsa sp., Cyrtocalpis sp.
Shelfslope
Slope
Shelf slope
Beachtidal
supratidal
Tidal
Slope
Slopeoceanic
basin
BF
Slopeoceanic
basin
Slopeoceanic basin B
Continental
B
supratidal
a
Terrains: T, Tarim; S, SongpanGanzi; Q, Qiangtang; L, Lhasa. References: A, Guo et al. (1991); B, XZBGM (1993); C, QHBGM (1991); D, Yu and Wang (1990); E, CIGMRSCGR
(1992); F, Girardeau et al. (1984).
20. 30 550 N 95 450 E (L)

21. 30 400 N 96 050 E (L)
19. 31 300 N 93 380 E (L)
18. 30 400 N 92 300 E (L)
17. 30 200 N 91 320 E (L)
15. 32 000 N 90 500 E (L)
13. 32 200 N 84 100 E (L)

14. 30 500 N 85 200 E (L)
Middle Jurassic. Monotonous siltstone.

5400 m
Monotonous siltstone. 14 700 m
Middle Jurassic unconformably on the
Paleozoic. Conglomerate, sandstone and
pebbly sandstone, intercalated with
bioclastic limestone in the base. >630 m
Shale, sandstone, and siltstone. 14 796 m
12. 33 200 N 79 550 E (L)

229
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)
230
3.3. EarlyMiddle Jurassic time

LowerMiddle Jurassic sequences also cover most of Tibet. Detailed observations about EarlyMiddle Jurassic
stratigraphy and facies were conducted at 21 locations, and these are briefly summarized in Figure 2C and Table 3.
On the southern edge of the Tarim terrain, LowerMiddle Jurassic strata contain carbonate, medium- to coarsegrained sandstone, and conglomerate (Location 1), reflecting a supratidalbeach setting. However, within the
SongpanGanzi area, only sporadic Lower Jurassic alluvial conglomerate was found (Location 2). In the
Qiangtang area there are three main sedimentary environments present. On the southern and western parts of
the Western Qiangtang terrain (Locations 4, 5, 8) and on the northwestern corner of the Eastern Qiangtang terrain
(Location 6), LowerMiddle Jurassic rocks consist of mainly thin-bedded limestone intercalated with fine-grained
clastic rocks such as shale and sandstone (Figure 4), which possibly reflects a shelf setting. However, on the eastern
side of the Eastern Qiangtang terrain, an 3287 m of molasse (Leeder et al. 1988; Yin et al. 1988) is present and
consists of purple conglomerate, sandstone, and coal-bearing shale, deposited in a continental to supratidal setting
Figure 4. Representative EarlyMiddle Jurassic sequences (Locations 5, 7, 8) and sedimentary structures (Location 18) in central Tibet.
Numbered as in Figure 2C and patterned as in Figure 3. J12, EarlyMiddle Jurassic; J2, Middle Jurassic.
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)
231
(Locations 9, 10). In the middle of both the Eastern and Western Qiangtang terrains, carbonate-clastics representing deposition in a coastal facies predominated (Locations 3 and 7). In Location 7, the top part of the sandstone is
purple and contains a rich assemblage of plant fragments and freshwater bivalves (Figure 4; Table 3), indicating the
adjacent area could have been elevated slightly in latest Middle Jurassic time. In the Lhasa terrain (except on its
southwestern rim), LowerMiddle Jurassic strata have been discovered in two main different settings. On the
northeastern rim, fine-grained and thin-bedded clastic rocks formed in a shelfslope environment (Locations
16, 1921), and in the middle and on the southeastern rim a carbonate to conglomerate assemblage was deposited
in a littoral setting (Locations 17, 18). Over the entire BangonghuNujiang zone, 15 km of LowerMiddle Jurassic
flysch was deposited, consisting of rhythmic siltstone and slate (XZBGM 1993).
Consequently, in EarlyMiddle Jurassic time, the SongpanGanzi area maintained approximately the same
paleogeography as in latest Triassic time, and had become a mountainous part of the Eurasian continent. The
Eastern and Western Qiangtang terrains may have completely split from the Lhasa terrain, and a bathyal or abyssal
sea (ocean) represented by the BangonghuNujiang suture could have existed between these two terrains. The
Central Tibetan Landmass could have been reduced within the Qiangtang and Lhasa terrains, only locally traceable
on the southwestern rim of the Lhasa terrain. A Tethyan epicontinental sea covered most of Tibet southwest of the
Jinsajiang suture (Figure 2C).
3.4. Late Jurassic time
Marine Upper Jurassic strata cover most of the southern taper of the Tarim terrain, the Eastern and Western
Qiangtang terrains, and the Lhasa terrain. Detailed observations of Late Jurassic stratigraphy and facies were conducted at 18 locations, and these are briefly summarized in Figure 2D and Table 4.
Upper Jurassic strata were predominantly formed in a supratidalbeach environment throughout Tibet
(Locations 1, 3, 610, 1218), as shown in a detailed log of the upper part of the section in Location 7 (Figure 5).
However, on the northern half of the Western Qiangtang terrain (Locations 4, 5), Upper Jurassic rocks still comprise a thick interval of thin-bedded carbonate and fine-grained clastic rocks, possibly reflecting deposition in a
continental shelf environment (Figure 5). Coeval flysch assemblages, representing an oceanic setting, also exist in
the westernmost segment of the BangonghuNujiang suture (Location 2) (Wang and Yang 1991).
In summary, in Late Jurassic time, the bathyal or abyssal sea (ocean), represented by the BangonghuNujiang
suture, between the Qiangtang and Lhasa terrains could have closed east of 83 E, but flysch continued to be deposited in the westernmost BangonghuNujiang suture. The SongpanGanzi area remained elevated, and a smallscale landmass may have existed across the middle of the Eastern and Western Qiangtang terrains and the southwestern rim of the Lhasa terrain. The rest of Tibet was covered by littoral deposits, with the exception of neritic
deposits on the northern corner of the Western Qiangtang terrain (Figure 2D).
3.5. Early Cretaceous time
Lower Cretaceous marine rocks are spread only over the southern rim of the Western Qiangtang terrain and on the
Lhasa terrain. Neritic deposits exist in these two regions and oceanic sediments occur in the westernmost end of the
BangonghuNujiang suture (Figure 2E). Detailed observations of Early Cretaceous stratigraphy and facies were
conducted at 18 locations, and these are briefly summarized in Figure 2E and Table 5.
The majority of the Eastern Qiangtang terrain was elevated into dry land (Zhang, 2000). On the western rim of
the Western Qiangtang terrain, however, Lower Cretaceous strata conformably overlie Upper Jurassic rocks (Guo
et al. 1991) and they are composed of more than 500 m of mainly fine-grained clastic rocks, including mudstone
and sandstone (Location 3). On the southeastern rim of the Western Qiangtang terrain, only transgressive upper
Lower Cretaceous strata exist, unconformably overlying Middle Jurassic rocks (Location 4).
Lower Cretaceous rocks on the Lhasa terrain are varied, although we show only the coastal facies in Figure 2E.
On the northern half of the Lhasa terrain, Lower Cretaceous strata can be divided into two distinct parts: a lower
part consisting of clastic rocks that reflect deposition in a littoral environment, and an upper part consisting of
monotonous carbonate strata, up to 5 km thick, possibly representing a platform interiorshelf setting. The
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)

sandy limestone. Hummocky
cross-bedding. >855 m
Thick-bedded dolomitic, oolitic, and
bioclastic limestones, and medium-bedded
mudstone with pancake calcareous
concretion, intercalated with sandy
limestone. >2915 m
Upper: mudstone, siltstone, intercalated
with sandstone, argillaceous limestone,
and anhydrite (Figure 5). Massive beds of
the latter are up to 50 cm thick and
argillaceous, dark and thin partings define
bedding of all these deposits. Lower:
medium- to thin-bedded limestone,
intercalated with shale. 1660 m
Upper: sandstone, intercalated with
siltstone; Lower: interbedded mudstone,
siltstone, sandstone, and limestone.
Parallel bedding and cross-bedding
are common. 2925 m (Figure 5)
Conglomerate, sandstone, shale,
and limestone. 2900 m
Purple mudstone and sandstone,
intercalated with conglomerate. 1437 m
5. 35 000 N 83 050 E (Q)
6. 34 300 N 86 100 E (Q)
10. 30 300 N 97 550 E (Q)
9. 33 350 N 92 020 E (Q)
8. 34 050 N 91 250 E (Q)
7. 34 100 N 87 500 E (Q)
4. 34 350 N 80 150 E (Q)
Dark medium-, thick-, and massive-bedded

limestone, reefal limestone, breccia,
and calcirudite. 3000 m
calcareous sandstone. 2400 m
Dark limestone, rich in bioclasts of benthos

such as bivalves, brachiopods, corals and
stromatoporas. 1000 m
Monotonous interbedded shale and
siltstone, only radiolarian fossils
discovered. >4500 m
Lithology
3. 33 450 N 80 200 E (Q)
2. 33 250 N 79 400 E (Q)
1. 35 30N 77 50 E (T)
Location
Burmirhyris sp., Camptonectes sp.,

Ceratomya sp., Holcothyris sp.
Saurischia indet.
Camptonectes sp.,
Ceratomya sp.,
Holcothyris sp.
Avonothyris distorta,
Burmirhynchia, Holcothyris,
Liostrea birmanica
Corniceras sp., Protocardia

qinghaiensis Wen
Burmirhynchia tenuiplicata Reed,

Holcothyris tanggularica Ching,
Protocardia sp., Trocholina cf. umbo
Chlamys tipperi Cox, Corniceras sp.,
Pholadomya socialia Morris and Lycett,
Protocardia qinghaiensis Wen
Astrohizopora sp. Phacellastrea rotogensis

Liao, Monticlarella cf. czenstochaviensis,
Rutorhynchia
Acanthocircus variabilis, Angulobracchia
purisimaensis, Emiluvia hopsoni Pessagno,
Hsuum maxwelli Pessagno, Mirifusus
guadalupensis Pessagno, Paronaella bandyi
Pessagno, Perispyridium ordinarium, Ristola
procera, Tripocyclia jonesi Pessagno
Cladophyllia dichotoma,
Epistreptophyllum giganteum
Main fossils
Table 4. Brief descriptions of marine Upper Jurassic deposits in Tibet; location numbers as for Figure 2Da
Supratidal
Tidaldelta plain
Delta plaintidal flat
Upper: restricted
platform; Lower:
tidal flatcarbonate
platform
Lagoonsupratidal
Shelfcarbonate
platform
Shelf
Carbonate platform
Slopeoceanic
basin
Carbonate platform
Environment
EFG
AB
Ref.
232
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)
Conglomerate, sandstone, and sandy

shale, intercalated with coal. >2010 m.
Typical tidal sedimentary sequence in the
middle bears lenticular, herringbone,
vein, and parallel bedding (Figure 5)
Shale, sandstone, limestone, and
conglomerate, intercalated with
andesite. 2622 m
Limestone, sandstone, and shale,

intercalated with coal. 800 m
Upper: limestone; Middle: siltstone,
carbonaceous shale, and coal streaks;
Lower: sandy conglomerate and
sandstone, bearing ultrabasic and
chromite pebbles and picotite. 100 m
Siltstone and sandstone, intercalated
with limestone, with basal purple
conglomerate and andesite. 2310 m
Limestone, shale, and sandstone,
with basal conglomerate. 800 m
Shale and sandstone,
containing plant fragments. >300 m
12. 31 000 N 85 050 E (L)
14. 30 000 N 90 000 E (L)
15. 32 000 N 90 500 E (L)
16. 31 500 N 92 500 E (L)
17. 29 290 N 92 310 E (L)
18. 30 400 N 96 050 E (L)

Cladophyllia turbinata,
Collignoastraea jumarense,
Grammatodon virgatus,
Kobyastrea sp., Pseudocoenia
hexaphyllia, Stylosmilia michelini,
Thamnoseri cf. blauensis,
Virgatosphinctes sp.
Cladophyllia sp., Cossmanea sp.,
Lochmaeosmilia sp., Nerinea sp.,
Polyptyxis sp., Ptygmatis sp.
Cladocoropsis mirabilis, C. nanoxi,
Dermoseris delogudoi, Heliocoenia
cf. orbignyi, H. meriani,
Latiastrea, Parastromatopora
compacta, Ptyllophylum sp.,
Stylina, Thecosmilia magna
Aspidoceratinae, Astarte sp.,
Berriasella sp., Homomya sp.,
Protetragonites sp., Rasenioides sp.,
Virgatosphinctes sp.
Cossmanea sp., Haplophragnium,
Nerinea sp., Pseudocyclammina
cf. lituns, Ptygmatis sp.
Collignoastraea jumarense,
Pseudocoenia hexaphyllia,
Stylosmilia michelini, Thamnoseri
cf. blauensis, Virgatosphinctes sp.
Buchia sp., Epistreptophyllum sp.,

Heliocoenia cf. orbignyi,
H. meriani, Latiastrea sp., Ostrea sp.,
Perisphinctinae, Stylina sp.
Camptonectes punctatus,
Nerinea, Praeexogyra acuminata
Beachtidal
Beachtidal
Beachtidal
Upper: tidal;
Midlower:
continental
Continentaltidal
Continentaltidal
Continentaltidal
Continentalintertidal
a
Terrain: T, Tarim; Q, Qiangtang; L, Lhasa. References: A, Sun and Xu (1991); B, XZBGM (1993); C, Wang and Yang (1991); D, Guo et al. (1991); E, Leeder et al. (1988); F, Yin et al.
(1988); G, QHBGM (1991).
13. 31 200 N 90 000 E (L)
Mediumthick-bedded sandstone, and

conglomerate, intercalated with bioclastic
limestone. >350 m
11. 32 300 N 82 250 E (L)

233
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)
234
Figure 5. Representative Late Jurassic sequences in central Tibet. Numbered as in Figure 2D and patterned as in Figure 3.
carbonate rocks involve the southern rim of the Western Qiangtang terrain and cover an apparently larger area than
the clastic rocks. These carbonate strata could have extended into the Cenomanian stage of Late Cretaceous time,
as indicated by fossils (mostly foraminifera) (Pan 1985; Yin et al. 1988; Lin et al. 1989; Zhang 2000). On the
southern rim of the Lhasa terrain, Lower Cretaceous strata are mainly composed of coarse clastic rocks that were
deposited in a littoral environment. On its western rim, however, they consist of limestone, shale, and fine-grained
sandstone that reflect an inner shelf environment (Figure 2E).
The Lower Cretaceous sequence around Location 10 could be representative of the strata on the northern part of
the Lhasa terrain and are shown in Figure 6. This sequence can be subdivided into two distinctive parts. An upper
part is characterized by a thick interval of carbonates, in general composed of massive limestone, with single layers
50200 cm thick, and rich in peloids and broken bioclasts of foraminifera, algae, brachiopods, crinoids and corals.
Chert nodules and beds replace carbonate layers and bioclastics (1070%) (Figure 6C). The strata and fossils indicate a platform interiormarginal bank environment. However, in the lower part of the carbonate rocks, some limestone layers are about 317 cm thick, and contain only about 3% fossils, which are intact. In these layers,
hummocky cross-bedding is present (Figure 6C). These layers could represent a shelf environment. At the top
of the carbonate rocks, massive dolomitic limestones with birds eye and brecciform structures prevail
(Figure 6D), which we interpret as restricted platformsupratidal flat facies. Similar facies may extend to Late
Cretaceous time (Yin et al. 1988). The lower part of the sequence is characterized by sandstone, carbonaceous
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)
10. 31 330 N 86 520 E (L)
9. 31 420 N 85 170 E (L)
8. 31 460 N 84 510 E (L)
7. 31 250 N 81 050 E (L)
6. 32 300 N 80 570 E (L)
5. 33 210 N 79 180 E (L)
4. 32 500 N 90 120 E (Q)
Upper: massive limestone, with single

layer 55210 cm thick, and rich in peloids
and bioclasts of foraminifera, algae,
brachiopods, crinoids and corals. Chert
nodules and beds are found replacing
carbonate layers and bioclasts; Lower:
sandstone, carbonaceous shale (coal),
intercalated with conglomerate. >617 m
Upper: massive limestone, with single
layer 64240 cm thick, and rich in peloids
brachiopods, crinoids and corals.
Chert nodules and beds are found
replacing carbonate layers and bioclasts;
Lower: sandstone, carbonaceous shale,
Upper: limestone; Lower: sandstone,
carbonaceous shale, mudstone, intercalated
with massive micritic limestone,
rich in plant fragments.
>3100 m (Figure 6)
Interbedded sandstone and conglomerate.

10001300 m
Siltstone, silicalite, and basalt. >1000 m
Purple massive-bedded sandstone
and mudstone, with single layer
50 cm thick. >500 m
Upper: gray mediumthick-bedded breccia,
and micritic limestone, intercalated with
bioclastic and oolitic limestones;
Lower: purple conglomerate. 1209 m
Upper: thin-bedded limestone; Lower:
thin-bedded sandstone and shale. 5400 m
Upper: thin-bedded limestone; Lower:
sandstone and shale, intercalated
with andesite. >5000 m
Interbedded thin-bedded limestone
and andesite. 6071 m
1. 39 55N 77 050 E (T)
2. 33 250 N 79 400 E (Q)

3. 33 450 N 80 200 E (Q)
Lithology
Location
Euthymiceras, Neocomites,
Orbitolina lenticularis,
O. tibetica, Triporopollenites
Mesorbitolina birmanica,
Palorbitolina lenticularis,
Praeorbitolina corrnyi
Cladophlebis browniana, Mesorbitolina

birmanica, Praeorbitolina corrnyi
Adiozoptyxis sp., Mesorbitolina
birmanica, Palorbitolina
lenticularis, Praeorbitolina corrnyi
Ampullina xainzaensis, Glauconia trorreri,
Nerinea cf. pauli, Nerinella dayi,
Plesioptyxis aff. langshanensis
Adiozoptyxis sp., Axosmilia sp.,
Cladophlebis browniana,
Montlivaltia sp., Stylinaparvistella
Hedberqella siqali, Orbitolina

birmanica sahni, Orbitolina
trochus, Textularia sp.
Cenellipsis sp., Lithamitra sp.

Astarte, Nesinea sp., Pteria sp.
Nodosaria sp., Saccammina globasa
Main fossil
Table 5. Brief descriptions of marine Lower Cretaceous deposits in Tibet; location numbers as for Figure 2Ea
Upper: tidal
flatshelf; Lower:
alluvial fantidal
flat
Upper: platform
interior; Lower:
supratidaltidal
flat
Upper: platform
interior; Lower:
supratidaltidal
flat
Shelf
Shelf
Shelf
Upper: platform
interior; Lower:
tidalcontinental
B
C
Ref.
Continues
Slopeoceanic basin
Beach
Supratidal
Environment

235
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)
Shale and sandstone, intercalated

with coal seam and
conglomerate. >623 m
Pebbly sandstone, sandstone, and shale,
intercalated with andesite. 905 m
Upper: massive limestone, with
single layer 45235 cm thick, and rich
in peloids and bioclasts of foraminifera,
algae, brachiopods, crinoids and corals.
replacing carbonate layers and bioclasts;
Lower: sandstone, carbonaceous shale,
intercalated with andesite. 1300 m
Upper: massive limestone, with single layer
60210 cm thick, and rich in peloids and
bioclasts of foraminifera, algae, brachiopods,
crinoids and corals. Chert nodules and beds
are found replacing carbonate layers and
bioclasts; Lower: sandstone and shale,
Siltstone, mudstone, and limestone,
with basal conglomerate intercalated
with coal seams. >573 m
Massive limestone, with single layer
45200 cm thick, and rich in peloids
brachiopods, crinoids and corals.
replacing carbonate layers and
bioclasts. >3100 m
Sandstone, siltstone, and shale,
intercalated with coal, chert, and
limestone. >3140 m
Purple conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone,
and shale, intercalated with coal, chert,
and limestone. >3140 m
11. 29 250 N 87 100 E (L)

Cladophlebis sp., Klukia sp.,
Weichselia reticullate,
Zamiophylium buchianum
Baxoitrigonia vhligi,
Cladophlebis sp., Klukia sp.,
Weichselia reticullate,
Zamiophylium buchianum
Hemiaster sp., Meyeria magna,

Notopocorystes xizangensis,
Orbitolina prisca, O. tibetica
Orbitolina lenticularis, O. tibetica
Adiozoptyxis sp., Palorbitolina

lenticularis, Praeorbitolina corrnyi
Cyprina teolluensis, Cyprimeria

cf. quadrata, Veneridea meritix
Mesorbitolina birmanica,
Orbitolina sp., Palorbitolina
lenticularis, Praeorbitolina
corrnyi, Thamnasteria sp.
Orbitolina textena,
Palorbitolina lenticularis
Main fossil
Tidalbeach
Platform interior
Supratidal
Upper: subtidal;
Lower: supratidal
Upper: subtidal;
Lower: supratidal
Supratidalbeach
Supratidalbeach
Environment
Terrain: T, Tarim; Q, Qiangtang; L, Lhasa. References: A, Guo (1995); B, Guo et al. (1991); C, Sun and Xu (1991); D, XZBGM (1993); E, CIGMRSCGR (1992).
18. 30 000 N 97 060 E (L)
17. 30 400 N 96 050 E (L)
16. 30 400 N 92 300 E (L)
15. 30 150 N 91 220 E (L)
14. 30 320 N 90 200 E (L)
13. 31 100 N 89 250 E (L)
12. 30 570 N 88 550 E (L)
Lithology
Location
Table 5. Continued
Ref.
236
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)
237
Figure 6. Representative Early Cretaceous sequences in central Tibet. Numbered as in Figure 2E and patterned as in Figure 3.
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)
238
shale, and mudstone intercalated with massive micritic limestone rich in plant fragments. The fossils are commonly incomplete. Herringbone tidal bedding, cross-bedding, lenticular bedding, parallel bedding, and scour
molds are common (Figure 6B). These strata could represent a tidal flat environment. The base of the sequence
is dominated by massive conglomerate, sandstone, and mudstone in which bedding is indistinct and plant fragments and parallel bedding were found locally. Therefore, these basal strata could have formed in an alluvial
fandelta plain environment. To summarize, Lower Cretaceous successions contains a transgressive sequence,
with the lower part deposited in an alluvial fantidal flat environment and the upper part deposited in a possible
tidal flatshelf environment (Figure 6).
The existence of the oceanic sediments in the westernmost BangonghuNujiang suture (Location 2) indicates
that the oceanic realm represented by the suture had not closed completely by Early Cretaceous time (Guo et al.
1991). Significantly, during the late stage of Early Cretaceous time, and possibly extending into the Cenomanian
stage (Yin et al. 1988; Lin et al. 1989; Zhang 2000), an extensive marine transgression occurred in southern Tibet,
involving both the southern rim of the Western Qiangtang terrain and the northern rim of the Lhasa terrain.
3.6. Late Cretaceous time
Coarse-grained clastic rocks characterize Upper Cretaceous strata in Tibet and its adjacent areas (Zhang 2000).
Upper Cretaceous marine rocks are present only in the Tarim basin, the western rim of the Western Qiangtang
terrain, and the Lhasa terrain (Figures 2F, 7; Table 6).
During Late Cretaceous time, marine sedimentation began over the southern rim of the Tarim terrain (Tang et al.
1992; Zhang et al. 1998). However, the entire Qiangtang and Lhasa terrains underwent an extensive marine regression in comparison with the late stage of Early Cretaceous time. Except for its western rim, the majority of Western
Qiangtang terrain and the area studied of the Eastern Qiangtang terrain was elevated to form dry land (Figure 2F).
A littoral environment predominated along the southern rim of the Tarim terrain (Location 1), the western rim of
the Western Qiangtang terrain (Locations 2, 3, Figure 2F), and the Lhasa terrain (Locations 216, Figure 2F) (Han
et al. 1983; Liang and Xia 1983; Wang 1983; Li 1985; Pan 1985; XGS 1986; Guo et al. 1991; Li and Wu 1991;
Tang et al. 1992; HNGS 1993; XZBGM 1993). In Figure 2F, we speculate that the southern corners of both the
Eastern Qiangtang terrain and the SongpanGanzi complex were covered by littoral sediments, because of the
occurrence of Late Cretaceous marine sediments in the western part of the Sichuan basin (SCBGM 1991; Zhang
2000), and Paleogene marine sediments on the southern fringe of the SongpanGanzi area (Li et al. 1987), as
discussed below.
3.7. Paleogene time
In Tibet and its adjacent areas, Paleogene time is also characterized by the deposition of coarse-grained clastic
rocks (Zhang 2000). Paleogene marine sequences are only present in the Tarim basin, the western rim of the
Western Qiangtang terrain, and the western half of the Lhasa terrain (Figure 2G). We only discuss Paleogene marine deposits (Figures 2G, 7; Table 7).
In Paleogene time, all of Tibet was elevated. The SongpanGanzi area and most of the Qiangtang and Lhasa
terrains became dry land (Figure 2G). However, we believe that the topographic relief was low, possibly a peneplain, because the littoral (coastal) marine sediments occur in the Tarim basin (Location 1; Tang et al. 1992), on the
western rim of the Western Qiangtang terrain (Location 2; Guo et al. 1991), in the western half of the Lhasa terrain
(Locations 39; Zhang and Mo 1979; Wan 1987; Li and Xu 1988; Lin et al. 1989; Pan et al. 1990; Guo et al. 1991;
XZBGM 1993), and along the southern fringe of the SongpanGanzi area (to the east of Figure 2G; Li et al. 1987;
Zhang 2000).
4. IMPLICATIONS FOR MESOZOICPALEOGENE TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF TIBET
According to our present understanding, it is possible to delineate roughly MesozoicPaleogene stratigraphy and
eustasy, and Mesozoic reconstructions, of Tibet, as briefly summarized in Figures 7 and 8 respectively. We can
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)

Bioclastic limestone
Reef limestone
12. 31 150 N 90 200 E (L)
13. 30 500 N 90 050 E (L)
14. 30 150 N 91 220 E (L)
Biradiolites boldjuanensis, Braarudosphaera bigelowii

Biradiolites lumbricoides, Gorjanovicia acuticostata,
Pycondonte cf. costei, Radiolites crassus, R. angeiodes
Bournonian sp., Trigonioides (Diverstr.) bangongwenesis Gu,
Trigonioides (Diverstr.) xizangensis Gu
Nerinea parahicoriensis, Orbitolina concava
Bournonia sp., Neoptyxis sp., Plesioptyxis huzitai,
Plisiotygmatis cf. pupoides, Praeradiolites sp.
Lepidorbitoides gangdisicus, L. minor, L. zhongbaensis,
Libycoceras, Pseudorbitoides yini, Sphenodiscus
Orbitolina concava Lamarck, Trigoniodes sinensis
Orbitolina concava Lamarck, Trigoniodes sinensis
Plicatula placunen, Plicatula cf. inflata, Orbitolina concava
Lepidorbitoides gangdisicus, Libycoceras, Manambolites,
Pseudorbitoides yini, Sphenodiscus
Bournonia sp., Neithea sexcostatus, Orbitolina concava,
Plicatula placunen, Plicatula cf. inflata
Cymopolia sp., Fusus shumardi Hall and Meek, Fusus sp.,
Natica, Orbitolina concava, Turritella magnoliana
Stephenson, T. cf. whitei Stanton, T. xizangensis Pan,
Y. T. (sp. nov.), T. maerbolongbaensis Pan Y. T.,
T. bangeensis Pan, Y. T. (sp. nov.), Tritonium kanabense
Stanton, T. xizangense Pan, Y. T. (sp. nov.), T. angulatum
Pan, Y. T. (sp. nov.)
Bournonia sp., Neithea sexcostatus, Orbitolina concava,
Plicatula placumen, Plicatula cf. inflata
Aetostreon zhongshanensis, Altanicypris aff. bispinofero,
Amphidonte ostracina, Cypridopsis aff. bugintsavicus,
Pycnodonte vesiculosa,
Nonion cf. sichuanensis Li
Nonion cf. sichuanensis Li, Nonion sp.
Key fossils
JK
K
CEG
3 CGHI
CEFG
CE
C
BC
D
A
1B
Interbed./Ref.
Terrains: T, Tarim; Q, Qiangtang; L, Lhasa. 1, interbedded with andesites dated at 77.8 Ma (KAr); 2, interbedded with andesites dated at 69.2 Ma (KAr); 3, interbedded with andesites
dated at 77 Ma, 83 Ma (KAr). References: A, Tang et al. (1992); B, Guo et al. (1991); C, XZBGM (1993); D, Li and Wu (1991); E, XGS (1986); F, Han et al. (1983); G, Wang (1983); H,
Liang and Xia (1983); I, Pan (1985); J, Li (1985); K, HNGS (1993).
11. 31 550 N 90 00E (L)
15. 30 55N 94 150 E (L)

16. 31 200 N 95 400 E (L)
Reef limestone
Reef limestone
Reef limestone
86 070 E
86 160 E
87 050 E
87 050 E
(L)
(L)
(L)
(L)
31 580 N
31 480 N
32 010 N
29 250 N
6. 29 500 N 84 100 E (L)
7.
8.
9.
10.
Reef limestone
4. 32 010 N 81 050 E (L)

5. 32 000 N 83 350 E (L)
Index sediment
Reef limestone
3. 33 450 N 80 200 E (Q)
Reef limestone
1. 35 40 N 81 05 E (T)
2. 34 560 N 81 140 E (Q)
Location
Table 6. Brief descriptions of marine Late Cretaceous deposits in Tibet; location numbers as for Figure 2Fa

239
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)
240
Table 7. Brief descriptions of marine Paleogene deposits in Tibet; location numbers as for Figure 2Ga
Location
Index lithology
Key fossils
Ref.
1. 35 400 N, 81 050 E (T)
Bioclastic limestone,
reef limestone
Reef limestone
Cibicidina sp., Flemingostrea,

Miliola sp., Sokolovia
Astrocoenia gibbosa, Dendrophyllia,
Deplhelia papillosa, Oculina alabaminsis,
Stephanocoenia microtuberculata,
Stylocoenia
Nummulites wadiai, Ranikothalia
Collonia
Assilina levis, Lockhartia, Nummulites

wadiai, Ranikothalia
Fasciolites gambaensis, Lockhartia,
Nummulites wadiai, Ranikothalia
Nummulites rotularius, Deshayes
Acicularia americana, A. antiqua, Cymopolia
tibetica, Trinocladus megacladus
Distichoplax biserialis, Furcoporella diplopora,
Keramosphaera tergestina, Ovulites morelleti
2. 33 450 N, 80 200 E (Q)
3. 32 300 N, 79 400 E (L)
7. 32 010 N, 87 050 E (L)

8. 31 150 N, 90 200 E (?) (L)
reef limestone
Radiolarian chert,
reef limestone
reef limestone
reef limestone
Limestone
9. 30 150 N, 91 220 E (L)
4. 32 010 N, 81 050 E (L)

5. 29 500 N, 84 100 E (L)
6. 29 500 N, 84 500 E (L)
DE
F
G
DEH
a
Terrains: T, Tarim; Q, Qiangtang; L, Lhasa. References: A, Tang et al. (1992); B, Guo et al. (1991); C, Li and Xu (1988); D, XZBGM (1993); E,
Wan (1987); F, Pan et al. (1990); G, Lin et al. (1989: 219); H, Zhang and Mo (1979).
therefore draw several main preliminary conclusions about the MesozoicPaleogene paleogeographictectonic
evolution of Tibet.
4.1. The Jinsajiang paleo-Tethys ocean
The present Jinsajiang suture represents the closed paleo-Tethyan oceanic realm in Tibet. Generally, it is believed
that the Jinsajiang paleo-Tethys ocean closed in latest Triassic time (Chang et al. 1986; Dewey et al. 1988;
Burchfiel et al. 1989). A main conclusion from the 1985 BritishChinese Tibet Geotraverse Lhasa to Golmud,
was that Jurassic sediments in the Eastern Qiangtang terrain belong to a foreland clastic molasse related to the
collision along the Jinsajiang suture (Chang et al. 1986; Leeder et al. 1988; Yin et al. 1988). However, in contrast,
Yu and Wang (1990) and Liu et al. (1992) pointed out the entire Qiangtang terrain contains passive continental
margin strata that range in age from the Paleozoic through to the Jurassic. Our investigation shows that the
sedimentation in the eastern part of the Eastern Qiangtang terrain indeed occurred in a contractional foreland basin,
which was filled with thick coarse clastics, since latest Triassic time (Figure 2B). However, clastic sedimentation
was mainly localized on the eastern part of the Eastern Qiangtang terrain near the Jinsajiang suture and migrated
gradually westwards. In the northwestern corner of the Eastern Qiangtang terrain and on the northern rim of the
Western Qiangtang terrain, shelf carbonates predominated in Late TriassicJurassic time (Figures 2A-D) (Rao et al.
1987; XZBGM 1993), suggesting a diachronous closing of the Jinsajiang paleo-Tethys ocean, first in the eastern
side due to the latest Triassic suturing between the Eastern Qiangtang terrain and Asia (Figure 8B) and clearly later
in the western side due to the Jurassic collision of the Western Qiangtang terrain and Asia (Figures 8C and D).
4.2. The Shuanghu suture between the Eastern and Western Qiangtang terrains
Our study provides useful constraints on the debate and speculations about extension and timing of the suturing
between the Eastern and Western Qiangtang terrains (Li et al. 1995). Through preliminary analysis of four artificially panned sandstone samples, we found rich picotites (up to 1695 g/T, Table 2) in Upper Triassic sandstones at
two locations in the assumed eastern extention of the Shuanghu suture (Locations 11 and 14, Figure 2B). The
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)
Figure 7. Schematic curves showing the transgressive changes of four main terrains during TriassicPaleogene periods. Facies: 1, continental; 2, supralittoral and intertidal; 3, subtidal
and neritic; 4, bathyalabyssal. Patterned as in Figure 3.
241
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)
242
Figure 8. Schematic reconstructions of Tibet during the main stages of Mesozoic time. Not drawn to scale. The teeth on the thick lines indicate
the directions of subduction.
picotites, readily decomposed heavy minerals, should have come from nearby ultrabasic rocks, most likely ophiolitic complexes. These picotites could not have been related either to the BangonghuNujiang suture (because the
ocean represented by the suture began to close only after Early Jurassic time (Yin et al. 1988)), or to the Jinsajiang
suture (because we have not found any picotites in Upper Triassic sandstones in the area north of Locations 11 and
14 in Figure 2B). Therefore, it is possible that the Shuanghu suture could be present near the positions of these two
locations. On the other hand, the stable shelf sedimentation during Late TriassicMiddle Jurassic time in the
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)
243
Western Qiangtang terrain (Figure 2B and C) suggests that the suture may not have formed until Middle Jurassic
time (Figure 8C).
4.3. The Central Tibetan Landmass and the BangonghuNujiang mid-Tethys ocean
A LowerMiddle Triassic hiatus (Figures 2A, 7) and data from sediment transport directions (left, Figure 3) in both
the Qiangtang and Lhasa terrains indicate that a landmass, termed here the Central Tibetan Landmass, could have
existed in central Tibet during EarlyMiddle Triassic time (Figures 2A, 8A). Beginning in EarlyMiddle Triassic
time, this landmass was at least 400 km wide; by Late Triassic time it had narrowed by a gradual transgression from
the east (Figures 2B, 8B). Finally, in EarlyMiddle Jurassic time, it gave way to the BangonghuNujiang midTethys ocean completely, and a remnant of this landmass existed only on the southwestern rim of the Lhasa terrain
(Figures 2C, 8C).
We infer that the mid-Tethys ocean could have begun to open during Late Triassic time (Figure 8C), a popular
view shared by many other authors (e.g. Chang et al. 1986; Dewey et al. 1988). However, Late Triassic abyssal or
bathyal sediments were found only in the eastern segment of the BangonghuNujiang suture east of 87 E
(Figure 2B), and the earliest known oceanic sediments in the western segment are Middle Jurassic in age (Guo
et al. 1991; Location 12, Figure 2C). Opening of the mid-Tethys ocean was therefore diachronous, occurring in
Late Triassic time along its eastern segment and in Middle Jurassic time along its western segment. Bilateral lithofacies changes across and along the BangonghuNujiang suture (Figures 2B and C, 8B and C) are consistent with
this preliminary conclusion. Figures 2D and E and 8C and D show that the suture began to close at the beginning of
Late Jurassic time along its eastern segment, which was marked by the simultaneous deposition of coarse clastic
rocks of molasse type on the northern rim of the Lhasa terrain and the termination of oceanic sedimentation. However, Upper Jurassic (Location 2, Figure 2D) and Lower Cretaceous (Location 2, Figure 2E) flysch rocks were still
being deposited in the western segment of the BangonghuNujiang suture. This illustrates that the closing of the
BangonghuNujiang mid-Tethyan oceanic realm (i.e. collision between the Lhasa and the Qiangtang terrains) was
also diachronous (Figure 8D) and finally closed along its western segment only in latest Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous time.
Lowest Cretaceous coarse molasse on the northwestern half of the Lhasa terrain probably provides further evidence of this collision. However, upper Lower Cretaceous, and possibly lowest Upper Cretaceous (e.g. Yin et al.
1988), platformshelf limestones, up to 5 km thick, stretched over the southern rim of the Western Qiangtang terrain and the northern half of the Lhasa terrain, and apparently covered a larger area than the lower continental
littoral sediments (Figure 8E; e.g. Lin et al. 1989; XZBGM 1993). This cannot be attributed only to a marine transgression event, because the rest of Tibet experienced an intense coeval marine regression (Figure 7; see Zhang
(2000) for details). We propose that southern Tibet could have undergone subsidence during the late stage of Early
Cretaceous time. This subsidence could be due to the extension behind the Gangdese arc. Upper Cretaceous coarse
clastic rocks indicate the onset of another stage of compressional deformation. However, rich marine faunas and
reef limestone in Upper Cretaceous and Paleogene strata (Figures 2G, 7) imply low topographic relief (Zhang et al.
1998; Zhang 2000).
4.4. The Tibetan plateau
England and Searle (1986) believed that the Lhasa terrain was elevated before its collision with India. Furthermore,
mainly on the basis of a traverse through the central Lhasa terrain in southern Tibet, Murphy et al. (1997) suggested that the southern Tibetan plateau had attained an elevation of 34 km by ca.99Ma and maintained significant topography until the onset of the Indo-Asian collision. They speculated that this elevation was due to the
collision between the Lhasa and Qiangtang terrains during Early Cretaceous time.
This study of the MesozoicPaleogene paleogeography provides a significant test for previous conclusions, at
least on whether southern Tibet had been elevated to 34 km prior to the Indo-Asian collision. Our investigations
(Zhang et al 1998; Zhang 2000; and this study), as well as those by other Chinese colleagues in this region (e.g.
Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)
244
Han et al. 1983; Liang and Xia 1983; Wang 1983; Li 1985; Pan 1985; XGS 1986; Guo et al. 1991; Liu et al. 1992;
Tang et al. 1992; XZBGM 1993), show that over much of southern Tibet shallow marine sedimentation was not
terminated at the end of Late Cretaceous time (Figures 2F, 7, 8F) and possibly continued until Eocene time (Pan
et al. 1990; Guo et al. 1991; Liu et al. 1992; Zhang et al. 1998) (Figures 2G, 7). This sedimentation is marked by
reef limestone, radiolarian chert, etc., and its timing is well constrained by rich fossil assemblages and radiometric
dating of the interbedded volcanic rocks (Figure 2F and G). In addition, the backarc extension in southern Tibet
during the late stage of Early Cretaceous time (possibly extending into earliest Late Cretaceous time; Figure 7),
marked by local transgression on the southern rim of the Western Qiangtang terrain and the northern half of the
Lhasa terrain, is in accord with this conclusion. These observations indicate that the collision between the
Qiangtang and Lhasa terrains could have been completed at the end of early Early Cretaceous time. Therefore,
the collision could not be the mechanism to create the elevation of southern Tibet to 34 km, for which no paleogeographic and lithofacies evidence is found by the end of Early Cretaceous time, as suggested by Murphy et al.
(1997).
Marine Paleogene sedimentation seems to have covered most of western Tibet, including the southwestern
Tarim basin (Tang et al. 1992) and both sides of the BangonghuNujiang (Pan et al. 1990) and Yarlung Zangbo
sutures (Wan 1987) (Figure 2G). Therefore, we believe that southern Tibet, in particular its western segment, was
only slightly elevated during Late Cretaceous time in contrast to Early Cretaceous time, but not up to 34 km. Tibet
was intensively elevated only during Late Tertiary time (Zhang et al. 1998), its high topography being only the
product of the Indo-Asian collision (e.g. Xu 1981).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the National Science Foundation of China (40072075). Hundreds of Chinese geologists took part in the fieldwork in Tibet, China. We are grateful to Professor D. C. Bi at the Nanjing Institute of
Geology and Mineral Resources, Professor H. F. Ye and Professor Y. T. Li at the PetroChina Company Limited for
their logistical help in preparation of the paper. Professor G. T. Pan at the Chengdu Institute of Geology and
Mineral Resources provided useful references. Professor B. C. Burchfiel, Dr Alan Carroll, and Dr I. D. Somerville
are greatly thanked for considerate and constructive review comments and careful editorial help.
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Tibet Paleogeography

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GEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)

MesozoicPaleogene sedimentary facies and paleogeography

Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

k.-j. zhang, b. xia and x. liang

Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)

paleogeographic-tectonic evolution of tibet

Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)

k.-j. zhang, b. xia and x. liang

Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)

paleogeographic-tectonic evolution of tibet

Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)

k.-j. zhang, b. xia and x. liang

Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)

Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Entolium sichuanensis, Japonites sp.,

Acromytilus sp., Judicarites sp., Myophoricardium sp.,

Acrochordiceras cf. carolinae, Arthaberites

Daonella, Posidonia wengesis

9. 33 400 N Upper: oolitic limestone and calcirudite,

7. 33 450 N Bioclastic calcareous sandstone and sandy

6. 29 350 N Interbedded purple conglomerate, sandstone,

5. 30 500 N Interbedded purple conglomerate, sandstone,

1. 35 240 N Middle Triassic. Upper: massive-bedded argillaceous

paleogeographic-tectonic evolution of tibet

Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)

k.-j. zhang, b. xia and x. liang

Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)

paleogeographic-tectonic evolution of tibet

3.2. Late Triassic time

Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)

Argillaceous limestone, limestone and

1. 35 240 N 81 050 E (T)

Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

9. 34 000 N 85 100 E (Q)

15. 34 100 N 92 000 E (Q)

16. 33 420 N 92 200 E (Q)

13. 32 350 N 90 000 E (Q)

12. 34 400 N 89 120 E (Q)

11. 33 030 N 87 450 E (Q)

10. 32 350 N 86 200 E (Q)

8. 34 100 N 83 100 E (Q)

Algal reef, coral reef, bioclastic limestone,

7. 33 550 N 80 260 E (Q)

6. 30 540 N 98 200 E (SG)

5. 31 320 N 98 250 E (SG)

2. 35 550 N 88 300 E (SG)

Entolium cf. quotidianum, Palaeocardita

Montlivaltia norica, Palaeocardita

Arietoceltites cf. arietitoides, Burmesia sp.,

Clathropteris meniscioides, Drepanozamites

Myriophyllum sp., Thecosmilia cf. clathria

Geol. J. 37: 217246 (2002)

Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Halobia cf. superbescens, Tylotrochus sp.

Ectolcites qabdoensis, Rhaetinopsis ovata,

Tidal flat (?)

21. 31 500 N 93 050 E (L)

20. 30 150 N 91 220 E (L)

19. 31 580 N 87 550 E (L)

18. 30 400 N 97 300 E (Q)