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Working of SCR

In a silicon controlled rectifier, load is connected in series with anode.

The anode is always kept at positive potential w.r.t. cathode.
The working of SCR can be studied under the following two heads:

1. When gate is open:

Fig.2 shows the SCR circuit with gate open i.e. no voltage applied to the gate.

Fig.2
Under this condition, junction J2 is reverse biased while junction J1 and J3 are
forward biased.
Hence, the situation in the junctions J1 and J3 is just as in a npn transistor with
base open.
Consequently, no current flows through the load RL and the SCR is cut off.

However, if the applied voltage is gradually increased, a stage is reached when

the reverse biased junction J2 breaks down.
The SCR now conducts heavily and is said to be in the ON state.
The applied voltage at which SCR conducts heavily without gate voltage is called
Breakover voltage.

2. When gate is positive w.r.t. cathode

The SCR can be made to conduct heavily at smaller applied voltage by applying a
small positive potential to the gate as shown in fig.3.

Now junction J3 is forward biased and junction J2 is reverse biased.

The electrons from n-type material start moving across junction J 3 towards left
whereas holes from p-type towards the right.
Consequently, the electrons from junction J 3 are attracted across the junction
J2 and gate current starts flowing .
As soon as the gate current flows, anode current increases.
The increased current in turn makes more electrons available at junction J2.
This process continues and in an extremely small time, junction J 2 breaks down
and the SCR starts conducting heavily.
Once SCR starts conducting, the gate loses all control. Even if gate voltage is
removed, the anode current does not decrease at all.
The only way to stop conduction i.e. to bring the SCR in off condition, is to reduce
the applied voltage to zero.

Conclusion
The following conclusions are drawn from the working of SCR:
1.

An SCR has two states i.e. either it does not conduct or it conducts
heavily. There is no state inbetween. Therefore, SCR behaves like a
switch.
2.
There are two ways to turn on the SCR. The first method is to keep the
gate open and make the supply voltage equal to the breakover voltage.
The second method is to operate SCR with supply voltage less than
breakover voltage and then turn it on by means of a small voltage
applied to the gate.
3.
Applying small positive voltage to the gate is the normal way to close
an SCR because the breakover voltage is usually much greater than
supply voltage.
4.
To open the SCR e. to make it non-conducting, reduce the supply
voltage to zero.

SCR Ratings:
Under all operating conditions, the reliable operation of the SCR can be ensured
only if it is operated such that its ratings are not exceeded. Each thyristor or SCR is
manufactured to a particular current, voltage, power, temperature and switching
frequency limits within which they can operate reliably. These are called ratings, which
can be minimum or maximum values that set limits on the capability of an SCR.
Exceeding these limits even for short durations could considerably leads to malfunction
or damage the SCR. Therefore, for the benefit of users, the manufacturer gives a list of
current, voltage, power, temperature ratings, etc. These ratings are essential for the
correct application of SCR in various power electronic circuits. In practice SCRs with
ratings higher than the required working ratings are selected to allow safety margin .
These ratings can be continuous, non-repetitive or surge and repetitive ratings.
Depends on the unilateral or bilateral devices, continuous ratings are denoted in terms
of RMS or average values. Surge and repetitive ratings are corresponding to peak
values of the SCR. So let us discuss various ratings of SCR in brief. Different voltage
and current ratings are assigned with one or more subscripts for easy identification. The
first subscript indicates the state of the SCR and includes

F- Forward bias
R- Reverse bias
T- ON state
D- Forward blocking state with gate open

The second subscript indicates the operating values and those are

T- Trigger
S- Surge or Non-repetitive value

R- Repetitive value

W- Working value

Voltage Ratings of SCR

The voltage capability of the SCR should not be exceeded during the operation
even for short periods. So the SCR is assigned with different voltage ratings, which are
the maximum voltages at which the SCR can function normally without breakdown of
junctions. These are assigned in both blocking states of an SCR and can withstand
against voltage transients. The various voltage ratings of an SCR are given below .

1. Peak Working Forward-blocking Voltage VDWM

It specifies the maximum instantaneous value of forward blocking voltage across
the SCR excluding all surge and repetitive transient voltages. Beyond this value of the
voltage the SCR cannot withstand during its operation. This VDWM is equal to the
maximum or peak value of the supply

voltage wave shown in figure.

Fig
Anode voltage ratings during the blocking state
of a thyristor

2. Peak Repetitive Forward-blocking Voltage V DRM

It is the maximum transient voltage that the SCR can block during its the forward
blocking state repeatedly or periodically. This is specified with a specific biasing
resistance between cathode and gate or at a maximum permissible junction
temperature with gate circuit open.
This voltage VDRM is encountered or appeared across the SCR , when the SCR is
turned OFF or commutated or due to diodes in the converter circuit. During the turn
OFF process, an abrupt change in reverse recovery current causes to create a voltage
spike , which is responsible of VDRM to appear across the SCR.

3. Peak Non-repetitive or Surge Forward-blocking Voltage V DSM

This is the maximum instantaneous value of forward surge voltage across the
SCR that is of non-repetitive. This V DSM is less than the forward break over voltage
VBO and this value is in the range about 130 percent of V DRM.

4. Peak Working Reverse Voltage VRWM

This is the maximum instantaneous value of reverse voltage across the SCR
excluding all surge and repetitive transient voltages. This V RWM is equal to the maximum
negative value of the supply voltage wave shown in figure.

5. Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage VRRM

It is occurrence of the maximum reverse transient voltage repeatedly or
periodically across the SCR in the reverse direction at permissible maximum junction
temperature. Beyond this rating the SCR may get damaged due to excessive junction
temperature. This voltage is also appeared due to the same reason as of V DRM.

6. Peak Non-repetitive or Surge Reverse Voltage VRSM

It refers to the maximum value of reverse transient voltage across the SCR that
is of non-repetitive. This VRSM is less than the reverse break over voltage V BR and this

value is in the range about 130 percent of V RRM. The surge voltage ratings V DSM and
VRSM can be increased by connecting a diode of equal current rating in series with the
SCR.
The above discussed voltage ratings are belonging to the forward and reverse
blocking states with which the SCR is able to withstand with gate open.

7. ON-state Voltage VT
This is the voltage drop between the anode and cathode with specified junction
temperature and ON-state forward current. Generally, this value is in the order of 1 to
1.5 Volts.

8. Gate Triggering Voltage VGT

This is the minimum voltage required by the gate to produce the gate
trigger current.
9. Forward dv/dt Rating
This is the maximum rate of rise of anode voltage that will not trigger the SCR
without any gate pulse or signal. If this value is more than the specified value, the SCR
may be switched ON. The SCR in forward blocking mode is analogous to the capacitor
with a dielectric. So , the charging current flows through it when the applied voltage is
increased. If the rate of rise of voltage is more, sufficient charges will flow through the
junctions J2 of the SCR and hence the SCR will be turned ON without any gate signal.
This type of triggering is called as false triggering and in practice it is not
employed. Also, this rating depends on the junction temperature. If the junction
temperature is high, the dv/dt rating of the SCR is lower and vice-versa. With the use of
snubber networks across the SCRs, it is possible to limit the maximum dv/dt applied to
the SCR.

10. Voltage Safety Factor Vf

Generally, the operating voltage of the SCR is kept below the V RSM to avoid the
damage to the SCR due to uncertain conditions. Therefore, the voltage safety factor
relates the operating voltage and VRSM and is given as
Vf = VRSM / (RMS value of the input voltage * 2)

Current Ratings of SCR

Basically an SCR is a unilateral device and hence average current rating is
assigned to it (while RMS current rating is assigned to bilateral devices). An SCR has
low thermal capacity and short time constant. This means the junction temperature
exceeds its rated value even for short over current. This may lead to damage the SCR.
Therefore, current ratings must be properly selected for long life of SCR , as the junction
temperature depends on the current handled by it. Let us look at various current ratings
of an SCR.

1. Average ON-state Current Rating ITAV

This is the maximum repetitive average value of forward current that can flow
through the SCR such that the maximum temperature and RMS current limits are not
exceeded. The forward voltage drop across the SCR is very low when it is in conduction
mode. So the power loss in the thyristor is entirely depends on the forward current I TAV.
In case of phase controlled SCRs, average forward current depends on the firing angle.
For the given average forward current, the RMS value of the current is increased with
decrease in conduction angle. This leads to increase the voltage drop across the SCR
which in turn increases the average power dissipation. Hence the junction temperature
rises beyond the safe limit. In order to limit the maximum junction temperature, the
permissible average forward current has to be lowered with decrease in conduction
angle. The manufacturers usually provide the data sheet that shows the forward
average current variation with respect to the case temperature. As an example the
current waveform formed from the positive half cycle for different conduction angles is
shown in below.

2. RMS ON-state Current ITRMS

This is the maximum repetitive RMS current specified at a maximum junction
temperature that can flow through the SCR. For a direct current, both RMS and average
currents are same. However, this rating is important for SCRs subject to low duty
waveforms with peak currents. And also this rating is required to prevent excessive
heating in leads, metallic joints and interfaces of SCR .

3. Surge Current Rating ITSM

It specifies the maximum non-repetitive or surge current that the SCR can
withstand for a limited number of times during its life span. The manufacturers specify
the surge rating to accommodate the abnormal conditions of SCR due to short circuits
and faults. If the peak amplitude and the number of cycles of the surge current are
exceeded, the SCR may get damaged.

4. I2t Rating
This rating is used to determine the thermal energy absorption of the device. This
rating is required in the choice of a fuse or other protective equipments employed for the
SCR. This is the measure of the thermal energy that the SCR can absorb for a short
period of time before clearing the fault by the fuse. It is the time integral of the square of
the maximum instantaneous current. For a reliable protection of SCR by the fuse or
other protective equipment, the I2t rating of the fuse (or any other protective equipment)
must be less than the I2t rating of the SCR.

5. di/dt Rating
It is the maximum allowable rate of rise of anode to cathode current without any
damage or harm to an SCR. If the rate of rise of anode current is very rapid compared
to the spreading velocity of the charge carriers, local hot spots are created due to
concentration of carriers (on account of high current density) in the restricted area of the
junctions. This raises the junction temperature above the safe limit and hence the SCR
may be damaged. Therefore, for all SCRs the maximum allowable di/dt rating specified
in order to protect the SCR. It is specified in amperes/microseconds and typically it lies
in the range 50 to 800 ampere/microseconds.

6. Latching Current IL
It is the minimum ON state current required to maintain the SCR in ON state after
gate drive has been removed. After turning ON of the SCR, the anode current must be
allowed to build up such that the latching current is attained before the gate pulse is
removed. Otherwise the SCR will be turned OFF if the gate signal is removed.

7. Holding Current IH
This is the minimum value of the anode current below which SCR stops
conducting and turns OFF. The holding current is associated with turn OFF process and
usually it is a very small value in the range of mill amperes.

8. Gate Current IG
As the gate current is more, earlier will be the turn ON of the SCR and viceversa. However, safety limits must be provided for gate by specifying maximum and
minimum gate currents. For controlling the SCR, gate current is applied to the gate
terminal. This gate current is divided into two types; minimum gate current I Gmin and
maximum gate current IGmax. The minimum gate current IGmin is the current required by
the gate terminal to turn ON the SCR where as IGmax is the maximum current that can be
applied safely to the gate. Between these two limits the conduction angle of the SCR is
controlled.

Temperature Rating of SCR

The forward and reverse blocking capability of the SCR is determined by junction
temperature Tj. If the maximum junction temperature is exceeded, the SCR will be
driven to conduction state even without any gate signal. This upper limit of T j is imposed
by considering the temperature dependence on break over voltage, thermal stability and
turn OFF time. And also an upper storage temperature limit Ts is also required to limit
thermal stresses on silicon crystal, lead attachments and encapsulating epoxy. Excess
of these two temperature limits may cause unreliable operation of an SCR. In some
cases, upper storage temperature limit is higher than the operating temperature limit of
an SCR.

Power Ratings of SCR

The power dissipation in the SCR produces a temperature rise in the junction
regions. The dissipation of power in the SCR includes forward power dissipation; turn
ON and OFF losses and gate power dissipation.

Turn ON and Turn OFF Time Ratings

The turn ON time is the time interval between the instant at which the gate signal
is applied and the instant at which the ON-state current reaches 90 percent of its final
value. Shorter will be the turn ON time if the gate drive is increased. This turn ON time
is valid only for resistive load because the rate of rise of anode current is slow in
inductive load. Therefore, the turn ON time does not indicate the time in which the
device stays ON if the gate signal is removed. And if the load is resistive, turn ON time
surely, indicates the time interval in which the SCR stays ON even the gate is removed.
Turn OFF time is the time interval between the instant at which the anode current
goes zero or negative and the instant positive voltage is reapplied to the SCR. For fast
switching SCRs both turn ON and OFF time values are very low .

Gate characteristics of SCR:

Gate characteristic of thyristor or SCR gives us a brief idea to operate it within a
safe region of applied gate voltage and current. So this is a very important characteristic
regarding thyristor. At the time of manufacturing each SCR or thyristor is specified with
the maximum gate voltage limit (Vg-max), gate current limit (Ig-max) and maximum average
gate power dissipation limit (Pgav). These limits should not be exceeded to protect the
SCR from damage and there is also a specified minimum voltage (V g-min) and minimum
current (Ig-min) for proper operation of thyristor.

A
gate non triggering voltage (Vng) is also mentioned at the time of manufacturing of the
device.
All noises and unwanted signals should lie under this voltage to avoid unwanted
turn on of the thyristor.

Curve 1 represents the lowest voltage values that must be applied to turn on the
SCR and curve 2 represents the highest values of the voltage that can safely applied.
So from the figure we can see the safety operated area of SCR is bcdefghb.
Now, from the triggering circuit,
we get, Es = Vg + IgRs
Where, Es = gate source voltage
Vg = gate cathode voltage
Ig = gate current
Rs = gate source resistance
A load line of gate source voltage is drawn as AD where OA = E s and OD = Es/Rs
which is trigger circuit short circuit current. Now, let a VI characteristic of gate circuit is
given by curve 3. The intersection point of load line (AD) and curve 3 is called as
operating point S. It is evident that S must lie between S 1 and S2 on the load line. For
decreasing the turn ON time and to avoid unwanted turn ON of the device, operating
point should be as close to Pgav as possible. Slop of AD = source resistance Rs.
Minimum amount of Rs can be determined by drawing a tangent to the P gav curve from
the point A.

How an SCR functions as a switch ?

Thyristor Circuit Symbol

We have seen that SCR operates either in on-state or in off-state and no other state in
between, that is SCR behaves like a mechanical switch. As such it is called electronic
switch.

An SCR has following advantages over a mechanical switch or electromechanical relay:

1.

Noiseless operation owing to absence of moving parts.

2.

Very high switching speed (say 109 operations per second).

3.

High efficiency.

4.

Low maintenance.

5.

Small size and trouble free service for long period.

6.

Large control current range (say from 30 A to 100 A) with small gate current of few mA.

7.

Long life as no wear and tear is involved.

However, SCR suffers from the following drawbacks:

1.

Cut-off current is not exactly zero.

2.

There is some voltage drop across SCR when in on-state; hence there is some wastage
of power.

3.

It is more costly and need more care in handling.

MOS-Controlled Thyristor(MCT):
Out of many semiconductor controlled devices, MCT is considered to be the
latest. The device is basically a thyristor with two MOSFETs built into the gate structure.
A MOSFET is used for turning ON the MCT and another one is used for turning it OFF.
The device is mostly used for switching applications and has other characteristics like
high frequency, high power, and low conduction drop and so on. An MCT combines the
feature of both conventional four layer thyristor having regenerative action and MOSgate structure. In this device, all the gate signals are applied with respect to anode,
which is kept as the reference. In a normally used SCR, cathode is kept as the
reference terminal for gate signals.
The basic structure of an MCT cell is shown in the figure below.

MOS Controlled Thyristor (MCT) Structure

In practice, a MCT will include thousands of these basic cells connected in

parallel, just like a PMOSFET. This helps in obtaining a high current carrying capacity
for the device.

The equivalent circuit of the MCT is shown in the figure below.

MOS Controlled Thyristor (MCT) Equivalent Circuit

It consists of an ON-FET, an OFF-FET and two transistors. The MOS structure of

the MCT is represented in the equivalent circuit. It consists of one ON-FET, a p-channel
MOSFET, and an OFF-FET. Both n-p-n and p-n-p transistors are joined together to
represent the n-p-n-p structure of MCT. An n-channel MOSFET is represented by
drawing the arrow towards the gate terminal. A p-channel MOSFET is indicated by
drawing the arrow away from the gate terminal. The two transistors in the equivalent
circuit indicate that there is regenerative feedback in the MCT just as it is an ordinary
thyristor. The circuit symbol of MCT is shown below.

MOS-Controlled Thyristor (MCT) Circuit Symbol

Turning ON Process

The device is turned ON by a negative voltage pulse at the gate with respect to the
anode. For turning ON MCT, gate is made negative with respect to anode by the voltage
pulse between gate and anode. So, MCT must be initially forward biased, and then only
a negative voltage be applied. With the application of this negative voltage pulse, ONFET gets turned ON whereas OFF-FET is already OFF. With ON-FET ON, current
begins to flow from anode A, through ON-FET and then as the base current and emitter
of n-p-n transistor and then to cathode K. This turns on n-p-n transistor. This causes the
collector current to flow in n-p-n transistor. As OFF FET is OFF, this collector current of
npn transistor acts as the base current of p-n-p transistor. Subsequently, p-n-p transistor
is also turned ON. If both the transistors are ON, regenerative action of the connection
scheme takes place and the MCT is turned ON.

Turning OFF process

The device is turned OFF by applying a positive voltage pulse at the gate. The
positive voltage pulse causes the OFF-FET to turn ON and ON-FET to turn OFF. After
OFF-FET is turned ON, emitter based terminals of p-n-p transistor are short circuited by
OFF-FET. So, now anode current begins to flow through OFF-FET and thus base
current of p-n-p transistor begins to decrease. The device has the disadvantage of
reverse voltage blocking capability.
The VI characteristics of MCT are shown below.

Advantages of MCT
1.

Low forward conduction drop

2.

Fast TURN-ON and then OFF times

3.

Low switching losses

4.

High gate input impedance

Power BJT
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three terminal, three layer, two junction
semiconductor device. Emitter(E), Base(B) and Collector(C) are the three terminals of
the device.
Symbol: The symbol of the Power BJT is same as signal level transistor.

Structure:
The construction of the Power Transistor is different from the signal transistor as shown
in the following figure. The n- layer is added in the power BJT which is known as drift
region.

A Power BJT has a four layer structure of alternating P

and N type doping as shown in above npn transistor.

It has three terminals labeled as Collector, Base,

Emitter.

In most of Power Electronic applications, the Power

Transistor works in Common Emitter configuration.

ie, Base is the input terminal, the Collector is the

output terminal and the Emitter is common between
input and output.

In power switches npn transistors are most widely used

than pnp transistors.

The characteristics of the device is determined by the

doping level in each of the layers and the thickness of
the layers.

The thickness of the dirft region determines the

breakdown voltage of the Power transistor.

VI Characteristics:

The VI characteristics of the Power BJT is different

from signal level transistor.

The major differences are Quasi saturation region &

secondary breakdown region.

The Quasi saturation region is available only in Power

transistor characteristic not in signal transistors. It is
because of the lightly doped collector drift region
present in Power BJT.

The primary breakdown is similar to the signal

transistor's avalanche breakdown.

Operation

of

device

at

primary

and

secondary

breakdown regions should be avoided as it will lead to

the catastrophic failure of the device.

Unijunction Transistor:
UJT cannot be used to amplify a signal but instead, it is used as an ON-OFF
switching transistor. UJTs have unidirectional conductivity and negative impedance
characteristics acting more like a variable voltage divider during breakdown . The
symbol, construction and equivalent circuit of UJT is shown in fig

From the equivalent circuit, the voltage across the resistor R B1 is given by

VRB1 = VBB (always <1)

the diode D is forward biased only when the anode voltage is greater than
cathode voltage.

the VI characteristics of Unijunction Transistor is shown in fig

UJT can be used in gate pulse, timing circuits and trigger generator applications
to switch and control either thyristors or TRIACs for AC power control type applications.

SCR circuit triggered by UJT

When a voltage (Vs) is firstly applied, the unijunction transistor is OFF and the
capacitor C1 begins to charge up exponentially through resistorR3. As the Emitter of
the UJT is connected to the capacitor, when the charging voltage Vc across the
capacitor becomes greater than the diode volt drop value, the p-n junction behaves as a
normal diode and becomes forward biased triggering the UJT into conduction. The
unijunction transistor is ON. At this point the Emitter to B1 impedance collapses as the
Emitter goes into a low impedance saturated state with the flow of Emitter current
through R1 taking place.
As the ohmic value of resistor R1 is very low, the capacitor discharges rapidly
through the UJT and a fast rising voltage pulse appears across R1. Also, because the
capacitor discharges more quickly through the UJT than it does charging up through
resistor R3, the discharging time is a lot less than the charging time as the capacitor
discharges through the low resistance UJT.

When the voltage across the capacitor decreases below the holding point of the
p-n junction ( VOFF ), the UJT turns OFF and no current flows into the Emitter junction
so once again the capacitor charges up through resistor R3 and this charging and
discharging process between VON and VOFF is constantly repeated while there is a supply
voltage, Vs applied. The voltage across the R1 (which is used to trigger the SCR) is
shown in the fig
.

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor(IGBT):

BJTs have lower conduction losses in on state condition, but have longer turn off
time. MOSFETs have higher on state conduction losses and have lower turn on and turn
off times. The combination of BJT and MOSFET monolithically leads to a new device
called Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT).
The IGBT is suitable for many applications in power electronics, especially in
Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) servo and three-phase drives requiring high dynamic
range control and low noise. It also can be used in Uninterruptible Power Supplies
(UPS), Switched-Mode Power Supplies (SMPS)
Basic Structure The basic schematic of a typical N-channel IGBT based upon the
DMOS process is shown in Figure 1. This is one of several structures possible for this
device. It is evident that the silicon cross-section of an IGBT is almost identical to that of
a vertical Power MOSFET except for the P+ injecting layer. It shares similar MOS gate

structure and P wells with N+ source regions. The N+ layer at the top is the source or
emitter and the P+ layer at the bottom is the drain or collector. It is also feasible to make
P-channel IGBTs and for which the doping profile in each layer will be reversed. IGBT
has a parasitic thyristor comprising the four-layer NPNP structure. Turn-on of this
thyristor is undesirable.

Some IGBTs, manufactured without the N+ buffer layer, are called non-punch
through (NPT) IGBTs whereas those with this layer are called punch-through (PT)
IGBTs. The presence of this buffer layer can significantly improve the performance of
the device if the doping level and thickness of this layer are chosen appropriately.
Despite physical similarities, the operation of an IGBT is closer to that of a power BJT
than a power MOSFET. It is due to the P+ drain layer (injecting layer) which is
responsible for the minority carrier injection into the N- -drift region and the resulting
conductivity modulation. The equivalent circuit and symbols for IGBT are shown in fig

Equivalent circuit of IGBT

IGBT

V-I Characteristics of IGBT:

Fig
(a) shows the drain characteristics of IGBT which gives the relation
between drain current and drain-source voltage.

The Drain characteristics curves

are drawn for different values of
VGS.

When VGS > VGS(threshold) the IGBT

turns-On.

By keeping VGS constant, the value

of VDS is varied and corresponding
values of ID is noted down.

As shown, the V-I characteristics of

IGBT is similar to BJT

(a) Drain Characteristics

Fig

(b) shows the transfer characteristics of IGBT which gives the relation

between drain current and gate-source voltage

(b) Transfer
characteristics

Asymmetrical SCR (ASCR)

The transfer characteristics of IGBT

and MOSFET are similar.
The IGBT is in the Off-state if the
gate-emitter potential (VGE) is below
the threshold voltage(VGE(threshold)).
For gate voltages greater than the
threshold voltage, the transfer curve is
linear.
The maximum drain current is limit
by the maximum gate-emitter voltage