Beowulf : Introductory Notes

I. The Historical Timeline: From Celtic Britannia to Anglo-Saxon England

---3rd to 2nd millennium BC: Celtic Britain Hallstatt & La Tene Celts migrate to the Isles and
supplant the indigenous Cruithne (aka Picts, the Painted Ones); Celts become the dominant
culture of the Isles
--c. 55 BC: Caesars reconnaissance in force in Britannia
--73 A.D. Emperor Claudius orders the invasion and colonization of Britannia
c. 75 A.D. to 400 A.D.: Britain is part of the Roman Imperium; 3-5 Legions are stationed in Britain;
Roman Empire collapses circa 456 A.D. ; Legions stationed in Britannia ordered to Rome; Britannia
is left defenseless and unprepared.
- 5th century, early 6th century A.D. : Desperation in Germaniaa legacy of imperial treachery
against the Germanic tribes--weather, hunger, and Huns--Angles, Frisians, Jutes, Saxons hire out as
mercenaries;
-- Power vacuum in Brittania-- Vortigern, British king vying for complete control of Britannia as
Rigotamus, hires Germanic mercenaries to fight on his behalf-- Vortigern double crosses the
Germanic warriors who fought and died for him; Anglo-Saxon leaders Hengest and Horsa plan the
Germanic invasion/colonization of Britain
--The Germanic warriors and their families (Pagans and primarily from the tribes of Angles,
Saxons, Frisians and Jutes) under their own pressures on the Continent, invade Britannia en masse.
The established and indigenous cultures of Brittania (Christian Celts, Pagan Celts, Romans,
Cruithne) are threatened with annihilation--many Britons exodus to Brittany---c. 520: Britons rally under dux bellorum, aka Arthur; further Germanic incursion is halted; (520
A.D. is also the historical date for the actual Geat raid on the Rhine as mentioned in Beowulf)
--6th-7th centuries: Anglo-Saxons consolidate kingdoms in England; chaos and confusion ensue over
the religions of the Anglo-Saxons: some remain Pagan, some convert to the orthodox Roman
version of Christianity, others belong to the unorthodox Celtic Christian Church based in Iona.
Orthodox Roman Christians and Pagan Anglo-Saxons clash over beliefs--the bigots vs. the
heathens; Anglo-Saxon kings decide that there must be one creed for all Angle-ish.
--c.660 A.D. Whitby Monastery and the Synod of Whitby become ground zero for the clash
between creeds; the conflict and decision at Whitby determines the future religion--and to a large
extent the future direction-- of England. Pope Gregory : Graft the Christian Tree onto the Pagan
Stump: Eostre and Yule. Beowulf : the Christian overlay on a much older Pagan story.
--late 7th to early 8th century A.D.: Beowulf the first English national epic is written down.
II. The Epic Form of Beowulf
1. Salient Features and Characteristics of the Epic Form:
--an epic is a long narrative poem (narrative from Greek gnarus knowing) that told a defining
story, a sacred myth of a particular culture; the epic (Greek epicus song )was initially
spoken/sung/chanted by the Singer of Tales, The Maker, the Scop or Bard, and then, usually
generations later, was written down in poetic form .

--the epic focuses on the recapitulation or recounting of the defining moments/experiences of a

tribe or culture: its
birth/death, its finest hour, its quintessential events; frequently the epic begins in media res.
--the tone is elegiac (tone is the attitude of the Scop towards the story and towards his audience);
the tone is exalted and dignified, much like an elegy delivered at the funeral of a beloved dignitary
--the characters are larger than life in their qualities and deeds; none of the characters are
average
--the themes of an epic are always complex in nature and frequently involve some form of paradox;
frequently the paradox involves the ideas of arte and hamartia and the concept of enantiadromia
--Divinities and Divine Powers are involved in the epic and in the life/death of the hero
--Since epics were originally sung from memory, almost all epics contain vestiges of ancient oral
and mnemonic techniques called the oral-formulaic tradition.
II. 2: The Oral-Formulaic Characteristics in Beowulf
All epics were originally sung or recited from memory. The Anglo-Saxon poet--the Scop--originally
chanted Beowulf from memory; many of the traits of the written epic are thus strongly connected
to its earlier performance from memory. These traits represent elements of the Oral-Formulaic
tradition.
The literal/written epic contains many of the traits of the oral-formulaic method:
--measured poetic line
--Elaborate comparisons called epic similes
--catalogues, i.e., long lists of people, ancestors, etc.
--genealogy
--use of variant names
--digressions (stories within the story)
--beot (elaborate boasting on the part of various characters in the story, sometimes fueled by
alcohol)
--flyting (a favorite entertainment of Germanic warriors) a contest of exchanging verbal insults
--Weaponry described in great detail
--elaborate battle scenes
--Gnomic commentary by the Scop who interjects himself into the story
--Kennings, elaborate and imaginative descriptors
--Gothic humor, litotes, understatement and dark humor
III. Defining Traits of the Epic Hero

1. The hero is frequently introduced in the midst of turmoil, at a point well into the story;
antecedent action will be recounted in flashbacks.
2. The hero is not only a warrior and a leader, but also a polished speaker who can address councils
of chieftains or elders with eloquence and confidence.
3. The hero often possesses distinctive and magical weapons, often heirlooms or presents from the
gods.

4. The hero must undertake a long, perilous journey, a Quest, often involving a descent into the
Underworld (Greek, "Nekyia"), which tests his endurance, courage, and cunning.
5. Although his associates, his retainers, may be great warriors in his comitatus ( group of noble
followers), the epic hero undertakes the task that no one else dares to attempt.
6. Whatever virtues his culture most prizes, the epic hero, as a cultural exemplar, possesses in
abundance.
7. The concept of arte (Greek, virtue in perfection") is crucial to understanding the epic
protagonist; quite often the arte of the epic hero is also his hamartia (fatal flaw); frequently the
fatal flaw is connected to egotism, pride and is referred to as hubris
8. The hero establishes his aristeia (nobility) and his honor through single combat with heroes like
himself or adversaries of superhuman power.
9. The hero's epic adversary is often a "god-despiser," one who has more respect for his abilities
than for the power of the gods. The adversary might also be one sponsored by lesser deities, or one
whom the gods desert at a crucial moment.
10. The hero may encounter numinous and paranormal phenomena (places, situations, or persons
having a divine or supernatural force) such as a haunted wood or enchanting sorceress that he
must use strength, cunning, and divine assistance to overcome.

IV. The Germanic Pagan Tradition in Beowulf

Beowulf is the written and Christianized version of a much older pre-Christian, Pagan and oralformulaic story. Consequently, the Pagan elements of the story are still present, perhaps in a much
attenuated form. Here are some of the salient Germanic Pagan elements alluded to in the poem:
--Allusions to the Cult of the Berserkers:Beo-wulf (Wolf to Honey bees) a kenning for Bear; the
battle frenzy; the bear grip
--Tribal organization: the comitatus, the Witanagemot, social structure (eorls, thyles, thanes );
loyalty, largesse and lof
--the Scop , Shaper : connections with Odin; the poet who discerns the patterns in the apparent
chaos
--Anglo-Saxon justice: the wergild; the requisite blood feud and its dramatic irony; honor-bound
retaliation and its inherent paradox
--Pagan gods and Pagan rituals: Ing, Freya, Shield of Sheaf , Beow, the All-Father and the Lady with
the Cup of Mead; casting the runes; the ship funeral; cremation outlawed in Christendom
--Principles of Shamanism: the Web of Wyrd; Monsters of the marches; the Shamans Journey to the
Otherworld
--Pagan Precepts Concerning Middengeard ( Middle-Earth) : the ephemeral nature of

Middle-Earth and the ubi sunt theme; Middengeard, the battleground between Good and Evil; the
Aesir vs the Vanir; the illusory nature of Middle-Earth; Fire & Ice and the cycle of Creation and
Ragnarok

V. Recommended Movies and Music

V.1. The Movies:
--The Thirteenth Warrior
--Outlander
V.2. The Music
--Sequentia
--Hedningarna
--Wolfenmond
--Ulfethnar
--Kalenda Maya
--Krauka
--Baren Gasslin
--Gjallarhorn