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Modernism & Metaphor in Contemporary Arabic Poetry

Author(s): Saadi A. Simawe
Source: World Literature Today, Vol. 75, No. 2 (Spring, 2001), pp. 275-284
Published by: Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma
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/[YloDERNISM
*
&
\J * METAPHOR
in CONTEMPORARY

J^lRABIC POETRY
SAADI A. SIMAWE

around theThe
ninthright
centu- use of
But metaphorical language is the most important.
metaphors is a sign of inborn talent and cannot
bebecame
learned
from
ry and
pro-

anyone else.

foundly catalytic in the

- Aristotle, Poetics

formative period of
Arabic literary criticism, postu-

In his short essay for the "metaphor" (isti'ara, literally

lates the centrality of metaphor

"borrowing") entry in the Encyclopedia of Arabic Litera-

in the very act of the literary

ture, W. P. Heinrichs aptly laments the remarkable

dearth of studies on the nature and function of meta-

creation. Reverently labeled as

"the First Teacher," Aristotle

phor in Arabic poetry: "A history of metaphor and its

put forth a concept of meta-

function in Arabic poetry (or literature in general) has

phor that not only made

not been yet written, and studies of metaphor in cir-

many Arab critics and poets

cumscribed corpora of texts, such as the oeuvre of a par- conscious of metaphor

ticular poet, are few and far between." Even in S.

as the essence of great

(above) Badr ShakTr al-Sayyab (Iraq)

Moreh's Modern Arabic Poetry 1800-1970: The Develop-

literature but also

{below) Muhammad 'Afifi Matar (Egypt)

ment of Its Forms and Themes Under the Influence of West- inspired them to

ern Literature (1976), a work that has been considered

experiment with it.

crucial in delineating the main characteristics of mod-

Hence the nature of lit-

ern Arabic poetry, there is a jarring absence of discus-

erary tajdid (innovation) throughout Arabic literary tra-

sion of the modernistic uses of metaphor. Yet Aristotle, dition cannot be fully appreciated without a careful
whose Poetics and Rhetoric were translated into Arabic

examination of the historical evolution of metaphor. In

WORLD LITERATURE TODAY * 75:2 * SPRING 2001 * 275

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this paper, I will first highlight the transforming power

of metaphor in Arabic poetic tradition, then examine its

nature and function in belletristic modernism, focusing

on the poetry of three contemporary Arab poets, each

of whom represents distinct aspects of modernism.

These are the Iraqi Badr Shaklr al-Sayyab (1926-64), the

Egyptian Muhammad 'Afifi Matar (b. 1935), and the

Palestinian Mahmud Darwlsh (b. 1941).

As a literary term, metaphor, though it is epistemo-

logically saturated with cultural significations, does

mean and function in Arabic as it does in English and

other Western literatures. A survey of literary studies of

metaphor indicates that the concept is generally defined,

even in its mushiness and unruliness, in similar terms in
Arabic and in English literary criticism. Twentieth-cen-

Badr Shakir al-Sayyab, "A Stranger at the Gulf" (excerpt)

tury studies of languages have aided literary critics in

further studies of metaphor. One of the revolutionary

recent Western studies of language and metaphor have

landmarks in the study of metaphor is I. A. Richards's

had a profound impact on modern Arabic literary criti-

classic, The Philosophy of Rhetoric (1939), in which he

cism. Literary historians usually attribute the emer-

convincingly expands the traditional function of meta-

gence of Arabic literary criticism and literary theory to

phor from merely creating verbal pictures to creating

two historical factors: 1) the challenges of the Qur'an

new meanings. His crucial idea is that metaphor "is the

and the subsequent active Qur'anic exegesis that pri-

omni-present principle" of all language, for "the meta-

marily focused on the hermeneutic significance of the

phors we are avoiding steer our thought as much as

literal and the figurative or tropical (majaz), on the one

those we accept" (92). In other words, metaphor,

hand, and on the location of meaning and truth in the

Richards argues, makes language possible. Building on

interaction between the literal and the figurative, on the

Richards's theory, Owen Barfield, Philip Wheelwright,

other; and 2) the translation of the Greek works, espe-

and Winfred Nowottny, among others, recognize the

cially the philosophical works of Aristotle and Plato

omnipresence of metaphor not only in poetry but even

around the second century of Hijra (approximately the

in everyday language. Recent investigations of meta-

ninth century A.D.). Around this time major critical the-

phor, such as Paul de Man's Aesthetic Ideology (1996)

ories and schools began to become established, with

and Paul Ricoeur's Rule of Metaphor (1973), have identi-

Umayyad philologist al-Asma'I (d. 213/828) founding

fied the function of metaphor as not merely a figure of

his poetic standards for good poetry. Later, Ibn Sallam

speech that helps expand the language by fusing a

al-Jumahl (139-232/756-846) reflected his critical evalu-

word with another one in order to produce a Hegelian

ation of poetry in his Tabaqat Fuhul al-Shu'ara' (Classes

synthesis, but as the essence of all figurativeness that

of Great Poets). Al-Jahiz (b. 160/776) postulated his the-

makes even our expanding thought possible.

ory of style and was the first to define metaphor. Ac-

cording to him, metaphor is the borrowing of one

Metaphor and Innovation in Classical Arabic
Poetry

aspect of a word and attributing it to another (Azzam,

36). He did not distinguish between metaphor and

other figures of speech as we know them now, assum-

Before I discuss the modernistic manifestations of meta-

ing, probably following Aristotle, that metaphor is the

phor in selected poems, I think it is imperative to out-quintessential trope or figure of speech, in that all fig-

ures of speech are essentially metaphorical.

line the evolution of metaphor in classical and muhdath
Frequently the particular use of metaphor seems to

("new poetry," after the early Islamic period from

have defined the nature of tajdid (innovation) and of the

around the ninth century) Arabic poetry. Arab scholars
were exposed to Aristotelian definitions of literary

individual talent of a poet; that is, the more imaginative

terms much earlier than were European scholars.

the poet, the more sophisticated his or her metaphor.

Hence, metaphor has a longer and more complicated Significantly, the literary battles between the traditionhistory in Arabic literature. Yet the abovementioned alists and the innovators in Arabic poetry as they are

276 WORLD LITERATURE TODAY * 75:2 * SPRING 2001

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reflected in the history of literary criticism from early

duced their poetic power by failing to reflect either their

medieval times to the present were in most cases fought

cultural connotations or their linguistic delight. Lan-

over the nature of metaphor and figures of speech

guage, especially in poetry, not only becomes more cul-

(majaz). The major innovators throughout Arabic literary

tural; it even becomes more tactile, providing special

history were usually initially attacked because of the

pleasures for the mouth and the ear. The italicized

nature and function of their metaphor. In other words,

words in the above lines are metaphors in the Arabic

change in metaphor has been considered change in the

original, though in line 8 the translation reduces the

very nature of poetics and of meaning in general. In

metaphor to a simile by using "like." And in line 53, a

Jahiliyyah (pre-Islamic) poetry, simile rules supreme in

classical example of metaphor is totally lost in the trans-

the poetic landscape, though we find occasional uses of

lation. In the Arabic text, the line describes the lean, fast

metaphor that do not go beyond conceptual comparison,

horse as a chain or lock of wild animals. It is interesting

as in the famous elegy by the mukhadram ("a poet who

to note that most of the metaphors in this mu'allaqa are

lived in Jahiliyyah and Islam") Abu Dhu'ayb al-Hudhall

simple and are constructed in one single line or phrase.

on the death of his sons: "I have stayed behind after

Yet, by the standard of pre-Islamic and early Islamic po-

they [have gone], with a life that is full of misfortune. I

etry, they were probably as striking as Homer's similes.

see myself trying to follow them and overtake them. /

The historical evolution of figures of speech in Ara-

[How] eager I was to protect them; but when Fate

bic poetry reveals that metaphor is a creation of a so-

advances it cannot be warded off. / When Fate fixes its

phisticated imagination and bold semantic and syntactic

adventures. When the Qur'an was introduced, it caused

claws [into its prey], you find every charm [against it] to
be of no avail" (11. 7-9; Jones, vol. 2, p. 259). A clear use

a linguistic and figurative revolution so stunning to the

of implied metaphor occurs in line 9, in which Fate, an

Arab poets and orators that they believed it was a divine

abstraction, is given the claws of a wild animal. Yet in its

or Satanic work (Azzam, 67-68), considering it impossi-

sixty-two lines, the poem seems to reach its peak of

ble for humans to compose anything even remotely sim-

power when it uses metaphor as in line 9.

ilar. Thus, the Qur'an, perceived as a challenge and /or a

In the Mu'allaqa (Ode) of Imru' al-Qays (sixth centu-

miracle, triggered literary activism that inaugurated the

ry), which is traditionally considered the jewel of Jahi-

idea of exegesis, which in turn gave birth to literary crit-

liyyah poetry, one finds in its eighty-two lines twenty-

icism. A prominent aspect of the powerful eloquence of

four uses of simile and only six metaphors. These six are

the Qur'an is no doubt its figurative language. Major

primarily one-line metaphors, and in most cases are gen-

Qur'anic exegetes painstakingly tried to account for the

itive:

miraculous power in its divinity, claiming, for example,

When they stood up, the scent of musk wafted from them
like breath of the east wind bearing the fragrance of cloves

(1.8)
I said to her, "Ride on, but slacken the reins of [your camel].
Do not put me at a distance from the fruit that can be plucked

time and time again from you (1. 15)

And if there is some trait of mine that has vexed you, draw
my garments from yours [and] they will slip away (1. 20)
Your eyes have shed their tears only that you may smite
with the two arrows of you[r eyes that strike] into the frag-

ments of a slaughtered heart (1. 22)

When either of us gets something, it slips away from him.
Whoever tills your tilth or mine will find lean pickings (1. 52)
From time to time I used to journey in the morning, whilst
the birds were still in their nests, on a well-built short-haired
[horse], able to rein in wild game (I.53)

(Jones, vol. 2, pp. 239-43; italics added)

that it is the very word of God or that God naturally

would not endow a human with the ability to produce a

text similar in its spiritual power to the Qur'an, thus

making His Book inimitable.

Even by the poetic standard of medieval Arabic

poetry, pre-Islamic metaphor was considered dead

metaphor, and poets sought fresh ways to respond to a
relatively more complex life. Al-Mutanabbi (c. 303-54/c.
915-65), considered the most prominent Arab poet of all
times, became the epicenter of one of the longest and
fiercest literary debates in history, primarily because of

his radical innovations in metaphor. To a lesser extent,

other major poets such as Abu Nuwas (c. 140-c. 198 /c.
755-c. 813), Abu Tammam (c. 189-c. 232/c. 805-45), an<^

Bashshar Ibn Burd (c. 95-c. 167/c. 714-84), who are called
muhdathun or "modernist poets" in the early Abbasid
period, faced harsh criticism from both traditional critics

and poets. In all of these cases the change in metaphor

Obviously, to contemporary readers these are very sim-

was the evidence of their poetic sin, so to speak (Hein-

ple and vapid metaphors, and the translation has re-

richs, 1984, 185-89; Stetkevych 8-19; 'Abbas, 167-68).

WORLD LITERATURE TODAY * 75:2 SPRING 2001 * 277

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During the early Abbasid period, the new urban

life, the active translation movement, and the stimulat-

ing encounter with more advanced civilizations of Persia, Greece, and Rome inspired Arab poets to modernize
their poetic styles and themes. The emergence of new

poetry called muhdath ("novel" or "modern") and its

practitioners, muhdathun ("creators of novel poetry"),
necessitated the invention of new critical discourse and

critical terminology. The battle between the innovators

and the traditionalists gave birth to what is now called

Arabic literary criticism when Ibn al-Mu'tazz (d.

296/908) published his Kitab al-Badi( (The Book of the
Original Style). Ibn al-Mu'tazz defines al-BadV by five
major characteristics and considers the new use of metaphor as the first criterion in the production of the new

poetry (Heinrichs, "Badi'," 122). Thus, metaphor and its

particular uses seem to have always been at the center of
any innovation in literature. Let us examine some of the

convoluted metaphors in al-Mutanabbi's poetry that

outraged many critics during medieval times. In one
famous poem, he describes his encounter with several
social problems: "The age has hurled rough times at me
my heart is numb from its missiles / And neatly where

the arrows struck me the point of one struck the

other" (al-Mutanabbi, 3, 11. 101-2). In another example,

Muhammad 'Afifi Matar, "Mihnatun al-qsida" [Verily the Poem Is an

Ordeal]

he describes his hero Sayf al-Dawlah, the ruler of Syria,

Courtesy: Ferial Ghazoul
during one of his battles:
does not mention Aristotle, many modern critics, such as

With other shepherds, not you, have the wolves trifled; other

blades, not you, have the blows blunted.

Taha Husayn and others (Matlub, 291-304), believe that

You in your possession the souls of men and jinn. How

al-Jurjani was influenced by Aristotle's Poetics and

would Kilab [the enemy tribe] hold on to theirs?

Rhetoric, which were available in Arabic early in the ninth

They did not flee you [literally, forsake you] out of rebellion,

century. In his treatment of metaphor, al-Jurjani cites

but one shrinks from going to water when death is the drink.

examples to illustrate what he considers effective meta-

You pursued them all the way to their watering places, [till
the clouds were frightened that you would search it for

phor. The most effective metaphor, he believes, is one that

them].

is based on imagination or one that requires imagination

(Hamori, 11. 1-4)

to be appreciated, such as " Follow the light that has been

These metaphors are typical of al-Mutanabbi, whose

poetry represented the highest artistic creation in the

renaissance of Arabic verse. Compared with traditional

revealed for you," with "light" as metaphor for the

Qur'an; or "Beware of the greenness of dung," an example of the paired metaphor in which greenness stands for

metaphors, his manifest both a complex, agile imagina-

a beautiful young woman and "dung" for her corrupted

tion and a linguistic playfulness that usually bend the

family or tribe (al-Jurjani, 41-89). Clearly, al-Jurjani seems

sacred syntactic rules in order to produce recherche

to have appreciated the new poetic style introduced by

metaphors.

"modern" poets in the Abbasid period, rejecting the sim-

More than any other critic, 'Abd al-Qahir al-Jurjani

ple, worn-out cliches or dead metaphors of the traditional

(d. 471/1087 or 474/1081), the most prominent literary

poets. Yet, by modern poetic standards, al-Jurjani's con-

theorist of medieval times, devoted significant attention

cept of metaphor, which continued in use until the mid-

to the study of metaphor in the Qur'an, in the Hadith (the

dle of the twentieth century, is dated and would no

Prophet's sayings), and in Arabic poetry. Although he

longer explain the new complex metaphor.

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Modernism and Metaphor

was first published (i960), many critics objected to the

apparent absence of visual similarity between the eyes

In the twentieth century, poetic modernism, mostly inand the two forests of palm trees in the first line and the
fluenced by the West, has been so radical that it involves
balconies under the moon in the second line. But this

not only changes in perception of metaphor but also a

innovative use of metaphor in a poem that does not
rejection of some of the revered fundamentals of Arabic
adhere to the traditional monorhymed hemistich clearly
poetics, usually called lAmud al-Shi'r (literally "the pillar
allows the poet to be more precise in depicting the comof poetry"), such as the unity of the poem (wahdat alplexity of his emotional and spiritual reality. By describqasidah) manifested in the required use of monometer
ing her eyes in more than one definite metaphor, the
and monorhyme in a poem composed of two
poet expresses both the complex reality of her eyes as he
hemistiched lines. Needless to say, it is impossible to
experiences them and the limitation of language, even
separate modernism in Arabic literature from Western
poetic language, in fully capturing his imagination. The
colonialism and imperialism, but the focus of my discusresult is an esthetic ambiguity central to the modernistic
sion of modernism and its impact on metaphor will be
sensibility as William Empson has elaborated it in his
limited to the impact of the Western influence, whether
in the form of translation of Western literatures or the

Seven Types of Ambiguity (1930).

In the Arabic original, the metaphor, which takes

westernization of Arabic education or the impact of war
the entire stanza, conveys a mysterious beauty of the
and occupation. Literary historians of Arabic literature
eyes whose tantalizing depth is emphasized by endless
seem to agree that the modern period in Arabic letters
layers of lights intensified by mirrors of sky, moon, and
began around 1800 and continued through the typical
water. A traditional metaphor would have drastically
phases of neoclassicism and romanticism to the present.
reduced the complexity to one dimension, creating only
The metaphorical forms in poetry have gone through

radical changes. Now one can talk not only about paired
metaphor, complex metaphor, subtle metaphor, organic
metaphor, and telescoped metaphor, but also about psychological metaphor and surrealistic metaphor.
Let us begin by examining the status of metaphor in
the poetry of al-Ruwwad (the pioneers), who rebelled

around 1940, especially in Iraq, against traditional poetic

forms, including the romantic ones, and started what is

Metaphor, meter, and rhythm

represent the defining limits of
any serious translation primarily

because they express the very

ethos of any culture.

called now al-Shi'r al-Hurr or "free verse," which has

become the dominant poetic form in most of the Arab

world. The deconstruction of the traditional poetic form

seems to have opened up the Arabic poem for new

a surface picture of the eye. Another crucial aspect
themes and freer play of metaphor. An example of the metaphor that is definitely lost in translation (and
new metaphor can be seen in the following stanza from translation can really capture it) is the full cultural

"Rain Song" by al-Sayyab, one of the leading practition-notation of palm-tree forests. In Arabic culture, th

ers of free verse:

for palm trees (nakhil) has extensive connotations

Your eyes are two palm tree forests in early light,

tial to the very sense of Arab identity. Furthermor

Or two balconies from which the moonlight recedes

metaphor, meter, and rhythm represent the defini

When they smile, your eyes, the vines put forth their leaves,

limits of any serious translation primarily because

And lights dance . . . like moons in a river

express the very ethos of any culture. In the abov

Rippled by the blade of an oar at break of day;

lated stanza, the meter and rhythm are clear casu

As if stars were throbbing in the depths of them.

(al-Sayyab, 1987, 427)

The traditional concept of metaphor as a primarily visu-

and the metaphor has lost not only its musical con
but also its cultural connotations.

Another example of modernistic metaphor is found

al or conceptual similarity between two dissimilar things in al-Sayyab's poem "A Stranger at the Gulf," which is

obviously does not seem to work in the example above. recognized by readers and critics alike as one of his most
Linguistically and grammatically, the metaphor seems topowerful lyrics. It was written while the poet was in
expand beyond the limit of one line. When this poem

exile in Kuwait in 1953 and was published as the first

WORLD LITERATURE TODAY * 75:2 * SPRING 2001 * 279

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poem in his most acclaimed collection, Unshudat al-

wind that pushes the sail, and becomes the very sewing

Matar (The Rain Song), in i960. The poem is so visceral

needles that make the sail. Yet the speaker is painfully

and intensely emotional that it is usually hard to read

aware that money is so distant that it becomes the elu-

even a single line or stanza without being carried by its

sive shimmers of the waves, and finally he poignantly

sweeping rhythm, which uncannily echoes two realities

realizes that money is as far away from him as the stars

at the same time: the roar of the sea and the rage of the

in the Gulf sky. The wave of the stanza is utterly shat-

speaker/poet's emotion. The poem hits the reader like

tered on the rock of reality. Unlike the first metaphor in

successive relentless waves. Here is one of them in

'The Rain Song/' in which ambiguity functions as an

which the poet yearns to go back to Iraq but is so poor

esthetic dimension, metaphor in this poem clusters so
that he cannot afford a ticket to cross the sea:

many meanings around it that its vehicle, money, is

fused with the tenor and is rendered symbolic of the

Like a homeless stranger I walked among strange cities and

yearning itself. This kind of metaphor is called "organic"

fearful villages

(Cuddon, 660), primarily because the metaphor blends

Yet I sang your beloved soil (my homeland)

And carried it with me, for I have been Christ dragging his with reality and the reality becomes metaphorical.
cross in exile

And I heard the footsteps of hungry masses, their bare feet

bleeding while stumbling

Influenced by T. S. Eliot and other modernist poets

in English, al-Sayyab introduced a very fruitful property
of modernism by deftly grafting myth onto the tradi-

Throwing into my eyes dust from you (homeland) and from

tional structure of the Arabic poem, steering the poem

their feet.

into new adventuresome spaces. The experiment gave

Disheveled, I still wander on the roads, with my soiled feet,
the poem more narrative elements, such as characteriza-

Under foreign suns

In my fluttering rags, stretching my moist hand for alms

tion, dialogue, and the use of masks. It also opened up

Yellow hand because of shame and fever: disgrace of a

the metaphor by offering it new dimensions: namely, the

strange beggar

mythical and the intertextual. In a ten-part poem titled

Among foreign eyes

Among contempt, rejection, evasion, and charity

And death is much easier than pity

"The Book of Job/' published in his collection Manzil al-

Aqnan (The House of the Slaves), al-Sayyab lyrically

That charity foreign eyes shed

fuses personal suffering (he wrote the poem when he

Drops of water, of metal [coins]

was dying of Lou Gehrig's disease) with the existential

and the biblical and the Qur'anic. In this context, meta-

Out, out you damned drops, blood, you coins

You wind, you needles that would sew the sail for me when do I return?

To Iraq? When do I return?

phor branches out to interact with more levels of imagi-

nation and thought. I am here translating part 1 only,

You the shimmer of the waves tossed by an oar in the Gulf

due to limited space:

You big stars of the Gulf sky . . . you damned money.

Praise be to You, no matter how long the plight will last,

Oh, I wish that ships did not charge passengers

And no matter how relentless the pain becomes,

Or the earth were just flat land without seas!

Praise be to You, for disasters are gifts

I am still counting you, money, and dream of increase

And calamities are some of your bounties.

I still decrease by you, money, the days of my exile

Haven't You given me this darkness?

I still light with your glow my window and my door

And haven't You given me this dawn?

On the other shore there [in Iraq], so speak to me, money, tellWould the earth thank You for the drops of rain
And feel insulted if rain has not come?

me

When will I return? When will I return?

(DTwan al-Sayyab, my translation, italics added)

For long months these wounds

Like knives tear my sides
And the disease does not relent in the morning

The italicized words constitute this single, extended,

Nor does the night cease its pains by killing [me].

multilayered metaphor. To use I. A. Richards's very use-Yet, if Job ever cried, he would cry:
ful terms tenor and vehicle in talking about the work of

" Praise be to You, for disasters are magnanimity,

And these wounds are the Beloved's gifts,

metaphor, the tenor, the drift of the meaning in the lines,

is the yearning for home and the vehicle is money. The

yearning is embodied in money, and money has to be

I press them to my bosom,

Your gifts are never absent from my heart!"

I hold my wounds and tell my visitors:

earned through begging, humiliation, and contempt. In "Behold and envy me, for these are my Beloved's gifts."
a string of metaphors, money becomes tears of pity,
And when fever's fire touches my forehead
becomes the blood desire of the speaker, becomes the

I pretend it was Your fiery kiss.

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My
sleeplessness
is is beautiful,
beautiful,
for for I Ifor
shepherd
Yourshepherd
Your sky Your
sky Your sky sky Verlenden
My My
Mysleeplessness
sleeplessness
sleeplessness
is is beautiful,
beautiful,
for I shepherd
I shepherd
Verlenden
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(1997).
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The
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Until Until the the stars stars disappear disappear

Until Until the the stars stars disappear disappear (hence (hence "quartet") "quartet") are are consecutively
(hence (hence
consecutively
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titledaretitled
are consecutively
"Earth "Earth
consecutively
Joy," Joy,"
titled titled "Earth "Earth Joy," Joy,"

And And Your Your grandeur grandeur touches touches my my window. window.

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,,pire
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and and
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reflecting
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sick,sick,
and and
sick,
a a mother
and andmother
a a mother
retellingmother
retelling retelling

stituent stituent elements elements of of the the universe. universe. Interestingly, Interestingly, Matar Matar

retelling stituent stituent elements elements of of the the universe. universe. Interestingly, Interestingly, Matar Matar

Her
Her
ancestors'
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ancestors'ancestors'
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herher
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employs
Arabic
Arabic
employs
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the
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of
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ghazal
ghazal
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andand
andand
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of of ghazal ghazal and and

The
TheThe
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forests
forests
forests
of of the
ofthe
ofsleepless
the the
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night, the night,
the clouds
night,
clouds the the clouds clouds nasib nasib (love
nasib (love
nasib (love
poetry),
(love poetry),
poetry), poetry),
usually usually
usuallyusually
devoted
devoted
devoted
devoted
to totoa to
a female
a a female
female
femalebeloved,
beloved,beloved,
beloved,

Keep
covering
and and
uncovering
uncoveringuncovering
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face the
of offace
the the
KeepKeep
Keepcovering
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ofsky
of the the sky sky in in his his
in inmystical
his his mystical
mysticalmystical
love love
love
oflove
of the
of ofthe
theelements,
the elements,
elements,
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which,
which,
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in in
in in
hishishis
hisparticpartic-particparticAnd And brighten brighten it it under under the the moon. moon.

And And brighten brighten it it under

under under
under the
the the
the moon.
moon. moon.
moon. ular
ular ular
ular vision,
vision, ^^^^ are
are are
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ular
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in^^^^
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^ love.
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But But when when the the pain pain forces forces Job Job to to scream, scream, his his cry cry is: is:
"Praise
"Praise"Praise
"Praise
be be
be to
betotoYou,
to You,
You, who
You,who
who
shoots
whoshoots
shoots
with
shoots
with Fate
withFate
with

And
AndAnd
And
who who
who decrees,
who decrees,
decrees, later,
decrees,
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the remedy/7
later, remedy."
the the

The fired
shot shot of of glassy glassy water water
Fate Fate The The fired fired shot shot of of glassyThe
glassy
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water
with
with with
withtranslucent
translucent
translucent
translucent
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bullet:
bullet:
bullet:

remedy/7 remedy." with with translucent translucent bullet: bullet:

theaimed
the seaaimed
sea aimed
it - - between
between
restingresting
resting
(DTwan
(DTwan
(DTwan
(DTwan
al-Sayyab,
al-Sayyab,
al-Sayyab,
al-Sayyab,
249-50; 249-50;
249-50;
italics249-50;
italics added)
italics
added)
italics added) added) the the sea sea
it aimed
it - - itbetween
between
resting

and and rising rising up up - -

The
myth
myth
is isisanisananessential
essential
characteristic
characteristic
in in al- alThe The
Theuse
useuse
useofofofof
myth
myth
an essential
essential
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characteristic
in

in al- al- and and it it felled

and andfelled
it it felled
me felled
me with
me me
with
withrapturous
with rapturous
rapturous
rapturous
blow;
blow;blow;
blow;

Sayyab
metaphor
acquires
acquires
a a anew
newnew
rolerole
rolerole I I blanked
Sayyab'sSayyab's
Sayyab 's's poetry,
poetry,poetry,
poetry,ininininwhich
whichwhich
whichmetaphor
metaphor
metaphor
acquires
acquires
a new
I I blanked
blankedblanked
out out
out from
out from
from
from
glare
glareglare
glare
in
addition
addition
to
to to
to
its
its
above-discussed
above-discussed
above-discussed
functions.
functions.
functions.
functions.
In
InInIn"The
"The"The
in in
in addition
addition
additionaddition
addition
addition
to
toits
to
toits
its
itsabove-discussed
its
its above-discussed
above-discussed
above-discussed
above-discussed
functions.
functions.
functions.
functions.
In"The
InInIn"The
"The"The
"Theofofofof
high-distancing
high-distancing
high-distancing
high-distancing
noon
noon
of of
noon
high-distancing
noon
. . . . . .. . . high-distancing noon noon . . . . . .

Book
if if
we examine
examine
the the
italicized
phrases, phrases,
phrases, the
the
Book Book
BookofofofofJob,"
Job,"Job,"
Job,"
if we
if we
we examine
examine
theitalicized
the italicized
italicized
phrases,

the the My MyMy

limbs:
My limbs:
limbs:
limbs:
a a amare.
a mare.mare.
mare.

metaphors
metaphors metaphors
metaphorseffectively
effectivelyeffectively
effectively
function
function
function
function
to to
tocharacterize
to characterize
characterize
characterize
the the
thespeakthe speakspeak-speak- The The
Thesea:
The sea:
sea: sea:
a a spring
a a spring
spring
springseason
season season
season
of of flesh flesh well well toned, toned,

er,
er, er,
er,and
andand
andthe
the
the
the
the
the
speaker's
speaker's
speaker's
speaker's
speaker's
speaker's
relationship
relationship
relationship
relationship
relationship
relationship
to
tototoGod
God
to God
to
GodGod
and
andGod
and
andto
and
tototoand
the
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to
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bibbibthe
bibbibthe of
bibof bibflesh of
flesh
of well
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toned,
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well toned, toned,
lical
lical lical
lical Job.
Job. Job.
Job. One
One One
One may
may may
may call
call call
callthis
thisthis
thiskind
kindkind
kindofofofofmetaphor
metaphormetaphor
metaphorintertextual
intertextualintertextual
intertextual

its tables tables of of hunger, hunger,

spreading spreading
spreadingspreading
for forfor
mefor
meme
itsmeitsitstables
tables of of hunger, hunger,

metaphor,
metaphor,metaphor,
metaphor,
as asasit as
it engages
it it engages
engagesengages
in in profound
in in profound
profound intertextuality
profound intertextuality
intertextuality that,
intertextuality
that,

dish dlsh
dlsh after
after after
afterdish.
dish.dlshdlsh-

that, that, dlsh dish after after dlsh- dish.

, .11 111
111 ii 11 l\
l\ //i i i i And
AndAnd
Andmy
mymy
myJ Jdreams:
dreams:
dreams:
dreams:
wild
wild
wild
wild
birds,
And And
birds,
mybirds,
my Jbirds,
dreams: dreams: wild wild birds, birds,

together
togethertogether
together, with
, withwith
with
.11 .11
thethe
the the
myth,
myth,
myth,
myth,
111 the
111thethehymnal
the hymnal
hymnalhymnal
i rhythmi rhythm
rhythm 1rhythm
l\ (which1 l\
(which
(which
/ i (which
i is is / i i is is J , t , t rn

night night surprised surprised , them them t with with , bafflement t bafflement rn

lost lost in in translation), translation), makes makes the the speaker speaker /poet's /poet's cosmic cosmic

lost lost in in translation), translation), makes makes the the speaker speaker /poet's /poet's cosmic cosmic and , the
and
and^
, ,the
the
call
^ call
^ call
11
11 of
11
offofspace
ff space
space
s ace s ace
s ace

vision vision linguistically linguistically possible. possible. (Matar, (Matar, 1) 1)

vision vision linguistically linguistically possible. possible.

(Matar, (Matar, 1) 1)

In In general, general, though though not not always, always, the the poet's poet's particular particular
vision
vision vision
visionseems
seemsseems
seemstotototoforge
forgeforge
forge
thethe
thethe
nature
nature
nature
nature
and and
and function
and function
function
function
of of of
metaof metameta-

There TbeK is is metaphor metaphor within within metaphor metaphor to to the the point point that that

meta- There TbeK is is metaphor metaphor within within metaphor metaphor to to the the point point that that

phor.
phor. phor.
phor. Badr
Badr Badr
BadrShakir
ShakirShakir
Shakiral-Sayyab,
al-Sayyab,al-Sayyab,
al-Sayyab,until
untiluntil
untilhishishishisuntimely
untimely
untimely
untimely
death
death
death
death
in inin

semantics, semantics, syntax, syntax, and and meter, meter, all all traditional traditional elements elements of of

in semantics, semantics, syntax, syntax, and and meter, meter, all all traditional traditional elements elements of of

1964,
1964, 1964,
1964, was
was was
was aaaatowering
toweringtowering
toweringfigure
figurefigure
figurewho
whowho
whomastered
masteredmastered
mastered
both
both
both
both
romantiromantiromantiromanticism
cism
cismcism
cism
cism
and
andand
and
andmodernism.
modernism.
and modernism.
modernism.
modernism.
modernism.
Arabic
Arabic
Arabic
Arabic
modernism
Arabic
modernism
modernism
Arabic
modernism
modernism
reached
reached
reached
reached
modernism
its itsits its

poetry, Poetry' become become subordinate subordinate to to the the pursuit pursuit of of metaphor metaphor

poetry, Poetry' become become subordinate subordinate to to the the pursuit pursuit of of metaphor metaphor

andrhythm.
^Y^- rhythm.
The result
The result
result
is crystal
crystal
ambiguity,ambiguity,
ambiguity,which
which which
which is
is is
reached reached its its and andand
^Y^The The
result
is isiscrystal
crystal
ambiguity,
is

highest highest point point after after the the 1960s, 1960s, when when visions visions were were more more ___^_

highest highest point point after after the the 1960s, 1960s, when when visions visions were were more more

The ThE
ThE modernist's
modernist'sMODERNISTS
MODERNISTScultivation
cultivation
CULTIVATION
CULTIVATION
of OF
of OF
esthetic
esthetic
ESTHETIC
ESTHETIC

complex, complex, translations translations from from Western Western literatures literatures began began to to The ThE MODERNISTS modernist's cultivation CULTIVATION of OF esthetic ESTHETIC

complex, complex, translations translations from from Western Western literatures literatures began began to to

play
play play
playthe
thethethe
privileged
privileged
privileged
privileged
Muse,Muse,
Muse, Muse,
and andand
the and
the race
the race
the race
for for
racenewfornewforpoetic
newpoetic
new poetic

ambiguity
ambiguityAMBIGUITY
AMBIGUITY
IS isISNOT
is NOT
not REALLY
not REALLY
really entirely
really ENTIRELY
entirely ENTIRELY
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poetic ambiguity AMBIGUITY is IS not NOT REALLY really entirely ENTIRELY NEW. new. It it has HAS
BEEN
BEEN been
been an
anAN
ANESSENTIAL
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ASPECT
aspect
aspect
of of
OF OF
SUFISUFI
sufisufi
and and
ANDAND
mystical
mystical
MYSTICAL
MYSTICAL

styles
stylesstyles
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andand
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techniques
techniques
techniques
produced
produced
produced
produced
both bothboth
fineboth
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fineand
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vapid
andvapid
and vapid vapid BEEN been an AN ESSENTIAL essential aspect ASPECT OF of SUFI sufi AND and MYSTICAL mystical
poetry,
poetry,
POETRY,
POETRY,
not
notNOT
NOT
totoTO
TOmention
mention
MENTION
the
THE
THE
many
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MANY
MANY
enchanting
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ENCHANTING
ENCHANTING
verse.
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of of
of of
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interesting
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figuresfigures
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of of modernistic
of of modernistic
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poetry,
not
NOT
to TOMENTION
mentionthe
MENTION
the
THE
MANY
many
enchanting ENCHANTING

ry
thethe
the the
Egyptian
Egyptian
Muhammad
Muhammad Muhammad
'Afifi 'Afifi Matar.
HisMatar.
His poetry
poetry
ryry
ryisisis is
Egyptian
Egyptian
Muhammad
'AfifiMatar.
'Afifi
Matar.
His

His poetry poetry esoteric

esoteric
esoteric
ESOTERIC
ESOTERIC
ESOTERICpassages
passages
PASSAGES
PASSAGES
PASSAGES
passages
ininININ
the
IN
the
THE
inTHE
THE
quran.
quran.
the
QURAN.
QURAN.
quran. QURAN.

isis
is a is
a balanced
a a balanced
balanced
blend blend
balanced
of of Western Western
blend
poeticblend
poetic styles
of
styles
of
and Western
and the the best best
Western poetic poetic styles styles and and the the best best
tradition tradition of of Sufi Sufi and and mystic mystic poetry poetry in in Arabic. Arabic. It It aptly aptly re- reminds
mindsminds
minds
minds
Edward
Edward
Edward
Edward
EdwardEdward
W.
W.W.
W.Said
Said
W.Said
Said
W.ofofSaid
ofofBlake,
Blake,
SaidBlake,
Blake,
of of
Smart,
Smart,
Blake,
Smart,
Smart,
Blake,
andand
and
Smart,
and
T. T.
T. S.T.Smart,
S.S. Eliot.
S. Eliot.
Eliot.
and
Eliot.
and

delightful
delightful
to tothe
theeye,
the eye, eye,
mouth,
mouth,
veryvery
veryhard
hardhard
hard to
to to
to
T. T. S. S. Eliot. Eliot. delightful
delightful
to to the
mouth,
mouth,
andand
andand
earear
earear
butbut
butbutvery

And
And And
And Andrei
Andrei Andrei
Andrei Codrescu
Codrescu Codrescu
Codrescu believes
believes believes
believes Matar's
Matar'sMatar's
Matar'srich
richrich
richpoetic
poeticpoetic
poeticworld
worldworld
world
has
has has
has the
thethe
the"ecstatic
"ecstatic"ecstatic
"ecstatic
expansiveness
expansiveness
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of ofofSaint-John
of Saint-John
Saint-John
Saint-John
Perse'sPerse's
Perse's Perse's

understand
understand
fully.
modernist's
modernist's
cultivationcultivation
cultivationofofofofesthetic
esthetic esthetic
esthetic
understand
understand
fully.fully.
fully.
The The
TheThe
modernist's
modernist's
cultivation

ambiguity
ambiguity
is not
not really
entirely
entirely
It has
beenbeen
beenananan
aneses- esesambiguity
ambiguity
is is notis not
really
reallyreally
entirely
entirely
new.new.
new.new.
It ItIt has
hashasbeen
sential sential aspect aspect of of Sufi Sufi and and mystical mystical poetry, poetry, not not to to men- men-

oceanic oceanic
oceanic vision
vision vision.
vision.
an
an
anan
ancient
ancient
ancient
ancient
Islamic
Islamic
Islamic
Islamic
tradition."
tradition."
tradition."
tradition."
anan
ancient
ancient
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Islamic
tradition."

tradition." tion tion the the many many enchanting

tion enchanting
tion the the many
esoteric
manyesoteric
enchanting
passages
enchanting
passages
esotericin
esoteric
in the
passages
the passages in in the the

Qur'an.
Interestingly,
Interestingly,
style
style
theQur'an,
Qur'an,Qur'an,
Qur'an,though
though though
though
Matar's
Matar's Matar's
Matar's poetry
poetrypoetry
poetry"has
"has"has
"hasgrown
growngrown
grownin in
in in
complexity,
complexity,
complexity,
complexity,
andand
and and
he he
heisheisis is Qur'an.Qur'an.
Qur'an.
Interestingly,
Interestingly,
the the
thethe
style
style
of of
ofofthethethe
received
received
in the
the seventh
the seventh
seventh
century,
century,
alwaysalways
alwaysbeen
beenbeen
beenviewed
viewed viewed
viewed
now
now now
nowone
oneone
oneofofofof
thethe
thethe
most
most
most
most
difficult
difficult
difficult
difficult
poets poets
poets in
poets
in contemporary
in in contemporary
contemporary
contemporary received
received
in in inthe
seventh
century,
century,
hashas
hashas
always
as new,
new,
even
even
most
most
iconoclasticiconoclastic
iconoclasticmodernists.
modernists.modernists.
modernists. Matar's
Matar's Matar's
Matar's
Arabic,
Arabic, Arabic,
Arabic, using
usingusing
usingmany
manymany
manyallusions
allusionsallusions
allusions
and
and
andand
images
images
images
images
from
from
from
from
his his Arab,
his Arab,
Arab,
Arab, as asas new,
new,
even
even
byby
byby
most
most
iconoclastic

poetry
poetry
is laden
with
Qur'anic
Qur'anic
phrases
phrasesand
andand
andechoes,
echoes,echoes,
echoes, asas as
as in
in in
in
Egyptian,
Egyptian,Egyptian,
Egyptian,and
andand
and
contemporary
contemporary
contemporary
contemporary
local local
local local
heritage"
heritage"
heritage"
heritage"
(Jayyusi,
( (Jayyusi,
( Jayyusi,Jayyusi, poetry
poetry
is is isladen
ladenladen
withwith
with
Qur'anic
Qur'anic
phrases
phrases
the following
following
"So Speak
"So Speak
Speak
O my
Certitude,Certitude,
Certitude, // //
347).
347). 347).
347).The
TheThe
Thefollowing
following
following
following
selections
selections
selections
selections
of of of
metaphor
of metaphor
metaphor
metaphor
are are from
are are
from
from from the thethe
following
following
lines: lines:
lines:lines:
"So "So
Speak
up, up,
up,up,
O OO my
mymyCertitude,
andblow
and blow blow
my blood
my blood
in the
Trumpet.
Trumpet.
Letmy
mymy
myright
rightright
right hand
hand hand
Matar's
Matar's Matar's
Matar'scollection
collectioncollection
collection
Ruba'iyyat
Ruba'iyyat
Ruba'iyyat
Ruba'iyyat
al-Farah
al-Farah
al-Farah
al-Farah
(written
(written
(written
(written
1970-881970-88
1970-881970-88 and and
my my
bloodblood
in ininthe
the the
Trumpet.
Trumpet.
/ / /LetLetLet
attest that
attestthat
thatcities
that cities
/ ofthe
of the
the living
the living
living
deaddead
dead/ // /under
underunder
under the
the the
the
and and
and published
published published
publishedininininArabic
ArabicArabic
Arabicinininin1990
19901990
1990ininininLondon),
London),
London),
London),
translated
translated
translated
translated attest attest
cities cities
/ / of/ of
living
andand
andand
thethe
thethe
dead

pure
pure
touch
touch
quiver,
quiver,/ / /stirring
stirringstirring
stirringthe
thethe
theeruption
eruptioneruption
eruptionof
ofof
of the
the the
the daily
daily daily
daily
into into
into English
English English
EnglishasasasasQuartet
QuartetQuartet
Quartetofofofof
Joy
Joy
Joy
Joy
byby
by by
Ferial
Ferial
Ferial
Ferial
Ghazoul
Ghazoul
Ghazoul
Ghazoul
and and
and and
JohnJohn
JohnJohn pure
pure
touch
touch
quiver,
quiver,

WORLD
WORLD WORLD
WORLDLITERATURE
LITERATURELITERATURE
LITERATURE
TODAY
TODAY
TODAY
TODAY
75:2
75:2
75:275:2
SPRING
SPRING
SPRING
SPRING
2001 2001
2001 2001
* * 281
* *281
281 281

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scene / with apocalyptic vision" (Ma tar, 8). The vision-

Adonis, Muzaffar al-

ary context, which is the tenor of the metaphor, that

Nawwab, Sa'di Yusuf,

introduces the metaphorical vehicles "Trumpet" and

Fadil al-'Azzawi, and

" apocalyptic" makes the lines quiver with Qur'anic

Mahmud Darwish. The

imagery and cadence.

idea of having a vision

Unlike al-Sayyab's metaphor, which is profoundly

or being possessed by a

informed by his use of myth and mythmaking, Matar's

vision seems to be very

is totally informed by his vision. It relies heavily on

attractive to all poets,

imagism in which metaphor becomes an integral part of

probably because it

the vision, which is definitely Sufis tic. In other words,

legitimates their

metaphor in Matar becomes a mirror that at once ex-

assumed personae as

pands his vision and embodies it. By subordinating the

prophets whose visions

metaphor to the larger picture of his mystical vision,

or missions are

Matar sacrifices some clarity and lyricism for the sake of

Mahmud Darwish (Palestine)

Photo: Banipal Magazine

inspired by some sort

mysticism. In the following lines from the section "Air

of divine or supernat-

Joy," one can sense Matar's systematic fragmentation of

ural powers. This

his metaphor, which is ingeniously appropriate in describing the act of making love.
Now is that singular time for the onset

vision or mission (not message) is very evident in the

poetry of Darwish, who introduced into Arabic letters a
new perfection of the poetic genre: the poetics of place

of beginning or the last of ending -

and space. Many Arab poets wrote about places and

everything ends:

spaces from the ancient theme of al-Buka'a lala al-Atlal

they are two bodies on a spot of blood,

("weeping over the ruins") to the modernistic interest in

a magic killing; she is killed

and he is killed,

place and nature. Intensely lyrical and desperately

Who between the two aimed the blade?

Who between the two initiated the act and the passion?
It is the one stab.

meticulous in depicting Palestinian places, trees, soil,

animals, food, and smells, Darwish's poetry powerfully
employs the Arabic convention of Sufi love in his Pales-

tinian poetic epic. His metaphors are so extended and

Who between the two was ablaze

in the burning ember,

by a kiss sneaking up
until the mixing

of the vigorous blood;

or by the cry of ecstasy

meshing its ah with death?

(Matar, 53)

Within this consciously fragmented metaphor for the

sexual act are smaller metaphors or implied metaphors

such as "a kiss sneaking up," fittingly suggesting the

archetypal snake of sexuality in the biblical and Qur'anic

story of Adam and Eve. Though it is interesting, even
delightful, to reconstruct this scattered metaphor, which

detailed that they verge on becoming elaborate conceits

and symbols. In the opening of his "Qasidat al-Ard"

(Poem of the Land), written in celebration of the Pales-

tinian Day of the Land on 30 March, the speaker

describes the day when the Israeli army fired at student
demonstrators, killing five young girls. The metaphor
elegantly moves from land to plant to girls to blood,

weaving mournful lyricism and love poetry.

In the month of March

in the year of the uprising

earth told us her blood secrets
In the month of March

five girls at the door

of the primary school

may be called a puzzle metaphor, it is predictable, after

Came past the violet

all. Most of the metaphors in Matar's Quartet of Joy are

Came past the rifle

purposely fragmented in an effort to subordinate lan-

guage, even figurative language, to the mystical or

philosophical vision.
Poetic visions inform the very nature of modernism
in Arabic poetry, which in its elegant and effective form

is a synthesis of Sufi and Qur'anic tradition on the one

hand and the impact of Western modernism on the
other. Modernism is brilliantly manifest in the poetry of

burst into flame

With roses

and thyme

they opened
the song of the soil
and entered the earth
the ultimate embrace
March comes to the land

out of earth's depth

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out of the girls' dance

The violets leaned over a little

so that the girls' voices

could cross over
the birds

Here is a highly detailed metaphor that seems very close

to a conceit in which the comparison is elaborately and
fancifully constructed. Although Darwish's is poetry of
resistance, his elegant, labyrinthine use of metaphor

saves his verse from deteriorating into propaganda.

pointed their beaks

at that song and at my heart

(Darwlsh, 1992, 145-46; italics added)

The dominant metaphor is violent death, described in

terms of wedding and rebirth, in which all things inani-

For Darwlsh, most tragically conscious of the loss of

his homeland and his roots, metaphor has become a synthesizing power that magically reconstructs his atom-

ized world. This power of re-creating what has been

destroyed is brilliantly manifested in the metaphors in a

mate and animate participate. The poet utilizes the symbolic connotations of March as the month of rebirth in

many ancient Middle Eastern mythologies and religions.

Here, however, March comes not only from the earth
but also from the girls7 dance of death, which promises

new life. Violets and birds and the speaker's heart and
even the soil join the girls7 singing while bursting into

flame, roses, and thyme. The metaphor, gathering all

these images and colors and smells, acquires inexhaustible mythical and ritualistic dimensions. An essential part of this dramatic, colorful metaphor is "the rifle/'

a metonym which appears in the drama as an inhuman,

antilife entity but is defeated by the persistent continuity
of life.

The speaker goes on mourning (in a stanza not

translated by Jayyusi and Middleton), becoming the
earth itself while talking apparently with one of the

murdered girls: "I am the land / and the land is you / O

Khadija, do not close the door / do not enter into absence. / We will drive them [the enemies] out of the

poem titled "I See What I Want/' from which I quote

flowerpot and the laundry line / we will drive them out

stanzas 4 and 7:

of the rocks of this long road / and out of the air of

Galilee " (my translation). By identifying with the occu-

pied land, the speaker is able to express the desire of the

I see what I want in the soul: the face of a stone

scratched by lightning - green, oh land, green is the land of

my soul -

rocks, the air, the flowerpot, and the laundry line. Every

haven't I been a child playing at the edge of a well?

intimate detail is enlisted in his struggle without

I am still playing . . . this space is my playground and the

stone is my wind

weapons.

I see what I want in prison: days of a flowering

I name the soil I call it

an extension of my soul

I name my hands I call them

the pavement of wounds

I name the pebbles

that led from here to two strangers in me

seated in a garden - I close my eyes:

How spacious is the earth! How beautiful the earth from the

eye of a needle
(Darwlsh, 1998-99, 81)

wings
I name the birds

almonds and figs

I name my ribs

The fifteen quatrains in this poem all utilize various

metaphors as windows for new seeing and for freedom.

Hence, metaphor becomes an empowering outlet for the

trees

Gently I pull a branch

from the fig tree of my breast
I throw it like a stone

to blow up the conqueror's tank

(Darwlsh, 146)

powerless and a home for the homeless. Much has been

written about the power of the arts to reconstruct new

worlds out of ruined or deteriorating ones. Darwish's

poetry, and especially his unsparing metaphors, which
seem so omnipresent that they lyrically embrace every

WORLD LITERATURE TODAY 75:2 SPRING 2001 283

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corner in his homeland, is an artistic re-creation of lost

Watson,

Palestine. Crucial aspects of modernism in Arabic culture are largely found in the literary response to West-

ern challenges, exile, war, and uprooting.

Poets,
de

trs.

14

Man,

Paul.

neapolis.

Modernism has radically transformed the traditional structures and styles in Arabic poetry. While there

have been vigorous studies of metaphor in Western

modernism, there is almost no serious study of the
transformation and the transforming power of metaphor

Empson,

Chatto

Modern

(Winter

Aesthetic

University

William.

&

Poetry

1998-99),

Tra

81-

Ideology.

of

Seven

Windus.

in

pp.

A
Minnesota

Types

of

1947.

Hamori,

Andras. The Compositions o

Sayf al-Dawla. Leiden, Netherland
Heinrichs, Wolfhart. "Badi'." In Enc
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284 * WORLD LITERATURE TODAY * 75:2 * SPRING 2001

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