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Communication Systems

1. Amplitude Modulation
01.
Sol: Given
IC = 10A
IT = 12A
Where IC & IT are the antenna currents
before and after amplitude modulation
respectively .

2
Total power is given by PT = PC 1
2

2
PT = I T R
PC = IC2R
2
2
2
IT R = IC R 1

0 .6
0.12 V-1
5
Where ka is the amplitude sensitivity
Given AC cos C t
= 50cos 104 t
Am cos mt
= 5 cos 200 t
s(t) = 50[1+0.6 cos 200 t] cos 104t

Ka =

F.T of s(t)
S(f) = F.T [Accos ct (1+ cos mt)]
=

A
+ C ( C m )
4

Where is the modulation index


2

IT

1
2
IC

I 2
2
= 2 T 1
I C

12 2
= 2 1
10

12 2 10 2
=2

2
10

0.938
Percentage Modulation = 93.80%
2

02.
Sol: Given modulation index = 0.6
For an AM signal the standard equation is
s(t) = AC 1 cos m t Cos ct
Where
KaAm = = 0.6, Am = 5 (given)
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AC
c c
2

A C
( C m )
4

A C
( ( C m )
4

A C

( ( C m )
4

PT = PC(1+2/2)
2

A
50 2
PC = C
2
2

PT =

50 2
2

0 .6
1 2
2

PT = 1475W
PC 2 50 2 0.6 2
PSB =

2
2
2

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: 212 :

Postal Coaching Solutions

PSB = 225W
(2) Given
225
PUSB = PLSB =
=112.5W
2

R = 3.64 M
04.

Sol:

2
2
PC (1 )
2

Given modulation index = 1

0 .6 2
=
= 0.1525
0 .6 2 2
% efficiency = 15.25%
03.
Sol: (1) Given equation is
15[1 + 0.4cos 210 3 t ][cos 210 6 t ] --- (1)
m 2 10 3 rad/s
c 2 10 6 rad/s
Where m & c are message & carrier
frequencies respectively 0.4 ; AC = 15 V
For a envelope detector
RC

RC = 364.67 sec

PSB
PT
PC

C = 100pF

1 2
m

PT = Pc + PSB
PT = PC(1+ 2/2)
For = 1
PT = 3/2 PC -------- (1)
Where PT is the total power transmitted and
PC is the carrier power
PSB = PC / 2
PUSB = PC / 4 ---------- (2)
From (1) & (2) we get
PUSB = PLSB =

2 / 3PT
4

RC =

PUSB = PT / 6

1 2
---- (2)
m
Substituting values in (2) we get

PUSB = PLSB =

1 0 .4 2

0.4 2 10 3

PT
6

Thus at = 1 the power in sidebands is 1/6th


of the total power transmitted.

364.67 sec
= 364.67 sec
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: 213 :

05.
Sol: Modulation Index = 3
Side frequencies
fc fm = 4.914 MHz
fc + fm = 4.928 MHz
2fc = 9.842
fc = 4.921 MHz
fm = 7 10-3 MHz
fm = 7 kHz
Amplitude of each side band=
A c
75V (given)
2
A
75
C
2
3
AC = 50 V &
fC = 4.921 MHz

Communication Systems

Comparing (1) & (3) we have


AC = 30
A C
6
2
12
=
= 0.4
30
c = 400
c m = 360

c + m = 440
c = 400 rad/s
2 m = 80
m = 40 rad/s

06:
Sol: Refer Communication Systems Theory
Booklet
07.
Sol:

Given signal is x(t) = 30 cos 2 200t


+ 6 cos 2(180t)
+ 6 cos 2(220t) ------ (1)
The standard equation of single tone AM
system is
x(t) = AC (cos Ct)
[1+ cos m t ] ------ (2)
Equation (2) can be modified as
A C

A C cos C t 2 cos (C m ) t
x(t) =
----(3)
A C cos( ) t

C
m
2

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PSB
2
0 .4 2
= 2
=
PT
2 2 0 .4 2
7.407 %

08.
Sol: Refer IES - 15 Previous Conventional
paper II solution book, Page number:
312, Q: 04
09.
Sol: Time domain equation for single tone AM
signal can be written as
SAM(t) = AC[1+cos2fmt] cos2fct
A
= Accos2fct + c cos2(fc + fm)t
2
(Carrier)
(USB)
A c
cos2(fc fm)t
2
(LSB)
A2
Carrier power Pc c
2R
Sideband power

A c

A c2 2
2 2

PUSB =
R
8R

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: 214 :

10.
Sol: Square law modulator is a Non linear
modulation of AM generation. A simple
Diode can be used as a non-linear modulator
by restricting its operation to non-linear
region of its characteristics. The undesired
frequency terms are filtered out by a band
pass filter.

A c

2 2
2 2 Ac

PLSB =
R
8R
PT PC PUSB PLSB

A C2 A C2 2 A C2 2

2R
8R
8R

A C2 A C2 2 A C2 A C2 2

;(R=1)
2R
4R
2
4

for


1 2

PT = PC

AM
signal
V2

BPF
V0

Accos2fct
(Carrier)

m(t) represents message signal


Ac cos2fct represents carrier signal
= carrier power + sideband
The total input to the non linear system
[m(t) + A c cos 2f c t ] is kept so small that
the system operates in a non linear region of
its V-I characteristics.

power

2
P
2
Efficiency() = SB
PT
2
PC 1
2

PC

2
2 2

If 80% modulation is used, then the ratio of


the total sideband power to the total power
in the modulating signal is

PSB
2
0 .8 2

0.2424
PT 2 2 2 0.82

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V1

Non
Linear
System

PC 2
2

Total power

2
PT PC 1
2

Block diagram:
m(t)

normalized power)
2
C

Postal Coaching Solutions

Thus this method is very useful only for


small signal amplitude modulation. Input
voltage is given to the non linear system
v1 = m(t) + Accos2fct
The
non
linear
characteristics
is
mathematically by a power series.
Neglecting the terms higher than the second
order.
Then the output voltage is related as
V2 = aV1 + bV12
V2 = a[m(t) + Accos2fct]
+ b[m(t) + Accos2fct]2

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: 215 :

For = 1 = 1/3

= am(t) + aAccos2fct + bm2(t)

% = 33.33%

+ bAc2cos22fct + 2bm(t)Accos2fct
The expansion of this equation provides the
presence of a number of frequency
components, such as fc, 2fc, fm , 2fm, (fc
fm), (fc 2fm) and so on. All those
components, except the desired ones i.e.
fc and fc fm are filtered by a band pass filter
tuned to fc.

Thus for single tone AM (with modulation


index = 1) the efficiency is 33.33%
12.
Sol: The amplitude of a carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous values of
the modulating signal is called amplitude
modulation.

So aAccos2fct + 2bAcm(t)cos2fct
= Ac[a + m(t)2b]cos2fct
= aA c (1

Modulation index:
The ratio of change in amplitude of
modulating signal to the amplitude of carrier
wave is known as modulation index or
modulation factor or modulation coefficient
or depth of modulation or degree of
modulation.

2b
m( t )) cos 2f c t
a

The above equation represents an AM signal


Here

2b
K = amplitude sensitivity
a

If Am is greater than Ac then distortion is


introduced into the system.
The modulating signal voltage Am must be
less than carrier signal voltage Ac for proper
amplitude modulation.
It varies between 0 and 1.

AM total spectrum:
Band pass
filter
characterist
ic
-2fc -fc+fm-fc -fc-fm -2fm-fm 0

Communication Systems

fm2fm fc-fm fc fc+fm 2fc

Let the carrier signal c(t) = Ac cos ct


Modulating signal m(t) = Am cos mt

Condition for square law modulation fc > 3fm

The ratio
11.
Sol:

Am
Ac

is defined as modulation

index (m)
From the derivation carried out in question
number 09 ,
2
PC
P
2
Efficiency() = SB
PT
2

PC 1
2

2
2 2

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(i)

The equation for the amplitude in the AM


signal is
A A c A m cos m t
s( t ) A c (1

Am
cos m t ) cos c t
Ac

(ii) The instantaneous voltage of AM wave is


Vi = V cosct
Vi = Vc [1+mcosmt] cosct

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Representation of AM
+
V
c

+V

Vc+Vm sin mt
Vm

Vmin

Vm

Vmax

Postal Coaching Solutions

(iii) Derivation of modulation index (m)


From the above figure
V Vmin
Vm = max
2
Vc = Vmax Vm

V Vmin
= Vmax max

V
(Vc+Vm sin mt)

Vc =

13.
Sol: The amplitude of a carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous values of
the modulating signal is called amplitude
modulation.
(i)

+
Vm
Vm

Vmax
t

V
(Vc+Vm sin mt)

75
0.75
100

512.48 W

14.
Sol: Given:
Carrier current (IC) = 8A
Total AM transmitter current (IT) = 9A

Representation of AM

Vmin

Vmax Vmin
Vmax Vmin

Pt PC 1
2

0.752
4001
2

A
v( t ) A c (1 m cos m t ) cos c t
Ac
(ii) The instantaneous voltage of AM wave is
Vi = V cosct
Vi = Vc [1+mcosmt] cosct

+V

Vm Vmax Vmin /2

Vc Vmax Vmin /2

Modulation index = 75%

A A c A m cos m t

Vc+Vm sin mt

m=

(iv) Pc = 400 W

The equation for the amplitude in the AM


signal is

Vc

Vmax Vmin
2

IT = I C 1

2
2

9 8 1

2
2

2
1.2656 2 0.5184 0.72
2
When = 0.77
1

IT = 8

0.77
1

= 8 1 0.2964 =

IT = 9.108 A
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Communication Systems

15. Sol:
Given Carrier signal ec = Ec sin ct
Em
E
E
sin 2 m t m sin 3 m t m sin 4 m t
2
3
4
AM signal can be represented as e E C 1 K a e m sin c t
where Ac = EC(1 + Ka em) (Carrier Amplitude)
Amplitude can be written as
E K
E K
E K
A E C [1 E m K a sin m t m a sin 2 m t m a sin 3 m m a sin 4 m t
2
3
4

E C 1 sin m t sin 2 m t sin 3 m t sin 4 m t


2
3
4

where modulation index K a E m


Now e = Ac Sinct

e E C 1 sin m t sin 2 m t sin 3 m t sin 4 m t sin c t


2
3
4

E
E

E
EC.sinc t EC sinmt.sinc t C sin2mt sinc t C sin 3 m t. sin c t C sin 4 m t sin c t
2
3
4

E
e E C sin c t C cos m c t cos m c t
2
E C
cos2 m c t cos2 m c t E C cos3 m c t cos3 m c t

4
6
E C
cos4 m c t cos4 m c t

8
From the above expression, it is clear that for every modulating frequency component, the AM
wave contains two sideband frequencies in addition to the carrier i.e., the AM wave contains the
frequency components C, C + m, C m, C + 2m, C 2m, C + 3m, C 3m, C + 4m,
C 4m,
S(f)

Modulating signal e m E m sin m t

EC

Amplitude of each
frequency component

1
E C
2
1
E C
4
1
E C
6
1
E C
8

4fm +fc 3fm +fc 2fm +fc

fm +fc

fc

fc +fm

fc +2fm

fc +3fm

fc +4fm

Frequency spectrum
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: 218 :

Postal Coaching Solutions

The value of composite modulation index is t 12 22 32 24


1 = , 2= /2, 3 = /3, 4 = /4

1 1 1

1.19
c 1
4 9 16
2 3 4
2

2. Sideband
Modulation Techniques

16.
Sol: Given:
Carrier power = 10kW
Carrier current IC = 10A
Antenna current IT =11A
Total current I T I C

2
1
2

2
2 11
11 10 1
1

2
2 10
Percentage modulation = 0.64
When the total current increased to 12A
2

It I C 1
12 10

12 22

2
2

0.642
1
2

cos c t cos(i t ) sin(i t ) sin c t


is of form cosA cosB sinA sinB
using the relation
cos (A+B) = cos(A) cos(B) sin(A) sin(B)
i 1

2 0.68 5
22
0.682
10 1
2
2
11.09Amp

It I C 1

2 2
Total radiated power Pt Pc 1 1 2
2
2

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i 1

V(t)= (cos( c t i t ))

0.642 22
12
1
2
2
10

cos t cos( t ) sin ( t ) sin t

2
2
2

0.68 2
0.64

101

2
2

Pt = 14.44 kW

DSB:
01
Sol :
V(t)=

The above signal is a multitone SSB signal


(USB), which has frequencies
c + 1 , c + 2 . c + n , i.e.
it has component having frequencies greater
than carrier frequencies.
It is a USB
Expression for LSB
VLSB(t) =
n

[cos t cos( t ) sin t sin( t )]


i 1

VLSB(t) =

(cos( t t ))
i 1

V(t) = VLSB(t) + VUSB(t)

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(cos( c t i t ) (cos( c t i t ))

04.
Sol:
Refer IES - 15 Previous Conventional
paper II solution book, Page number:
310, Question number: 03

i 1

2 cos c t cosi t i
i1

03.
Sol:
(i):
We cannot detect DSBSC signal using an
envelope detector
(ii)

05.
Sol: Coherent Detection or Synchronous
Detection
Let a modulated signal reaching the receiver
signal be f(t) cosct. Assuming , a locally
generated signal with frequency and phase
error equal to f and respectively,

m(t) = cos100t + 2cos300t


c(t) = Accos( c t )
Given c = 1000 rad/s
m(t)c(t) = Accos( c t )(cos100t + 2cos300t)
= Accos(1000t)(cos100t + 2cos300t)
= Ac[cos(1000t)cos100t +2cos(1000t)cos300t]
A
c cos900t cos1100t 2cos1300t 2cos700t
2
A
A
c cos900t c cos1100t
2
2
2A c
2A c
cos1300t
cos700t
2
2
A
A
c cos900t c cos1100t
2
2
A c cos1300t A c cos700t
x(t) = x LSB (t) + x USB (t)
A
A c cos700t c cos900t
2
A
A c cos1300t c cos1100t
2
A
x LSB (t) = Ac cos700t + c cos900t
2
A
x USB (t) = A c cos1300t c cos1100t
2
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Communication Systems

s(t)

DSB
signal

v1
Multiplier

v2
LPF

Ac cos 2fct
Oscillator
Fig: coherent detector

s(t) = Ac cos (2fc t) m(t)


1(t) = Ac2 cos2 (2fc t) m(t)
1 cos 4 f c t
A c2
m(t)
2

A c2
[1 cos 4 f c t ] m(t)
2
A c2
v 2 (t)
m(t)
2

v1 (t)

If the locally generated carrier is not in


phase with the incoming signal then,
v1(t) = Ac cos 2fct m(t) . Ac cos (2fct + )
= Ac2 m(t) cos 2fc t cos (2fc t + )

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A 2 m( t )
v1 (t ) c
[cos cos(4f c t )]
2
A2
V2 ( t ) C m( t ). cos
2
A c2 m(t)
If 0 v 2 (t)
2
information is not lost
1
if 90 0 v 2 ( t ) cos (90 ) 0
2
information is lost
The detected output is zero when
=900. This is called Quadrature null
effect, because signal is zero when the
local carrier is in phase Quadrature with
the transmitted carrier.

Postal Coaching Solutions

Hence b aK2 = 0 b = aK2


b
Gain (K) =
a

SSB & VSB


01.
Sol: Given f m1 100Hz ; f m 2 200Hz ;
f m 3 400Hz ; f c 100kHz .
Standard equation of an SSB signal is
X(t)
n

A (cos c t cos( i t ) sin c t sin i t )


i 1

06.
Sol:

X(t) =A1 (cos(2f c t ) cos(2f i t )

From the block diagram


V1 = K [m(t)Acosct]

i 1

sin( 2f c t ) sin( 2f i t ))
X(t) is applied to coherent detector.

V2 = m(t) + Acosct
V0 = a V12 bV22
=a[K(m(t)Acosct)]2+b[m(t)+Acosct]2

m(t) = Am cosmt

SSB modulator

= aK m (t) aK A cos ct
2

+2aAKm(t)cosct +bm2(t) +bA2cos2ct


+2bm(t)Acosct
= m2(t)[baK2] +2Acosctm(t) [b+aK]
+A2cos2ct [baK2]
= [baK2](m2(t)+A2cos2ct)
+ 2Acosct. m(t) (b+aK)
To yield the suppressed carrier DSB signal
coefficients of m2(t) and (Acosct)2 should
be Zero because in DSB modulation carrier
Amplitude A(t)[A cosct] is proportional to
message signal m(t).
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X(t)

c(t) = Ac cos Ct

x L ( t ) = B cos 2f Lo t
y(t) = x(t) x L ( t )
3

= AB [

(cos(2f
i 1

t ) cos(2f i t )

sin( 2f c t ) sin( 2f i t )) ] [cos 2f Lo t ]

= AB

= AB

f i ) t (cos 2f Lo t )
i 1

(cos 2(f c f i ) t (cos 2f Lo t )

i 1

(cos 2(f

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: 221 :
3

= AB

[cos 2(f
i 1

f i ) t cos 2f Lo t ]

AB [cos 2(f c f i f Lo ) t

i 1

2
cos 2(f c f i f Lo ) t ]

LPF allows only low frequency components


to pass through
AB 3
y 2 (t)
cos(2(f c f i f Lo )t )
2 i 1
f1 = 100Hz; f2 = 200 Hz; f3 = 400 Hz
fc = 100 kHz; fLo = 100.02 kHz
(fc + fi fLo) or fLo (fc + fi)
fA = fLo + (fc + f1)
= [100.02 + (100 + 0.1)]1000
fA = 80Hz.
fB = (fc + f2) - fLo
= (100 + 0.2) (100.2) = 0 Hz.
fC = (fC+f3) - fLo
= [(0.4 +100) (100.02)]1000
fD = 380Hz
(b) If only LSB is transmitting
3

y1 ( t ) AB (cos 2(f c f i ) t )(cos 2(f Lo t )


i 1

AB 3

[cos(2(fc fi fLo )t) cos(2(fc fi fLo )t


2 i1
fA = +fLo(fcf1) =100.2 + (100-0.1)= 120 Hz
fB = + fLo (fc f2) =100.02 (1000.2) = 220 Hz
fD = + fLo (fc f3) =100.02 (100-0.4) = 420 Hz

02.
Sol: m(t) = cos 2 1500 t + cos 2 3000 t
c(t) = cos 2 (15000 t )

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Communication Systems

m(t) c(t) = (cos 2 1500 t + cos 2 3000 t )


cos 2 (15000 t )
( t ) sin c t
SSB = m(t) cos c t m

( t ) = m t
m
2

= cos 2 1500 t + cos 2 3000 t


2
2

= sin 2 (1500 t ) + sin 2 (3000 t )

LSB
( t ) sin c t
x 1 (t) = m(t) cos c t + m
x 1 (t) = (cos 2 (1500 t ) +cos 2 (3000 t ) )
cos 2 (15000 t ) +
(sin 2 (1500 t ) +sin 2 (3000 t ) )
sin 2 (15000 t )
1
= [cos(2(16500 t )) cos 2(13500 t )]
2
1
+ [cos(2(18000 t )) cos 2(12000 t )]
2
1
+ [cos(2(13500 t )) cos 2(16500 t )]
2
1
+ [cos(2(12000 t )) cos 2(18000 t )]
2
x 1 (t) = [cos(2(13500 t )) cos 2(12000 t )]
USB
( t ) sin c t
x 2 (t) = m(t) cos c t + m
= [cos(2(16500 t )) cos 2(18000 t )]
03.(i)
Sol:
The third method of generation of SSB
retains the advantages of the phase shift
method, like its ability to produce SSB at
almost any frequency and the use of low
frequencies.

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: 222 :

Postal Coaching Solutions

Block diagram
Vm = sin m t
V
BALANCED
1
MODULATOR
BM1
A cos o t
Vm

LOW PASS
FILTER
LPF1

V3

90O PHASE
SHIFTER

V5

90O PHASE
SHIFTER
A sin c t

A sin o t
AUDIO
FREQUENCY
GENERATOR
A sin o t
BALANCED
MODULATOR
BM2

BALANCED
MODULATOR
BM3
A cos c t

ADDER

FREQUENCY
GENERATOR

Vo

A sin c t
V2

LOW PASS
FILTER
LPF2

V4

BALANCED
MODULATOR
BM4

V6

Output of BM1, is
V1 = A sin m t cos o t
A
V1 = [sin( m o ) t sin( m o ) t ]
2
Output of BM2 is
V2 = A sin m t sin o t
A
V2 = [cos( m o ) t cos( m o ) t ]
2

V5 =
A2
[sin( c m o ) t sin( c ( m o )) t ]
4

Output of LPF1
A
V3 = sin( m o ) t
2
Output of LPF2
A
V4 = cos( m o ) t
2

A2

[sin(c m o )t sin(c m o )t]


4
Output voltage
Vo = V6 V5
A2

[sin( c m o ) t ]
2
A2
(or) Vo
[sin( c m o ) t ]
2
Thus the output is a SSB signal.

The output of BM3 is


A
V5 = (A cos c t ) sin( m o ) t
2
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The output of BM4 is


A

V6 = (A sin c t ) cos( m o ) t
2

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: 223 :

(ii)
m(t)=Amcos m t SSB
Modulator

Frequency discrimination method (or)


Filter method:
by the direction of the arrows in figure. If
this system is made completely symmetrical,
the carrier frequency will be completely
cancelled. The carrier will be heavily
suppressed rather than completely removed
.The output of the balanced modulator thus
contains the two sidebands and some of the
miscellaneous components which are taken
care of by the tuning of the output
transformers secondary winding. Thus the
final output consists only of sidebands.
A mathematical analysis of the balanced
modulator is now given.
As indicated, the input voltage will be
(V1 +V2) at the gate of T1 and (V1V2) at the
gate of T2.
Circuit diagram:

x(t)

c(t) = Ac sin t

x 1 ( t ) (A m cos m t ) A c sin t
x1 (t)

AcAm
[sin m t sin m t ]
2

x(t) USB
x(t) =

AcAm
[sin m t ]
2

Time domain representation of SSB wave

Communication Systems

m(t)+c(t)
T1

c(t)

AF in

SSB = USB

x(t)

RF in
c(t)

V2= m(t)

I d1

s(t)

Output

V1= c(t)

I d2

04.
Sol: SSB-SC waves can be generated by two
methods
(i) Frequency discrimination method (or)
Filter method
(ii) Phase discrimination method (or) phaseshift method
(iii) Third Method (or) Weavers method.
Filter method is very popular than phase
shift method.

ACE Engineering Academy

m(t)c(t)

T2

Fig: Balanced modulator

The two drain currents, represented will be

I d1 a bV1 V2 cV1 V2

a bV1 bV2 cV12 cV22 2cV1 V2


I d 2 a bV1 V2 cV1 V2

a bV1 bV2 cV12 cV22 2cV1 V2

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: 224 :

Where,
a = dc component of the collector current
b = transconductance of the transistor
c = coefficient of non-linearity
The primary current is given by the
difference between the individual drain
currents.
Thus I1 I d1 I d 2 2bV2 4cV1V2

Postal Coaching Solutions

05.
Sol: Refer IES 15 E & T Conventional Paper
II Q.03, page: 310.
06.
Sol: Given:
Number of Voice inputs = 24
Bandwidth of each voice input fm = 4 KHz

Let the carrier voltage c(t) = Vc cosct


The modulating voltage m(t) = Vmcosmt
I1 = 2bVmcosmt + 4cVmVccosct cosmt
I1 = 2bVmcosmt +

FDM system using AM-SSB so band width


(fm) = 4 kHz

4cVmVc 1 cosc m t cosc m t


2
The output voltage V0 is proportional to this
primary current.
The proportionality constant be . Then

N = 24 ; n = 8

Transmission Bandwidth = 244 = 96 kHz


using PCM - TDM.

V0 = I1

fs = 2fm = 8 kHz
Bandwidth

So PCM TDM requires more bandwidth


than the AM-SSB-FDM system.

3. Angle Modulation

2 bVm cos m t

2 cVm Vc cos c m t cos c m t

On simplifying, let
Q = 2cVm Vc Then

P 2bVm

Lower sideband

Frequency Modulation

and

V0 P cos m t Q cos c m t Q cos c m t


Modulation
frequency

Upper sideband

Above equation shows that the carrier has


been cancelled out, leaving only the two
sidebands and the modulating frequencies.
The tuning of the output transformer will
remove the modulating frequencies from the
output, but it is also possible to suppress
them by the action of the circuit

01. (a)
Sol:
The spectrum of AM and NBFM are
identical except that the spectral component
of NBFM at frequency fc fm is 180 out of
phase. The difference in AM and NBFM can
be shown through the following spectrums:
a. Spectrum for AM
S(f)

0
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R b Nnf s 24 8 2 4

768 kHz
2
2
2

A c
4

fc fm

Ac
2

fm

A c
4

fc + fm

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: 225 :

b. Spectrum for NBFM

1 d (t)
fi
2 dt

S(f)

Ac
2

fc fm
0

fm

A c
4

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(t) 2 f i (t) d t

A c
4

fc + fm

(t) 2 [f c K f m(t)] d t
0

(t) 2 f c t 2 K f m(t) d t

Frequency Modulation:
Changing the frequency of the carrier
according to the message signal amplitude
variations is called Frequency Modulation.
Instantaneous frequency,
fi(t) = fc + Kf m(t)
Kf = Frequency sensitivity (Hertz / Volt)

S(t)

A c cos [2 f c t 2 K f

m(t) d t ]

FM

signal
S(t) = Ac cos [ 2fc t + Kp m(t) ]
signal

PM

For a single tone frequency modulation


For single tone modulation
fi(t) = fc + Kf Am cos 2fm t
fi , max = fc + Kf Am
fi , min = fc - Kf Am
f = Kf Am = Frequency deviation
Carrier Swing (Total variation of carrier
frequency) = 2 f

m(t) = Am cos 2fm t

2K f A m
S( t ) A c cos 2f c t
sin 2f m t
2f m

K A
A c cos 2f c t f m sin 2f m t
fm

Modulation index of FM

Message (Modulating) signal


t
Carrier signal

K f A m f

fm
fm

<< 1, Narrow band FM


t

FM output

>> 1, Wide band FM

Let s(t) = Ac cos (t)


(t) = 2fi t
d(t) / dt = 2fi
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be the FM wave

Narrow Band FM : ( < < 1)


S(t) = Ac cos (2fc t + sin 2fm t)
= Ac [cos 2fc t . cos ( sin 2fm t )
sin 2fc t . sin ( sin 2fm t)]

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: 226 :

When < < 1

Postal Coaching Solutions

Wideband FM : ( > > 1)

cos ( sin 2fmt) 0

S(t) = Ac cos (2fc t + sin 2fm t)

sin ( sin 2fmt) sin 2fmt

Bessel function of order n is given by

Ac cos 2fc t Ac sin 2fc t sin (2 fmt)


A c cos 2f c t

Ac
cos 2(f c f m ) t cos 2 f c f m t
2

S(t) Ac cos2fct

S(f )

1
Jn(x) = e j( x sin n ) d
2

Ac
A
cos2(fc fm )t c cos2(fc fm )t
2
2

S(t) = Ac

Ac
f f c f f c
2

A c
f f c f m f f c f m
4

A c
f f c f m f f c f m
4

+ Ac J2() cos2 (fc+2fm)t


+ Ac J2() cos 2 (fc2fm)t+ ..

S( t ) A c J 0 () cos 2f c t

except that the spectral component at fc fm

A c J1 [cos 2 f c f m t cos 2f c f m t ]

is 1800 out of phase.

A c J 2 [cos 2f c 2f m t cos 2f c 2f m t ]

S(f)

Generation of NBFM Signal:


Product
Modulator

Am sin 2fmt

Ac sin (2fc t)

Oscillator

fcfm
0

NBFM
signal

fc2fm

fc

Ac cos 2fct

Ac cos 2fct

A c J 0 ()
2 A c J 1 ()
A c J 2 ()
2
2

A c J 2 ()
2

s(t)

90

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nf m t

+ Ac J1() cos2 (fc+fm)t


+ Ac J1() cos2(fc fm)t

The spectrum of AM and FM are identical

Am cos 2fmt

S(t)=Ac J0() cos2fc t

B.W of NBFM = 2 fm

90

n = 0, 1, 2,

2
Pt = Pc 1
2

J cosf

fc+fm fc+2fm

A c J 1 ()
2

Theoretical bandwidth of a WBFM is .


fc = 5 kHz
kf = 10Hz/V
f(t) = 100 cos200 t
200
fm =
100Hz
2

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: 227 :

Communication Systems

Am = 100
f = kf Am =10 100 = 1000 Hz
1000
f
=
= 10
=M.I =
fm
100
BW = 2( +1)fm = 2(10+1)(100)
= 2 11 100
BW = 2.2 kHz
01. (b)
Sol:
Envelope detector
1. Used for
demodulation of
AM signal
2. Need to set
accurate time
constant (RC).
3. Synchronization
is not required.

Low pass 1/2 Accos m(t) Demofilter


dulated
signal

Cos (2fct + )

Accos
(2fct)
m(t)

Voltage
Controlled
oscillator

Phase
discriminator

90
phase shifter
sin(2fct + )

Synchronous detector
1. Used for
demodulator of
DSBSC, SSB,
VSB etc.
2. No need of time
constant term.
3. Synchronization is
required.

Costas Receiver:
This system consists of two coherent
detectors supplied with the input signal of
DSB-SC wave Ac cos (2fct) m(t) but with
individual local oscillator signals that are in
phase quadrature to each other. The
frequency of the local oscillator is adjusted
to be the same as the carrier frequency fc,
which is assumed known a priori.
The detector in the upper path is referred to
as the in-phase coherent detector or Icahnnel and in lower path is referred to as
the quadrature phase detector or Q-channel
there two detectors are coupled to form, ve
feed back system designed in such a way as
to
maintain
the
local
oscillator
synchronization with the carrier wave. We
find I-channel output contains the desired
demodulated signal m(t), where as Qchannel output is zero due to the quadrature
null effect of Q channel.
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Product
modulator

Product
modulator

LPF

1/2Acsinm(t)

Suppose the local oscillator phase drifts


from its proper value by a small amount of
radians. The I-channel output will remain
essentially unchanged, but there will be
some signal appearing at the Q-channel
output. Which is proportional to sin .
This Q-channel output will have the same
polarity as the I-channel output for one
duration of local oscillator phase drift and
opposite polarity for the opposite direction
of local oscillator phase drift.
Squaring circuits (loop):
This is one method for generating a
reference carrier from DSB-SC wave
Accos
(fct)
m(t)

PLL
Narrow
squarer
band
v(t)
2
filter
H(f)
Y(t)= s (t)

LPF

e(t)

VCO
Frequency
Divider
by 2
Carrier wave
of frequency fc

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: 228 :

DSB SC wave applied to the input of square


law device, we obtain
yt A c2 cos 2 2f c t m 2 t

frequency deviation and the modulating


frequency
BW = 2 ( f f m )

A c2 2

m t 1 cos 4f c t
2

This is known as Carsons rule.


Given f = 75 kHz.
BW = 2 ( +1)fm

This is y(t) is applied to the narrow-band


filter centered about 2fc.

(a) = 0.25 =

At the multiplier output we obtain two


terms, one depending on the difference
between the frequency and phase of the
VCO output and those of signal v(t) at the
PLL input, and the other depending on their
sum. This later term is removed by the loop
filter.
Finally, VCO output is frequency divided by
a factor of two, to produce the desired carrier
wave which is available for coherent
detection of DSB-SC wave.

10 3 1000

500Hz
2
2
i) Modulation Index ()
=

75
300kHz
0.25
BW for NBFM ( 1 ) is

Given as BW = 2 fm
BW = 2 300 = 600 kHz
(b) = 5.5 =

f
fm

fm =

75
5 .5

fm = 13.636
BW = 2 ( +1)fm = 2(5.5 + 1)(13.636)
= 177.268 kHz
(c) = 7 fm =

f
75
=
= 10.714 kHz
7

BW = 2 ( +1)fm = 2(7+1)(10.714)

5 10 3
f

10
fm
500

Capture range of PLL the range of frequency


over which the PLL can acquire a lock with
the input signal.
iii) Same as question 7

f
fm

fm =

02.
Sol: Given data modulating signal
(em) = Em sin 103 t
Frequency deviation (f) = 5KHz
Modulating frequency
(fm) =

Postal Coaching Solutions

BW = 171.424 kHz

ii)

03.
Sol: Carsons rule: The Bandwidth is anote
mode twice the sum of the maximum
ACE Engineering Academy

04.
Sol: It is also known as Indirect method of FM

generation. The basic principle of this


method is to generate NBFM signal
indirectly
by
using
a
PHASE
MODULATION TECHNIQUE and then
converting this NBFM into WBFM by using
frequency multiplier.

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: 229 :
modulating
signal

NBPM NBFM
signal

Integrator
m(t)

Frequency
multiplier

WBFM
signal

Communication Systems

x FM t A c cos c t sin m t where 1

Crystal
Oscillator

NBFM Generation:
Acsin c t

/2 phase
shift

Accos c t

Crystal
oscillator

Adder
_
Balanced
modulator

Acsin c t

NBFM
signal

A c sin c t.sin m t

m( t ) sin m t
A
X NBFM t A c cos c t c cosc m t
2
A
c cosc m t
2
where 1
In Armstrong method multiplier Circuit is much
important, since It converts NBFM into
WBFM.

Frequency multiplier:
It is a nonlinear device.
Eg:- If x(t) is input & applied to multiplier
Circuit
then,
x(t)

Frequency
Multiplier

Y(t)=x2(t)

Note:

The multiplier Circuit changes the carrier


frequency (fc), modulation index ( ) and
so frequency deviation f by n time
where n is the multiplication factor.
Advantages:

Stability is high because crystal oscillator


can be used to generate are highly stable
signals with small carrier frequencies.
05. (i)
Sol: Frequency deviation f m f f m
Where m f mod ulation Index

X FM ( t ) A c cosc t sin m t

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A c2
1 cos2c t 2 sin m t
X FM ( t )
2

f m mod ulation frequency

0.4f m

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: 230 :

(ii)
Sol: In FM Transmitted power does not depend
upon modulation index. So on doubling
the modulation Index there will be no
change in the total transmitted power.
07.
Sol: PLL Technique is an Indirect method of
FM demodulation technique.
A Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) is primarily
used in tracking the phase and frequency of
the carrier component of an incoming FM
signal. PLL is useful for synchronous
demodulation of AM-SC signals or signals
with few cycles of pilot carrier. PLL is also
useful for demodulating FM signals in
presence of large noise and low signal
power.
Block Diagram:
e(t)

FM Wave
s(t)

Loop
Filter

V(t)

b(t)
VCO

PLL is basically a negative feedback


system.
It consists of three major
components.
These components are
multiplier, a loop filter and a voltage
controlled oscillator (VCO) connected
together in the form of a feedback loop. A
VCO is a sine wave generator whose
frequency is determined by the voltage
applied to it from an external source.
It means that any frequency modulator can
work as a VCO.
Working Operation:
The operation of a PLL is similar to any
other feedback system. In any feedback
system, the feedback signal tends to follow
the input signal. If the feedback signal is
not equal to the input signal, the error
signal will change the value of the
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Postal Coaching Solutions

feedback until it is equal to the input


signal. The difference signal between s(t)
and b(t) is called an error signal. The error
signal or difference signal e(t) is adjusted
to the VCO frequency in such a way that
the instantaneous phase angle comes close
to the angle of the incoming signal s(t). At
this point, the two signals s(t) and b(t) are
in synchronism and the PLL is locked to
the incoming signal s(t).
Initially assume that VCO is adjusted so
that when the control voltage is zero, the
following two conditions are satisfied.
(i) The frequency of the VCO is precisely set
at the unmodulated carrier frequency (fc)
(ii) The VCO output has a 900 phase-shift with
respect to the unmodulated carrier wave.
Capture range: capture range is defined as
the band of frequencies centered around the
VCO natural frequency (fo) where the PLL
can initially establish or acquire frequency
lock with an external input signal from an
unlocked condition
Lock range: It is defined as the band of
frequencies centered on the VCOs natural
frequency over which a PLL can maintain
frequency lock with an external input
signal. it is the range of frequencies over
which the PLL will accurately track or
flow the frequency of the external input
signal after frequency lock had occurred.
08.
Sol: For speech processing generally we prefer
SSB type of modulation because the
bandwidth of SSB modulation is very low
compared to other modulation techniques
and the voice frequency normally ranges
from 0.3kHz to 3.4 kHz and SSB
modulation is best suitable in this
frequency range.

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: 231 :

09.
Sol: Refer IES 15 E & T Conventional Paper
II Q.12, page: 323
10.
Sol: Given Audio frequency (fm) = 500Hz
Audio frequency voltage (Am) = 2.4V
Deviation (f) = 4.8KHz
We know that
Modulation index () =

f 4.8 10 3
=
500
fm

= 9.6
And deviation (f) = KfAm
4.8 103 = Kf(2.4)
Frequency sensitivity (Kf) = 2 103 Hz/V
i)

ii)

Now Am = 7.2V
Deviation (f) = KfAm
= 2 103 7.2
f =14.4KHz
f
Modulation index () =
fm
= 28.8
Am = 10V, fm = 200Hz
Deviation (f) = KfAm
= 2 103 10
f = 20103 = 20KHz
f
Modulation Index () =
fm
=

20 10 3
= 100
200

Disadvantage of FM over AM:


1. A much wider channel is required by FM,
up to 10 times as large as that needed by
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2.

Communication Systems

AM.
This is the most significant
disadvantage of FM
FM transmitting and receiving equipment
tends to be more complex, Particularly for
modulation and demodulation. So Circuit
is more complex than AM.
Threshold effect is more produced in FM
than AM.

11.
Sol: Frequency modulation is one type of angle
modulation in which the instantaneous
frequency is varied linearly with a message
or base band signal about an un-modulated
carrier frequency. This means that the
instantaneous value of the angular
frequency will be equal to the carrier
frequency plus a time-varying component
proportional to the base band signal.
Advantages of FM over AM
(i) FM receivers may be fitted
with amplitude limiters to remove
the amplitude variations caused by
noise. This makes FM reception a
good deal more immune to noise than
AM reception.
(ii) It is possible to reduce noise still
further by increasing the frequencydeviation. This is a feature which AM
does not have because it is not
possible to exceed 100 percent
modulation without causing severe
distortion.
(iii) Standard
frequency
allocations
provide a guard band between
commercial FM station. Due to this,
there is less adjacent- channel
interference than in AM
(iv) FM broadcast operate in the upper
VHF and UHF frequency ranges at
which there happens to be less noise

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: 232 :

than in the MF and HF ranges


occupied by AM broad casts.
(v) The amplitude of the FM wave is
constant. It is thus independent of the
modulation depth, where as in AM,
modulation depth governs the
transmitted power. This permits the
use of low-level modulation in FM
transmitter and use of efficient class
C
amplifiers in all stages following
the modulator
(vi) In AM transmitter the maximum
power is four times the average
power. Finally in FM, all the
transmitted power is useful where as
in AM most of the power is carrier
power which does not contain any
information.
12.
Sol: Given: carrier c(t) = 10 cos ct
AC = 10
Modulating message signal m(t) =
3cosm(t)
Am = 3
fc = 100 kHz
fm = 4 kHz
Amplitude modulation
A
3
0 .3
1. Modulation index m
A C 10
2. Channel BW = 2fm = 2 4K = 8 kHz
Frequency modulation
Given sensitivity of the frequency
modulator to be 5 kHz/volt
f

fm
Frequency deviation f = Kf Am
= 51033 = 15103
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Postal Coaching Solutions

15 10 3 15

3.75
4
4 10 3

As >1. This is WBFM


The channel Bandwidth B = 2(+1) fm
= 2(3.75+1)4K
= 38 kHz
13.
Sol: Given modulating signal em(t) = Amsinmt
modulating signal passed through a square
law device then the o/p em(t)= A 2m sin 2 m t
Then the instantaneous frequency expressed as

fi(t) = fc+kem(t) = fc+k E 2m sin2 mt


1 cos 2m t
f i (t) f c kE m2

Angle can be obtained as


t

i(t) = 2 f i (t)dt
0

1 cos 2 m t
2 f c kE 2m
dt
2


0
t

sin 2 m t

2f c t kE 2m t
2 m

sin 2 m t

i t 2f c t kE 2m t
2

FM signal equation Ac cos i(t)


XFM(t)

=Ac cos 2f c t kE 2m t

sin 2 m t

2 m

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: 233 :

14.
Sol: fc = 105 MHz ; fmax = 105.03 MHz

Communication Systems

20 10 3 3.2
128
2 250

fm = 5 kHz
(i)

fmax = fc +f
f = fmaxfc
= 105.03 105 = 0.03 MHz = 30 kHz

(ii) Carrier swing = 2f = 60 kHz

f 30 10 3
(iii) Modulating index

6
fm
5 10 3
(iv) Percentage of modulation

16.
Sol: FM Generation by Direct method - VCO
In the direct method of generating an FM
signal, the modulating signal directly
controls the carrier frequency. A common
method used for generating FM directly is
to vary the inductance or capacitance of a
tuned electric oscillator. Any oscillator
whose frequency is controlled by the
modulating signal voltage is called a
voltage controlled oscillator (VCO).

%f
30kHz
100
100 40%
(f ) max
75kHz

15.
Sol: Given modulating frequency f m 400Hz
Modulating voltage A m 2.4 V
Modulation index 60
From modulation index

Kf Am
Kf Am
60
2 400
m

K f A m 48 kHz
K f 20 10 3 rad / volt
When modulating frequency f m 250Hz
Modulating Voltage (Am) = 3.2V

Modulation index 1

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Kf Am
2 f m

Voltage
variable
capacitor
modulating
signal m (t)
VCO

Cv
C0

Tank circuit

A fixed capacitor c0 is shunted by a voltage


variable capacitor cv commonly called as
varicap, is one whose capacitance value
depends on the dc biasing voltage across its
electrodes.
The modulating signal varies the voltage
across cv. The capacitance of cv changes
and causes a corresponding change in the
oscillator frequency. The modulating
frequency is vary small in comparison with
the oscillator frequency. Therefore the
fractional change cv may be very small
during the cause of many cycles of the
oscillator signal with this variable
capacitance, the instantaneous oscillator
1
frequency will be given by f
.
2 LC

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: 234 :

v (t) = [a1 s (t) + a2 s2 (t) + . + an sn (t)]


where, a1, a2, . an are coefficients
determined by the operating point of the
device and n is the highest order of
nonlinearity.

Output

Input
V (t)

Vosc (t)
VCO

Variable
voltage

Postal Coaching Solutions

The block level relation can be written as


t

Vosc t B cos c t G 0 V d

B amplitude of the output of VCO


c = angular frequency (radians)
G0 = frequency sensitivity (rad/volt)
i.e., the rate of change of instantaneous
angular
frequency
w.r.t
frequency
controlling voltage v (t).
The instantaneous angular frequency
I (t) = c + G0 v (t)

The input s (t) is a FM wave designed by


t

S t A c cos 2f c t 2 k f m d
0

The instantaneous frequency is


f i (t) f c k f m (t)
FM wave s(t) fc
with fc &

1.

2.
Frequency
multiplier

Frequency
multiplier

NBFM
f1

X n1

f1

f2 = n1f1

f3
fLo

Xn2

Fig: Block diagram of an indirect FM


generation in the indirect method, the
message signal is first used to produce a
NBFM which is followed by frequency
multipliers.
The frequency multiplier consists of a
memory less nonlinear device followed by
a band pass filter. The input output
relation of such a device may be expressed
in the general form.

ACE Engineering Academy

FM wave s1(t)
with carrier
frequency
fc| = nfc & n

Advantages:

The frequency modulation is achieved if v


(t) is the modulating message signal m (t)
FM generation by indirect method
Armstrongs method.
m(t)

Memory less v(t)


BPF
Nonlinear
with mid band
Device
Frequency nfc

fc
f

3.

Indirect
method
uses
the
frequency multiplication
which
increases the frequency deviation to
the desired level.
The carrier frequency stability
problem is overcome by using a
highly stable oscillator like crystal
oscillator.
The NBFM wave is multiplied
in frequency by means of a
frequency multiplier so as to produce
the desired WBFM.

18.
Sol: Given carrier signal =Ac cosct
Modulating signal = Am sinmt
A frequency modulated wave with
sinusoidal modulation can be expressed as
i(t) = c + kfAmsinmt
Where
m = 2fm
c = angular velocity of carrier wave
i = instantaneous angular velocity
The frequency deviation is proportional to
the peak amplitude of the modulating

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: 235 :

signal and is independent of the


Modulating frequency.
i = c + sinmt
The phase angle of the modulated wave is
obtained by

i i dt

Communication Systems

19.
Sol: Refer question number: 16
21.
Sol: Refer Question number . 07

sin m t dt

c t
cos m t
m

01.

i c t cos m t
Where modulation index

Phase Modulation

Sol: Given AM signal is

The FM signal is given by

FM t A cosc t cos m t

cosc t cos cosm t


FM t A

sin c t sin cosm t


The term cos (sin mt) can be expanded
into

J o 2J 2 cos2 m t

2J 4 cos4 m t .....

And sin cos m t can be exp anded as .

2J1 sin m t 2J 3 sin 3m t ...

V(t) = 5cos( 10 7 t 2 sin 500t ) ---- (1)


Standard equation for phase modulated and
frequency modulated signals is
xpm(t) = Ac cos( c t + Kp m(t))----(2)
where Bp = KpAm =
Modulation index or phase deviation of
phase modulated signals.
x FM ( t ) A c cos( c t 2K f m( t )dt )

Which can be further modified as

x FM ( t ) A c cos( c t B F sin m t ) ----- (3)


When m(t) = Amcos m t

FM t J o cos c t

And where BF = modulation index

J1 sin c m t sin c m t

f frequency deviation

fm
message frequency

J 2 cos c 2 m t cos c 2 m t
J 3 cos c 2 m t cos c 2 m t

Comparing (1) & (2) we get

J 4 cos c 2 m t cos c 2 m t

Bp = KpAm = Phase deviation

J 5 cos c 2 m t cos c 2 m t
J 6 and so on

BWpm = 2 (Bp+1)fm = 2 (2+1)(250)

ACE Engineering Academy

= Modulation Index = 2.
= 6 250= 1500 Hz = 1.5 kHz

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: 236 :

02.
Sol: Given m(t) = 10 sin (2104)T
4

Em = 10 V

fm = 10 Hz

P = 10

f = 10

Here, modulation index f will be denoted


as mf
(i)

For FM system
f = Kf Em
mf
10

Postal Coaching Solutions

Therefore, K p

mp
Em

10
1
10

f = 1 10 104 = 105 Hz
BW = 2 (f +fm)
(Carsons rule)
5
4
= 2 (10 + 10 ) = 220 kHz
(ii) Given
fm = 2 104 Hz ,
Em = 10V
f = mf = 10, p = mp = 10
For FM System
f = Kf Em = 104 10 = 105 Hz

f K f E m

fm
fm

Bw = 2 (f + fm)

K f 10
10 4

= 2 (105 +2 104) = 240 kHz

Kf = 10 4 Hz/V
f = Kf Em = 104 10 = 105 Hz

For PM system:
f = Kp Em fm
= 1 10 2 104 = 2 105 Hz.

It has been found that for sinusoidal


modulation, 98% power transmission
occurs.
When

n = mf + 1, then BW is

BW = 2nfm = 2 (mf +1)fm


= 2 mf fm + 2fm = 2 (f + fm)
Therefore, BW = 2 (f + fm)
(Carsons Rule)
= 2 (105 + 104) = 220 kHz
For PM system:
f = Kp Emfm
mp = KpEm

BW = 2 (f + fm)
= 2 (2 105 +2 104) = 440 kHz
(iii) Given
fm = 2 104 Hz,
f = mf = 10

Em = 5V
p = mp = 10

For FM system:
f = Kf Em = 5 104 Hz
BW = 2 (f + fm) = 2 (5 104 + 2 104)
= 140 kHZ
For PM system:
f = KpEmfm = 1 5 2 104 = 105 Hz
BW = 2 (f + fm) = 240 kHz

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: 237 :

are making the resonant frequency of the


tuned circuit equal to the carrier frequency
of the required channel.

4. Radio Receivers
01.
Sol: The super heterodyne receiver has a good
gain, selectivity, sensitivity and hence it
finds practical use.

TRF receiver has a non uniform selectivity


hence super heterodyne receiver is
preferred
The Block diagram of Super Heterodyne
Receiver is shown in figure.

RF
Pre
amp
selector

LS
IF amp

AF
Detector

Power
AF
Amp

Local
oscillator

1.

2.

RF Section: The RF amplifier internally


consists of a pre selector and an amplifier
stage in a single combined circuit.
The pre selector is a broad-tuned BPF
with an adjustable center frequency that is
tuned to the desired carrier frequency.
The RF amplifier must be a low noise
amplifier which reduces the noise
bandwidth of the receiver and provides the
initial step reducing the overall receiver
bandwidth to the minimum bandwidth
required to pass the information signals.
The RF amplifier determines the sensitivity
of the Receiver. It is also called as tuned
RF amplifier. By tuning arrangement, we

ACE Engineering Academy

2 LC

Heterodyne means to mix two frequencies


together in a non linear device or to
translate one frequency to another using
non linear mixing.

IF Section
BPF

fr

The advantages of including RF amplifiers


in a Receiver are
1. Greater gain better sensitivity
2. Improved image frequency rejection
3. Better signal to noise ratio
4. Better selectivity

In Super Heterodyne Receiver the RF


signal IF signal AF signal

Mixer

fr

It consists of five sections namely, the RF


section, the mixer section, the IF section,
the audio detector and audio amplifier
section.

RF Section

Communication Systems

Mixer section: The mixer stage is a non


linear device and its purpose is to convert
radio frequencies to intermediate frequency
(RF-to-IF)
frequency
translation.
Heterodyning takes place in the mixer
stage and radio frequencies are down
converted to intermediate frequencies.
Always the local oscillator frequency
should be greater than the signal frequency.
fl >> fs
fl-fs (down
fs

RF

Mixer
fl

IF conversion)
fl+fs (up
conversion)

Local
oscillator

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: 238 :

A constant frequency difference is


maintained between the local oscillator and
the RF circuits. The down conversion is
done with respect to the tuned circuit.
Tuning means changing the local oscillator
frequency. Mixer will change the carrier
frequency from fs to fIF. The most common
intermediate frequency used in AM broad
cast receiver is 455 kHz
3.

IF Section: IF section consists of an IF


amplifier and BPF. Most of the receiver
gain and selectivity is achieved in the IF
section. IF is always lower in frequency
than the RF because it is easier and less
expensive to construct high-gain stable
amplifiers for the low-frequency signals.
IF = fl fs

Choice of IF:
1. If the IF is too high, poor selectivity
and poor adjacent channel rejection.
2. A high value of IF increases tracking
difficulties
3. If IF is very low, image frequency
rejection becomes poorer.
4. If IF is very low, the frequency
stability of the local oscillator should
be very high.
5. The IF must not fall with in the tuning
range of the Receiver.
4.

5.

Detector section: The purpose of the


detector section is to convert the IF
signals
back to the original source
information. The detector is generally
called an audio detector in the broadcast
receiver because
the
information
signals are audio-frequencies.
Audio Amplifier Section: The audio
section comprises several cascaded audio
amplifiers. The number of amplifiers used
depends upon the audio signal power.

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Postal Coaching Solutions

Advantages:
a)

Greater
gain,
sensitivity

thus

imporoved

b)

Greater adjacent channel rejectivity

c)

Better image signal rejection

d) Better stability.
e) Better signal to noise ratio.
02.
Sol: The Advantages of the super heterodyne
receiver make it the most suitable type for
the great majority of radio receiver
applications, such as AM, FM, single side
band, television and even radar receivers.
Advantages:
a) Greater
gain,
thus
imporoved
sensitivity
b) Greater adjacent channel rejectivity
c) Better image signal rejection
d) Better stability.
e) Better signal to noise ratio.
Disadvantage:
a) Circuit Complexity
b) High cost

Constant IF is achieved through use of


trimmers and padders in mixer stage
RF amplifier boosts up the signal to a
high value before it encounters the noisy
mixer stage.

03.
Sol: Heterodyne means to mix two frequencies
together in a non linear device or to
translate one frequency to another using
non linear mixing.
The super heterodyne receiver has a good
gain, selectivity, sensitivity and hence it
finds practical use.

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: 239 :

TRF receiver has a non uniform selectivity


hence super heterodyne receiver is
preferred
The Block diagram of Super Heterodyne
Receiver is shown in figure.
It consists of five sections namely, the RF
section, the mixer section, the IF section,
the audio detector and audio amplifier
section.
In Super Heterodyne Receiver the RF
signal IF signal AF signal
RF Section

BPF

IF
amp

AF
Detector

Power
AF
Amp

Local
oscillator

RF
Section:
The
RF
amplifier
internally consists of a pre selector and an
amplifier stage in a single combined
circuit.
The pre selector is a tuned BPF with an
adjustable center frequency that is tuned to
the desired carrier frequency.
The RF amplifier must be a low noise
amplifier which reduces the noise
bandwidth of the receiver and provides the
initial step for reducing the overall receiver
bandwidth to the minimum bandwidth
required to pass the information signals.
The RF amplifier determines the sensitivity
of the Receiver. It is also called as tuned
RF amplifier. By tuning arrangement, we
are making the resonant frequency of the
tuned circuit equal to the carrier frequency
of the required channel.

ACE Engineering Academy

fr

fr

1
2 LC

The advantages of including RF amplifiers


in a Receiver are
1. Greater gain better sensitivity
2. Improved image frequency rejection
3. Better signal to noise ratio
4. Better selectivity

LS

Mixer

1.

IF Section

Pre
RF
selector amp

Communication Systems

2.

Mixer section: The mixer stage is a


non linear device and its purpose is to
convert radio frequencies to intermediate
frequency (RF-to-IF) frequency translation.
Heterodyning takes place in
the mixer
stage and radio frequencies are down
converted to intermediate frequencies.
Always the local oscillator frequency
should be greater than the signal frequency.
fl >> fs
fs RF

Mixer
fl

fl-fs (down
IF conversion)
fl+fs (up
conversion)

Local
oscillator

A
constant
frequency
difference
is maintained between the local oscillator
and the RF circuits. The down
conversion is done with respect to the
tuned circuit. Tuning means changing the
local oscillator frequency. Mixer will
change the carrier frequency from fs to fIF.

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: 240 :

The most common intermediate frequency


used in AM broad cast receiver is 455 kHz
3.

IF Section: IF section consists of an IF


amplifier and BPF. The receiver gain and
selectivity is achieved in the IF section. IF
is always lower in frequency than the RF
because it is easier and less
expensive
to construct high-gain stable amplifiers for
the low-frequency signals.
IF = fl fs

Choice of IF:
1. If the IF is too high, poor selectivity
and poor adjacent channel rejection.
2. A high value of IF increases tracking
difficulties
3. If IF is very low, image frequency
rejection becomes poorer.
4. If IF is very low, the frequency
stability of the local oscillator should
be very high.
5. The IF must not fall with in the tuning
range of the Receiver.
4.
Detector section: The purpose of
the detector section is to convert the IF
signals
back to the original source
information. The detector is generally
called an audio detector in the broadcast
receiver because
the
information
signals are audio- frequencies.
5. Audio Amplifier Section: The audio
section comprises several cascaded audio
amplifiers. The number of amplifiers used
depends upon the audio signal power.
04. (a)
Sol: Selectivity: Selectivity is a receiver
parameter that is used to measure the
ability of the receiver to accept a given
band of frequencies and reject all others.
Selectivity determines the adjacent-channel
rejection of a Receiver. It is also
determined by the response of the IF
ACE Engineering Academy

Postal Coaching Solutions

section, with the mixer and RF amplifier


input circuits. It varies with the receiving
frequency if ordinary tuned circuits are
used in the IF section.
Selectivity can be measured experimentally
by attenuation factor and frequency of the
same signal.
The attenuation can be given as the ratio of
the voltage required for resonance to the
voltage required when the generator is
tuned to the receivers frequency.
Generally attenuation is expressed in
decibels (dB)
In the commercial AM broadcast band,
each stations transmitter is allocated a 10kHz band width. For a receiver to select
only those frequencies which are assigned
to a single channel, the receiver must limit
its Bandwidth to 10 kHz. If the pass band is
greater than 10 kHz, more than one channel
may be received and demodulated
simultaneously .If the pass band is less than
10 kHz a portion of the modulating signal
information of that channel is rejected or
blocked from entering the demodulator.
Experimental technique: one common
way is to simply give the bandwidth of the
receiver at the -3dB points. This
Bandwidth is not necessarily a good means
of determining how well the receiver will
reject unwanted frequencies. It is common
to give the receiver bandwidth at two levels
of attenuation .For example -3dB & -60
dB. The ratio of these two bandwidths is
called the Shape Factor
SF

Bandwidth (60dB)
Bandwidth (3dB)

SF = shape factor (unit less)


Bandwidth (-60dB) = Bandwidth 60dB
below maximum signal level

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Bandwidth (-3dB) = Bandwidth 3dB below


maximum signal level
Ideally the Bandwidth at the -3dB and 60dB points would be equal, and shape
factor = 1. But, this is impossible, receiver
might have a-3dB bandwidth of 10kHz and
60dB bandwidth of 20kHz which gives a
SF of 2.
A radio receiver must be capable of
separating the desired channels signals
without allowing interference from an
adjacent channel to spill over into the
desired channels pass band.
Curve for selectivity of the receiver:
100

selectivity-V

Sensitivity:
It is defined as the minimum signal
strength that should be maintained at the
input of a receiver to get a standard output.
Sensitivity depends up on the over all gain
of an amplifier. If the gain of the amplifier
is high, the sensitivity is also high. The
sensitivity of a receiver is usually stated in
micro volts of received signal. The signal
to noise ratio and the power of the signal at
the output of the audio section are used to
determine the quality of a received signal.
In commercial AM broadcast band
receivers, a 10-dB or more signal to noise
ratio with 1/2 W (27 dBm) of power at the
output of the audio section is used.
For broadband microwave receivers, a
40dB or more signal to noise ratio with
approximately 5mW (7dBm) of signal
power is the minimum acceptable value.

80
60
40
20

40 30 20 10

+10 +20 +30 +40

Frequency, kHz
Receiver tuned to 950 kHz
100
Attenuation in dB

Communication Systems

80
60
40
20
40 30 20 10

10 +20 +30 +40

Generator detuning, kHz

ACE Engineering Academy

For a typical sensitivity of a commercial


broadcast band AM receivers is 50 v and
a two way mobile radio receivers generally
has a sensitivity bandwidth of 0.1 V and
10 V.
Curve for sensitivity of the receiver:
The receivers sensitivity is also called
receivers threshold. The sensitivity of an
AM receiver depends on the noise power
present at the input to the receiver, the
receivers noise figure, the sensitivity of
the AM detector, and the bandwidth
improvement factor of the receiver. The
best way to improve the sensitivity of
receivers is to reduce the noise level. This
can be accomplished by reducing either the
temperature or the bandwidth of the
receiver or improving the receivers noise
figure.

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: 242 :

There are three forms of distortion that can


deteriorate
the
fidelity
of
a
communications system

16
15
Sensitivity-V

Postal Coaching Solutions

14

1. Amplitude

2. Phase

3. Frequency

13

(b).
Sol: Demodulation of SSB waves:

12
11

SSB

10

s(t)
100

1000

Fidelity: Fidelity is a measure of an audio


signal quality. It is defined as the ability of
the receivers to reproduce all audio
frequencies equally in the entire tuning
range at the output of receivers, High
fidelity or
Hi- fi systems are used for
high quality output.
Ex: CD, DVD players.
It will produce an exact replica of the
original source information. Any frequency
phase or amplitude variations that represent
in the demodulated waveform that were not
in the original information signal are
considered as distortions.
Curve for the Fidelity of a receiver:

Saturation
1 dB
compression
point

1 dB

Third order
distortion
output level

80
ACE Engineering Academy

20

( t )

LPF

message
signal

1600
Ac cos 2fc t

Frequency, kHz

Output
power
(dBm)

Product
Modulator

20

The base band signal s(t) can be recovered


from the SSB wave s(t) by using coherent
detection.
The product modulator is having two
inputs. one input is the SSB modulated
wave s(t) & another input is the locally
generated carrier cos(2fct)
Thus the product modulator output is
v(t) = s(t)cos(2fct) . (1)
A
( t ) sin 2f c t
s( t ) c m( t ) cos 2f c t m
2
... (2)
substituting equation (2) in equation (1) ,
we get
Ac
sin 2f c t cos 2f c t
m(t) cos 2f c t m(t)
2
Ac

2 m( t ) cos 2f c t cos 2f c t
v(t) =

Ac m

2 ( t ) cos 2f c t sin 2f c t
v(t)

We know that,
1
cosA B cosA B
2
1
cos A. sin B sin A B sin A B
2
cos A. cos B

Input power
(dBm)

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v( t )

Ac
m( t )cos2f c 2f c t cos2f c 2f c t
4

v(t) =

Ac
m( t )cos4f c t cos(0)
4

v(t) =

Ac
( t )sin 2f c 2f c t sin 2f c 2f c t
m
4

Ac
( t )sin 4f c t sin(0)
m
4

Ac
m( t )cos4f c t 1
4

v(t) =

Ac
A
m( t ) c m( t ) cos4f c t
4
4

v( t )

Ac
( t )sin 4f c t 0
m
4

Ac
( t ) sin 4f c t
m
4

Ac
A
( t ) sin 4f c t
m( t ) c m( t ) cos4f c t m
4
4

Ac
m( t ) = scaled message signal
4
( t ) sin 4f c t
m( t ) cos4f c t m
= unwanted terms
When v(t) is passed through the filter, it
will allow only the 1st term to pass through
and will reject all other unwanted terms.

Thus at the output of the filter we get the


scaled message signal thus the coherent
SSB demodulation is achieved.
A
v0(t) = c m( t )
4
The detection of SSB modulated waves is
based on the assumption that there is
perfect synchronization in between local
carrier and that in the transmitter both in
frequency and phase.

ACE Engineering Academy

: 243 :

Communication Systems

But in practice a phase error may arise in


the locally-generated carrier wave. Thus
the detector output is modified due to
phase error.

(c)
Sol: Multiplexing
Multiplexing
is
the
process
of
simultaneously transmitting two or more
individual
signals
over
a
single
communication
channel.
Due
to
multiplexing, it is possible to increase the
number of communication channels so that
more information can be transmitted. The
typical applications of multiplexing are in
telemetry,
telephony
satellite
communication.
The concept of multiplexing is shown in
fig. The multiplexer receives a large
number of different input signals.
Multiplexer has only one output which is
connected to the single communication
channel. The multiplexer combines all
input signals into a single composite signal
and transmits it over the communication
medium. Sometimes, the composite signal
is used to modulate a carrier before
transmission. At the receiving end of
communication link, a demultiplexer is
used to sort out the signals into their
original form.

Multiple
input
signals

MUX

DEMUX

Original
input
signals

Single
communication
channel

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: 244 :
S.No.

TDM

FDM

1.

It is a technique for
transmitting
several
messages
on
one
channel by dividing
time domain slots. One
slot for each message

It is a technique to
transmit
several
messages on one
channel,
message
signals are distributed
in frequency spectrum
such that they do not
overlap.

2.

It
requires
commutator
at
the
transmitting end and a
decommutator at the
receiving end

FDM
requires
modulator, filters and
demodulators.

Perfect synchronization
between transmitter and
receiver is required.

Synchronization
between transmitter
and receiver is not
required.

4.

Crosstalk problem is
not severe in TDM.

FDM suffers from


crosstalk problem due
to imperfect band
pass filter.

5.

It is usually preferred
for
digital
signal
transmission

It is usually preferred
for analog signal
transmission.

It does not require very


Complex circuitry.

It requires complex
circuitry at transmitter
and receiver.

6.

05.
Sol: Given fs = 555 kHz
fL = 1010 kHz
fL > fs IF = fL - fs
= 1010 555 = 455 kHz
fsi = Image frequency
fsi = fs + 2 IF = 555 + 2 455 = 1465 kHz
f
f
1465 555
= 2.26

= si s =
f s f si
555 1465
IRR = 1 2 Q 2
= 1 (2.26) (40) = 90.43
2

Postal Coaching Solutions

fs = tuned frequency of circuit = 1200 kHz


fs =1.2MHz
fsi = fs + 2 IF = 1200 + 2 450 = 2.1 MHz
f
f
= si s
f s f si
2 .1 1 .2

1.178
=
15 .2.1
IRR = 1 2 Q 2
IRR = 1 (65) 2 (1.178) 2
IRR = 76.61
(b) fs = 20 MHz
=

f si f s

f s f si

fsi = fs + 2 IF
= 20 MHz + 2 0.45
fsi = 20.9 MHz
20.9 20
= 0.088

20 20.9
IRR = 5.81
=

07.
Sol:
Given IF = 450 kHz
fs = 15 MHz
image frequency fsi = fs + 2 IF
fsi = 15MHz + 2450 kHz = 15.9 MHz
f
f
si s
f s f si
15.9 15

0.1166
15 15.9
Image rejection ratio IRR = 1 2 Q 2
Q

06.
Sol:

IRR 1
2

Q = 1029.12
(a) IF = Intermediate frequency = 450 kHz
Q = 65
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: 245 :

08.
Sol: Given IF1 2MHz

6. Baseband Data Transmission

IF2 = 0.2 MHz


fs = 30MHz, Q = 75
fsi = fs +2IF1 +2IF2
= 30 + 2 2 + 2 0.2
= 34.4MHz
f
f
si s
f s f si

34.4 30

0.2745
30 34.4

Image rejection ratio IRR = 1 2 Q 2

IRR 1 75 2 0.2745 2
IRR = 20.67

5. Random Variables and Noise


01.
Sol: The auto correlation function is given as
Rxx () = exp (2/22);
Fourier transform of autocorrelation function is
Power Spectral Density.
Using properties of Fourier transform

e at
2

/ 2 2

e
a

f
a

2 2

e
1
2 2

2f 2
1
2 2

; a 2
2

2
2 2

Communication Systems

Pulse Code Modulation


01. (i) Refer IES 15 E & T Conventional
Paper II Q.01, page: 337
(ii) Bandwidth of message signalW= 4 kHz
SNR(dB) = 20 dB
Signal power Ps = 30 mW
2
Noise power (PN) =
12
3.8 3.8

2n
Let n = no. of bits
SNR(dB) = 10 log 10 SNR = 20
SNR = 100
P
SNR s
PN

30 10 3
100
PN
PN = 30 105

2
12PN
12
= 18. 97 mV
3 .8 2
18.97 mV
2n
2n = 400.63 = 8.643
n9
PN

22 e 2 f

2 2 2

PSD= 2 2 e 2 f
normalized average power = Pavg = Rxx(0)= 1W.
2 2 2

02. Refer Theory Booklet.


ACE Engineering Academy

02.
Sol: No. of quantization levels
L = 128
n = log2 L = log 2 128
n=7
sampling frequency fs = 8 kHz

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: 246 :

no. of telephone channels = N=24


BW = nNfs = 24 8 7 = 1.344 MHz

Postal Coaching Solutions

Time Division Multiplexing

03.
(a), (b) Refer Study material & Previous
conventional paper II.

01. Refer Study material p. No. 76

04 . Refer IES 15 E & T Conventional Paper


II Q.06, page: 344

02 . (i) Refer IES 15 E & T Conventional


Paper II Q.14, page: 350
(ii) Refer IES 15 E & T Conventional
Paper II Q.01, page: 337

06.
Sol: BW of message signal W = 100 Hz
Am = 10 =>Dynamic range = Am (Am)
= 10 (10)
= 20 V
(a) Minimum Sampling rate required
fs= fN= 2W = 2100 = 200 samples/sec

04.
Sol: The signals are band limited to 5 kHz, 10
kHz and 5 kHz and hence the Nyquist rates
are 10 kHz, 20 kHz, and 10 kHz
respectively. Thus, there are 10 + 20 +10
= 40 thousand samples per second.

0 .1

(b) quantization error (Qe) =


Am ----(I)
100

Am Am ----------(II)

Qe =
=
2
2 2n
From (I) & (II)
0 .1
2 Am
Am
100
2 2n

2n = 1000
n = 10
(c) minimum bit rate
Rb = nfs = 10200 = 2 kbps
(d) Minimum absolute channel BW = Rb/2
= 2/2 = 1 kHz
09 . Refer IES 15 E & T Conventional Paper
II Q.03, page: 342
10 . Refer IES 15 E & T Conventional Paper
II Q.04, page: 344
11 . Refer IES 15 E & T Conventional Paper
II Q.01, page: 337
ACE Engineering Academy

Number of quantization levels L = 256


Hence, number of bits n is given by
2n = 256
Giving n = 8
Hence output bit rate = 8 40 = 320 kbps
(a) Maximum bit duration
1

10 3 s 3.125 s
320
(b) The channel bandwidth
1
= 10 20 10 8 160kHz
2
(c) There are 10000+20000+10000 = 40000
samples per second generated by the
commutator. Hence the samples generated
in one minute is 60 40000 = 24 105
The commutator takes 4 samples in one
rotation.
Hence, the commutator speed
24 10 5
=
6 10 5 rpm
4
(d) For M = 512, N comes out be equal to 9
(as 2N = M )

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: 247 :

Channel bandwidth
1
= 10 20 10 9 180kHz
2

Communication Systems

The actual value of

Ps
is given by
PN

Ps
3 R
3 64
b 192
PN 64 W
64 4
P
P
Hence, s dB 10 log10 s
PN
PN
= 10 log 10 192 = 22.83 dB

06 . Refer IES 15 E & T Conventional Paper


II Q.08, page: 346
07 . Refer IES 15 E & T Conventional Paper
II Q.02, page: 334

Which is approximately 1 dB more than


the worst-case value.

Delta Modulation
7. Bandpass Data Transmission

01. (i) Refer study material


(ii) Refer study material
02 . Refer IES 15 E & T Conventional Paper
II Q.02, page: 339

02. Refer Theory Booklet.

8. Noise in Analog Communication

03. (i), (ii) Refer Study material


04 . Refer IES 15 E & T Conventional Paper
II Q.11, page: 347
06.
Sol: Given, bit rate Rb = 64 kbps
Signal bandwidth W = 4 kHz
Hence, signal to quantization noise ratio
Ps
is
PN
3

Ps
3 f
3 R
b b
PN 80 f M 80 W

3 64
=153.6
80 4

P
P
Hence, s dB 10 log10 s
PN
PN
= 10 log10 153.6 = 21.86 dB
P
This value of s is worst case value.
PN
ACE Engineering Academy

02.
Sol: Resistance of antenna Ra = 50
Equivelent noise resistance
Req = 30
R eq
30
f 1
1
Ra
50
f = 1.6
f (dB) = 2.04 dB
= 10 log 1.6
f (dB) = 2.04 dB
ter = To (f 1)
But To = 290 = 17oC
07.
Sol:

Given that BW = 500 106 Hz


F = 2.5 dB
10log10 F = 2.5
F = 1.778

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: 248 :

Noise temperature Tn = T(F 1)


= 290 (1.7781) = 225.62 K
Internal noise power Pn = KTnB
Pn = 1.38 1023 225.62 500 106
Pn = 1.557 1012 = 1.557 pW
08.
Sol: Given: F = 4 dB
10 log10 F = 4
F = 2.5112, B = 500 kHz
Output SNR = 1
input SNR
S / Ni
F
i
output SNR So / N o
(SNR)i/p = F (SNR) o/p = F
Since, (SNR)i/p
= Si/Ni, input signal power Si is given as
Si = F Ni
Ni = KTB
= 1.38 1023 290 500 103
Therefore, Si = F Ni
= 2.512 1.38 1023 290 500103
Si = 5.026 1015 Volts
Si = 5.026 1015 Volts

Postal Coaching Solutions

As the quantizer is designed to be


equiprobable, the area under each region
should be equal and the total area under
p(x) si 1.

i.e.

px dx 1

px dx 1 3A 1

i.e.

1
1
2
X2a a
4
3
3

03.
Sol: Quantization power

pn

2
2
x px dx x px dx
a

x3
1
x dx
4
12 a
a
a

2a 3 a 3
23
4

12
6 3 6 81

Matched Filter
Modulation

9. Noise in digital Communication


01.
Sol:

Pulse Code Modulation

1
3

p(t)

3
01. Refer IES 15 E & T Conventional Paper
II Q.13, page: 349

T =1
0

p(x)

02.
Sol:

Region
1

y(t) = o/p = [h(t) * p(t)]

1/8

ACE Engineering Academy

h(t) = I.R = p (T t)

1/4

Region
2
1 a

p(t)

Region
3
+a 1

+3

p(t)

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: 249 :

h(t) = p (T t)

Communication Systems

02.
Sol:

g(t)
1

p(t) * h(t)
0

p(t)*h(t)

h(t) = g(T t)

g(t)

1 0

1
pt 3r t 3r t 1 3u t 1
pt 3 r t r t 1 u t 1 ---(1)
h t 3u t 3r t 3r t 1

h(t) = g(T t) h(t)

h t 3 u t r t r t 1 2

1 e s e s
Ps 3 2 2

s
s
s
1 1 e s
Hs 3 2 2
s
s s

y(t) = g(t) * h(t)

P(s) H(s) = X(s)

the maximum value of the signal at t = T is


equal to the energy of the signal

1 1 es es es e2s es es e2s
3 3 4 4 3 4 4 2 3 3
s
s
s
s
s
s
s s s

t; 0 t 1
g t
1; 1 t 2

1 1 2e s e s e 2s e 2s
3 3 4 4 2 3 4
s
s
s
s
s
s
1
1
1
3
3 t 2ut t 3ut t 1 ut 1 t 1ut 1
6
3
2
1
1

2
3
t 2 ut 2 t 2 ut 3
2
6

1 1 3 1
y1 3 y
2 6 2 2
y(1) = 1
ACE Engineering Academy

E(g(t)) =

| gt | dt
2

t 2 dt 1 dt
2

t3
4
E 1 J
3
3 0
Eg t

4
3
The maximum value of the output is
M = 4/3 and it occurs at t = T =2

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: 250 :

Postal Coaching Solutions

According to optimum decision rule:


Threshold value
0 = 0

Probability of Error
01.
Sol: The pdfs of received symbol are given as

(b)

f(z/s)
f(z/s2)

1.9 0.1 0 0.1

pe

f(z/s1)

1/2

1/2

1.9

1 s1 1 s 2
p p
2 s 2 2 s1

s
p 1 probability that s2 is sent and s1 is
s2
received
s
p 2 probability that s1 is sent and s2 is
s1
received
s
1
p 2 0.1
2
s1
s
p 2
s1

1
0.1
2

1
1
1 1
p e 0 .1 0 .1
2
2
2 2
1
1
0.1 2 0.05
2
2
The optimum threshold is considered to be 0
02.
Sol: a1 = 1
a2 = 1
(a) The symbols are given to be
equiprobable
The decision threshold
a a
1 1
0 = 1 2 =
0
2
2
ACE Engineering Academy

a a2
Pe = Q 1
2
Given Variance
2 = 0.1
= 0.3162
1 1
Pe = Q
2 0.3162
Pe = Q 3.162

03.
Ed
Sol: Pe = Q

2 No
Tb

S t S t dt
2

Ed =

Tb

A. A dt
2

= 4TbA2

4T A 2
b
Pe = Q
2 N 0

Pe 10 6
For x = 4.75

4Tb A 2
4.75
2N 0

4A 2 Tb
2
4.75
2N 0
A2 = 4.693104
A = 21.66 mV

A2 A2
Signal power =
= 0.4693 mW
2

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: 251 :

Communication Systems

04.

2E p

Sol: s1(t) = A cos ct

N0

s2(t) = A cosc t
A = 20 mV;
Rb = 1Mbps
Tb

1
1

R s 1mbps

2E p
N0

200 10 12
2 10 11

2 10 10 1011
10
2

Pe Q 10

Pe Q4.472

Tb = 1 106 s

E p E q 2E pq
Pe Q

2N0

A 2 Tb
A2
Ep
Tb ; E q
2
2

Pe= 3.9 104

10. Information Theory and coding

03 . Refer IES 15 E & T Conventional Paper


II Q.07, page: 291

Tb

E pq pt qt dt
0

A 2 Tb
E p
2

04 . Refer IES 15 E & T Conventional Paper


II Q.09, page: 292

E p E p 2E p
Pe Q
2N0

4E p
Pe Q

2 N 0

05 . Refer IES 15 E & T Conventional Paper


II Q.10, page: 293
06 . Refer IES 15 E & T Conventional Paper
II Q.22, page: 302

N0
10 11
2
N0 = 2 1011

07 . Refer IES 15 E & T Conventional Paper


II Q.09, page: 292
08 . Refer IES 15 E & T Conventional Paper
II Q.12, page: 295

2 Ep
Pe Q
11
2 10

10 . Refer study material

A 2 Tb
But E p
2

20 10 1 10

3 2

Ep

400 10 12
2

ACE Engineering Academy

11.
Sol: Standard telephone channel BW = 3kHz
C = B log2 (1+S/N)
S
10 log10 32dB
N
S
10 3.2
N
S
1584.90
N

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: 252 :

Postal Coaching Solutions

P
Also H T
I m

C = 3000 log2 1584.90


C = 9600 Hz
C = 9.6 kHz

But since m =1, Im = [1]


13. Refer IES 15 E & T Conventional Paper
II Q.21, page: 201

1
1


T
And H


1
1

11. Error Correcting Codes


02.
Sol:
1 0 0 0 1
1
0 1 0 0 1
1

(a) G ; P


0
0
0

1
1

Ik
P
note that m = 1

03.
Sol:
Data word
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1

(b)
Data word
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

Code word
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1

(c) This is a parity check code. If a single error


occurs anywhere in the code word, the
parity is violated. Therefore this code can
detect a single error.
(d) cHT = 0
Now r = c e

And rH T c e H T cH T eH T eH T

0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0

Code word
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1

0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0

From this code we see that the distance


between any two code words is at least 3.
Hence dmin = 3
04.
Sol:
Data word
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

Code word
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0

0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0

Observe that dmin = 3

If there is no error e = 0 and


rH T eH T 0
ACE Engineering Academy

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: 253 :

(c) the minimum distance between any two code


words is 3. Hence, this is a single error
correcting code. Since there are 6 single
errors and 7 syndromes, we can correct all
single errors and one double error.

05. (a)
Sol:

1
1
1 1 1

1
1 1 0
T
& H
1 0 1
1

0
P

1 0 0
0 1 0
G
0 0 1

Ik

1
1
0
0
1
0

Communication Systems

1
0
1

0
0

(d)
E
1
0
0
0
0
0
1

(b)
Data word
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1

Code word
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0

0
1
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
1
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
1
0
0
1

0
0
0
0
1
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
0

1
1
1
1
0
0
0

S
1
1
0
0
1
0
1

1
0
1
0
0
1
1

s = eHT

s = eHT
(e)
r
1
0
1

0
0
0

1
0
1

s
1
1
0

0
1
1

0
0
0

1 1 0
1 1 0
0 0 0

e
0
0
0

1
1
0

0
0
0

06.
Sol:
Data word
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1

0
0
1
1

Code word
0 0 0
1 1 1
0 1 0
1 0 1

c
0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

1
1

1
(b) H T
0
0

1
0
1

1
1
0

1
0
0
1
0
0

1
0
1

1
1
0
0
1
0

d
1
1
0

0
1
1

0
0
0

1 1 1
0 1 0
1 0 1

0
1
0
T
and s = eH
0
0

The minimum distance between any two


code words is dmin = 4. Therefore, it can
correct all 1-error patterns. Since the code
over satisfies hamming bound it can also
correct some 2- error and possibly some
3-error patterns.
ACE Engineering Academy

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: 254 :

Postal Coaching Solutions

6 single- error patterns

7double- error patterns

2 triple- error patterns

1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0

0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0

0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1

s
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1

0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1

1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1

1
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

1
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
0

0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1

The code word is 11111111

07.
Sol:
Systematic (7, 4) cyclic code
g(x) = x3 + x + 1
For data 1111d(x) = x3 + x2 + x +1

For data 1110 d(x) = x3 +x2 +x


x3 x2

x3 x 1 x6 x5 x 4
x4 x3

x6

x3 x3 x 2 x 1 x6 x5 x 4 x3
x3 x 2 1

x5

x3

x5

x3 x2
x2

x3 x 1 x6 x5 x 4 x3
x4 x3

x6

The code word is 1110100

x5

A similar procedure is used to find the

x5 x3 x2

remaining codes

x3 x2
x3 x 1
x 2 x 1

c(x) = (x3 + x+ 1) (x3 + x+ 1)

(b) From table 1


It can be seen that the minimum distance
between any two codes is 3. Hence this is a
single error correcting code.

= x6 x5 x 4 x3 x 2 x 1
ACE Engineering Academy

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: 255 :
d
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0

1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0

1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0

1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0

c
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0

1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0

1
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
0

1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0

Table: 1
(c) There are seven possible non-zero syndromes
For e = 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
x3 x 1

x3 x 1 x6
x6 x4 x3

x3 x2 x
x 1

x3

x2

s = 101
The remaining syndromes are shown in table 2.
0
1
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
1
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
1
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
1

Table :2
ACE Engineering Academy

x3 x 1 x6 x5

x3 x2
x4 x3

x6

x5 x4

x2
x3 x2

x5
x4 x3

x2 x

x4

x3 x2 x
x 1

x3
x2

s(x) = x +1
s=101
from table 2
e=1000000
c=re=11011001000000
=0101100
Hence d = 0 1 0 1

x2 x

x4

1
0
0
0
0
0
0

(d) The received data is 1101100


r(x) = x6 +x5 +x3 +x2

12. Optical Fiber Communication

x4 x3

E
0
0
0
1
0
0
0

Communication Systems

1
1
1
0
1
0
0

S
0
1
1
1
0
1
0

1
1
0
1
0
0
1

01.
Sol: Refer IES - 15 Previous Conventional
paper II solution book, Page number:
360, Question number: 18
03
Sol: Given data :
n1 = refractive index = 1.5
= relative refractive index = 3.0 %
n 2 n 22
= 1
2n 1

n 22 = n 12 - 2 n 12 = 1.52 [1 - 2 0.03]
= 2.115
3n 12
Rc =
4(n 12 n 22 ) 3 / 2

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: 256 :

0.8 i nch

3 1 .5 2 0 .8
4(1.5 2 2.115) 3 / 2
Rc = 8.67 in

06.
Sol:

Rc =

04.
Sol:
Refer IES - 15 Previous Conventional paper II
solution book, Page number: 360, Question
number: 17
05
Sol: Advantages of single mode fibers over multi
mode fibers are:
The single mode fiber has the distinct
advantage of low intermodal dispersion
(broadening of transmitted light pulses), as
only one mode is transmitted where as with
multimode step index fiber considerable
dispersion may occur due to the differing
group velocities of the propagating modes.
This in turn restricts the maximum
bandwidth attainable with multimode step
index fibers, especially when compared with
single mode fibers.
For
lower
bandwidth
applications,
multimode fibers have several advantages
over single mode fiber mode fibers.
(a) Lower tolerance requirements on fiber
connectors
(b) The numerical apertures and the core
diameters being large, thus facilating
easier coupling to optical sources.
(c) Use of spatially incoherent optical
sources which cannot be effeciently
coupled to single mode fibers.

ACE Engineering Academy

Postal Coaching Solutions

Refer IES - 15 Previous Conventional


paper II solution book, Page number:
358, Question number: 15
07.
Sol: Refer IES - 15 Previous Conventional
paper II solution book, Page number:
353, Question number: 02
08.
Sol:

Refer IES - 15 Previous Conventional


paper II solution book, Page number:
354, Question number: 03

09
Refer IES - 15 Previous Conventional paper
II solution book, Page number: 354,
Question number: 04, 05
10.
Sol:
Refer IES - 15 Previous Conventional paper
II solution book, Page number: 355,
Question number: 06
11.
Sol: Refer IES - 15 Previous Conventional
paper II solution book, Page number:
355, Question number: 07
12.
Sol: Refer IES - 15 Previous Conventional
paper II solution book, Page number:
355,356, Question number: 08
13.
Sol: Refer IES - 15 Previous Conventional
paper II solution book, Page number:
356, Question number: 09

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: 257 :

14.
Sol: Refer IES - 15 Previous Conventional
paper II solution book, Page number:
356, Question number: 10
15.
Sol: Refer IES - 15 Previous Conventional
paper II solution book, Page number:
357, Question number: 11

16.
Sol: Refer IES - 15 Previous Conventional
paper II solution book, Page number:
358, Question number: 13
17.
Sol: Refer IES - 15 Previous Conventional
paper II solution book, Page number:
357, Question number: 12
18.
Sol: Refer IES - 15 Previous Conventional
paper II solution book, Page number:
358, Question number: 14
19.
Sol: Refer IES - 15 Previous Conventional
paper II solution book, Page number:
354, Question number: 05 and Page
number 359, Question number: 16
20.
Sol: NA = 0.20
2an 1 (2 )1 / 2
d
V=
=
NA

m = number of modes = 1000


V2
m=
2
2
V = 2000
V = 2000

ACE Engineering Academy

Communication Systems

d 0.2
850 nm
d = 60499.82 nm
d 60.50 m

V=

V2
2
d
V=
NA

At 1320 nm
60.50 10 6 0.2
V=
= 28.79
1.320 10 6
V2
m=
= 415
2

(b) m =

(c) At 1550 nm
d
V=
NA

60.50 10 6
=
0 .2
1.550 10 6
= 24.52
V2
m=
= 300
2
21
Sol: (a) = 820 nm
d = 2a = 2 25 = 50 m
n 1 = 1.48
n 2 1.46
NA = n 12 n 22 = 1.48 2 1.46 2 = 0.242
2d
V=
NA

50 10 6
=
0.242 = 46.35
820 10 9
(b) m =

V2
= 1075
2

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: 258 :

50 10 6
d
0.242 = 28.79
NA =

1320 10 9
V2
m=
= 415
2
50 10 6
d
(d) V =
0.242 = 24.52
NA =

1550 10 9
V2
m=
= 300
2
(c) V =

22
Sol: n 1 = 1.48
= 0.01
Radius a = 25 m
V = normalized frequency
d
=
n 1 ( 2 )1 / 2

= 1320nm
50 10 6
V=
1.48(2 0.01)1 / 2
9
1320 10
= 24.91
V 2 24.912
m=
=
= 310.18
2
2
23
Sol: a = radius = 5 m
= 0.002
n 1 = 1.480
(a) V = normalized frequency
For 0 V 2.406 the fiber is simple mode
fiber
(b)

10 10 6
V=
1.48(2 0.002)1 / 2 = 3.586
9
820 10
As V > 2.406 the fiber is not single mode.

ACE Engineering Academy

Postal Coaching Solutions

24
Sol: d = 62.5 m

=2;
NA = 0.275
= 850nm

V=

(b) m =

d
62.5
NA =
0.275 = 63.52

850

V2
2
63.52 2
=

=1008
2 2
22
2

m = 1008

25
Sol:

n 1 = 1.48; =2
= 0.010
= 1310nm.

V = normalized frequency
=

d
n 1 ( 2 )1 / 2

2.406 =

d 1.48
(2 0.010)1 / 2
1310 10 9

= 24.91
d = 4793 nm

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: 259 :

13. Satellite Communication

Communication Systems

21.
Sol:
(a). Path loss= 20 log ( 4 R / ) = 20 log ( 4

02. Refer IES 15 E & T conventional paper _


II Q.01, page: 362

37,500 10 / 0.04918) dB
LP= 199.6 dB

07. Refer IES 15 E & T conventional paper _


(b). Uplink power budget gives

II Q.06, page: 364

Pr = Pt + Gt + Gr - Lp dBW
08. Refer IES 15 E & T conventional paper _

= 20 + 54 + 26 199.6 = -99.6 dBW

II Q.09, page: 364,365


(c). N = k Ts BN
09. Refer IES 15 E & T conventional paper _

= -228.6 + 27 + 75.6 = -126.0 dBW

II Q.11, page: 365


(d). C/N = Pr N = -99.6 + 126.0 = 26.4 dB
12. Refer IES 15 E & T conventional paper _
(e). The gain of the transponder is 110 dB.
Output power is

II Q.16, page: 367


15. Refer IES 15 E & T conventional paper _
II Q.19, page: 369
17. Refer IES 15 E & T conventional paper _
II Q.22, page: 371,372

Pt

= Pr + G = -99.6 + 110
1.04
= 10.4 dBW or 10
= 11.0 W.

22.
Sol:
(a). G = 33,000 / ( 6 x 3)
= 1833 or 32.6 dB on axis.

18. Refer IES 15 E & T conventional paper _


II Q.24, page: 372,373
19. Refer IES 15 E & T conventional paper _
II Q.25, page: 373

Hence satellite antenna gain towards earth


station is 32.6 3 = 29.6 dB.
(b) Path loss = 20 log ( 4 R / )

20. Refer IES 15 E & T conventional paper _

= 20 log ( 4 39,000 10 / 0.07742) dB

II Q.27, page: 374


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: 260 :

Lp = 196.0 dB Downlink power budget gives

(c) Margin is receiver


permitted C/N, in dB

Pr = Pt + Gt + Gr - Lp dBW

= 10 + 29.6 + 53 196.0 = -103.4 dBW

Postal Coaching Solutions

C/N

minimum

Margin = 9.8 6.0 = 3.8 dB.


24.
Sol: Answer: Wavelengths are: 1.6 GHz, =
0.1875 m; 1.5 GHz, = 0.200 m
Path loss = 20 log ( 4 R / )

(c). N = k Ts BN
= -228.6 + 20 + 75.6 = -133.0 dBW

For 1.6 GHz, Maximum Lp = 20 log ( 4


3

2,500 10 / 0.1875) = 64.5 dB


(d). C/N = Pr N = -103.4 + 133.0 = 29.6 dB
23.
Sol:
(a). In FDMA, the output power of the transmitter
is divided equally between the channels. For
Pt = 20 W and 500 channels, power per
channels is 20 / 500 = 40 mW/ch.
(b). Each channel receiver has a noise bandwidth
of 50 kHz or 47 dBHz. Path loss at 11GHz is

For 1.5 GHz Lp

= 20 log ( 4 38,500 10 / 0.200)


= 187.7 dB
25.
Sol:
(a) Flux density is given by
2
2
F = 20 log [ Pt Gt / (4 R ) ] dBW/m
Hence for R = 38,500 km,
f = 4 GHz, = 0.075 m

206.0 dB, including atmospheric loss.


10 log Pt + Gt - 10 log (4 ) - 20
3
2
log (38,500 10 ) dBW / m
=
10.0 +30.0 - 11.0 - 151.7
2
= -122.7 dBW / m

F =
Downlink power budget for one FDMA
channel gives Pr = Pt + Gt + Gr - Lp dBW
= -14.0 + 30.0 + 40.0 206.0 = -150.0 dBW

(b) Received power can be calculated from the


The noise power at the input to the receiver is

effective area of the antenna aperture and the

N = k Ts BN = -228.6 + 21.8 + 47.0 = -159.8

incident flux density, but since the antenna

dBW Hence C/N = Pr N


= -150.0 + 159.8 = 9.8 dB.

gain is given in dB, it is better to use path

ACE Engineering Academy

loss and the link budget.

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: 261 :

Path loss Lp = 20 log (4 R / )


3

= 10 log (4 38,500 10 / 0.075)


= 196.2 dB Downlink power budget gives
Pr = Pt + Gt + Gr - Lp dBW

Communication Systems

27.
Sol:
(a) EIRP = Pt + Gt = Pt + 52 dBW
Flux density is given by
2
2
F = 20 log [ EIRP / (4 R ) ] dBW/m
Hence for R = 39,000 km,
f = 14.3 GHz, = 0.02010 m

= 10.0 + 30.0 + 39.0 196.2


= -117.2 dBW Alternatively, the
received power can be found from

F =

-90.0 = EIRP - 10 log (4 ) - 20


3

log (39,000 10 ) dBW / m - 90.0


Pr = F Aeff where Aeff is the effective
aperture area of the antenna. Given G = 4
2

Aeff / = 39 dB, we can find Aeff from


Aeff = G + 20 log - 11.0 dB
= 39.0 22.5 11.0 = 5.5 dB m

(c) Transponder EIRP

= Pt + Gt = 10 + 30
= 40 dBW

26.
Sol:
(a) Path loss Lp = 20 log (4 R / ) = 10 log (4
2000 10

EIRP = -90.0 + 162.8 = 72.8 dBW


(b) EIRP = Pt + Gt = 72.8 dBW.

Pr = -122.7 + 5.5 = - 117.2 dBW / m

= EIRP - 11.0 - 151.8 dBW / m

/ 0.120) = 166.4 dB

Downlink power budget gives


Pr = Pt + Gt + Gr - Lp - losses dBW
= -3.0 + 18.0 + 1.0 166.4 3.0
= -153.4 dBW
(b) The noise power at the input to the receiver is
N = k Ts BN = -228.6 + 24.1 + 43.0
= -161.5 dBW

Hence Pt = 72.8 52.0 = 20.8 dBW.


28.
Sol: System noise temperature is calculated from
Ts = Tantenna + TLNA + Tmixer / GLNA + .
Hence for GLNA = 40 dB
= 10,000 as a ratio
Ts = 50 + 100 + 1000 / 10,000
= 150.1 K
29.
Sol:
(a) Flux density is given by
2
2
F = 20 log [ EIRP / (4 R ) ] dBW/m
Hence for R = 38,000 km, f = 4.0 GHz,
= 0.0750 m, EIRP = 13.0 + 30.0
= 43.0 dBW
F = 43.0 - 10 log (4 ) - 20 log
3

(38,000 10 ) dBW / m

= 43.0 - 11.0 - 151.6 = -119.6 dBW / m

(c) C/N = Pr N = -153.4 + 161.5 = 8.1 dB.


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: 262 :

Postal Coaching Solutions

(b) The effective area of the antenna is


(c) At f = 20 GHz, = 0.0150 m:

Aeff = A r = 0.65 1
= 2.042 m or 3.1 dBm

For an incident flux density of -119.6 dBW


2
-12
2
/ m or 1.10 10 W/m
Pr

= 2.042 1.10 10
= 2.24 10

-12

-12

W or 116.5 dBW

or Pr = -119.6 + 3.1 = -116.5 dBW


(c). Antenna gain for a circular aperture is given
2
by G = A ( D / )
2

G = 10 log ( 0.65 ( 2 / 0.0750) )


= 36.6 dB
(d). At a frequency of 4.0 GHz, = 0.075 m.
Path loss = 20 log ( 4 R / )
3
= 20 log ( 4 38,000 10 / 0.075) dB

Antenna gain for a circular aperture is given


2

by G = A ( D / )

G = 10 log ( 0.65 ( 2 / 0.0150) )


= 50.6 dB
(d) At a frequency of 20.0 GHz, = 0.015 m.
Path loss = 20 log ( 4 R / )
3

= 20 log ( 4 38,000 10 / 0.015) dB


Lp = 210.1 dB

Lp = 196.1 dB
Downlink power budget gives
Pr = Pt + Gt + Gr - Lp dBW
= 13 + 30.0 + 36.6 196.1 = -116.5 dBW

Downlink power budget gives


Pr

= Pt + Gt + Gr - Lp dBW
= 13 + 30.0 + 50.6 210.1

30.
Sol:
(a) Flux density is independent of frequency, so
the result is the same as in Problem 10
above.
F = -119.6 dBW / m

= -116.5 dBW
The answer is the same as in Question 10 for
the 4 GHz satellite because the incident flux
density on the earths surface is the same,

(b) Given a flux density at the earths surface,

and the antenna effective area is the same.

an antenna of area Aeff m collects the same


power at any frequency. Hence the result is
the same as in question 10 above.
Pr = 2.042 1.10 10
= 2.24 10
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-12

-12

W or 116.5 dBW
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