Spiegel-SchaumsTheoryAndProblemsOfTheoreticalMechanics Text PDF

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SCHAUM'S OUTLINE OF
1
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THEORY AND PROBLEMS

OF
THEORETICAL MECHANICS
with an introduction to
Lagrange's Equations
and Hamiltonian Theory
BY
MURRAY
R.
SPIEGEL, Ph.D.
Professor of Mathematics
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
SCHAUM'S OUTLINE SERIES

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY
New
York, St. Louis, San Francisco, Toronto, Sydney
Copyright
1967 by McGraw-Hill, Inc.
United States of America.
No part
All rights reserved.
of this publication
may
Printed in the
be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,

electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of the publisher.
60232
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
SH SH
7 5
Preface
In the 17th century, Sir Isaac Newton formulated his now famous laws of mechanics.
These remarkably simple laws served to describe and predict the motions of observable
objects in the universe, including those of the planets of our solar system.
Early in the 20th century it was discovered that various theoretical conclusions defrom Newton's laws were not in accord with certain conclusions deduced from theories
of electromagnetism and atomic phenomena which were equally well founded experimentally.
These discrepancies led to Einstein's relativistic mechanics which revolutionized the concepts of space and time, and to quantum mechanics. For objects which move with speeds
much less than that of light and which have dimensions large compared with those of atoms
and molecules Newtonian mechanics, also called classical mechanics, is nevertheless quite
satisfactory. For this reason it has maintained its fundamental importance in science and
rived
engineering.
purpose of this book to present an account of Newtonian mechanics and its

The book is designed for use either as a supplement to all current standard
textbooks or as a textbook for a formal course in mechanics. It should also prove useful to
students taking courses in physics, engineering, mathematics, astronomy, celestial mechanics, aerodynamics and in general any field which needs in its formulation the basic
principles of mechanics.
It is the
applications.
Each chapter begins with a clear statement of pertinent definitions, principles and
theorems together with illustrative and other descriptive material. This is followed by
graded sets of solved and supplementary problems. The solved problems serve to illustrate
and amplify the theory, bring into sharp focus those fine points without which the student
continually feels himself on unsafe ground, and provide the repetition of basic principles
so vital to effective learning. Numerous proofs of theorems and derivations of basic results are included in the solved problems.
The large number of supplementary problems
with answers serve as a complete review of the material of each chapter.
Topics covered include the dynamics and statics of a particle, systems of particles and
Vector methods, which lend themselves so readily to concise notation and to
geometric and physical interpretations, are introduced early and used throughout the book.
An account of vectors is provided in the first chapter and may either be studied at the beginning or referred to as the need arises. Added features are the chapters on Lagrange's
equations and Hamiltonian theory which provide other equivalent formulations of
Newtonian mechanics and which are of great practical and theoretical value.
rigid bodies.
Considerably more material has been included here than can be covered in most courses.
This has been done to make the book more flexible, to provide a more useful book of
reference and to stimulate further interest in the topics.
I wish to take this opportunity to thank the staff of the
for their splendid cooperation.
Schaum Publishing Company
M. R. Spiegel
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
February, 1967
CONTENTS
Page
Chapter
VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
Mechanics, kinematics, dynamics and statics. Axiomatic foundations of meMathematical models. Space, time and matter. Scalars and vectors.
Vector algebra. Laws of vector algebra. Unit vectors. Rectangular unit vectors. Components of a vector. Dot or scalar product. Cross or vector product.
Triple products. Derivatives of vectors. Integrals of vectors. Velocity. Acceleration. Relative velocity and acceleration. Tangential and normal acceleration. Circular motion. Notation for time derivatives. Gradient, divergence
and curl. Line integrals. Independence of the path. Free, sliding and bound
chanics.
vectors.
Chapter
NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY

AND MOMENTUM
librium of a particle.
Chapter
33
Newton's laws. Definitions of force and mass. Units of force and mass.
Inertial frames of reference. Absolute motion. Work. Power. Kinetic energy.
Conservative force fields. Potential energy or potential. Conservation of
energy. Impulse. Torque and angular momentum. Conservation of momentum.
Conservation of angular momentum. Non-conservative forces. Statics or equiStability of equilibrium.
MOTION IN A UNIFORM
AND PROJECTILES
Uniform force
FIELD. FALLING BODIES

62
Uniformly accelerated motion. Weight and acceleration

due to gravity. Gravitational system of units. Assumption of a flat earth.
Freely falling bodies. Projectiles. Potential and potential energy in a uniform
force field. Motion in a resisting medium. Isolating the system. Constrained
motion. Friction. Statics in a uniform gravitational field.
Chapter
fields.
THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR AND

THE SIMPLE PENDULUM
86
The simple harmonic oscillator. Amplitude, period and frequency of simple

harmonic motion. Energy of a simple harmonic oscillator. The damped harmonic oscillator. Over-damped, critically damped and under-damped motion.
Forced vibrations. Resonance. The simple pendulum. The two and three
dimensional harmonic oscillator.
Chapter
CENTRAL FORCES AND PLANETARY MOTION

Central forces. Some important properties of central force fields. Equations
of motion for a particle in a central field. Important equations deduced from
the equations of motion. Potential energy of a particle in a central field. Conservation of energy. Determination of the orbit from the central force. Determination of the central force from the orbit. Conic sections, ellipse, parabola
and hyperbola. Some definitions in astronomy. Kepler's laws of planetary
motion. Newton's universal law of gravitation. Attraction of spheres and
other objects. Motion in an inverse square field.
116
CONTENTS
Page
Chapter
MOVING COORDINATE SYSTEMS
144
Non-inertial coordinate systems. Rotating coordinate systems. Derivative

operators. Velocity in a moving system. Acceleration in a moving system.
Coriolis and centripetal acceleration. Motion of a particle relative to the earth.
Coriolis and centripetal force. Moving coordinate systems in general. The
Foucault pendulum.
Chapter
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES
165
Discrete and continuous systems. Density. Rigid and elastic bodies. Degrees
of freedom. Center of mass. Center of gravity. Momentum of a system of
Angular
particles. Motion of the center of mass. Conservation of momentum.
system.
on
a
acting
torque
external
Total
particles.
of
system
momentum of a
Relation between angular momentum and total external torque. Conservation
particles. Work. Poof angular momentum. Kinetic energy of a system of
the center of mass.
tential energy. Conservation of energy. Motion relative to
constraints. Virtual disnon-holonomic
and
Holonomic
Constraints.
Impulse.
work. Equiplacements. Statics of a system of particles. Principle of virtual
librium in conservative
Chapter
fields.
Stability of equilibrium. D'Alembert's principle.
APPLICATIONS TO VIBRATING SYSTEMS,

ROCKETS AND COLLISIONS
194
mass. Rockets.
Vibrating systems of particles. Problems involving changing
vibrating string.
The
particles.
of
systems
Continuous
particles.
Collisions of
problems. Fourier series. Odd and even functions. Con-
Boundary-value
vergence of Fourier
Chapter
series.
PLANE MOTION OF RIGID BODIES
224
Instantaneous
Rigid bodies. Translations and rotations. Euler's theorem.
rigid body. Chasle's
of
a
motion
General
freedom.
of
Degrees
axis of rotation.
inertia. Radius of gyratheorem. Plane motion of a rigid body. Moment of
theorem. Perpendicular
axis
Parallel
inertia.
of
moments
tion. Theorems on
Kinetic energy and
axes theorem. Special moments of inertia. Couples.
rigid body about a fixed
of
a
Motion
axis.
fixed
a
about
angular momentum
angular momentum. Principle of conservation of energy.
axis.
Principle of
Work and
power.
Impulse.
Conservation of angular momentum. The comInstantaneous center.
pound pendulum. General plane motion of a rigid body.

Principle of virtual work
Space and body centrodes. Statics of a rigid body.
energy. Stability.
potential
minimum
and D'Alembert's principle. Principle of
Chapter
10
SPACE MOTION OF RIGID BODIES
Pure rotation
General motion of rigid bodies in space. Degrees of freedom.
of a rigid body with one point
of rigid bodies. Velocity and angular velocity
inertia. Products of inertia. Moment
fixed Angular momentum. Moments of
of rotation. Principal axes of
of inertia matrix or tensor. Kinetic energy
about the principal axes. The
energy
kinetic
and
momentum
inertia. Angular
Force free motion. The inmotion.
ellipsoid of inertia. Euler's equations of
Herpolhode. Space
Polhode.
construction.
Poinsot's
plane.
variable line and
earth. The Euler
the
of
Rotation
and body cones. Symmetric rigid bodies.
of Euler angles. Motion
terms
in
energy
kinetic
and
velocity
angles. Angular
of a spinning top. Gyroscopes.
253
CONTENTS
Page
Chapter
//
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS
282
General methods of mechanics. Generalized coordinates. Notation. Transformation equations. Classification of mechanical systems. Scleronomic and
rheonomic systems. Holonomic and non-holonomic systems. Conservative and
non-conservative systems.
Kinetic energy.
Generalized velocities.
Generalized forces. Lagrange's equations. Generalized momenta. Lagrange's
equations for non-holonomic systems. Lagrange's equations with impulsive
forces.
Chapter
12
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
Hamiltonian methods.
The Hamiltonian.
311
Hamilton's equations.
The Hamil-
tonian for conservative systems. Ignorable or cyclic coordinates.

Phase space.
Liouville's theorem. The calculus of variations. Hamilton's
principle. Canonical or contact transformations. Condition that a transformation
be canoni-
Generating functions. The Hamilton-Jacobi equation. Solution

of the
Hamilton-Jacobi equation. Case where Hamiltonian is independent of
time.
Phase integrals. Action and angle variables.
cal.
APPENDIX A
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
339
APPENDIX B
ASTRONOMICAL DATA
342
appendix c
SOLUTIONS OF SPECIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
APPENDIX D
INDEX OF SPECIAL SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS
356
INDEX
361
....
344
and ACCELERATION
MECHANICS, KINEMATICS, DYNAMICS AND STATICS

Mechanics
is
physical objects.
a branch of physics concerned with motion or change in position of

It is sometimes further subdivided into:
1.
Kinematics, which
2.
Dynamics, which
3.
Statics,
which
is
is
is
concerned with the geometry of the motion,

concerned with the physical causes of the motion,
concerned with conditions under which no motion
is
apparent.
AXIOMATIC FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS

An
axiomatic development of mechanics, as for any science, should contain the following
basic ingredients:
1.
This is clearly necessary since ultimately any

Undefined terms or concepts.
must be based on something which remains undefined.
definition
2.
Unproved assertions. These are fundamental statements, usually in mathematical

form, which it is hoped will lead to valid descriptions of phenomena under study.
In general these statements, called axioms or postulates, are based on experimental
observations or abstracted from them. In such case they are often called laws.
These definitions are given by using the undefined
3.
Defined terms or concepts.

terms or concepts.
4.
Proved assertions. These are often

definitions and axioms.
called
An example of the "axiomatic way of thinking"

which point and line are undefined concepts.
theorems and are proved from the
is
provided by Euclidean geometry in
MATHEMATICAL MODELS
A mathematical description
of physical phenomena is often simplified by replacing

actual physical objects by suitable mathematical models. For example in describing the
rotation of the earth about the sun we can for many practical purposes treat the earth
and sun as
points.
SPACE, TIME AND MATTER

From everyday experience, we
all have some idea as to the meaning of each of the

following terms or concepts. However, we would certainly find it difficult to formulate
completely satisfactory definitions. We take them as undefined concepts.
[CHAP.
closely related to the concepts of point, position, direction and

Measurement in space involves the concepts of length or distance,
with which we assume familiarity. Units of length are feet, meters, miles, etc.
In this book we assume that space is Euclidean, i.e. the space of Euclid's geometry.
1.
Space. This
displacement.
2.
This concept is derived from our experience of having one event taking
Measurement of time is
place after, before or simultaneous with another event.
achieved, for example, by use of clocks. Units of time are seconds, hours, years, etc.
3.
Matter.
is
Time.
Physical objects are composed of "small bits of matter" such as atoms

and molecules. From this we arrive at the concept of a material object called a
particle which can be considered as occupying a point in space and perhaps moving
as time goes by. A measure of the "quantity of matter" associated with a particle
is called its mass.
Units of mass are grams, kilograms, etc. Unless otherwise
stated we shall assume that the mass of a particle does not change with time.
Length, mass and time are often called dimensions from which other physical quantities
are constructed. For a discussion of units and dimensions see Appendix A, Page 339.
SCALARS AND VECTORS

Various quantities of physics, such as length, mass and time, require for their specificanumber (apart from units of measurement which are decided upon in
advance). Such quantities are called scalars and the real number is called the magnitude
of the quantity. A scalar is represented analytically by a letter such as t, m, etc.
tion a single real
Other quantities of physics, such as displacement, require for their specification a

Such quantities are called vectors. A vector is repreGeometrically it is
sented analytically by a bold faced letter such as A in Fig. 1-1.
represented by an arrow PQ where P is called the initial point and Q is called the terminal
point. The magnitude or length of the vector is then denoted by |A| or A.
direction as well as magnitude.
Fig. 1-3
Fig. 1-2
Fig. 1-1
VECTOR ALGEBRA
The operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication familiar in the algebra of
real numbers are with suitable definition capable of extension to an algebra of vectors.
The following definitions are fundamental.
Two vectors A and B are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction
1.
regardless of their initial points. Thus A = B in Fig. 1-2 above.
2.
A vector having
denoted by
3.
-A
direction opposite to that of vector

as in Fig. 1-3 above.
but with the same length
is
The sum or resultant of vectors A and B of Fig. l-4(a) below is a vector C formed
by placing the initial point of B on the terminal point of A and joining the initial
B [see Fig. l-4(b) below]. We write C = A + B.

law for vector addition as indicated
parallelogram
This definition is equivalent to the
in Fig. l-4(c) below.
point of
A to the terminal point
of
CHAP.
VECTORS, VELOCITY
11
AND ACCELERATION
Fig. 1-4
Extensions to sums of more than two vectors are immediate. For example,
shows how to obtain the sum or resultant E of the vectors A, B, C
and D.
Fig. 1-5 below
rrfB+c+D
Fig. 1-5
A B,
is that vector C which

be denned as A + (-B). If
A = B, then A B is defined as the null or zero vector represented by 0. This has
a magnitude of zero but its direction is not defined.
The difference of
when added to B
vectors
gives A.
and B, represented by
Equivalently,
A-B
may
of a vector A by a scalar p is a vector pA or Ap with magnitude

times the magnitude of A and direction the same as or opposite to that of A
according as p is positive or negative. If p = 0, pA = 0, the null vector.
The product
5.
\p\
LAWS OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

B and C are vectors, and
A+B = B+A
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
p(qA) = (pq)A = q(pA)
(p + q)A = pA + qA
p{A + B) = pA + pB
If A,
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Note that
defined.
in these
p and q are scalars, then
Law for Addition

Associative Law for Addition
Associative Law for Multiplication
Distributive Law
Distributive Law
Commutative
laws only multiplication of a vector by one or more scalars

5 we define products of vectors.
is
On pages 4 and
UNIT VECTORS
Vectors having unit length are called unit vectors. If A
then A/A = a is a unit vector having the same direction as
is
a vector with length
and
A>
0,
A = A a.
RECTANGULAR UNIT VECTORS

The rectangular unit vectors
directions of the positive x,
i,
y and
and k are mutually perpendicular unit vectors having

a rectangular coordinate system
z axes respectively of
[CHAP.
[see Fig. 1-6]. We use right-handed rectangular coordinate

systems unless otherwise specified. Such systems derive
their name from the fact that a right threaded screw rotated through 90 from Ox to Oy will advance in the positive z direction. In general three vectors A, B and C which
have coincident initial points and are not coplanar are said
to form a right-handed system or dextral system if a right
threaded screw rotated through an angle less than 180 from
A to B will advance in the direction C [see Fig. 1-7 below].
\/o.
Fig. 1-6
(4i,A2,As)
Fig. 1-8
Fig. 1-7
COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR
Any vector A in 3 dimensions
can be represented with initial point at the origin O of

a rectangular coordinate system [see Fig. 1-8 above]. Let (Ai,A 2 ,A 3 ) be the rectangular
coordinates of the terminal point of vector A with initial point at 0. The vectors Aii,
A 2j and A 3k are called the rectangular component vectors, or simply component vectors,
of A in the x, y and z directions respectively. A lf A 2 and A 3 are called the rectangular
components, or simply components, of
The sum or
resultant of Aii,
A 2j
and Ask
A =
The magnitude
of
A =
is
|A|
y and
in the x,
is
z directions respectively.
the vector A, so that
(1)
= v^f+AfTAf
(2)
|r|
y/x 2
write
+ A 2j + A 3k
Aii
In particular, the position vector or radius vector r from

written
.
r = xi + yj + zk
and has magnitude r
we can
+ y2 + z 2
to the point {x,y,z) is
(3)
DOT OR SCALAR PRODUCT

The dot or
scalar product of
two vectors
is defined as the product of the magnitudes of

between them. In symbols,
cos 0,
AB =
AS
Note that
A*B
is
a scalar and not a vector.
and B, denoted by A-B (read A dot B)

A and B and the cosine of the angle
0^0^77
(4)
CHAP.
11
The following laws are

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
valid:
Commutative Law for Dot Products

A B = B A
Distributive Law
A-(B + C) = AB + AC
=
where p is a scalar.
(A B)p,
p{A B) = (pA) B = A (pB)
i*i = j*j = k*k = l,
i*j = j*k = k*i =
If A = Aii + Aaj + Aak and B = Bd + B 2j + Bak, then
A B = AiBi + A2B2 + A3B3
A- A = A 2 = A\ + A\ + A\
B-B = B 2 = B\ + B\ + B%
6.
A-B =
If
and
and
are not null vectors, then
and
are perpendicular.
CROSS OR VECTOR PRODUCT

The cross or vector product of A and B is a vector C = A x B (read A cross B). The
magnitude of A x B is denned as the product of the magnitudes of A and B and the sine
of the angle between them. The direction of the vector C = A x B is perpendicular to the
plane of A and B and such that A, B and C form a right-handed system. In symbols,
A X B = AB sin 6 u,
where u
is
a unit vector indicating the direction of
to B, then sin 6
and we
The following laws are

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
define
AxB =
A x B.
tt
If
(5)
A=B
or
if
is
parallel
0.
valid:
A x B = B x A
(Commutative Law for Cross Products Fails)
Ax(B + C) = AxB + AxC
Distributive Law
p{A x B) = {pA) x B = A x (pB) - (A x B)p,
where p is a scalar.
ixi = jxj = kxk = 0, ixj = k, x k =
kxi = j
If A = Aii + Aaj + Aak and B = Bd + B2j +
then
i,
AxB
At
Bx
6.
|A
7.
If
A2 A3
B 2 B3
= the area of a parallelogram with sides A and B.

A x B = and A and B are not null vectors, then A and B
B|
are parallel.
TRIPLE PRODUCTS
The scalar
triple
product
is
defined as
At
(B x C)
Bx
Ct
where A =
Aii
+ A 2j + A3k,
B =
B\\
+ B2j + Bak,
A 2 As
B2 Bz
(')
C2 Cz
C = Cd + C2j + Cak.
It
represents the
volume of a parallelepiped having A, B, C as edges, or the negative of this volume according

as A, B, C do or do not form a right handed system. We have A (B x C) = B (C x A) =
C-(AXB).
The vector
Since
triple
(A x B) x
product
C = (A
is
defined as
AX(BXC) = (A-C)B-(A-B)C
C)B - (B C) A, it is clear that A x (B x C)
{7)
(A x B) x C.
[CHAP.
DERIVATIVES OF VECTORS
assumed by a scalar variable u there corresponds a vector A(u), or
The derivative of A(u) is defined as
If to each value
briefly A, then A(u) is called a (vector) function of u.
dU
provided this limit exists.
Similarly
we can
if it exists is
dA
du
~~
A =
If
dAi
du
&A _
dAi.
3tt)i +
(2m2
(4m
5 cos
- 3)i -
du*
5 sin
,q*
du
For example the second derivative of A(u)
&A2.
+ du2
3 sin
'
then
c?A 3 .
du
Âi.
+ Ai{u)i + A 3 (w)k,
Ai(u)i
define higher derivatives.
given by
du2
Example.
A(u)
If
AW
Au~0
d?As
1/m
"*
then
k,
3 cos
k,
-j-g-
4i
5 cos
3 sin
uk
The usual rules of differentiation familiar in the calculus can be extended to vectors,
although order of factors in products may be important. For example if ${u) is a scalar
function while A{u) and B(u) are vector functions, then
t(*-*)
A(AXB) =
INTEGRALS OF VECTORS
Let A{u) = Ai(u)i + A 2 (u)j + A s (u)k
<">
Axf + fxB
be a vector function of
(IS)
We
u.
define the indefinite
integral of A(u) as
( A(u)du
If there exists
limits
c is
{u)du
A 2 (w)^ + kj A
r^{B(tt)}<fa
definite integral
is in
(U)
(u)du
^-{B(w)}, then
an arbitrary constant vector independent of
u = a and u = /?
C A(u)du
The
a vector function B(u) such that A(w)
J*A(M)dM
where
f A
B(m)
u.
The
(*5)
definite integral
between
such case, as in elementary calculus, given by
f'-fo{B{u))du
B(u)
can also be defined as a limit of a
'
B(/3)
sum analogous
B()
(iff)
to that of elementary
calculus.
VELOCITY
Suppose that a particle moves along a path or curve C [Fig. 1-9 below]. Let the position
vector of point P at time t be r = r(t) while the position vector of point Q at time t + At is
CHAP.
11
+ Ar =
at
r(t
+ At). Then
the velocity (also called the instantaneous velocity) of the particle
given by
is
dr
-
Ar
hm
..
at
At-*o
At
and
a vector tangent to
is
If
we can
r(t)
x(t)i
at P.
+ y(t)j + z{t)k =
xi
+ yj + zk,
write
dt
dx.
dt
dt
The magnitude of the
where
(17)
AC
At-*o
dy
dz
+ Tt k
18)
velocity is called the speed
|v|
is
given by
V(t y+ (fr
dt
s is the arc length along
and
dr
Fig. 1-9
measured from some
(t
(19)
dt
point to P.
initial
ACCELERATION
If v = dr/dt is the velocity of the particle, we define the acceleration (also called the
instantaneous acceleration) of the particle at P as
a
In terms of r
xi
+ yj + zk
*
and
its
magnitude
dv
dt
Hm
the acceleration
_
~
d^r
dt*
v(t
_
~
+ At)-v(t)
At
At-0
is
d?x.
21i
dt
dV
d?y.
~
+ ^5k
+ 5^J
dt2
dt2
(21)
'
is
V(S)' +
(SWS
(22)
RELATIVE VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

If
two particles Pi and Pz are moving with respective

and a2, the vectors
velocities vi
and
V2
and
accelera-
tions ai
vpg/Pj
v2
vi
and
ap2 /Pj
a2
ai
(23
are respectively called the relative velocity and relative acceleration of P2 with respect to Pi
TANGENTIAL AND
NORMAL ACCELERATION
Suppose that particle P with position vec= r(t) moves along curve C [Fig. 1-10].
can consider a rectangular coordinate
system moving with the particle and defined
by the unit tangent vector T, the unit principal normal N and the unit binormal B to
curve C where
tor r
We
Fig. 1-10
T =
from some
s being the arc length
The
R
N
* = K ds'
ds'
TxN
B =
point to
initial
and
[CHAP.
(U)
the radius of curvature of C at P.

and is given by k= 1/R.
reciprocal of the radius of curvature is called the curvature
We can
show
[see
Problem
1.35,
page 20] that the acceleration along

dt
The
and second terms on the right are
first
is
given by
(25)
R*
called the tangential acceleration
and normal
or centripetal acceleration respectively.
CIRCULAR MOTION
Suppose particle P moves
R.
If s is the arc length
and
on a circle C of radius
measured along C from
the corresponding angle subtended

= Rd. Thus the magnitudes
of the tangential velocity and acceleration are given
respectively by
to
9 is
at the center O, then s
dv
and
dt
d?s
dt2
( e >
fi
2
_ K
p d 2 = Ra
Fig. 1-11
(27)
dt
dd/dt and a - d2 9/dt 2 the angular speed and angular acceleration respectively.
normal acceleration as seen from (25) is given by v 2 /R = <a 2 R.
We call
The
ft =
at
NOTATION FOR TIME DERIVATIVES

We shall sometimes find it convenient
symbol to denote
for a second
dots
derivatives with respect to time t, one dot for a first derivative, two
2
2
=
=
etc.
dvldt,
d r/dt , v
derivative, etc. Thus for example r = dr/dt, r
to use dots placed over a
GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL

If to each point (x, y, z) of a rectangular coordinate system there corresponds a vector A,
that A = A(x, y, z) is a vector function of x, y, z. We also call A(x, y, z) a vector
say
we
Similarly
we call the (scalar) function <f>(x, y, z) a scalar field.
field.
It is
convenient to consider a vector differential operator called del given by

(28)
Using
1.
this
we
Gradient
This
2.
define the following important quantities.
is
V4>
(i^
1
+
a^
a vector called the gradient of
Divergence
V'A =
Jx
Mi
a
This
is
^
^ + k ^j<^
J
J^7
+
+
<
and
dz
Mi
a scalar called the divergence of
dx
is also
dy
a?/
dy
+ K dz
written grad
(Ad +
</>.
A 2j + AOt)
(SO)
dz
and
(29)
is
also written
div A.
CHAP.
3.
1]
Curl
A =
^+
5S
dX
dy
dz
Two
<
A i + A2i + A *
'
At
A2
As
(31)
BA
\dy
is
fdAs
This
a vector called the curl of
dz
dA s \.
and
dX
is also
+ fdA 2
[iF-f ]k
written
curl A.
important identities are
divcurlA
= V(V'XA) =
curl grad
= Vx
<
(32)
(V4>)
LINE INTEGRALS
Let r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k, where r(t) is the position vector of (x,y,z), define a
Let
curve C joining points Pi and Pi corresponding to t = U and t = t 2 respectively.
A = A(x, y, z) = Ad + A 2j + Ask be a vector function of position (vector field). The
integral of the tangential component of A along C from Pi to P%, written as
JA'dr
is
an example of a
Adr
A 2 dy + A 3 dz
Aidx +
(84)
line integral.
a closed curve (which we shall suppose is a simple closed curve, i.e. a curve
which does not intersect itself anywhere) then the integral is often denoted by
If
is
A-dr
<k
Aidx + A 2 dy +
dz
(35)
In general, a line integral has a value which depends on the path.

evaluation see Problems 1.39 and 1.40.
For methods of
INDEPENDENCE OF THE PATH

The
A = v<,
line integral (34) will
or equivalently
xp2
Jp
Pt
be independent of the path joining Pi and P2

In such case its value is given by
0.
A-dr
if
and only
if
VxA =
I
J Pi
d<f>
<j>(P 2 )
4>(Pi)
<f>(x 2
,y 2 ,z 2 )
<f>(x
u yi,Zx)
(36)
assuming that the coordinates of Pi and P2 are (x v y v z t ) and (x 2 y2 z 2 ) respectively while

The integral (35) in this case is zero.
<f>(x,y,z) has continuous partial derivatives.
,
FREE, SLIDING AND BOUND VECTORS

Up to now we have dealt with vectors which are specified by magnitude and direction
only.
Such vectors are called free vectors. Any two free vectors are equal as long as
they have the same magnitude and direction
[see Fig. l-12(a) below].
10
(a)
Equal free vectors
(b)
Equal sliding vectors
[CHAP.
(c)
Bound vector
Fig. 1-12
Sometimes in practice the particular line of action of a vector is important. In such

case two vectors are equal if and only if they have the same magnitude, direction and line
of action. Such vectors are often called sliding vectors [see Fig. 1-12(6)].
Sometimes
important to specify the point of action of a vector. Such a vector

a bound vector. In this case two vectors will be equal if and
it is
[see Fig. l-12(c)] is called
only
if
they are identical.
Most cases with which we shall deal involve free vectors. Cases where sliding vectors
or bound vectors need to be employed will in general be clear from the context.
Solved Problems
VECTOR ALGEBRA
1.1.
Show
that addition of vectors
commutative,
is
i.e.
A + B = B + A.
See Fig. 1-13
below.
OP + PQ = OQ
OR + RQ = OQ
and
Then
1.2.
A+B = B+
A+B = C
B+A = C
or
or
A.
Show
that the addition of vectors is associative,

Fig. 1-14 above.
OP + PQ = OQ =
Since
we have
A+
(B
+ C)
(A + B)
OP + PR = OR =
OQ + QR = OR =
= A + B) + C.
D,
A + (B + C) =
PQ + QR = PR =
and
D,
i.e.
i.e.
i.e.
(B
(A
4-
B)
+ C.
See
+ C)
A + (B + C) = D
A + B) + C = D
(
Extensions of the results of Problems

number of vectors is immaterial.
1.1
and
1.2
show that the order of addition of any
CHAP.
1.3.
1]
Given vectors A,
and C
[Fig. l-15(a)] construct
(a)
11
A - B + 2C,
(b)
3C - (2A - B).
(a)
-B
-|(2A-B)
Pig. 1-15
1.4.
Prove that the magnitude
Ad + Aaj + Ask
is
A =
of the vector
A=
+ A\ + A\.
See
y/A\
Fig. 1-16.
By
the Pythagorean theorem,
(OP)*
where
OP
Similarly,
A*
1.5.
(OQ)*
(QP) 2
denotes the magnitude of vector OP,
(OQ)*
(OP) 2
Then
=
=
= A\ + A\ +
(OR)*
(OR)*
A\,
+
+
etc.
(RQ)*.
+ (QP)* or
A = VA* + A* + A*
(RQ)*
i.e.
Determine the vector having the initial point

P(xi,yi,zi) and the terminal point Q(* 2 3/2, z 2)
and find its magnitude. See Fig. 1-17.
,
The
position vector of
is
rt
The
position vector of
is
r2
x x\ +
+ Zjk.
= x 2i + 2J + 2k
2/ x j
2/
r + PQ = r2 or
r = (^2* + Vzi + *2k (M + #ii + *ik
PQ =
= (2 - *i)i + (Va - 2/i)J + (2 - i)k
x
1*2
Magnitude of
PQ = PQ
= V(*2 - *l) 2 +
Note that this
is
(^2
~ Vl) 2 +
the distance between points
(*2
~ *l) 2
and Q.
Fig. 1-17
12
1.6.
Find
(a) graphically and

displacements:
sum
analytically the
(b)
[CHAP.
or resultant of the following
A, 10 ft northwest; B, 20 ft 30 north of east; C, 35 ft due south.
See Fig. 1-18.
Graphically.
At the terminal point of

place the initial point
of B. At the terminal point of B place the initial
point of C.
D is formed by joining the initial

the terminal point of C, i.e. D =
The resultant
point of
A+B+
C.
to
The resultant
4.1 units
measured to have magnitude of

and direction 60 south of east.
is
20.5 ft
Analytically.
From
E and N
Fig. 1-18, if
directions,
and
A = - 10
are unit vectors in the

Unit
cos 45
= 20 cos 30
C = 35j
Then the resultant
we have
10 sin 45
20 sin 30
5 ft
is
D = A + B + C =
=
Thus the magnitude of
is
(-10
cos 45
(-5V2 +
V(10.25)
10VS
20cos30)i
)i
+ (17.93) 2 =
tan-i 17.93/10.25
(5 V^ +
(10 sin 45
10
35)j
20 sin 30
10.25i
20.65 ft and the direction
tan" 1 1.749
35)j
17.93J
is
6045' south of east
Note that although the graphical and analytical results agree fairly
well, the analytical result is
more accurate.
of course
THE DOT OR SCALAR PRODUCT

Prove that the projection of A on B is equal to A
1.7.
where b
is
b,
a unit vector in the direction of B.
Through the initial and terminal points of A pass

respectively as in the
planes perpendicular to B at G and
adjacent Fig. 1-19; then
Projection of
1.8.
Prove
A on
B = GH = EF = A
A(B + C) =
cos 6
= A
G
Fig. 1-19
AB + AC.
Let a be a unit vector in the direction of A; then
[see
Fig. 1-20]
Projection of (B
+ C)
(B
on
A =
+ C)a =
B on A
+ projection of C on A
B*a + C*a
projection of
Multiplying by A,
BAa + OAa
A = B A + C A
(B+C)'Aa =
and
(B
+ C)
Then by the commutative law for dot products,
(B
+ C) =
and the distributive law
A B + A C
is valid.
Fig. 1-20
CHAP.
1.9.
= |i||i|cosO = (1)(1)(1) = 1
= |i||k|cos90 = (1)(1)(0) =
k-j = |k||j|cos90 = (1)(1)(0) =
= -3
(2i - 8j + k) = 2j i - 3j j + j k = 0-3 +
j
+ 2i k - 3j
(2i - j) (3i + k) = 2i (3i + k) - j (3i + k) = 6i
= 6 + 0-0-0 =
(a)
ii
(6)
ik
(d)
(e)
If
A=
Aii
AsBa.
+ Aaj+Agk and B = Bd + B 2 2 + B^k,
A-B =
prove that
Ai#i
+ A 2JB 2 +
A =
Aii
+ A 2j + A 3k,
cos 0
A = \/A-A =
A = VA A.
show that
= A2
Then
A\.
(Aji + A 2j + A 3k) (A i + A 2j + A 3k)

= (AJiAJ + (A 2)(A 2 + (A S )(A S = A\ + A\ + Al
taking B = A.
1.10,
A =
+ Al +
y/A\
Then
AA = (A)(A)
AA =
Also,
by Problem
If
(Aii + Aa + AM-iBj + Bzi + Bak)

= A \ (BJ + Baj + B 3k) + A 2j ( i + B 2j + B 3k) + A 3k (BJ + B 2j + B 3k)
= A B i i + Aî j + A B Z \ k + A 2Btf i + A 2 2 j + A 2 3j k
+ A^k i + A 3 2k j + A 3 3k k
= A B + A 2B % + A 3fi 3
k = 1 and all other dot products are zero.
j = k
since
A-B =
1.11.
13
Evaluate each of the following.
(e)
1.10.
1]
y/A*
A =
-Â\
+ A 2 + A\
the magnitude of A.
is
Sometimes
A A
is
written
A2
5(4,6,0)
1.12.
Find the acute angle between the diagonals of a

quadrilateral having vertices at (0, 0, 0), (3, 2, 0),
(4,6,0), (1,3,0) [Fig. 1-21].
We have
from which
OA =
CA =
3i
+ 2j, OB =
OA-OC =
2i
OB CA =
Then
4i
+ 6j, OC = i + 3j
[OB| |CA| cos $
i.e.
(4i
+ 6j)
from which
(2i
- j) =
cos 6
+ (6)2 V(2) 2 + (-1) 2 cos e

= 2/(v1S2 Vs = -1240 and = 8253'.
V(4) 2
(0,0,0)
Fig. 1-21
THE CROSS OR VECTOR PRODUCT

1.13. Prove AxB = -BxA.
BXA = D
(&)
Fig. 1-22
A X B = C has magnitude
system [Fig. l-22(a) above].
AB
sin $
and direction such that A,
and C form a right-handed
14
B X A = D has magnitude
system [Pig. 1-22(6) above].
Then
BA
and
D has the same magnitude as C but is opposite in direction, i.e. C = D
The commutative law for cross products
1.14.
and direction such that B,
sin e
[CHAP.
is
form a right-handed
or
A X B = -B X
A.
not valid.
Prove that
Ax(B + C) = AXB + AXC

the case where A is perpendicular
for
to
B and
also to C.
Since A is perpendicular to B, A X B is a
vector perpendicular to the plane of A and B
and having magnitude AB sin 90 =
or
magnitude of AB. This is equivalent to multiplying vector B by A and rotating the
resultant vector through 90 to the position
AB
shown
in Fig. 1-23.
A X C is the vector obtained by

multiplying C by A and rotating the resultant
vector through 90 to the position shown.
In like manner, A X (B + C) is the vector
obtained by multiplying B + C by A and rotating the resultant vector through 90 to the
position shown.
Similarly,
Since A X (B + C) is the diagonal of the

parallelogram with A X B and A X C as sides,
we have
1.15.
AX(B-f-C)
Prove that
AXB + AXC.
Fig. 1-23
A x (B + C) = AxB + AxC
in the general case
non-coplanar.
B and C
where A,
are
See Fig. 1-24.
Resolve B into two component vectors, one

perpendicular to A and the other parallel to A,
and denote them by B^ and B respectively.
(
Then
B = B +
between
If 6 is the angle
B j_ = B
B.
and B, then
Thus the magnitude of A X B j_ is

AB sin 9, the same as the magnitude of A X B.
Also, the direction of A X B is the same as the
direction of A X B. Hence A X B =AXB.
sin
e.
Similarly
vectors
if
resolved into two component
is
and C^,
parallel
respectively to A, then
Also, since
and perpendicular
A X C = A X
Fig. 1-24
C.
B + C = B + B n + C + C M = (Bj_ + C +
AX(B + C 1 = AX(B + C)
)
(B,
(
+ CM
it
follows that
Now
A and so by Problem
AX(B 1 + C 1 = AXB i +AXC 1
A X (B + C) = AXB + AXC
Bjl and Cj_ are vectors perpendicular to
1.14,
Then
and the distributive law holds. Multiplying by 1, using Problem

B X A + C X A. Note that the order of factors in cross products
algebra apply only
if
proper order
is
1.13, this
is
+ C) X A =
The usual laws of
becomes (B
important.
maintained.
i
1.16.
If
A = Ad + A + Ask
2j
and
B=
Bii
+ B 2j + Bak,
prove that
AxB
Ai
A
B
As
Bs
CHAP.
1]
AXB
=
=
=
Aii X (S x i
(A 2B 3
15
+ Atf + AMxiBii + Btf + BJi.)

+ Ba + B sk) + Aa X (BJ + Brf + 3k) + A 3k X (BJ + # 2j + B 3k)
Aî X i + A xB2i X j + A XB Z\ X k + AgBJ X i + A 252j X J + ^2#3J X k
+ A 3Bik X i + A 3B 2k X j + A 3B 3k X k
(Aii
1.17.
If
A = 3i-j + 2k
and
- A 3B 2)i +
B=
AXB
-1
-1
-1
- A^k =
At
A 2 ^3
B,
B2
*3
-5i
-1
7j
-1
+ k
-1
Ilk
Prove that the area of a parallelogram with

sides A and B is |AxB|.
Area of parallelogram
= h |B|
= A| sin 6
= |AXB|
|
Note that the area of the triangle with
B
1.19.
=
1.18.
(A t B 2
+ 3j-k, findAxB.
2i
- A B Z )\ +
(A sB t
is
|A X
|B|
sides
A and
B
Fig. 1-25
B|
Find the area of the triangle with vertices at P(2,3,5), Q(4,2,-l),

PQ = (4_ 2 )i + (2-3)j + (-l-5)k = 2i-j-6k
PR = (3 - 2)1 + (6 - 3)j + (4 - 5)k = i + 3j - k
Area of triangle
|PQXPR|
= il
-1
k
-6
+ 3j-k)|
(i
= |19i-4j + 7k|
3-1
= |(2i- j-6k) X
72(3,6,4).
iV(19)
+ (-4)2 + (7)2 =
Jv'426
TRIPLE PRODUCTS
1.20.
Show
that
(B x C)
is in
absolute value equal
to the volume of a parallelepiped with sides

A, B and C.
Let n be a unit normal to parallelogram /, having
the direction of B X C, and let h be the height of the
terminal point of
above the parallelogram /.
Volume
If A,
1.21.
(a) If
of parallelepiped
= (height fc)(area of parallelogram J)

= (A.n)(|BXC|)
= A{|BXC|n} = A'(BXC)
and C do not form a right-handed system,
A =
Aii
Fig. 1-26
A n <
and the volume
+ A 2j+Ask, B = Bd + B 2j + Bsk, C =
Bi
A 2 Az
B2 B3
C\
C2
Ai
A-(BxC)
Ci
Cii
= A
|
(B
+ C2j + Ctk show
C)
that
16
(6)
Give a geometric significance of the case where
(a)
A'(BXC) = A* B t
(A i i
= A
(B x C)
0.
B2 B 3
C2
C3
+ A 2j + A 3k)
[(B 2 C3
- 3 C2)i +
-B3C2)+A 2 (B C -B
(B 2 C3
- B C3 )\ +
{B 3 C X
(B X C2 -
C3) + A 3 {B X C2 -
A
B
Ct =
)
B 2C t )k]
x
x
Cx
(b)
By Problem
1.22.
1.20 if
and conversely
A, B,
if
(B
X C) =
then A,
are coplanar then
B and C
(B
and
1.20
are coplanar,
volume of parallelepiped
1.21,
C)
A 2 A3
B2 B 3
C2
c3
are in the same plane,
i.e.
0.
A = 3i
Find the volume of a parallelepiped with sides

By Problems
Cj
[CHAP.
j,
B = j + 2k, C = i + 5j + 4k.
3-10
|A(BXC)|
1-201
12
15
1.23.
If
A = +
(a)
AXB =
B = 2i-3j + k, C = 4j-3k,
j,
2-3
i
(6)
= - j - 5k.
23i
+ 3j + 4k.
4-3
-5
-1
2-3 1
4-3
BXC =
Then (A X B) X C
110
20.
(a)(AxB)xC, (b)Ax(BxC).
find
5i
+ 6j + 8k.
(A X B) X
It follows that, in general,
AX
Then
C ^ AX
(B
(B
C)
= 8i-8j + k.
8
C).
DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS OF VECTORS

1.24.
If r
(a)
(i
~(*s +
At
= 0,
(c)
W = Jtilt)
(a),
From
(c),
Prove that
tions of u.
\dr/dt\
t =t 0,
2i
V(2) 2
(b)
(3*2
dt2
+ 2)i +
6e~2tj
at
= 0.
10 cos ht k
6e
~ 2t
2\/35
10cos5k}
at
= 0.
= 6<i-12e-2tj-50sin5tk
= 12j.
=12
-f-(A-B)
sin 5*)k
+ (6) 2 + (10)2 = ^140 =
d?r/dtf
^,
(a)
+ 6j + 10k.
= ^<( 3 *2 + 2 i +
Idtr/dP]
du
find
+ ^(-3e- 2 *)j + ^(2
dr/dt
From
At
1.25.
2t)i
(6)
(d)
d2 r
+ 2i)i-3<?- 2tj + 2sin5*k,
at
= 0.
A-^
+ ^-B,
du
tint,
where
and
are differentiate func-
CHAP.
1]
L ,
Method
d ,. ,
-j-(AB)
du v
1.
(A
..
lim
+ AA)
Am
am-*o
+ AB) - A'B
(B
A'AB + AA'B + AA'AB
lim
AM
Au-0
= A dB + dA B
S 1S'
\
AA
AB
AA
/
= ?o{ A '^ + -^- B+ -^' AB )
Method
A = A i + A 2 + A 3k, B =
Let
2.
< A
"
Â
>
A
.
^+A
$A =
T-(*A)
02
32
If
Evaluate
- xzk,
Sx 2yi + yz 2 \
3x*y 2 zi
aV*^ -*) =
OZ
+ A
-2, z
Sx*y 2 i
A(u)
if
(dA x
dA*
.dA 2
\
+ {~dV Bl + ~dV B2 + ~du~ Bs
)
,
d2
12j
at the point
(1,
-2, -1).
x 3 2/s 2k
3x 2y 2 z 2j
- l)i +
(3w2
^-^ (<f>A)
find
6as 4 ]/i
-1, this becomes -12i
A(w)dw
*r;
x2 y2z3 j
3
3
2 2 2
= ^(3aî/2 i + Sx y z j - 2x wzk) =
1,
df? 3 \
du
+ yz 2\ - xzk) =
^-(SajVrf +
(*A)
A=
z 2 2/s and
{x 2yz){Sx 2 yi
_,
dydz
1.27.
If <(#, y, z)
<Zi? 2
*~dV
dA
dt*
1.26.
Then
aa + aw
*-dir
dB
+ B^ + 3k.
Bji
17
6; 2i/3 2 j
2k.
(2i*
2x3yzk
- 3) j +
2a; 3 *k
{Qu2
- 4tt)k.
The given integral equals

I
{(3m2
- 3)j + (6m2 - 4M)k} du

2
3
(m3 - M)i + (m2 - 3m) j + (2m - 2M )k
- l)i +
=
(2m
u=l
- 3)j +
- Di +
(1
A particle moves along a curve whose parametric equations are
=
=
{(8
6i
- 2)i +
+ 8k
(4
- 6)j +
(16
- 8)k> -
{(1
(2
- 2)k}
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

1.28.
5 cos St where
t is
(6)
(a)
The
Then the
and the acceleration

a
t
= 0,
xi
yj
zk
3e~ 2t i
4 sin St
velocity is
At
= 0.
position vector r of the particle is
(6)
3e~ 2t y
the time.
Find its velocity and acceleration at any time.

Find the magnitudes of the velocity and acceleration at
(a)
dr/dt
dt/dt
= -6e- 2ti +
12 cos Zt
5 cos Bt
15 sin St
is
dv/dt
-6i
d2v/dt2
+ 12j
and
magnitude of velocity at
a
t
12e- 2t i
d2r/dt2
magnitude of acceleration at
is
*
36 sin St
12i-45k.
V(-6) 2
is
V(12)
(12) 2
2
45 cos 3*
Then
= 6^5
(-45) 2
3 V241
4 sin 3t,
18
1.29.
particle travels so that its acceleration is given
2e -ti
5 cos
at
by
- 3 sin t k
t =
and is moving
with a velocity
the displacement of the particle
(b)
any time t>0.

a
8
()
Integrating,
Since
dPr
-no
= 4i-3j + 2k
4i -
3j
Thus
5 cos
t j
3 sin
cos
k) dt
3 sin
ct
ct
6i
-k
3j
(1)
and integrating, we have

[(6
(6t
- 2e-*)i +
+ 2~*)i =
(6t
+ 2~*-l)i +
2i
3)j
(3 cos t
+ 8)j + (3
=
t
0, we have
(5 cos *
3j
2k
(5 sin *
located at (1,-3,2) at
is
i
(2e"'i
* j
+ 5 sin t j + 3 cos t k + 6i - 3j - k
2e-*)i + (5 sin t - 3)j + (3 cos * - l)k
(6
=
Since the particle
2e-'i + 5cos
2e_1
5 cos
-2-*i
(I)
~dt
=
=
Replacing v by dr/dt in
-jT
= 2e~H + 5 sin t j + 3
= 0, we have
+ 2k = -2i + 3k + c t
or
at
dv
Then
(6)
t j
If the particle is located at (1,-3,2) at time

given by 4i - 3j + 2k, find (a) the velocity and
[CHAP.
5j
(2
or
c2
5 cos
- 3)j +
l)k) dt
sin
c2
t)k + c 2
i
3 j + 2k
-i
2j
(3 sin
at
= 0,
so that
2k
-t+
2)k
{2)

1.30. An airplane moves in a northwesterly
direction at 125 mi/hr relative to the
ground, due to the fact that there is a

westerly wind [i.e. from the west] of
50 mi/hr relative to the ground. Determine (a) graphically and (b) analytically how fast and in what direction
the plane would have traveled if there
were no wind.
(a)
Graphically.
Let
=
=
Va
wind velocity
velocity of plane
with wind
V(,
velocity of plane
without wind.
Then
Vb
(6)
[see Pig. 1-27]
has magnitude
6.5
Fig. 1-27
Va = Vb + W or v 6 = va
units = 163 mi/hr and direction
-w
= V +
(-W).
33 north of west.
Analytically.
Letting
and
E and N
be unit vectors in directions
respectively,
that
= - 125
V
Then
= Va -
(- 125 cos 45

tan-i 88.39/138.39
cos 45
Vb
tan~i .6387
is
125 sin 45
50)i
+
2
125 sin 45
+ (88.39) 2 =
V(-138.39)
32 34' north of west.
and
j
we
W =
from
Fig. 1-27
50i
-138.391
164.2 mi/hr
see
88.39J.
and the direction
is
CHAP.
1.31.
1]
19
= 2ti - t j + (St - 4)k and

ri
given by
and (b) the relative
velocity
relative
the
Find (a)
instant where t = 2.
the
the
first
at
to
acceleration of the second particle with respect
Two particles have position

r 2 = (U 2 - 12* + 4)i + Fj - 3tk.
(a)
The
t-2
velocities of the particles at
Vl
rt
are respectively
= 2i-2tj +
(6t-4)k
t
v2
f2
- 12)i +
(lOt
vectors
St2}
2i
4j
8k
=2
3k
t
8i
12j
3k
=2
Relative velocity of particle 2 with respect to particle 1
=
(6)
y2
- Vl =
(8i
+ 12j - 3k) -
(2i
The. accelerations of the particles at

ai
a2
*i
v2
=2
vi
- 4j + 8k) =
r2
Ilk
-2j
10i
6i
16j
are respectively
~2j
lOi
6k
t
=2
=2
6tj
6k
12j
Relative acceleration of particle 2 with respect to particle 1
a2
a!
+ 12j) -
(lOi
(-2j
+ 6k) =
lOi
14j
6k
TANGENTIAL AND NORMAL ACCELERATION

1.32.
Given a space curve
with position vector
3cos-2ti'+ 3 sin 2t
(a)
Find a unit tangent vector
(b)
If r is the position vector of
case that v
(a)
to the curve.
a particle moving on
tangent vector to
The magnitude of
T =
= -6
ds/dt
to
is
8k
6 cos 2t
dx/dt
(a)
dr/dt
sin 2t)*
(6 cos 2*)*
(8)*
-6
dt
ds
sin 2t
+ f
sin 2*
cos 2t
4-
6 cos 2t
10
is
10
8k
since
= - 6 sin 2t i +
= (10)(- f sin 2*
6 cos 2t
i
+ f
cos2t
8k
j
$k)
= vT
in this case the speed of the particle along the curve is constant.
a unit tangent vector to a space curve C, show that dT/ds
Since
verify in this
is
dx/dt
ds/dt
dr/dt
This follows at once from
sin 2*
= V(- 6
= -1
If
t,
this vector is
Then a unit tangent vector
1.33.
at time
is
\dr/dt\
Note that
= vT.
dr/dt
(6)
+ (8*-4)k
a unit vector, we have
T*T =
T .f + *. T =
d8
da
which states that dT/ds
is
normal,
i.e.
2T
1.
M
d8
Then
is
normal to T.
differentiating with respect to
perpendicular, to T.
or
T.=
da
8,
we
obtain
20
If
is
a unit vector in the direction of dT/ds,
while
1.34.
call
R=
N
1/k
we have
the unit principal normal to C. The scalar

is called the radius of curvature.
From Problem
ds
ds/dt
(c)
From
(a), (6)
= R =
and Problem
1/K
sin 2t
to
^ sin It
1.33,
1 dT
=
N = KdF
Show
unit principal normal
25/3
n dT
.,
1.35.
called the curvature,
= V(-^cos 2 *) 2 + (-^sin2)2 =
is
ds
Radius of curvature
(c)
is
10
= Jj cos 2t
(b)
\dT/ds\
T = -f sin It i + cos 2t j + |k. Then

dT _ dT/dt _ (-6/5) cos 2t i - (6/5)
1.32,
Thus the curvature
Find the (a) curvature, (b) radius of curvature and

any point of the space curve of Problem 1.32.
(a)
= kS
dT/ds
and we
[CHAP.
^-rfT
x
-cos2*i-sm2j
.
that the acceleration a of a particle which travels along a space curve with
velocity
is
given by
= 3t T -+ff N
where T is the unit tangent vector to the space curve,

and R is the radius of curvature.
Velocity v
is its
unit principal normal
magnitude of v multiplied by unit tangent vector T, or

v
Differentiating,
dt
ti.
Then
dt
-^ =
But
*
dt
?I
ds_
ds
dt
^V m
T
= vT
=
{vT)
dt
dt
ds
dt
KXN
/vfi\
^T + ^
+ *(-;
=
=
tjN
KVS*
dv _
d*
T +
,
i;2
bn
T
This shows that the component of the acceleration is dv/dt in a direction tangent to the path and
v 2 /R in the direction of the principal normal to the path. The latter acceleration is often called
the centripetal acceleration or briefly normal acceleration.
CIRCULAR MOTION
1.36.
its position vector is given by r = cos o>t i + sin

j where
that (a) the velocity v of the particle is perpendicular to r,
(b) the acceleration a is directed toward the origin and has magnitude proportional
to the distance from the origin, (c) r x v = a constant vector.
o>
particle
is
moves so that
a constant.
dr
di
Show
~ ~ a sm ut
r
and
* "*"
" cos w *
=
=
Then
*'
[cos at
sin at
j]
(cos at)(a sin at)
and v are perpendicular.
[ sin at
w cos at
(sin at)(a cos at)
j]
CHAP.
1]
(b)7
^=^=
at2
-a2
at
cos at
a2 sin t
= -w2
[cos
<ot i
sin at
21
= -2r
j]
is opposite to the direction of r, i.e. it is directed toward the origin.

proportional to |r| which is the distance from the origin.
Then the acceleration

Its
(c)
magnitude
Xv
is
[cos at
sin at
X [ a
j]
a cos at
j]
cos at
sin at
sin at
(cos2 at
sin2 at)k
a constant vector.
k,
a COS at
sin at
Physically, the motion is that of a particle moving on the circumference of a circle with
constant angular speed a. The acceleration, directed toward the center of the circle, is the
centripetal acceleration.

= x 2yz* and A = xzi-y2j + 2x2yk,
1.37. If
(e)
(<j>A),
'
curl
(6)
VA
(c)
VXA
dy
-^(x2yz3)i
}*
dz
'
dx
-(x*yz3)j
dy*
(^
(c)
x A,
3
2<ci/z i
****j
3x*y**k
X( î " 2/2J + 2x 2yk)
k
)
3/fla;
d/dy
d/dz
xz
y2
2x^y
(x
4*2/) j
(*A)
= V
2x 2 i
div (*A)
^ +^
curl (*A)
VX
(*A)
(x^yzH
A =
(a)
If
(b)
Find a
(a)
VXA
VX
1.38.
V'A,
dz
|^(asy*)k
- x*yHH +
+
(e)
(&)
= (l + j + k)-<^-lrt + **>
=
(d)
(a) V</>,
(<f>A).
\3
find
(x*yz*i
d/dy
d/dz
xSyz*
-x2y*z*
2ar%28
2 3
f-(2a*2/ z )
oz
*WJ + 2*
4 2 z3k)
i/
d/dx
(4x*yzs
2*4i/2z3k)
3 2i/3 2 )i
(43j/2 3
8x3 i/ 2z3 )j
(2xys z*
+ z?)i + (x 2 + 2y)j+{Sxz 2 -2)k, show

such that A = V/>scalar function
(2xy
<j>
d/dx
d/dy
d/dz
2xy
a2
2y
3s 2
=
2
that
o3 4 )k
VXA
0.
(d)
div
22
(b)
Method
A =
If
1.
(1)
= î +
ox
2xy
f
da;
we
Integrating,
V<&
f2j
dy
*3
^k
dz
x2
we must have
then
(*)
[CHAP.
2y
'& =
(3)
fly
3xz2
flz
find
U)
4>
+ F^x)
(5)
* = x2y +
= xz*-2z + F3 (x,y)
(6)
sfiy
xtfl
y2
+ F2 (x,z)
<f
Comparing these we must have F^y^)

= x 2 y + xzs + y 2 2z.
and so
y2
2z, F2 (x,z) =
xz*
2z, Fz (x,y) =
x*y
+ y*
<f>
Method
We
2.
have
if
A=
A-dr
an exact
differential.

Then
For
v>,
+ z*)dx + (x 2 + 2y)dy + (Sxz2 -2)dz

[(2xy + zs dx + x 2 dy + Sxz2 dz] + 2y dy d(x 2y + xz*) + d(y2 + d(-2z)
d(x 2y + xz* + y2 - 2z)
(2xy
2 dz
+ xz s + y 2 2z.
Note that an arbitrary constant can
also be
added to
<f>.
LINE INTEGRALS AND INDEPENDENCE OF THE PATH

1.39.
If
A =
(Sx 2
- 6yz)i +
(2y
+ 3xz)j +
(1
- 4xyz 2 )k,
(1, 1, 1)
= t, y = t2
(a)
(b)
the straight lines
(c)
the straight line joining (0,0,0) and (1,1,1).
f A
(a)
If
J c A'dr from
evaluate
along the following paths C:
t,
z-i^.
dr
= t2
(0,0,0) to
(0, 0, 0)
{(Sx2
(Sx 2
A-dr
Jfo
from
*,
points
to
- 6yz)i +
(2y
-6yz)dx +
and
(0, 0, 0)
+ 3xz)j +
(2y
(1, 1, 1)
- 6(*2)(*3)} dt +
Jft=0
{3*2
f
J t=o
(3*2-6*5 )d*
then to
(0, 0, 1),
(4t?
(1
and then
(0, 1, 1),
- 4xyz 2 )k} '(dxi +
dyj
to
(1, 1, 1).
dz k)
+ Sxz)dy + (l-4xyz2 )dz

correspond to
{2*2
and
+ 3(*)(*3)} d(t2 +
- 12* 11
(St 2
=1
{1
+ 6t*)dt +
dt
respectively.
Then
- 4(*)(*2)(*3)2} d(*)
=
Another method.
A = (3*2 - 6*5)i +
+ 2<j + 3<2k) dt. Then
Along C,
dx
(i
J
(6)
A'dr
(3*2-
Along the straight line from (0,

to 1. Then the integral over
{3(0)
-6(0)(z)}0
(2*2
0, 0)
+ 3*4)j +
6*5) dt
to
(0, 0, 1),
(i
_ 49) k
(4*8
an d
+ 6*5) dt +
0,
= 0,
dx
(St2
+ yj + k =
- 12*") dt
= 0,
dy
*i
+ *2j + *3fc,
2
while z varies from
this part of the path is
{2(0)
+ 3(0)()}0 +
{1
- 4(0)(0)(z2)} dz
dz
CHAP.
1]
Along the straight line from (0, 0, 1) to (0, 1, 1), x = 0,

from
to 1. Then the integral over this part of the path
= 1,
23
= 0,dz =
dx
r1
Jfy =o
{3(0)
- 6(y){l)}0 +
{2i/ + 3(0)(1)} dy +
Along the straight line from (0,

from to 1. Then the integral over
{3*2
- 6(1)(1)} dx +
{2(1)
1, 1)
{1
- 4(0)(i/)(l) 2 }0
= l,z
path is
to (1, 1, 1),
= 1,
= 0,dz =
dy
- 4*(1)(1) 2 >0 =
and (1,1,1) we have x
= t,
{1
2ydy
^y=o
this part of the
+ 3z(l)}0 +
while y varies
is
while x varies
(3* 2
- 6) dx = -5
= t,
x=0
Adding,
dr
+ 1-5 =
-3.
Jr.
Along the straight

dx = dy = dz = dt,
(c)
line joining (0,0,0)
( A'dr
(3t2
(2
(3x 2
-6yz)dx +
(2y
+ Sxz) dy +
(2t
+ l-4t*)dt
-6t*)dt
(1
+ St2 )dt +
- 4xyz2
= t. Then
since
dz
(l-4t*)d
6/5
Note that in this case the value of the integral depends on the particular path.
1.40.
A =
If
+ z?)i +
(2xy
+ 2y)j +
(3zz 2
-2)k show that
J A -dr
(a)
joining the points (1,-1,1) and (2,1,2) and
of the path
(x 2
By Problem
VXA =
1.38,
independent of the path aijd
its
or
value
dr
d<p
d(x 2y
A'dr
independent
(b) find its value.
+ xz* + y 2 - 2z). Then
the integral
is
is
/(2.1.2)
(2,1,2)
is
d(x*y
+ xz3 + y 2 - 2c)
*^(i,-i.D
ii.-i.i)
(2.1,2)
x2 y
xz*
+ |/2-22
18
(1,-1.1)
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
1.41.
Prove that
if
Suppose x
to the
1.42.
same
a and b are non-collinear, then xa + yb
= 0.
Then
a?a
line (collinear),
+ yb =
implies xa
Let
bi-
ABCD be the given parallelogram with diagonals

P
as shown in Fig. 1-28.
BD + a = b, BD = b - a. Then BP = x(b - a).

Since AC = a + b, AP = y(a + b).
But AB = AP + PB = AP - BP,
a = i/(a + b) x(b a) = (x + y)a + (y x)b.
Since
i.e.
Since a and b are non-collinear

is
we have by Problem
x = y = % and P
x + y = 1 and y x = 0, i.e.
the midpoint of both diagonals.
1.41,
implies
-y=
0.
= yb or a = (y/x)b, i.e. a and b must be parallel

Thus x = 0; then 2/b = 0, from which y = 0.
contrary to hypothesis.
Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram

sect each other.
intersecting at
24
1.43.
[CHAP.
Prove that for any vector A,
A =
A =
(a)
(b)
(A-i)i
A(cos a
cos
where a, /?, y are the angles which

makes with
cos y are called the direction cosines of A.
(a)
We
A = A + A 2 + A 3k.
have
ti
+ (A-k)k
/? j + cos y k)
(A-j)j
i, j,
and cos a, cos (3,
respectively
Then
Ai =
Aj =
= A
+ 2 j + A 3k)
+ Aaj + Agk)'! = A 2
A'k = (Aii + AaJ + AgkJ-k = A 3
A =
Thus
(A x i
(A
=
Ak
(b)
Prove that V<
is
(A
j)j
cos a
|i|
|A||j|cos/?
|A| |k|
cos y
(A k)k
= A cos a
= Acos/3
= A cos y
(a),
A =
1.44.
i)i
|A|
Aj
Then from part
(Aji
(A
i)i
(A
j)j
(A k)k
A(cosa
</>(#, 2/,
2)
a vector perpendicular to the surface
cos/3
cosy k)
c,
where
c is
constant.
Let r
Then
dv
*
i.e.
1.45.
V#
dr
vector to any point P(x, y,
so that
Find a unit normal

By Problem
1.44,
is
k
i
ff + lf i+ lf
or
2# 2 + 4yz - 5z 2
to the surface
Then a unit normal
4ai
4zj
to the surface at
1.46.
(&i +
<
"' i
But
+ &k)
(Ay
to the surface at
- 10z)k =
12i
is
= -10
at the point P(3,-l,2).
is
V(12)
Another unit normal
on the surface.
perpendicular to dr and therefore to the surface
a vector normal to the surface
+ Ayz - 5z2
V(2ar2
V^
z)
in the plane tangent to the surface at P.
^ dx + ^ dy+ ^ dz
+ j/j + zk be the position

dx i + dy j + dz k lies
xi
3i
12i
8j
+ 8j - 24k
+ (8) 2 + (-24)2
2j
24k
3i
at (3,-1,2)
2j
6k
6k
is
ladder AB of length a rests against a vertical wall OA [Fig. 1-29]. The foot B
{a) Show that the midpoint
of the ladder is pulled away with constant speed vo.
with center at O. (b) Find
radius
a/2
of the ladder describes the arc of a circle of
ladder
at
the
instant where B is distant
of
the
the velocity and speed of the midpoint
b < a from the wall.
(a)
Let r be the position vector of midpoint

If angle OBA = o, we have
M of AB.
OA = a sin e j
OB = a cos e
=
=
a
cos i a sin
OB OA
AB
i,
Then
r
= OA + AM = OA + AB
= a sin e j + \(a> cos e a sin e j)
= â(cos 9 + sin e j)
= â, which is a circle of radius
i
Thus
|r|
with center at 0.
a/2
Fig. 1-29
CHAP.
(6)
AND ACCELERATION
VECTORS, VELOCITY
1]
The
-jr
where
The
is
-jrtya(co& 8
velocity of the foot
is
-r-(OB)
at
the instant where
of the ladder
ei
cos 8 8j)
(i)
distant 6
62
the required velocity of
(1)
a sin
or
8i
from the wall we have from
Va -
am 8 =
is
= a&m8
37 (a cos 0i)
at
Thus from
= â( sin e
sin e j)}
d8/dt.
vA =
At
velocity of the midpoint
25
dr
-v
()
(2),
-n
y a2 _
a sin*
at this instant
1
= -v
8 8
b2
is
y/cP-b*
and
1.47.
Let
speed
its
av/2 Va2
is
o2
represent the polar coordinates describing the position of a particle. If

a unit vector in the direction of the position vector r and $i is a unit vector
perpendicular to r and in the direction of increasing 6 [see Fig. 1-30], show that
(r, 0)
ri is
(a) ri
i
(6)
(a)
cos 9
cos
i 4-
ri
sin 6
j,
0i
sin
0i,
If r is the position vector of the particle at
= sin 6 i +
sin
ri
cos
cos 6 $i
any
time t, then dr/dr is a vector tangent to the

curve 8 = constant, i.e. a vector in the direction of r (increasing
direction
is
r).
unit vector in this
thus given by
5r /Idrl
dr/
(1)
\dr\
Since
xi
yj
rcosfli
cos*
\dr\
rsintfj
we have
as seen from Fig. 1-30,

3r
dr
sin
j,
\dr\
so that
cos 8
sin 8
Fig. 1-30
(3)
Similarly, Br/d8 is a vector tangent to the curve r

direction is thus given
Now from
so that
(-4)
(2),
dr
do
...
= r sin
8i +
constant.
unit vector in this
rcosff
3r
j,
\de
yields
8X
(b)
by
= sin 8
cos 8
These results follow by solving the simultaneous equations
(5)
(3)
and
(5)
for
and
j.
26
1.48.
(a)r a
Prove that
Prom
(a)
(S)
(b)di
00i
= -0r u
we have
of Problem 1.47
Tl
dr dt
dt
=
From
(b)
(5)
1.49.
_
~
(0)(f )
_
~
=
d*i
dt
Prove that in polar coordinates
d*idr
(b)
the acceleration
is
We
have
by Problem
(6)
From
part
cos e
})($)
e0 t
îde_
de dt
(0)(r)
(a)
( cos
the velocity
is
= er x
sin e j)(e)
given by
r$6i
rri 4-
r - r6 2 )ri
(r 6
so that
rr 1
given by
a
(a)
(- sin
dr dt
v =
and
de dt
we have
of Problem 1.47
01
[CHAP. 1
dr
Tt
dr
= Tt r +
^r i
-dT
+ 2r9) 9
...
^+
rr
rr i
+ *"i
1.48(a).
(a)
and Problem 1.48 we have

d .*
= dv
Tt =
(rr
de
l)
= rr t + rr x + r0x + rtf*! + rebi

= Vr! + f(5#i) + ffoi + r'e'9 + (reêri)
= (r r$ 2 )r + (r6>'+2r)0
1
Supplementary Problems
VECTOR ALGEBRA
1.50.
Given any two vectors
1.51.
Given vectors A,
1.52.
If
is
1.53.
(a)
and B,
and C, construct the vectors
Determine the vector having
2A - 3B + C,
(6)
C - A + JB.
to the side
AB.
point (2,-1,3) and terminal point (3,2,-4).
initial
(a).
triangle has vertices at the points
median
1.55.
(a)
4A+3(B-A) = A + 3B.
A and B are any two non-zero vectors which do not have the same direction, prove that
a vector lying in the plane determined by A and B.
distance between the two points in
1.54.
illustrate geometrically the equality
Ans.
(a)
+ 3j 7k,
(6)
Find the
\/59
A(2,l,-1), (-1,3,2), C(l,-2,1).
Find the length of the
Ans. \/66
travels 25 miles northeast, 15 miles due east and 10 miles due south.
appropriate scale determine (a) graphically and (6) analytically how far and in
Ans. 33.6 miles, 13.2 north of east.
he is from his starting position.
A man
(6)
pA + qB
By
using an
what
direction
CHAP.
1.56.
1]
27
A =
Find a unit vector in the direction of the resultant of vectors

Ans. (61-21 +
C = 3i-2j + 4k.
2i
j + k, B =
+ j + 2k,
7^/^
THE DOT OR SCALAR PRODUCT

1.57.
Evaluate |(A + B) (A-B)|
if
1.58.
1.59.
Find a so that
If
A =
2i
2i
3j + 5k
+ j + k, B =
1.61.
- 2j + 2k
3i
- 4j + 2k,
Ans. 24
Ans. a
Take the
ABC, i.e. c 2 = a2 + b 2 2ab

A,B,C where C = A B. Then use
sides as
in the
cos C.
OC
(A
B)
|(2A
find
+ B) X
Find a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the vectors
(A-2B)|.
(A
B).]
A=
3i
Ans. 2byfl
2j + 4k and B = i + j 2k.
+ k)/V5
1.65.
Find the area of the triangle with vertices
1.66.
Find the shortest distance from the point (3,2,1) to the plane determined by
Ans. 2
(-1,0,2).
t>
/.ft
A+C
Prove that the diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular to each other.
Ans. (2j
1.67.
4/3
find the projection of
Prove the law of cosines for triangle
THE CROSS OR VECTOR PRODUCT

1.63.
If A = 2i-j + k and B = i + 2j-3k,
1.64.
+ j-2k.
are perpendicular.
C =
and
3i
to side
[Hint.
1.62.
+ aj 2k
3i
B =
and
has vertices at A(2,3,l), B(-l, 1,2), C(l,-2,3).

Find the acute angle which the
AC makes with side BC.
Ans. cos -1 V91/14
triangle
median
and
+ 5k
2i-3j
Ans. 17/3
direction of B.
1.60.
A =
j.
*
x
i
a ns,
Prove 0.1.7
the law of sines for triangle ABC,
Consider the sides to be A, B,
[Hint.
sides with
and
Ans. \yf%
(2,-3,1), (1,-1,2), (-1,2,3).
sin
i.e.
A =
sin B
C where A + B + C =
sin
(1,1,0), (3,-1,1),
and take the cross product of both
respectively.]
TRIPLE PRODUCTS
1.68.
If
(c)
1.69.
1.70.
A = 2i + j - 3k, B = i - 2j + k
A X (B X C), (d) (A X B) X C.
A
Prove that
(B
C)
(A X B)
and
C = -i + j - 4k,
Ans.
C,
i.e.
(a)
20,
(6)
find
20,
(c)
(a)
8i
(B
C),
- 19j - k,
(b)
{d)
25i
(A X
B),
- 15j - 10k
the dot and the cross can be interchanged.
Find the volume of a parallelepiped whose edges are given by

Ans. 31
A =
+ 3j k, B =
2i
2j + 2k,
C = 3i-j-2k.
1.71.
Find the volume of the tetrahedron with vertices at
(2, 1, 1),
(1,
1, 2),
(0, 1,
-1), (1 -2,
1).
Ans. 4/3
1.72.
Prove that
(a)
(b)
1.73.
(a)
(r
A-(BXC) = B(CXA) =a C
A X (B X C) = B(A C) - C(A
(A X B),
B).
P 1 ,P 2 ,P3 respectively. Prove that the equation

where r = xi + yj + zk, represents an equation for the plane
(2,-1,-2),
(&) Find an equation for the plane passing through
Ans. (b) 2x + y-3z = 9
Let r v r2 r3 be position vectors to three points

,
rj)
[(r
r2 X (r r3 =
by P u P2 and P3
)
0,
)]
determined
(-1,2,-3), (4,1,0).
DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS OF VECTORS

1.74.
1.75.
Let
A =
Ans.
(a)
If r
3fi
(t 2
3i-3j-k,
a cos ut
scalar, prove that
+ t)j +
(6)
sin at,
(a) r
- 2t2 )k.
+ 2k
(t*
-2j
Find
(a)
dA/dt
and
(6)
cPA/dt2
at
= 1.
where a and b are any constant non-collinear vectors and

dr/dt = <o(a X b), (6) d2r/dt2 + <o2r = 0.
is
a constant
28
A =
1.76.
If
1.77.
Prove that
1.78.
1.79.
sin
B =
and
cos
t i
sin
t j
+ -r-XB
t-(AXB) = AX-rdu
du
'
du
= 4(tt - l)i - (2u + 3)j +

- 8j + 38k, (b) -28
A(m)
If
Ans.
t\
Gu 2k,
k,
find
where
evaluate
(a)
(a) 6i
[CHAP.
^(AB).
and
J2
Ans.
sin
are differentiate functions of u.
A(u) du,
Find the vector B(u) such that d2B/du 2 = Gul - 48w2j + 12k where
Ans. (us + u + 2)i + (5u - 4u4 )j + (Gu2 - 3)k
+ 5j for u = 0.
(b)
B =
(ui
J*
2i
- 2k)
and
dB/du
- 3k
A(u) du.
Xd?A
AX
1.80.
1.81.
1.82.
-j-^
R =
If
x 2 yi
dA
= A X -rr
+
dt
32
- 2y 2 zj + xy 2 z>k,
A = x*i - y] + xzk
Ans. 4i + 8j
If
find
B =
and
aa; 2
where
fl
is
a constant vector.
Ans. IGyfh
at the point (2,1,-2).
3j/ 2
yi
+ xj-xyzk,
find
3
^y(AXB)
at the point (1,-1,2).
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

1.83.
particle
moves
(a) velocity,
at time
tion
1.84.
the
= 2.
Ans.
(c)
(a)
Find the
r = (t2 + *)i + (8* - 2)j + (2t - 4t2 )k.
space curve
speed or magnitude of velocity and (d) magnitude of accelera5i
+ 3j + 8k,
(6)
21
16k,
(c)
ly[2,
(d)
2^
moves along the space curve defined by x = e-* cost, y e~ t

the magnitude of the (a) velocity and (6) acceleration at any time t.
particle
Ans.
1 .85.
along
acceleration,
(6)
(a)
V3~e _t
(6)
sin
t,
e~ t
Find
VEe-*
2
position vector of a particle is given at any time t by r = a cos at i + 6 sin ut j + ct k.
of
the
magnitude
the
time
with
increases
particle
the
of
speed
the
(a)
acceleration is always constant. (&) Describe the motion of the particle geometrically.
The
Show that although

1.86.
2
two particles are given respectively by r x = ti \ + (2t + 3)k and
of the
acceleration
relative
the
and
velocity
relative
(&)
the
Find
(a)
r2
Ans. (a) -5i + 6j-5k, (6) -6i + 2j-6k
second particle with respect to the first at t = l.
The
1.87.
position vectors of
(2t - 3 2 )i + 4tj - %.
An automobile driver traveling northeast at 26 mi/hr notices that the wind appears to be coming
from the northwest. When he drives southeast at 30 mi/hr the wind appears to be coming from
60 south of west. Find the velocity of the wind relative to the ground.
Ans. 52 mi/hr in a direction from 30 south of west
1.88.
the other
a boat on one side of a river wishes to reach a point directly opposite him on
Assuming that the width of the river is D and that the speeds of the boat and
at an angle
current are V and v < V respectively, show that (a) he should start his boat upstream
2 - v2
D/y/V
is
the
river
1
cross
to
time
the
and
shore
(6)
the
of sin- (v/V) with
A man
in
side of the river.
TANGENTIAL AND NORMAL ACCELERATION

1.89.
1.90.
given
Show that the tangential and normal acceleration of a particle moving on a space curve are
initial point
by d2 s/dt2 and K (ds/dt) 2 where s is the arc length of the curve measured from some
and k is the curvature.
unit tangent T, (6) principal normal N,
2
k to the space curve x = t, y = t /2, z = t.
Find the
Ans.
(a)
(a)
(i+tj
+ k)/v^T2,
(&)
(-ti
(c)
+ 2j - tk)/VW+4,
radius of curvature
(c)
(t 2
+ 2f' 2lyf2,
R
(d)
and
(d)
V2/(*
curvature
+ 2) 3
'2
CHAP.
1.91.
1]
moves in such a way that its position vector at any time t is r = i + |^ 2j + ik.
the velocity, (6) the speed, (c) the acceleration, (d) the magnitude of the acceleration,
the magnitude of the tangential acceleration, (/) the magnitude of the normal acceleration.
particle
Find
(e)
(a)
Ans.
1.92.
29
(a)
*j
+ k,
(6)
y/W+2,
(c)
(d)
j,
Find the (a) tangential acceleration

the ellipse
r = a cos at i + b sin at
and
t/V& +
(e)
(6)
normal acceleration of a particle which moves on
(a)
_ fr2) sm at cos at
Va sin 2 at + b 2 cos 2 u
,
2,
(/)
j.
M 2( a2
An8.
V2/V^T2
1,
a2 ab
(6)
sin 2 <ot
6 2 cos2 at
CIRCULAR MOTION
1.93.
particle
moves
angular speed,
Ans.
1.94.
in a circle of radius 20 cm.

its
(6)
(a) 2 radians/sec,
angular acceleration,
radians/sec 2
(6)
its
(a)
its
normal acceleration.
80 cm/sec 2
(c)
moving on a circle of radius

from rest, show that after time
covered is 8 = ^Rat2
particle
starts
If its tangential speed is 40 cm/sec, find
(c)
has a constant angular acceleration

(a) its angular velocity is a at,
If the particle
the arc length
a.
(b)
1.95.
particle
moves on a
circle of radius
1.96.
Ans.
at the point (1,-1,1).

If
<p
xy
+ yz + zx
at the point
1.99.
a).
If the particle in Problem 1.95 is travelling at 3600 revolutions per minute in a circle of radius
100 cm and develops a constant deceleration of 5 radians/sec2 , (a) how long will it be before it
comes to rest and (6) what distance will it have travelled?
Ans. (a) 75.4 sec, (6) 1.42 X 10e cm

1.97.
If A = xzi+(2x 2 -y)j-yz 2k and
1.98.
At time t = it starts
Show that (a) it comes to
with constant angular speed
down
so that its angular acceleration is a (or deceleration

rest after a time u /a and (6) has travelled a distance Raf,/2a.
to slow
Show
1.101.
Prove that
1.102.
If
that
A =
(r2 r)
x 2y\
Ans.
= V A+ V
VX
(a)
and
2).
U,V,A,B have
Prove that if
(b) V (A + B)
1.100.
-1,
(3,
(a)
div curl
B,
+ yH\ + z 2 xk,
(a) 25,
(b)
56i
(c)
V^,
(a)
-i
and
xi
grad
A = (2x 2 -yz)i + (y 2 -2xz)j + x 2z*k

A =
and curl grad $ 0.
<j>
and
<p
and
VXA
(c)
(c)
(V#) X
- 30j + 47k
+ yj + zk and
curl
(6)
VA
(6)
+ j + 4k
(a)AV^, (6)^VA and
find
(c)
2,
find
2,
continuous partial derivatives, then

(c) V X (A + B) = V X A + V X B.
where
A=
= $x 2y + yW,
+ j + 3k, (6)
<f>
-6i
(o)
V(17
+ V) = V17+VV,
|r|.
under suitable conditions on
x 2y
- Sxz2 + 2xyz,
show
and
<p.
directly
that
div curl
A =
1.103.
If
1.104.
(a)
1.105.
Prove:
3z 2 i
- yzj + (x + 2z)k,
VX
Prove that
Problem 1.103.
(a)
VX
(V X A)
(UA)
= -V 2A+ V(V
X
(VC7)
Ans. -6xi
curl curl A.
find
A),
A+ U{V X A).
(b)
+ (6*-l)k
Verify the result in
(a) if
is
as given in
V (AX B) = B (V X A) - A' (V X B).
(6)
LINE INTEGRALS AND INDEPENDENCE OF THE PATH

1.106.
If
F =
(3aj
- 2y)i + (y + 2z)j - x 2k,
consisting of:
straight lines
z
= y2
the curve x
= t,
evaluate
t2 ,
= 3
>
dr from
(0, 0, 0)
to (1, 1, 1),
where
is
a path
(c) the
(6) a straight line joining these points;
from (0,0,0) to (0,1,0), then to (0,1,1) and then to (1,1,1); (d) the curve x = z2
Ans. (a) 23/15, (6) 5/3, (c) 0, (d) 13/30
(a)
30
1.107.
Evaluate
to (2,1,3),
by x 2
1.108.
Find
x
1.109.
(a)
(b)
= 4y,
t,
A =
If
the space curve x = 2t2 y

= 8z from x = to x = 2.
F =
where
i/
3x 2 i -K (2xz
,
3x*
Fdr
4>
2 cos
A-dr where A =
3 sin
{Axy
t,
4t2
Ans.
3#)i + (y 2x)i
(a;
t,
y) j + zk
from
to
along
16,
and
= 2ir.
to
14.2,
prove that
A'dr
is
independent of the
is
the curve from the
C joining two given points. (6) Evaluate the integral in (a)

points (1,-1,1) to (2,-2,-1).
Ans. (b) -19
Determine whether
x 2zj + x 2yk,
determine
<j>
Ans.
1.111.
(a)
2xzi
(b)
Jc
+
dr
(x 2
y)j + (2z x 2 )k.
A=
such that
(J)
where
dr
Let l^m^n! and

such that cos
is
Z2
C joining any
In the case where
<f>
E=
x 2 yz
+ c;
(b)
IJ2
find
+m
m2 + n %2
1
Show that
1.115.
Prove that
1.116.
If A,
not
xtA
xx
1.117.
(A B) 2
= A2 B2
B and C are non-coplanar vectors [vectors which do

+ y{B + ]C = x 2 A + y 2B + z 2 C, prove that necessarily
1.119.
Find a unit normal to the surface x 2y
is parallel to
the third side
in the
lie
all
x2
y\
y%,
zx
same
z2
and
plane]
is
a right angle.
- 2xz + 2y 2 z^ =
at the point
10
(2, 1,
-1).
+ 4}-6k)/^
Ans. (Zi
1.120.
m ^
^
Prove that
1.121.
If A(w) is
1.122.
Prove
1.123.
If
1.124.
between them
the angle
Let ABCD be any quadrilateral and points P, Q, R and S the midpoints of successive sides. Prove
that (a) PQRS is a parallelogram, (6) the perimeter of PQRS is equal to the sum of the lengths
of the diagonals of ABCD.
Prove that an angle inscribed in a semicircle
<
1.118.
2xyzi
Prove that the line joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle
and has half its length.
A=
and B.
1.114.
(A X B) 2
(a)
independent of the path,
is
it
if
Ans.
rr.
>2 w2 be direction cosines of two vectors.
two points
dependent on path
1.112.
If A X B = 8i - 14j + k and A + B = 5i + 3j + 2k,
Ans. A = 2i + j-2k, B = 3i + 2j + 4k
1.113.
if
V#.
Independent of path,
Evaluate
independent of the path
is
the curve defined
(c)
16
6tt
curve
1.110.
= l,
(c)
the closed curve in the xy plane,
is
Ans.
- Zx2z 2 )i + (4y + 2ar 2 )j + (1 - 2xs z)k,
(6)
the straight line from (0,0,0)
(a)
t from
(a)
[CHAP.
dA
dA =
A -^
A. -^
.
a differentiate function of u and
V-(*A) = (V*)
AXB = AX
does
C,
A + <f>(V
B=C
|A(te)|
1,
prove that dA/du
is
perpendicular to A.
A).
necessarily?
Explain.
man on this ship observes that another ship

ship is traveling northeast at 15 miles per hour.
located 5 miles west seems to be traveling south at 5 miles per hour, (a) What is the actual
velocity of this ship? (6) At what distance will the two ships be closest together?
(A X B)
1.125.
Prove that
1.126.
Solve the equation
Ans. r
(v t
(C
X D) +
d2 r/dt2
^gt 2 )k
(B
C)
(A X D)
= -gk where
is
(C
X A)
(B
X D) =
a constant, given that r
0.
= 0,
dr/dt
vjs.
at
= 0.
CHAP.
1]
1.127.
If
1.128.
1.129.
<t>
+ 2 2 )- 1/2
2
2/
V 2^ = V
show that
(Vtf>)
at all points except (0,0,0).
The muzzle velocity of a gun is 60 mi/hr. How long does it take for a bullet to travel through the
Ans. .05 sec
gun barrel which is 2.2 ft long, assuming that the bullet is uniformly accelerated?
25 foot ladder AB rests against a vertical wall OA as in Fig. 1-29, page 24. If the foot of the
ladder B is pulled away from the wall at 12 ft/sec, find (a) the velocity and (6) the acceleration
of the top of the ladder A at the instant where B is 15 ft from the wall.
Ans.
1.130.
( 2
31
downward,
9 ft/sec
(a)
Prove that (a)|A
+ B|^
|A|
downward
11.25 ft/sec 2
(6)
|B|,
(6)
|A+B + C| ^
|A|
|B|
Give a possible geometric
|C|.
interpretation.
1.131.
from rest with uniform acceleration. After 10 seconds it has a speed of 20 mi/hr.
far has it traveled from its starting point after 15 seconds and (6) what will be its speed
Ans. (a) 330 ft, (6) 30 mi/hr
in mi/hr?
train starts
How
(a)
1.132.
Prove that the magnitude of the acceleration of a particle moving on a space curve
y/(dvldt)*
where v
1.133.
If
is
the tangential speed and
is
the radius of curvature.
is
the unit tangent vector to a curve
C and A
JA'dr
c
where
1.134.
If
s is the
A =
(2x
a vector
is
J\c
field,
prove that
A'Tds
arc length parameter.
- y + 4)i + (5y + Sx - 6)j,
evaluate
A'dr
4>
Ans. 12
(0,0,0), (3,0,0), (3,2,0).

1.135.
+ vVR
is
around a triangle with vertices at
automobile driver starts at point A of a highway and stops at point B after traveling the
in time T. During the course of the trip he travels at a maximum speed V. Assuming
distance
that the acceleration is constant both at the beginning and end of the trip, show that the time
during which he travels at the maximum speed is given by 2D/V T.
An
1.136.
Prove that the medians of a triangle (a) can form a triangle,

length of each median in the ratio two to one.
1.137.
If a particle
curvature of
1.139.
(a)
1.140.
Prove that the equation

Show that one solution
X = B
Find
all
Ans.
X =
a point which divides the
^-r
|vXa|
Prove that the area of a triangle formed by vectors A,
(c)
in
has velocity v and acceleration a along a space curve, prove that the radius of
path is given numerically by
1.138.
Ans.
meet
its
R =
(6)
(b)
vectors
x A/A 2
AXX
+ XA
such that
pA/A 2 +
VXA
= B
can be solved for
X = B X A/A 2
is
where X
B and Cis |AXB +
is
A X = p.
V is an
(c)
any
Can you
if
and only
if
BXC + CXA|.
AB =
and
A^0.
find the general solution?
scalar.
where
arbitrary vector.
inside a triangle three lines are constructed parallel respectively to each of

the three sides of the triangle and terminating in the other two sides. Prove that the sum of the
ratios of the lengths of these lines to the corresponding sides is 2.
1.141.
Through any point
1.142.
If T,
and
B = TXN
a space curve r =
r(u),
are the unit tangent vector, unit principal normal and unit binormal to
assumed differentiate, prove that
dT
Is-
= kN
dB
'
*t
~ tN
<
'
Is-
-i'
- tB ~ kT
These are called the Frenet-Serret formulas. In these formulas k is called the curvature, r is the
and their reciprocals R = 1/k, o = Vt are called the radius of curvature and radius of
torsion
torsion.
32
1.143.
[CHAP.
In Fig. 1-31, AB is a piston rod of length I. If A moves along horizontal line CD while B moves
with constant angular speed w around the circle of radius a with center at O, find (a) the velocity
and (6) the acceleration of A.
P
P
l-S
l
Fig. 1-32
Fig. 1-31
1.144.
boat leaves point P [see Fig. 1-32] on one side of a river bank and travels with constant velocity
in a direction toward point Q on the other side of the river directly opposite P and distance D
is the angle between r and PQ,
from it. If r is the instantaneous distance from Q to the boat,
and the river travels with speed v, prove that the path of the boat is given by
_
~
1.145.
If v
=V
L146.
(a)
Prove that in cylindrical coordinates
in
Problem
1.144, prove that the
path
<t>
tan
[see Fig. 1-33] the position vector is

i
p sin
(6)
Express the velocity in cylindrical coordinates,
(c)
Express the acceleration in cylindrical coordinates.
Ans.
(6)
(c)
= ppx 4- p$$\ + k
= (p- P* 2 )pi + (p'4+
2p)tfi
e) v/v
an arc of a parabola.
is
(p,<j>,z)
p cos
sec 6
(sec e
<f>
zk
+ *k
Illlplllilplllliplim
1.147.
(a)
p'v.
Cylindrical coordinates
Spherical coordinates
Fig. 1-33
Fig. 1-34
Prove that in spherical coordinates

r
(r, $,
r sin e cos
<j>)
<f>
r sin 9 sin #
Express the velocity in spherical coordinates,
(c)
Express the acceleration in spherical coordinates.

(6)
(c)
=
=
rt x
(V
+ rb x + rj> sin $ f t
- rff 2 r 2 sin 2 tf)r x + (2re + rV r^ 2
sin 0)#
+ (2re$ + 2r# sin 6 +
r'<p
1.148.
(6)
Ana.
the position vector
[see Fig. 1-34]
sin
r cos
is
cos *)!
Show that if a particle moves in the xy plane the results of Problems 1.146 and 1.147 reduce to
those of Problem 1.49.
WORK, ENERGY and MOMENTUM
NEWTON'S LAWS
The following three laws of motion given by
Sir Isaac
Newton are considered the
axioms of mechanics:
1.
Every
(i.e.
2.
If
particle persists in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line

with constant velocity) unless acted upon by a force.
is
the (external) force acting on a particle of mass

velocity v, then
which as a consequence
is
moving with
F = 5<""> =
where p = mv
is called
the
momentum.
If
is
%
independent of time
this
becomes
dx
F = m-jT = ma
where a
3.
is
(#)
the acceleration of the particle.
on particle 2 with a force Fi 2 in a direction along the line joining

the particles, while particle 2 acts on particle 1 with a force F2 i, then F2 i = 12
In
other words, to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
If particle 1 acts
DEFINITIONS OF FORCE AND MASS

The concepts
of force and mass used in the above axioms are as yet undefined, although
idea of mass as a measure of the "quantity of matter in an object"
and force as a measure of the "push or pull on an object".
can however use the above
intuitively
we have some
We
axioms to develop definitions
[see
Problem
2.28,
page
49].
UNITS OF FORCE AND MASS

Standard units of mass are the gram (gm) in the cgs (centimeter-gram-second) system,
kilogram (kg) in the mks (meter-kilogram-second) system and pound (lb) in the fps (footpound-second) system. Standard units of force in these systems are the dyne, newton (nt)
and poundal (pdl) respectively. A dyne is that force which will give a 1 gm mass an acceleration of 1 cm/sec2
A newton is that force which will give a 1 kg mass an acceleration of
A poundal is that force which will give a 1 lb mass an acceleration of 1 ft/sec2
1 m/sec2
For relationships among these units see Appendix A, page 341.
.
INERTIAL FRAMES OF REFERENCE. ABSOLUTE MOTION

all
It must be emphasized that Newton's laws are postulated under the assumption that
measurements or observations are taken with respect to a coordinate system or frame
33
NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM
34
[CHAP. 2
of reference which is fixed in space, i.e. is absolutely at rest. This is the so-called assumpIt is quite clear, however, that a particle can be
tion that space or motion is absolute.
at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line with respect to one frame of reference and
be traveling in a curve and accelerating with respect to another frame of reference.
We
Newton's laws hold in one frame of reference they also hold in

any other frame of reference which is moving at constant velocity relative to it [see
Problem 2.3]. All such frames of reference are called inertial frames of reference or
Newtonian frames of reference. To all observers in such inertial systems the force
acting on a particle will be the same, i.e. it will be invariant. This is sometimes called
can show that
if
the classical principle of relativity.
The earth is not exactly an inertial system, but for many practical purposes can be
considered as one so long as motion takes place with speeds which are not too large. For
For speeds comparable with the
non-inertial systems we use the methods of Chapter 6.
speed of light (186,000 mi/sec), Newton's laws of mechanics must be replaced by Einstein's
laws of relativity or relativistic mechanics.
WORK
If a force F acting on a particle gives it a
displacement dr, then the work done by the
force on the particle is defined as
dW =
since only the
of dr
F-dr
component of F
is effective in
(3)
in the direction
producing the motion.
The total work done by a force field (vector

F in moving the particle from point Pi
field)
P2 along the curve C of Fig. 2-1 is

given by the line integral [see Chap. 1, page 9].
to point
W
where
ri
and
F-dr
Fig. 2-1
F-dr
*yPi
and
r 2 are the position vectors of Pi
P2
dr
(*)
"n
respectively.
POWER
The time
rate of doing
work on a
particle is often called the instantaneous power, or
Using the symbols
briefly the power, applied to the particle.
power respectively we have
is
and
<P
for
work and
r
If
dt
the force acting on a particle and v

<P
is
the velocity of the particle, then
Fv
w
we have
(6)
KINETIC ENERGY
Suppose that the above particle has constant mass and that at times U and U it is
located at Pi and P 2 [Fig. 2-1] and moving with velocities vi = dn/dt and v2 = drjdt
respectively. Then we can prove the following [see Problem 2.8].
CHAP.
NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM
2]
Theorem 2J.
The
total
work done
in
moving the
particle along
35
C from
Pi to
P2
is
given by
W
we
If
call
C Fdr =
the kinetic energy of the particle, then
or, in
where
Theorem
(8)
2.1 is equivalent to the statement
Work done from Pi to P2 along C

= Kinetic energy at P2
symbols,
Ti
^mv 2v T2
(7)
T = \mv^
the quantity
Total
^m(v\-v\)
Kinetic energy at Pi
= T 2 -Ti
(10)
\mv\.
^
CONSERVATIVE FORCE FIELDS

Suppose there exists a scalar function
following [see Problem 2.15].
Theorem
2.2.
The
total
work done
in
F = - vV. Then we
such that
moving the
particle along
can prove the
C from
Pi to
P2
is
F-dr
V(Pi)
- V(P2
(11)
is independent of the path C joining points Pi and P2

If the
force field in moving a particle from one point to another point is
independent of the path joining the points, then the force field is said to be conservative.
In such case the work done
work done by a
The following theorems are
Theorem 23.
valid.
A force field F is conservative

V such that F=-vF
differentiable scalar field
VXF =
if
curl
if
and only
if
there exists a continuously
or, equivalently, if
F =
and only
identically
(12)
Theorem 2.4. A continuously differentiable force field F is conservative

for any closed non-intersecting curve C (simple closed curve)
i F-dr =
i.e.
the total
work done
in
moving a
particle
if
if
and only
(13)
around any closed path
is zero.
POTENTIAL ENERGY OR POTENTIAL

The scalar V such that F=-yF is called
the potential energy, also called the scalar

potential or briefly the potential, of the particle in the conservative force field F. In such
case equation (11) of Theorem 2.2 can be written
Total
or, in
where
Work done from Pi to P2 along C

= Potential energy at Pi -
symbols,
Vi
V(Pi),
V2 = V(P2
).
Vi
- V2
Potential energy at
P2
(15)
NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTIQN. WORK, ENERGY AND MOMENTUM
36
should be noted that the potential

can express the potential as
It
We
V
V=
where we suppose that
when
defined within an arbitrary additive constant.
is
- f F-dr
i=
[CHAP.
(16)
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
For a conservative force
we have from
field
T 2 -Ti = Vi- Va
The quantity
E = T + V,
total
energy at
P2
which
the
sum
we
sêe
is
V1
= T 2 + V2
(17)
V2
(18)
the total energy [i.e. the sum of kinetic

In symbols, T + V = constant = E.
Theorem 2.5. In a conservative fofce

energy and potential energy] is a constant.
This theorem
(15),
of the kinetic energy and potential energy, is

that
the total energy at Pi is the same as the
(18)
can state our results in the following
is
From
We
T1
or
\mv\ + Vi \mv\ +
which can also be written
called the total energy.
equations (10) and
field
often called the principle of conservation of energy.
IMPULSE
Suppose that
in Fig. 2-1 the particle is located at Pi
has velocities vi and v2 respectively.
Thb time
r
is called
the impulse of the force F.
Theorem
2.6.
The impulse
is
and P2 at times
integral of the force
and U where
Ydt
(19)
The following theorem can be proved

equal to the change in
it
given by
momentum;
[see
or, in
Problem
2.18].
symbols,
Xt F dt = m\2 mvj
The theorem
is
true even
when
the mass
is
(20)
Pi
variable and the force
is
non-conservative.
TORQUE AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM

If
a particle with position vector r moves in a
force field
[Fig. 2-2],
we
define
A = rxF
as the torque or
moment
of the force
(21)
F about
0.
The magnitude of A is a measure of the j'turning

effect" produced on the particle by the fcjrce. We
can prove the following [see Problem 2.5J50]
Theorem
2.7.
rxF =
-3r{m(rXv)}
(22)
Fig. 2-2
CHAP.
2]
The quantity
12
37
= m(rxv) = rxp
(23)
In words the theorem

is called the angular momentum or moment of momentum about 0.
states that the torque acting on a particle equals the time rate of change in its angular
momentum,
i.e.,
- =
This theorem
is
true even
if
the
mass
is
variable or the force non-conservative.
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
If
we
let
F=
in
Newton's second law, we find

-jT-(rav)
or
mv =
constant
(25)
This leads to the following
Theorem
If the net external force acting
2.8.
on a particle
is
zero, its
momentum
remain unchanged.
will
This theorem
of constant
mass
is
often called the principle of conservation of

equivalent to Newton's first law.
momentum. For the
case
it is
CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

If
we
let
A=
in (2U) f
we
find
-jr{m(rXv)}
m(rXv) = constant
or
(26)
This leads to the following
Theorem
momentum
If the net external torque acting
2J9.
will
This theorem
is
is
is
zero, the
often called the principle of conservation of angular
NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES
If there is no scalar function V
then
on a particle
angular
remain unchanged.
such that
F = - yV
called a non-conservative force field.
for all types of force fields, conservative or not.

for conservative force fields.
The
[or,
results
However,
momentum.
equivalently,
(7), (20)
(11)
and
and
if
(2U)
VxF *
0],
above hold
(17) or (18) hold only
STATICS OR EQUILIBRIUM OF A PARTICLE

An important special case of motion of a particle
occurs when the particle is, or appears

to be, at rest or in equilibrium with respect to an inertial coordinate system or frame of
reference.
necessary and sufficient condition for this is, from Newton's second law, that
F =
i.e.
the net (external) force acting on the particle be zero.
(27)
38
[CHAP.
If the force field is conservative with potential V, then a necessary and sufficient
condition for a particle to be in equilibrium at a point is that
F =
dV = dV = V
=
'
at the point.
Bx
dy
dz
STABILITY OF EQUILIBRIUM
a particle which is displaced slightly from an equilibrium point P tends to return
we call P a point of stability or stable point and the equilibrium is said to be
stable.
Otherwise we say that the point is one of instability and the equilibrium is
unstable. The following theorem is fundamental.
If
to P, then
Theorem
of stability
A necessary and sufficient condition that an equilibrium point be one

that the potential V at the point be a minimum.
2.10.
is
Solved Problems
NEWTON'S LAWS
2.1.
Due
given as a function of time
is
Find
field
2.2.
(a)
at
the velocity,
any time
(6)
Momentum = p = mv =
(c)
Acceleration
(d)
Force
= F = j^ =
mass
particle of
+ l)i +
(6* 2
Velocity
+ t)i +
(St4
-t 2 + 8) j -
momentum,
the
(b)
dr
=
^
(2ts
12t 2k
the acceleration
(c)
and
(d)
the force
(a)
mass 5 units moves along a space curve whose

t by
to a force field, a particle of
position vector
5v
(30*2
= -^ -
m^
moves
(12*3
60ti
in the
+ 5)j +
12ti
- 2*)j -
(36*2
(180t2
24tk
60 f3
_ io*)j - 120*
_ 2 )j -
- 10) j -
24k
120k
xy plane so that
a cos (d
b sin
its
<*>t
position vector
is
and > are positive constants and a> b. (a) Show that the particle moves
an ellipse, (b) Show that the force acting on the particle is always directed
toward the origin.
where
a, b
in
(a)
The
position vector
r
xi
y]
is
a cos at
b sin at
x = a cos at, y = b sin at which are

the parametric equations of an ellipse having
semi-major and semi-minor axes of lengths a
and so
and
b respectively [see Fig. 2-3].
Since
(*/o) a
the ellipse
(y/b) 2
is
cos2 at
also given
by
as
sin 2 at
2 /a 2
+ y2 /b 2 =
1.
Fig. 2-3
CHAP.
2]
Assuming the
(6)
particle has constant
mass m, the force acting on

d2r
dv
= m Tt = m
= m[ 2 a cos wt
mw 2 [a cos ut i +
i
which shows that the force
2.3.
d2
-r- [(a
w 2 6 sin ut
b sin ut
cos ut)i
39
it is
(b sin t)j]
j]
= mw 2 r
j]
always directed toward the origin.
is
observers O and 0', fixed relative to

two coordinate systems Oxyz and O'x'y'z'
Two
respectively, observe the motion of a particle
P in
space [see Fig.
Show
2-4].
that
to both observers the particle appears to
have the same force acting on it if and

only if the coordinate systems are moving
at constant velocity relative to each other.
Let the position vectors of the particle in the
O'x'y'z' coordinate systems be r and r'
respectively and let the position vector of 0'
with respect to O be R = r r\
Oxyz and
Relative to observers
respectively
by
F =
The
difference in observed forces
and only
this will be zero if
r
m dw'
according to Newton's laws are given
" r)
'
pr
F =
<
is
F ~ F
and
Fig. 2-4
and O' the forces acting on
= m
(r
m l#
if
d2 R
dR =
dt2
dt
constant
the coordinate systems are moving at constant velocity relative to each other.
systems are called inertial coordinate systems.
i.e.
The
2.4.
result
particle of
is
sometimes called the classical principle of
mass 2 moves
F
Assuming that
vo
(a)
at
= 6i + 15j - 8k,
By Newton's
24t 2 i
relativity.
depending on time
in a force field
(36-16)j
12tk
second law,
2dv/dt
24t2 i
(36t-16)j
dv/dt
12tH
(18t-8)j
given by
Integrating with respect to
the particle is located at r = 3i - j + 4k and has velocity

find (a) the velocity and (b) the position at any time t.
or
Since
Such coordinate
6i
+ 15j - 8k
v =
and calling
(4t3
6tk
(9 2
-8t)j
3t2k
have
cx
6i
we have
ct
+ 15j - 8k and
+ (9t2 -Bt+ 15)j - (3*2 + 8)k
= 0, we
+ 6)i
12tk
c x the constant of integration,
= UH +
at
so
40
Since
(6)
we have by part
dr/dt,
dr
Integrating with respect to
Since r
3i
constant force
in time
(t*
+ 6 )i +
and calling
at
+ 6)i +
- 42 + I5t)j -
have c2
+ 6t + 3)i +
(3t 2
+8k
)
c 2 the constant of integration,
(3*3
3i
(tf*
+ 8t)k +
j + 4k
c2
and so
- 4*2 + 15t - l)j +
acting on a particle of mass
(4
- & - St)k
changes the velocity from
vi to V2
F = m(v2 vi)/t.
Prove that
(b)
Does the result in
(a)
By Newton's
hold
(a)
if
second law,
the force
,
Then
F and
if
= 0,
v=v
= r,
so that
= v2
c x = Vj
Explain.
F
=
dv
or
we have on
are constants
variable?
is
= _
F
dv
m-jdt
At
_ 8t + 16) j _
t.
(a)
At
(9*2
(3t3
= 0, we
(a)
(4^3
(t4
j + 4k
2.5.
[CHAP.
-77
/<v
(1)
y '
dt
integrating,
(F/m)t
c2
(F/m)t
vj
v2
(F/m)r
vt
i.e.
so that
(2)
F = m(v2 vi)/t
i.e.
(S)
Another method.
Write
(1)
as
mdv =
Fdt.
Then
md\
since
v=v!
Ydt
at
and
m(v 2 v^
or
= v2
at
r, we
have
Ft
vi
which yields the required

(b)
2.6.
result.
No, the result does not hold in general if F

obtain the result of integration achieved in
is
not a constant, since in such case
we would not
(a).
Find the constant force in the (a) cgs system and (b) mks system needed to
accelerate a mass of 10,000 gm moving along a straight line from a speed of
54 km/hr to 108 km/hr in 5 minutes.
Assume the motion to be in the direction of the positive x axis. Then if v x and v 2 are the
we have from the given data V! = 54i km/hr, v2 = 108i km/hr, m = 10,000 gm,
velocities,
t
(a)
5 min.
In the cgs system
m =
10 4 gm,
Then
km/hr =
vx
= ma = m (
54i
/v 2
Thus the magnitude

(6)
In the
0.5
10 5 i
gm
(104
cm/sec2
3.0
10 4 i
103i cm/sec,
/1.5
X 103 i cm/sec \
gm)
v2
lQ3i cm/sec,
vt \
1.5
102 sec
dynes
of the force is 50,000 dynes in the direction of the positive
axis.
mks system
m =
10 kg,
vj
54i
km/hr
15i m/sec,
v2
30i m/sec,
300 sec
300 sec
CHAP.
2]
F = wa
Then
kg
0.5i
v2
41
15i m/sec
Vl
(10 kg)
300 sec
m/sec 2
0.5i
newtons
This result could also have been

Thus the magnitude is 0.5 newtons in the positive x direction.
newtons.
or
10*
dynes
=
1 dyne = 10
newton
obtained from part (a) on noting that 1
omitted, it being understood that the
In this simple problem the unit vector i is sometimes
it is good practice to work this
However,
*
axis.
positive
force F will have the direction of the
to emphasize the vector character of force,
and similar problems with the unit vector present so as
velocities may change their directions.
where
cases
in
This is especially important
velocity, etc
See, for example, Problem 2.46, page 56.
2.7.
at a speed of 60 mi/hr
constant force is needed to bring a 2000 lb mass moving
to rest in 4 seconds?
What
which we choose as the positive

assume that the motion takes place in a straight line
units, we have
of
system
absolute
direction of the x axis. Then using the English
m = 2000 1b, v = 60i mi/hr = 88i ft/sec, v2 = Oi ft/sec, t = 4 sec
We
shall
= wa = m
Then
Thus the force has magnitude

opposite to the motion.
-4.4
This
v2
'-88i ft/sec \
(2000 lb)
4 sec
104 i ft lb/sec2
-4.4 X 104 i poundals
X 10* poundals in the negative x direction,

of course to be expected.
4.4
is
i.e.
in
WORK, POWER, AND KINETIC ENERGY

2.8.
A particle
of constant
Assuming that
the work done
U and U
at times
is
under the influence of a force field F

that
the velocity is vi and v2 respectively, prove
m moves
mass
in space
the change in kinetic energy,
i.e.,
tt
X
Work done
- X. F*\dt
dv
2.9.
im f
d(v
v)
mv 2
%mv\ -
-Jmv
Find the work done in moving an object along a

vector
F=
2i
r = 3i + 2j-5k
- j - k. Refer to
if the applied force

Fig. 2-5.
is
Work done = (magnitude
of force in direction
of motion) (distance moved)
(Fcostf)(r)
Ft
= (2i-j-k)-(3i + 2j-5k)
= 6-2 +
a direction
r
Fig. 2-5
42
2.10.
[CHAP.
Referring to Problem
2.2, (a) find the kinetic energy of the particle at points A

the work done by the force field in moving the particle from A to B,
(c) illustrate the result of Problem 2.8 in this case and (d) show that the
total work
done by the field in moving the particle once around the ellipse is zero.
and B,
(a)
(b) find
Velocity
ua sin ut i + ub cos at j.
= |w 2 = ^m(u 2 a 2 sin 2 ut + u 2 b 2 cos 2 ut).
Kinetic energy
(6)
Method
dr/dt
==
[where cos ut
Kinetic energy
[where cos ut
From
1.
A
at B
Kinetic energy at
part
(6)
Work done
1,
sin ut
ut
0, sin
=
=
1]
dr
d(r
r)
We
Work
done
JA
Xir/2u
dr
^mu 2r2
^mw 2 (a2 -
and
\mu 2 a2 -
can assume that at
raw2
(mu 2 r) dr
=
2.
4mw 2 6 2
^mu 2 a2
of Problem 2.2,
Method
=
=
0]
|mo> 2 6 2
and B,
62)
tt/2u respectively.
Then:
dr
[ mu 2 (a cos ut
b sin ut
j)]
[ua sin ut
ub cos ut
j]
dt
s>ir/2(>)
mw 3 (a2
6 2 ) sin wt cos ut dt
%mu 2 (a2 -
ir/2w
b 2 ) sin 2 ut
%mu 2 (a2 -
\mu 2 a2 - \mu 2 b 2
b2 )
o
(c)
From
parts
(a)
and
(6),
Work done
(d)
Using Method 2 of part

around the ellipse,
(6)
|ww 2 (a2 -
kinetic energy at
we
have, since
62)
goes from
J-..S7JVCU
muz (a2 b 2
kinetic energy at
to
2v/u
for a complete circuit
sin ut cos wt dt
mw 2 (a2 -
=
Method
2.11.
27T/W
6 2 ) sin 2 ut
can also be used to show the same result.
Prove that if F is the force acting on a particle and v is the (instantaneous) velocity
of the particle, then the (instantaneous) power applied to the particle is given by
cp
By
definition the
work done by a force F
- f-v
in giving a particle a displacement dr is
dW =
Then the (instantaneous) power
is
given by
* =
as required.
F*dr
'! = -'
CHAP.
2.12.
2]
Find the (instantaneous) power applied to the particle
Problem
in
2.1
43
by the force
field.
By Problem
2.1,
the velocity and force are given respectively by
+ l)i + (12*3 _ 2t)j - 24<k

60ti + (180* 2 - 10)j - 120k
F =
(6* 2
Then the power
[by
q>
2.13.
Problem
= F
given by
2.11] is
=
=
2160t 5
Find the work done by the force

(a)
Then by Problem
vx
In the cgs system:
|v x
done
(10 4 gm)(9.0
3.38
part
v2
Problem
(b)
2.6,
|v 2
3.0
2.7.
103 cm/sec,
m =
energy
in kinetic
106
V*L
lOio
sec2
3.
_^
106)
38xlo io/sn_|n
z
\
3.38
sec
/)
(cm)
10 10 ergs
similarly:
(10 kg)(900
- 225)
/ kg
\
10 3 -j^g- ) (m)
3.38
(2000 lb)(88 2
7.74
(a),
Work done
cm2
2.25
X 10 10 dyne cm
3.38
=
in
(120)(24t)
2960
cm/sec,
change
mks system we have
Work done
As
1.5
10 3
- 10)(12*3 - 2t) +
Problem
(a)
(6)
in
(180t2
120*3
2.8,
Work
In the
+ 1) +
(60t)(6t 2
106(ft)
3 38
-
x 10 newton meters
-i^
(^f)
7.74
10 ft pdl
CONSERVATIVE FORCE FIELDS, POTENTIAL ENERGY, AND

2.14.
Show
that the force
field
F =
is
a conservative force
Method
1.
The force
field
V XF
defined
2 8
(y z
by
- 6xz 2)i +
2xyz 3 j
is
conservative
if
and only
d/dy
d/dz
2xyzs
q xzz
\j-{3xy 2z2 -6x 2 z)
3xy2z2
- 6x 2 z)k
F = VXF =
6x 2 z
-j^(2xyzS)
\^-(y2 z^-6xz2)
+ k
conservative.
curl
if
d/3x
field is
{Sxy 2 z 2
field.
y 2 zz
Then the force
- ^(SxyW - x2 z) 1
9a?
["^(fcsy* 8 )
- j- (y2z* - 6xz 2 )~\
0.
Now
10 4 gm.
44
Method
z)
field
such that
F is conservative
F = -grad V =
and only
Then
if
=
if
is
Integrate the
we must
conservative
dV/dx
2 3
(y z
6xz 2
dz
- 6xz 2 )i +
2xyz 3 j
- 6x 2 z)k
(3xy 2 z 2
V such that
= -2xyz 3
BV/dz =
be able to find
y 2z3
dV/dy
V =
is
6x 2 z
equation with respect to x keeping y and z constant.
first
where g t (y, z)
dy
there exists a scalar function or potential
if
-W
dx
Hence
2.
The force
V(x,y,
[CHAP.
a function of y and
3x 2 z 2
xy 2 z 3
3xy 2 z 2
(1)
Then
g x {y, z)
(2)
z.
Similarly integrating the second equation with respect to y (keeping x and z constant) and the
third equation with respect to z (keeping x and y constant), we have
V = -xy 2z 3 +
V =
Equations
(2), (3)
and
where
c is
g 2 (x, z)
c,
any arbitrary constant, and
we
if
g 2 (x,
z)
(3)
g 3 (x, y)
(4)
choose
3x 2 z 2
2xyz 3 dy
g 3 (x, y)
c,
(5)
follows that
it
V =
is
xy 2 z 3
common V
(4) yield a
ffi(V, *)
Zx 2 z 2
3x 2 z 2
xy 2 z3
(2/2*3
Qxz 2 )dx
the required potential.
Method
3.
F-dr
(.x
.'o
(3xy 2 z 2
6x 2 z)dz
,y ,z Q )
s*(x,y,z)
-I
where
2.15.
x y2 z3
3x 2 z 2 )
3x 2 z 2
xy 2 z3
3x 2 z^
Prove Theorem 2.2, page 35: If the force acting on a particle is given by F = vV",
then the total work done in moving the particle along a curve C from Pi to P% is
W
We
F-rfr
V(Pi)
- V(P
2)
have
2.16.
d(xy 2 z 3
(x ,y ,z
J Pi
F-dr
J Pi
-VV*dr =
1
I
J Pi
-dV
Find the work done by the force field F of Problem 2.14

the point A(-2,l,3) to 5(1,-2,-1).
Work done
JA
F'dr
f
JA
-VV
-dV
in
moving a
particle
(1,-2,-1)
-V(x,y,z)
(-2,1,3)
(-2,1,3)
- V(P 2
dr
(1,-2,-1)
V(P X )
3x2 z2 +
Pi
xy 2 z3
(1,-2,-1)
c
(-2,1,3)
155
from
CHAP.
2.17.
2]
(a)
Show
(6)
Find the potential energy at points
(c)
(d)
(a)
that the force
of Problem 2.2
field
conservative.
is
and
of Fig. 2-3.
From Problem
show that
F = ma 2r = -ma2 {xi + yj).
2(6),
V XF
d/dx
d/dy
d/dz
ma2 x
mu2y
+ k \h ~ mu2y) ~
{
Hence the
Since the
and compare
constant,
i.e.
demonstrate
~ ma2x)
\
conservative.
field is
field is
it is
to
Then
(6)
Find the work done by the force in moving the particle from
with Problem 2.10(6).
Find the total energy of the particle and
the principle of conservation of energy.
45
conservative there exists a potential
such that
WdV/dx
Then
= ma 2 x,
= mw 2y,
dV/dy
dV
dV/dz
dV u
from which, omitting the constant, we have
V = \ma 2 x 2 + %ma2 y 2 = $ma 2 (x 2 + y2 = \mJh2

)
which
(c)
is
the required potential.
A of Fig. 2-3
point B of Fig. 2-3
Potential at point
Potential at
= a] = $ma2 a2
= mu2 6 2
[where r = b]
[where r
Then
Work done from A
to
B =
=
Potential at
\ma
2 a2
B
= $ma2 (a2 - b 2
Potential at
m<o2 6 2
agreeing with Problem 2.10(6).
(d)
By Problems
2.10(a)
and part
(6),
Kinetic energy at any point
Potential energy at any point
= T = %mv 2 = |mf2
= |ra(<o 2 a 2 sin 2 at +
a2 b 2 cos 2
= V = ^m2r2
= %ma 2 (a2
b 2 sin2 at)
1,
Thus at any point we have on adding and using
T+V
which
is
sin2 at
= $ma2 (a2 +
cos 2 at
cos2 at
at)
b2)
a constant.
AND
IMPULSE, TORQUE, ANGULAR MOMENTUM,
2.18.
Prove Theorem
2.6,
page
36:
The impulse
of a force
is
momentum.
By
definition of impulse [see (19),

2
C* dt = J
page
36]
and Newton's second law, we have

t2
-^(m v) dt
= J
d (mv)
^
= mv 2 mxi
46
2.19.
mass of 5000 kg moves on a straight
in 2 minutes.
Method
What
is
line from a speed of 540

the impulse developed in this time?
km/hr
that the mass travels in the direction of the positive x axis.
_
=
V,
Then from Problem
_.
_
=
km
n
5401-:;
.
hr
m =
X 1000
540i
In the
1Kvin2
1.5 X 10 2 1
.
km/hr
m =
X 1000
720i
hr
.
nn
2i
2.0Xl0
2.18,
= (5000 kg)(0.5 X 10 2 i m/sec)

= m(v2
= 2.5 X 10 5 i kg m/sec = 2.5 X 10 5 newton
kg m/sec 2 or 1 newton sec = 1 kg m/sec.
x)
newton
Thus the impulse has magnitude

Method 2.
Using the cgs system,
2.0 X 10 4 i cm/sec.
Then
dyne
gm
vx
2.5
540i
or
1.5
(5000
km/hr
cm/sec 2
sec
10 5 newton sec in the positive x direction.
= w(v 2 - v t =
= 2.50 X 10 10 igm
Impulse
system,
sec
3600 sec
Impulse
mks
sec
3600 sec
km
= .
720i=^ =
v2
since
to 720
1.
Assume
since
[CHAP.
X 10 4 i cm/sec
10 3 gm)(0.5
cm/sec
dyne sec
2.50
and
v2
720i
km/hr
10 4 i cm/sec)
10 10 i dyne sec
gm cm/sec
Note that in finding the impulse we did not have to use the time 2 minutes as given in the
statement of the problem.
2.20.
Prove Theorem 2.7, page 36:

a coordinate system is equal
The moment
of force or torque about the origin
rXF =
is
rX-j- (mv)
The angular momentum or moment of momentum about O
B =
Now we
42L
have
which gives the required
2.21.
m(r X
= ^(rXmv)
v X (mv)
v)
J^
X (mv) +
(a)
Torque
at
+ 6* + 3)i +
(3*3
- 4*2 + 15* - 1) +
j
t4
6*
24t2
rXF =
momentum
about the origin for the
rXF
A =
4
result.
(a)
[(*
rx|(mv)
X -(mv)
is
X (mv)
the torque and (6) the angular

particle of Problem 2.4 at any time t.
Determine
(4
- *3 - 8*)k] X
k
of
change of angular momentum.
to the time rate of
The moment of force or torque about the origin O
3*3
4*2
36*
+ 15* - 16
t3
8*
-12*
(32*3 + 108*2 _ 260* + 64)i - (12* 5 + 192* 3 - 168*2 - 36*)

- (36* 5 - 80*4 + 360*3 _ 240*2 - 12* + 48)k
[24* 2 i
(36*
- 16)j -
12*k]
CHAP.
2]
(b)
Angular momentum
SI
X (mv)
m(r X
47
v)
2[(t* + 6* + 3)i + (3*3 - 4*2 + 15* - l)j + (4 - *3 - 8*)k]

X [(4*3 + 6)i + (9*2 - 8* + 15)j - (3*2 + 8)k]
*4
6*
3*3
4*2
15*
*3
- 8*
-8
9*2 - 8* + 15
+6
= (8*4 + 36*3 _ 130*2 + 64t _ I04)i - (2* + 48** - 56*3 - 18*2 - 96)j
- (6* - 16*5 + 90*4 _ 80*3 _ 6*2 + 48* - 102)k
-3*2
4*3
Note that the torque is the derivative with respect to

the theorem of Problem 2.20.
2.22.
of the angular
momentum,
illustrating
moves in a force field given by F = r2 r where r is the position vector of

the particle. Prove that the angular momentum of the particle is conserved.
particle
The torque acting on the
particle is
A = rXF = rX
Then by Theorem
2.9,
page
37, the
angular
(r 2 r)
r2 (r X
momentum
is
r)
constant,
i.e.
the angular
momentum
is
conserved.
NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES
2.23.
Show
that the force
We
field
have
VXF =
given by
i
d/dx
d/dy
BlBz
since
V XF#
0,
the
-xz*\
is
non-conservative.
(x 2 y
+ yz 2 )} -
x2zk
xyz2
x 2yz
Then
F = x 2 yzi - xyz^k
field is
non-conservative.
STATICS OF A PARTICLE
2.24.
particle
is
acted upon by the forces Fi,
F2 F3 F4 F8 and F6 shown
,
Represent geometrically the force needed to prevent
Fig. 2-6
Fig. 2-7
The resultant R of the forces

indicated in Fig. 2-7.
have R
We
from moving
is
which
in Fig. 2-6.
from moving.
is
F v F2 F3 F4 F5 and F6 can be found by vector addition as

= F 1 + F2 + F3 -|-F4 + F5 + F6 The force needed to prevent
,
a vector equal in magnitude to
sometimes called the equilibrant.
but opposite in direction and
48
2.25.
[CHAP.
upon by the forces Fi = 5i - lOj + 15k, F2 = lOi + 25j - 20k and

Find the force needed to keep the particle in equilibrium.
particle is acted
F3 = 15i-20j + 10k.
The resultant of the forces
is
R = F + F2 + F3 =
=
- lOj + 15k) +
30i - 5j + 5k
Then the force needed
2.26.
to
(lOi
(5i
+ 25j - 20k) +
keep the particle in equilibrium
(151
- 20j + 10k)
R = 30i + 5j 5k.
is
The coplanar
forces as indicated in Fig. 2-8 act on a particle P. Find the resultant

of these forces (a) analytically and (b) graphically. What force is needed to keep
the particle in equilibrium?
Unit
20 lb
''/
V
30
/\
3/
.#////30
iV
Fig. 2-8
(a)
From
Analytically.
Fx =
Fig. 2-9
Fig. 2-8
we
160(cos45
R is
R = F + F2 + F3
= (160 cos 45 - 100
= -33.46i + 59.21J
have,
sin 45 j),
F2 = 100(- cos 30
F3 = 120(- cos 60 i - sin 60 j)
i
sin 30
j),
Then the resultant

t
Writing
R = R
counterclockwise,
cos 30
cos a i + R sin a
see that
120 cos 60)i
where a
is
(160 sin 45
100 sin 30
120 sin 60)j
the angle with the positive x axis measured
we
R
the positive x axis
is
is
cos a
R =
V(-33.46) 2
given by tan a
-33.46,
sin a
59.21
+ (59.21) 2 = 68.0
= -1.770
59.21/(-33.46)
lb,
or
and the direction a with

a
119
28'.
Choosing a unit of 20 lb as shown in Fig. 2-9, we find that the resultant has
magnitude of about 68 lb and direction making an angle of about 61 with the negative
x axis [using a protractor] so that the angle with the positive x axis is about 119.
Graphically.
(6)
force
R,
i.e.
opposite in direction to
but with equal magnitude,
is
needed to keep
in equilibrium.
2.27.
particle
moves along the x axis
in a force field having potential
(a)
Determine the points of equilibrium and
(a)
Equilibrium points occur where
VV =
dV/dx
Thus there
is
(5)
kx
only one equilibrium point, at x
or
= 0.
fax
investigate the stability.
or in this case
V=
2
,
> 0.
CHAP.
2]
Method
(6)
49
1.
d2 V/dx 2 = k > 0, it follows that at x = 0, V is a minimum. Thus by Theorem 2.10,

This is also seen from Problem 2.36 where it is shown
is a point of stability.
that the particle oscillates about x = 0.
Since
page
38,
V(x)
Method
2.
^-i = kxi.
We have F = -VV = dV.
ax
when x >
the left,
goes a force to the right.
point of stability.
Method
Then
the particle undergoes a force to

the particle underand when x <
Thus x
is
3.
The fact that x =

be seen from a graph
is a minimum point can

of V(x) vs x [Fig. 2-10].
Fig. 2-10
2.28.
Show how Newton's laws can be used
to develop definitions of force
and mass.
consider some given particle P, assuming for the present that its mass raP is not
simply some constant scalar quantity associated with P. Axiom 1 states that if P
moves with constant velocity (which may be zero) then the force acting on it is zero. Axiom 2
P aP where
states that if the velocity is not constant then there is a force acting on P given by
a P is the acceleration of P. Thus force is defined by axioms 1 and 2 [although axiom 1 is unnecessary
since it can in fact be deduced from axiom 2 by letting F = 0]. It should be noted that force is a
vector and thus has all the properties of vectors, in particular the parallelogram law for vector
Let us
defined but
first
is
addition.
mass mP of particle P, let us now allow it to interact with some particular

which we shall consider to be a standard particle and which we take to have unit mass.
If aP and as are the accelerations of particle P and the standard particle respectively, it follows
from axioms 2 and 3 that mP aP = s Thus the mass mP can be defined as s /aP
To
define the
particle
2.29.
Find the work done in moving a particle once around a circle

the circle has center at the origin and radius 3 and if the force
F
In the plane z
work done
(2x-y + z)i +
= 0, F =
- y)\ +
(2x
(x
(x
+ y-z 2 )j +
(Sx
- 2y)k
and
+ y)j +
(3x
xy plane,
in the
field is
- 2y + 4z)k
rfr
dx
dy
so that the
is
f F'dr
Jc
[(2x-y)i
(2x
Jc
Jc
+ y)j +
(x
y) dx +
(x
(Sx-2y)k]'[dxi
dyj]
+ y) dy
Choose the parametric equations of the circle as x = 3 cos t,

Then the
to 2v [see Fig. 2-11].
3 sin t where t varies from
line integral equals
,2tt
I
[2(3 cos
t)
X27T
3 sin
(9-9
t]
sin
[-3 sin
cos
t)
t]
dt
dt
[3
9t
cos
3 sin
sin 2
t]
[3
cos
t]
dt
lSir
In traversing C we have chosen the counterclockwise direction indicated in Fig. 2-11. We call this the positive direction, or say that C
has been traversed in the positive sense. If C were traversed in the
clockwise (negative) direction the value of the integral would be 18tt.
if
given by
=
=
xi
3 cos
yj
t i
Fig.2-ll
3 sin
t j
50
2.30.
(a)
F=
-vV
where V is single-valued and has continuous partial derivatives,

show that the work done in moving a particle from one point Pi s (xi, yi, zi) in
this field to another point P2 = (x 2 2/2, z 2 is independent of the path joining the
two points.
If
(b)
Conversely,
J F'dr
if
show that there

(a)
J *x
-J Pi
J Pl
-f
Then the
This
Fdr
d%
F = F \ + F2j + F 3k.
dz
two
points,
V(x,y,z)
if
By
which we take as
is
hypothesis,
dx
V(x, y,z)
dt
work done along
from
(x it
yv
'>
<.x
y, z)
z x ) to (x,
Thus
+ F 2 (x, y, z) dy + F 3 (x, y, z) dz]
dx
yx
+ F2 dy + F s dz)
v y lt zi>
[F x (x,
Let us choose as a particular path the

and call V(x, y, z) the
z x ) to (x, y, z x ) to (x, y, z)
Then
this particular path.
XX F
pV
x
joining any
Then
(F x dx
a path joining (x x ,y x ,z x ) and (x,y,z).
straight line segments
p(.x,y,z)
F
(.x i ,y 1 ,z 1
is
(x,y,z)
is
V(x 2 ,y 2 ,z 2)
P x and P2 and not on the path joining them.

single-valued at all points P x and P 2
independent of the path joining (x x y x z x ) and (x,y,z).
V(x x ,y x ,z x )
and (x,y,z) respectively.
(x x ,y x , z x )
where
dzk)
integral depends only on points
Let
is
-^kj-idxi + dyj +
= V(P )-V(P2
2<iV
F=-vV.
such that
VVdr
J P!
ty
true of course only
is
joining any two points,
pP2
aP +
(to
is
exists a function
ft
Work done
"
(6)
[CHAP. 2
(x,y x ,z x )dx
J *i
"i
pz
F2 (x,y,z
)dy
J ^1
F3 (x,y,z)dz
It follows that
= -F3 {x,y,z)
dV =
7dy
-F2(x,y,z x )
C dF (x,y,z)dz
3
^ Xl
-F2 {x,y,z
dy
x)
C z 9F2
-(x,y,z)dz
*s
Zl
dz
= -F2 (x,y,z
x)
- F2 (x,y,z)
x)
- F2 (x,y,z) + F2 (x,y,z
*i
V_
dx
-F 2 (x,y,z
= -f
C v SF2
(x,
x,
x)
-j
-^-(*> v>
*i)
dy
dF x
J'*
j/j
-F
(x,y x ,z x )
- F
(x,y x ,z x )
- F
-r-{x,y,z x )dy
f 8F
-fate*
(x,y,z x )
-F
(x,y,z x )
C* dF x
I
^ zx
y> *)
dz
(x,y,z) dz
Z
\z
- F
(x,y,z)\
v\
-j
<>y
y
x
-F 2 (x,y,z)
x)
\*i
F(x,y x ,z x )
- F
(x,y,z)
F(x,y,z x )
-F
(x,y,z)
CHAP.
2]
Thus a necessary and
2.31.
Show
(a)
-fi-fi-fk
3"
dy'
F = r.l+J-.J+F.k =
Then
sufficient condition that
field
-W
dz
F be conservative is
51
that curl
F= V XF=
F =
that
the potential,
(2xy + z*)i + x 2j + Sxz 2k is a conservative force field,

Find the work done in moving an object in this field from
(c)
Find
(b)
(1,
0.
-2,
1)
to (3,1,4).
(a)
necessary and sufficient condition that a force will be conservative
VXF =
Now
d/dx
d/dy
d/dz
x2
Zxz 2
2xy
Methods 2 or
(6)
As
(c)
Work done = (x 2y +
Problem
in
2.14,
z*
we
3,
(3,1,4)
xz 3 )
V =
find
Thus F
0.
~(x 2 y
is
is
that curl
F =
V X F 0.
field.
+ xz3 ).
-202.
(1,-2,1)
F'dr
Pi
P AP 2 BP
1
F*dr
independent of the path joining any two points Pi and
i F
in a given region, then
Let
is
[see Fig. 2-12]
F-dr- J
F dr +
Then
if

F*dr =
F'dr
J
P^PiBP!
F-dr =
Fdr
PiAP2
2.33.
(a)
is
Fig. 2-12
F'dr +
then
0,
F'dr
P2 BPt
PiAP2
so that,,
L^
S^
F-dr
\p
\
^^^^^^
dr
PiBPa
since the integral from P x to P2 along a path through

the same as that along a path through B, by hypothesis.
Conversely
^^^
P2BP1
PiAP2
PiAP2
and conversely.
f or all closed paths in the region
be a closed curve.
dr
PiAPtBP!
dt
P2
Fdr -
J
P1AP2
dr
P 1 BP2
F
Fdr
PiBP2
Show that a necessary and sufficient condition that Fi dx + F2 dy + Fs dz be an

=
where F = Fii + F2 j+F3 k.
exact differential is that
VxF
(b)
Show
2
(y z? cos
that
differential of
(a)
Suppose
since x, y
and
dx
- 4x s z) dx +
a function
<f>
and
+ F2 dy + F3 dz =
z are
d<f>
2zs y sin x dy
find
independent variables,
(Sy 2z2 sin x
x 4) dz
is
an exact
<f>.
-^-dx
-^-dy
+ -^-dz,
an exact
differential.
Then
52
30
dx
and so
Conversely
2.34.
d<f>
VXF =
if
F =
0,
an exact
d<p,
dx
dy
then
F = V> and
30
dy
dz
F = F x i + F2j + F sk = |*i + |* j + |^k = V*.
F2 dy + F3 dz =
(b)
jt,
[CHAP.
VXF
Thus
dz
VXV^^
F'dr = V#*dr =
so
i.e.
d<f>,
0.
Fj
da;
differential.
2 s
2 2
Axz z) i
2z3j/ sin x j
x*)
(y z cos a;
(32/ sin x
zero, so that by part (a) the required result follows.
VXF
and
is
computed to be
the kinetic energy of the particle at t - 1 and

field in moving the particle from the point where
t = 1 to the point where t = 2,
(c) the momentum of the particle at t = 1 and t = 2
and (d) the impulse in moving the particle from t = 1 to = 2.
Referring to Problem 2.4 find

= 2,
(6) the work done by the
(a)
From part
of Problem 2.4,
(a)
Then the
velocities at
=1
and the kinetic energies at
(6)
Work done
mv ?
6)i
=2
lOi
=1
(9i 2
- 8t + 15)j -
(St2
+ 8)k
are
16j
and
(2)[(10)2
=2
v2
Ilk,
38i
35j
20k
are
+ (16)2 + (-11)2] =
T2 = mv 2 =
477,
3069
dr
[24* 2 i
-s.
(4*3
and
vx
(a)
(36t
- 16)j - 12tk]
[(4
+ 6)i +
(9* 2
- 8t + 15)j -
(3t 2
+ 8)k]dt
-X
[(24t 2 K4*3
Note that by part
3069-477 =
2592,
+ 6)
- 16)(9t 2 -8t + 15) +
4- (36
(12t)(3 2
+ g)]dt =
same as the difference or change

Theorem 2.1, page 35, that Work done
this is the
(a)
illustrating
2592
in kinetic energies
change in kinetic
energy.
(c)
By part
(a)
the
momentum
p
= mv =
Then the momenta at
(d)
Impulse
J t=i
at any time
2v
(8 3
is
+ 12)i +
= 1 and t = 2 are
- 22k,
Pi = 20i + 32j
- 16* + 30)j -
(18t2
p2
76i
70j
(6t 2
16)k
40k
F dt
.2
=/,:
't=i
[24t*i
Note that by part

P2
page
2.35.
(36t
(6)
40k )
7 J
Pi = ( 76i
Impulse
36, that
- 16) j -
this is the
20i
12tk]dt
56i
same as the
+ 32J ~~ 22k =
>
56i
38 j
18k
difference or change in
38 '
18k
'
momentum,
Theorem
illu strating
i.e.
2.6,
change in momentum.
moves along the x axis under the influence of a conservative

force field having potential V(x). If the particle is located at positions x x and x 2 at
respective times U and U, prove that if E is the total energy,
H
dx
particle of
mass
*2
"
*
*
"
[ C
y/E
V(x)
CHAP.
2]
By
53
the conservation of energy,
+
+
Kinetic energy
$m{dx/dt) 2
from which we obtain on considering the
(2/m){E
- V(x)}
(1)
positive square root,
dt
V{x)
{dx/dt) 2
Then
= E
= E
Potential energy
yfm/2(dx/\/E-V{x))
Hence by integration,
~ **-** -
dt
\f f
2.36.
(a) If
= a,
(a)
From
(i)
E-
find
= acosy^Jmt and
sin _1 (*/a)
2.37.
= y/ic/m t +
= sjic/m t +
Since
).
dx/y/a2
cx
and
from
starts
rest at
a sin
dx/dt
where
a,
we
- x 2 = y/Umdt
=a
Since x
or
jt/2
- fax 2
or
fax
describe the motion.
(b)
(2/m)(E
-x2
(K/m)(a2
sin -1 (x/a)
Integration yields
(dx/dt) 2
of Problem 2.35,
2
faa so that
(dx/dt) 2
(6)
V=
the particle of Problem 2.35 has potential
prove that x
Ve^vW)
Xi
ti
(jt/2
at
= 0,
y/ic/m
cl
t)
v/2.
Then
a co^yfic/mt
particle oscillates back and forth along the x axis from x = a to x a. The time for
one complete vibration or oscillation from x a back to x = a again is called the period of the
oscillation and is given by P = 2v VWk.
The
particle of mass 3 units moves in the xy plane under the influence of a force field
having potential V = l2x{Zy - 4x). The particle starts at time t = from rest at
the point with position vector lOi - lOj. (a) Set up the differential equations and
conditions describing the motion.
(c) Find the
(6) Solve the equations in (a),
position at any time, (d) Find the velocity at any time.
(a)
Since
V =
12x(3y
- 4*) =
- 48a 2
S6xy
= ~ Vy =
the force
-f^-^-f
1'
field
is
+ 96*)i-36*j
(-362/
Then by Newton's second law,

3
or in component form, using
where
d2*
dt
;/72
2
xi
(~36y
= -12y +
32a,
-10, y
10,
From
the second equation of
(i),
36;rj
+ yj,
dtx/dt2
0,
using the fact that the particle starts at r
(6)
+ 96x)i -
=
=
lOi
lOj
^d2yfdt2
= -12*
cPy/dt2
at
(1)
(2)
with velocity v
0.
Substitution into the first equation of
(1)
yields
d*y/dt*
If a is constant then
4
32a2
144
= e*
= 0,
is
32 d2y/dt2
a solution of
i.e.
(a 2
($)
4)(a 2
144y
(3)
provided that
- 36) =
or
2i, a
= 6
54
Thus solutions are e 2it e~ 2it

and the general solution is
,
Thus from
a;
= ~^cPy/dt
Using the conditions
(2) in (4)
<?!
ci
a?
(d)
The
velocity at
= 6,
cx
+
=
3c4
c4
\c2 sin 2*
we
(5),
xi
any time
xi
c 3 e 6t
3c 3 e
terms of real functions]
c 4 e~ 6t
(4)
3c4 e~ 6t
(5)
obtain
10,
c2
18c 3
2c2
6c 3
= 10,
c4
c2
+ 18c4 =
6c4 =
= 2
= -2
0,
so that
cos 2t
6e 6t
+ 6e-
is
yj
[in
(.4),
*,
The position at any time

r
c3
c 2 sin2*
= 0, c 3 = 2,
= -6 cos2t- 2e6t - 2e~ 6
Solving simultaneously,
(c)
3c 3
using
Cos 2t
and
cos2t, sin2t, e 6t , e -6t
or
cos2t
find,
a?
ct
we
e~ 6t
e 6t ,
[CHAP. 2
(-6 cos2t
2e 6t
2e~ flt )i
(-2 cos 2*
6e 6t
6e~ 6t )j
is
yj
(12 sin 2*
12e'
12e" 6t )i
(4 sin 2*
36e 6 '
36e~ 6t)j
In terms of the hyperbolic functions

sinh at
(*-
-*)
cosh at
^(e at
-\-
e~ at
)
we can also write

v
2.38.
(-6 cos 2t
(12 sin 2t
Prove that in polar coordinates
4 cosh 6t)i
24 sinh
VV =
where G and H are to be determined. Since

y = r sine and Problem 1.47(6), page 25,
(cos *
dr
r sin *)(cos $ r x
or
Using
(i)
and
(2) this
(Gr x
(4 sin It
12 cosh 6t)j
72 sinh
6)j
Gri
+ H*!
dr
sin
9^
dr
dr r x
dx i
(i)
we have on using
dy j
+ (sin dr +
+ r dff #
tf
r cos
d*)(sin e r t
cos
a?
(1)
rd69i)
G ~
relativity, the
the speed,
= jp dr +
Gdr + Hrde
'gf
de
H ~ rle
i
W ~
is
Ifr'
^ a7
mass
VI - vVc 2
#i
of a particle
is
given by
mp
VI
r cos
(2)
VV = ^T r +
becomes
According to the theory of
where v
# x)
becomes
+ H9 1 )-(drr +
so that
2.39.
VV'dr = dV = -^dr + -^de
Now
Then
(-2 cos 2t
(r, 0),
Let
dr
6t)i
-)82
the rest mass, c the speed of light and
= v/c.
CHAP.
2]
Show
(a)
work
that the time rate of doing
moc 2
Deduce from
(b)
(a)
^!-/? )-"
2
much
If
(a)
By Newton's
is
less
than
if
second law,
mv
-jT(mv)
dt
dt \y/
the work done,
is
dW
-l}
{(l-/3 2 )- 1/2
show that T = %mv 2 approximately.
c,
F
Then
is
mc
T = (m-mo)c 2 =
(c)
given by
is
that the kinetic energy
55
"W
d /
d f
d /
as proved by direct differentiation.
Work done = change
Since
(6)
Time rate of
_*
or u
by part
doing work =
dW
(a),
dT
/?
< 1 we
(^f^p)
+
T=
definition,
cx
when v =
= z^^ m
c2
or
/?
= 0,
so that
Cj
(t*
(m mo)c2
have by the binomial theorem,

1
Then
d
mc2*dt
WoC2
T =
To determine Cj note that, by

Hence we have, as required,
For
time rate of change in kinetic energy
= Hi =
~dT
Integrating,
(c)
we have
in kinetic energy,
=
=
(I-/?*)-"*
m c2 r 1 +
i v2
-^
+ 1^2 + 1^1^ + 1^111^+...
c2
-^mv 2
approximately
$
NEWTON'S LAWS
2.40.
particle of
Find
Ans.
2.41.
(a)
(a)
the
mass 2 units moves along the space curve defined by
momentum and
10i-10j
particle
moving
+ 8k,
in
(6)
(6) 4i
a force
2.42.
Under the
Ans.
3e~*i +
field
2 sin
F has
=
j
is
the
its
3e _t i
(4t2
t3 )i
5tj
= 1.
3 cos
momentum
given at any time
2 cos
t j
3 sin
by
influence of a force field a particle of

r
If
at
it
+ 24k
p
Find F.
the force acting on
mass
a cos at
momentum, prove that (o)rXp = mabak,
m moves
b sin ut
(6)
along the ellipse
= m(& 2 a2
sin 2at.
2)k.
56
2.43.
If
is
means
2.44.
2.46.
2.44 if the force
gm
is
20 newtons and the mass
+ 16j - 16k
(a)
8i
(6)
24 newtons
An
elevator
(a)
Explain
all.
(b)
newtons
24
or
(a) 4i
(8i
+ 16j - 16k) X
floor of a tall building to the ground floor without stopping.

blindfolded person in the elevator may believe that the elevator is not moving
the person tell when the motion begins or stops? Explain.
Can
mass moves
and
a force
in
given in terms of time
field
(6-8)i
60t3j
velocity of the particle at
- 88j + 77k,
(6) i
particle of
cos at)
by
(20t3
and v
+ 4j.
5i
Find the
= 2.
mass
is
given in terms of time
a cos ut
If the particle is initially at rest at the origin, find its
ma 2
+ 362)k
= 2i 3k
- 236j + 176k
(a) - ^-(1
and velocity are given respectively by
(b)
The force acting on a
Am.
10 5 dynes
10 5 dynes
moves from the top
Its initial position

(a) position
or
+ 3k
why a
particle of unit
Ans.
for
Ans. 1200 m/sec
10 kg.
is
(a) Find the constant force needed to accelerate a mass of 40 kg from the velocity 4i 5j
m/sec to 8i + 3j 5k m/sec in 20 seconds. (6) What is the magnitude of the force in (a)?
2.49.
Explain what this
0.
X 104 cm/sec
Work Problem
at
2.48.
XF =
Ans.
2.47.
physically.
force of 100 dynes in the direction of the positive x axis acts on a particle of mass 2
10 minutes. What velocity does the particle acquire assuming that it starts from rest?
Arts.
2.45.
the force acting on the particle of Problem 2.42, prove that
[CHAP. 2
^(at
ma 2
sin at)
j,
(6)
b sin at
(a)
position
ma
by
sin at
and
H
(6) velocity
ma
(1
at any later time.
cos at)
WORK, POWER AND KINETIC ENERGY

A particle is moved by a force F = 20i 30j + 15k along a straight line from point A to
2.50.
with position vectors 2i + 7j 3k and 5i 3 j 6k respectively. Find the work done.
point
Ans. 315
2.51.
2.52.
2.53.
Find the kinetic energy of a particle of mass 20 moving with velocity
3i
5j + 4k.
Ans. 500
Due to a force field F, a particle of mass 4 moves along the space curve r = (3t2 2t)\ + t3 j t4k.
Find the work done by the field in moving the particle from the point where t = 1 to the point
Ans. 2454
where t = 2.
At one particular instant of time a particle of mass 10 is traveling along a space curve with velocity
given by 4i + 16k. At a later instant of time its velocity is 8i 20j. Find the work done on the
Ans. 192
particle between the two instants of time.
2.54.
Verify Theorem
2.55.
2.1,
page 35 for the particle of Problem
2.52.
a(sin at
moves under the influence of the force field given by F
particle of mass
If the particle is initially at rest at the origin, prove that the work done on the particle
is
given by
(a 2 /m<o 2 )(l
Prove that the instantaneous power applied to the particle in Problem 2.55
2.57.
cos at
j).
to time
is (a2 /mw) sin ut.
moves with velocity 5i-3j + 6k under the influence of a constant force

Ans. 160
is the instantaneous power applied to the particle?
10j + 15k. What
cos at).
2.56.
particle
up
F =
20i
CHAP.
2]
CONSERVATIVE FORCE FIELDS, POTENTIAL ENERGY AND

2.58.
(a) Prove that the force field F = (y 2 2xyz s )i + (3 + 2xy x 2 z 3 )j +
(6)
Ans.
2.59.
2.60.
Find the potential

(b)
xy 2
associated with the force field in
Find constants
a, b, c
2.61.
conservative.
is
+ 2y + az)i +
-3y- z)j +
(bx
1, 2)
Find the
to (1, 3, 2).
by
so that the force field defined

(x
(2,
+ cy + 2z)k
(4x
conservative.
What
(6)
Ans.
Problem 2.58 from the point
field of
F =
is
- 3x 2 yz2 )k
(a).
x 2 yz3 + 3y + z4
A particle moves in the force

work done.
Ans. 55
(a)
(6z 3
57
the potential associated with the force field in (a)?
is
(a)
= 4,
= 2,
= -1
(6)
V = -\x 2 + f y 2 -
z2
2xy
4xz
yz
Find the work done in moving a particle from the point (1,-1,2) to (2,3,-1) in a force
V = x 3 y 3 + 2xy y 2 + 4x.
Ans. 15
field
with
potential
2.62.
Determine whether the force
F =
field
(x 2 y
z3 )i +
(3xyz
+ xz2 )j +
(2x 2 yz
+ j/z4 )k
conservative.
is
Ans. Not conservative

2.63.
field
F = 3x 2 i + (2xz y)j + zk along
the straight line from (0, 0, 0) to (2, 1, 3), (6) the space curve x = 2t2 y = t, z = 4t2 t from t =
to t = l. Is the work independent of the path? Explain.
Ans. (a) 16, (6) 14.2
Find the work done in moving a particle in the force
(a)
2.64.
2.65.
(a)
Evaluate
to
(x
t
3y)i +
= 2v.
(b)
(y
2#)j
and
Give a physical interpretation to the result in
F = kt^t
(a)
Show
Write the potential energy of a particle moving in the force
(c)
If a particle at
that the force field
is
(a).
conservative.
m moves with velocity v = dr/dt in
mass
the closed curve in the xy plane
is
the positive (counterclockwise) direction.
(6)
total
2.66.
F dt where F =
d>
Jc
x 2 cos t, y = 3 sin t from t =
Ans. (a) 6jt if C is traversed in
energy then ^m(dr/dt) z
+ ^kt5 = E. What
field
of
(a).
if E is the constant
important physical principle does this illustrate?
this field,
show that
A particle of mass 4 moves in the force field defined by F = 200r/r3. (a) Show that the field is
conservative and find the potential energy. (6) If a particle starts at r = 1 with speed 20, what will
be
speed at r
its
IMPULSE, TORQUE
= 2?
Ans.
(a)
V-
200/r,
(6)
15^
AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM.
2.67.
(6) If
Ans.
2.68.
2.69.
t is
the time,
12j
particle of
the torque
particle
=1
19k,
mass
and
moves
in a force
Find the change
(a)
the velocity at
(a) i
(a)
mass moves
particle of unit
where
m
(b)
in
is 4i
(6) 5i
field
in
given by
F =
(3t2
moves along a space curve defined by
a force
field
momentum about
F=
given by
(12t
- 6)j + (6* - 12^

t 1
to t = 2.
of the particle from time

is the velocity at * = 2?
5j + 10k, what
7j - 9k
the angular
- te)i +
momentum
<f>(r)
the origin.
r.
a cos at i + 6 sin at j. Find

Ans. (a) 0, (6) 2mabak
Prove that the angular momentum of the
particle about the origin is constant.

2.70
Find
the torque and
(a)
particle of
Ans.
2.71.
(a)
Problem
(36i
2.67,
128j
(6)
the angular
+ 60k),
(6)
momentum about
= it is
- 44i + 52j + 16k
assuming that at
Find the impulse developed by a force given by

Ans.
8i
12j
24tk
the origin at the time

located at the origin.
2)j +
F =
4i
(6t 2
12k from
=2
for the
to
= 2.
58
2.72.
What
5i
is
3j +
[CHAP.
the magnitude of the impulse developed by a mass of 200 gm which changes its velocity from
Ans. 1.8 X 10 5 dyne sec or 1.8 newton sec
7k m/sec to 2i + 3j + k m/sec?
STATICS OF A PARTICLE
2.73.
acted upon by the forces F x = 2i + aj

Find the values of the constants a,
Ans. a 1, 6 = 11, c = 4
particle is
equilibrium.
2.74.
Find
graphically and
(a)
+ cj +
6k,
F3 =
6i
- 5j + 7k,
Ans.
(6) 19.5 dynes in a direction

8522' with the negative x axis
making an angle
The potential of a particle moving in the xy plane is

(a) Prove
given by V = 2x 2 5xy + Sy 2 + 6x-7y.
that there will be one and only one point at which a
particle will remain in equilibrium and (6) find the
Ans.
coordinates of this point.
2.76.
5i
order that the particle will be in
in
b, c
analytically the resultof Fig. 2-13 where
(6)
ant force acting on the mass

all forces are in a plane.
2.75.
- 3k, F2 =
ci 6j + ak.
F4 =
(1, 2)
(6)
Prove that a particle which moves in a force field

of potential
V -
x2
Ay2
can remain
z2
Axy
4yz
2xz
4a;
Sy
many
in equilibrium at infinitely
and locate these
4z
points
points.
Fig. 2-13
2y-Vz 2
Ans. All points on the plane x
2.77.
particle
Ans. x
is
2.77 if
x-\,2
x
is
(a)
(6)
Work Problem
(a)
V=
a;
2.80.
If
2.77 if
V=
0,
moves
is
sin
(c)
Ans.
2.83.
(a)
cos x
field.
(tr/2,
V =
(6)
V=
-1
x4
is
a point of unstable equilibrium.
= f+n
z s )i
are points of stable equilibrium, while x
V=
(2y sin x
x2
- 4)j +
+ y 2 + z 2 - Sx + 16y - 4z.
(3a;z 2
2)k
in
Find the potential corresponding

moving a particle in this field from
4y
-1,2).
y 2 sin x
xz 3
2z
c,
(6)
15
4n-
particle P is acted upon by 3 coplanar forces as indicated in

Fig. 2-14. Find the force needed to prevent P from moving.
Ans. 323 lb in a direction opposite to 150 lb force
(a)
Prove that
ing potential.
F=
r^x
Ans.
is
conservative and
(6)
V = -^r4 +
(6) find
the correspond-
+n
Find the points
(6)
Find the work done
(0,1,-1) to
x).
2^-a;.
in
to F.
x 2 (6
a point of stable equilibrium
a force field with potential

Ans. (4, 8, 2)
of stable equilibrium.
particle
V=
a point of unstable equilibrium
is
are points of stable equilibrium; x
2
(a) Prove that F = {y
2.81.
2.82.
=4
- 8a; 3 - 6a; 2 + 24a;,
then x
1, 2, 3,
are points of unstable equilibrium.
Ans.
having potential
investigate their stability.
(6)
a point of stable equilibrium; x
Work Problem
Ans.
2.79.
in a force field
Find the points at equilibrium and
(a)
2.78.
moves on the x axis
100 lb
Fig. 2-14
CHAP.
2.84.
2.85.
2]
59
Explain the following paradox: According to Newton's third law a trailer pulls back on an automobile to which it is attached with as much force as the auto pulls forward on the trailer. Therefore
the auto cannot move.
Find the potential of a particle placed in a force

Treat all cases.
field
F = Kr~ nr where
given by
and n are
constants.
2.86.
2.87.
A waterfall 500 ft high has 440,000 ft3 of water flowing over it per second. Assuming that the
density of water is 62.5 lb/ft3 and that 1 horsepower is 550 ft lb/sec, find the horsepower of the
Ans. 25 X 10 6 hp
waterfall.
The power applied to a particle by a force field is given as a function of time t by <P(t) = 3*2 At +
Find the work done in moving the particle from the point where t = 2 to the point where t = 4.
2.
Ans. 36
2.88.
Can the torque on a
2.89.
Can
2.90.
Ans.
2.91.
the force on a particle be zero without the angular
Under the
r
particle be zero without the force being zero?
influence
of a force field
Explain.
momentum
being zero?
a particle of mass 2 moves
Explain.
along the space curve

the point where
5)k. Find (a) the work done in moving the particle from
to the point where t = l, (6) the power applied to the particle at any time.
(a) 756
(6) 72*(48i 4 + St + 1)
6t4 i
3* 2j
(4t 3
force field moves a particle of mass

along the space curve r = acosi+ ftsinwi j. (a) What
is required?
Ans. (a) m(a 2 6 2 )3 sinwt coswi
(6) Discuss physically the case a b.
power
2.92.
The angular momentum of a
particle is given as a function of time
12
Find the torque at the time
2.93.
2.94.
= l.
(2t
Ans. 12i
l)j
constant force of 100 newtons

What is the speed achieved?
Ans.
(a)
600 m/sec,
particle of
given by
mass
(6)
36,000
is
(6)
(12i3
by
- 8*2 )k
2j + 20k
Find the constant force needed to give an object of

starting from rest.
Ans. 1760 poundals
(a)
2.95.
6tH
mass 36,000
lb
a speed of 10 mi/hr in 5 minutes
applied for 2 minutes to a 20 kg mass which

What is the distance traveled?
is initially
at rest,
m moves on the x axis under the influence of a force of attraction toward origin O
F = (k/x 2 )L
If the particle starts
from
rest at x
= a,
prove that
it will
arrive at
in
time given by îray'ma/2*.
2.96.
2.97.
2.98.
Work Problem
2.95 if
F = -( K /x*)i.
mass 2 units moves in the force field F = t2 i Btj + (t + 2)k where t is the time.
far does the particle move from * =
to t = 3 if it is initially at rest at the origin?
(6) Find the kinetic energy at times t = 1 and t = 3. (c) What is the work done on the particle by
the field from t = 1 to t = 3? (d) What is the power applied to the particle at * = 1? (e) What is the
impulse supplied to the particle at t = 1 ?
particle of
(a)
How
At
= 0a
particle of unit
mass
is
at rest at the origin. If
it is
acted upon by a force
change in momentum of the particle in going from time

after a long time has elapsed.
Ans. (a) 25e _2 (3 5e -2 )i, (6) 25
find (a) the
=1
to
= 2,
F = 100te _2t i,
(6)
the velocity
60
2.99.
63
+ 12y 3 + S6xy 48s2
from
its
equilibrium position.
= 0, y =
particle of unit
6x(x 2).
V=
is
Near x
(a)
in the xy plane under the influence of a force field having potential

Investigate the motion of the particle if it is displaced slightly
moves
3 units
V =
[Hint.
2.100.
mass
particle of
[CHAP.
the potential
is
very nearly 36xy
- 48x 2
since
6a; 3
and 12ys are
negligible.]
field having potential

a position of stable equilibrium. (6) Prove that if the mass
position of equilibrium it will oscillate about it with period equal to
mass moves on the x axis under the influence of a force
Show that x =
displaced slightly
from
its
1 is
4rv 3.
[Hint.
2.101.
Let x
+u
and neglect terms
in
u of degree higher than
one.]
mass m moves in a force field F = kx\. (a) How much work is done in moving the
from x = x x to x = x 2 ' (*) If a unit particle starts at x = x lt with speed v lt what is its speed
particle of
particle
= x2 1
on reaching x
2.102.
Ans.
%k{x\
(a)
- x\),
(6)
V v2 +
(ic/m)(cc
a;
2
)
the xy plane under the influence of a force field having potential

from rest at the point (2, 1). (a) Set up the differential
at time t =
(c) Find the
motion.
the
(6) Find the position at any time t.
equations and conditions describing
velocity at any time t.
A particle, of mass 2 moves in

y = z 2 + y The particle starts
2.
V - Bxy.
2.103.
Work Problem
2.104.
Does Theorem 2.7, page

Prove your answer.
2.105.
(a)
2.102
if
36, hold relative to
a non-inertial frame of reference or coordinate system?
field having potential

if a particle moves in the xy plane under the influence of a force
(6) Discuss the relationship
is a point of stable equilibrium.
12x(Sy - 4x), then x = 0, y =
of the result in (a) to Problem 2.37, page 53.
Prove that
V =
2.106.
(a)
Prove that a
V(x, y)
is
(i)
(6)
Use
y =
2.107.
2.108.
(a) to
jj.3
sufficient condition for the point (a,b) to be
that at
V =
to
Z=0,
W=
(ii)
"'
^ (SrYSUS^
*
VteVV*
8
"
any time.
particle
\s
point of the function
and^>0
>
having potential
investigate the points of stability of a particle moving in a force field
stability
of
point
z - 33. _ \2y.
is
a
point
The
(1,
(b)
2)
Ans.
y
Suppose that a particle of unit mass moves in the force

at
minimum
(a, b)
moves once around the
field
+ sin e
F = (xi-yj)/(x 2 + y 2
circle
a(cos B
of Problem 2.106.
j)
in
a force
Find
its
speed
field
(6) Is the force field conservative?

(a) Find the work done.
35? Explain.
page
contradict Theorem 2.4,
2.109.
(c)
Do your answers
to (a)
and
(6)
the assumption that space and

sometimes stated that classical or Newtonian mechanics makes
statement.
this
by
meant
is
time are both absolute. Discuss what
It is
ft2
2.110.
The quantity
Fav =
Fdt
J
1
I
2
Does the result
(3)
is
called the average force acting
on a particle from time
of Problem 2.5, page 40, hold if
is
replaced by
F av ?
Explain.
tx
to
t2 .
CHAP.
2.111.
2]

particle of
mass 2
gm
moves
2.112.
(a)
1),
what
is its
Find positions of stable equilibrium of a particle moving
V=
2.113.
2,
Sxyi + (4x 2 8z)j

speed at (1, 1, 1)?
F =
in the force field
a speed of 4 cm/sec at the point (1,
in
Syk. dynes.
a force
field
of
potential
18r2 e-2r.
= ,
find the speed
when
reaches the equilibrium position,
(o)
If the particle is released at r
(c)
Find the period for small oscillations about the equilibrium position.
it
of a particle moving with speed

According to Einstein's special theory of relativity the mass
m = m /Vl v2 /c2 where c is the speed of light [186,000
is given by
mi/sec] and m is the rest mass. What is the percent increase in rest mass of (a) an airplane moving
at 700 mi/hr, (6) a planet moving at 25,000 mi/hr, (c) an electron moving at half the speed of light?
What conclusions do you draw from these results?
Prove that in cylindrical coordinates,
dV
ldV +
VF = ^-e
e + i ^-e*
"
dp p
30 **
dV
^-e,
dz
where ep
2.115.
If it has
Ans. 6 cm/sec
v relative to an observer
2.114.
61
e^,
Prove that
ez are unit vectors in the direction of increasing
<f>
and
z respectively.
in spherical coordinates,
Vy =
T7T/
where e r e e e^ are unit vectors

,
p,
^
dV
+
.
dV
3V
_l
e
Jt e + În7"s7 *
in the direction of increasing r, e,
<f>
respectively.
UNIFORM FORCE FIELDS

A force field which has constant
tude and direction
is called
urn
magni-
a uniform or con-
-Fk
stant force field. If the direction of this field

is taken as the negative z direction as indi-
cated in Fig. 3-1 and the magnitude is the

constant F > 0, then the force field is given by
F = -F k
Fig. 3-1
{1)
UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION
moves in a uniform force field, then its acceleration

a particle of constant mass
is uniform or constant. The motion is then described as uniformly accelerated motion.
moving in the uniform force
Using F = ma in (1), the acceleration of a particle of mass
field (1) is given by
If
-^k
m
(*)
v
WEIGHT AND ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

It is found experimentally that near the earth's
surface objects fall with a vertical acceleration
which is constant provided that air resistance is
negligible. This acceleration is denoted by g and
is called the acceleration due to gravity or the
gravitational acceleration.
The approximate mag-
nitude of g is 980 cm/sec 9.80 m/sec2 or 32 ft/sec 2

according as the cgs, mks or fps system of units
is used. This value varies at different parts of the
earth's surface, increasing slightly as one goes
from the equator to the poles.
2
Assuming the surface of the earth is represented by the xy plane of Fig. 3-2, the force acting
is given by
on a particle of mass
= mgk
(3)
This force, which is called the weight of the par mg.

has magnitude
ticle,
62
Fig. 3-2
CHAP.
3]
MOTION IN A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES
63
GRAVITATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
= mg, it follows that = Wig. This fact has led many scientists and engideal to a large extent with mechanics on the earth's surface, to rewrite the
equations of motion with the fundamental mass quantity
replaced by the weight quantity
Because
neers,
who
W.
Thus, for example, Newton's second law
F =
is
rewritten as
fa
In this equation
= Wig is constant. One system of
and g can both vary while
is
the
gravitational
or
English
engineering system where the unit of F or
(4)
is the pound weight (lb wt) while length is in feet and time is in seconds.
In this case
the unit of
is the slug and the system is often called the foot-slug -second (fss) system.
Other systems are also possible. For example, we can take F or
in kilograms weight
(kg wt) with length in meters and time in seconds.
units used in
ASSUMPTION OF A FLAT EARTH
is
Equation (3) indicates that the force acting on mass

has constant magnitude mg and
at each point directed perpendicular to the earth's surface represented by the xy plane.
In reality this assumption, called the assumption of the flat earth, is not correct first because
the earth is not flat and second because the force acting on mass m actually varies with the
distance from the center of the earth, as shown in Chapter 5.
In practice the assumption of a flat earth is quite accurate for describing motions of
objects at or near the earth's surface and will be used throughout this chapter.
However,
for describing the motion of objects far from the earth's surface the methods of
Chapter 5
must be employed.
FREELY FALLING BODIES

If an object moves so that the only force acting upon it is its
weight, or force due to
gravity, then the object is often called a freely falling body. If r is the
position vector and
is the mass of the body, then using Newton's second law
the differential equation of
motion is seen from equation (3) to be
m ddT>r
= ~ mgk
,
or
d*r
~
d = 9k
Since this equation does not involve the mass m, the motion of a freely falling
body
independent of its mass.
PROJECTILES
An object fired from a gun or dropped from
(*)
is
a moving airplane is often called a projectile.

a projectile can be considered as a freely falling body so that
its motion can be found from equation
(5) together with appropriate initial conditions. If air
resistance is negligible the path of a projectile is an arc of a
parabola (or a straight line
which can be considered a degenerate parabola). See Problem 3.6.
If air resistance is negligible,
64
[CHAP.
POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

IN A UNIFORM FORCE FIELD
potential of the uniform force
The
field, is
where
given by
is
field,
or potential energy of a particle in this force

,
V =
Fo(z-zo)
an arbitrary constant such that when
(6)
= z V = 0. We
,
call z
=z
the reference
level.
In particular for a constant gravitational

particle
field,
F = mg
and the potential energy of the
is
V = mg(z-z
v)
This leads to
potential energy of a particle in a constant gravitational field is
found by multiplying the magnitude of its weight by the height above some prescribed
reference level. Note that the potential energy is the work done by the weight in moving
Theorem
3.1.
The
through the distance
zo.
MOTION IN A RESISTING MEDIUM

well.
In practice an object is acted upon not only by its weight but by other forces as
Such
object.
an
of
motion
the
oppose
to
tend
which
those
are
An important class of forces
air or water, are
forces, which generally arise because of motion in some medium such as
medium is said
corresponding
the
and
forces
dissipative
or
damping
often called resisting,
to be a resisting,
damping or
dissipative
medium.
found experimentally that for low speeds the resisting force is in magnitude proporother power]
tional to the speed. In other cases it may be proportional to the square [or some
m in an
mass
of
particle
of
a
motion
the
then
R,
is
force
of the speed. If the resisting
It is
otherwise uniform (gravitational) force
field is
m-^
dt
2
If
R=
given by
mgk R
(#)
this reduces to (5).
ISOLATING THE SYSTEM

particles, as we shall
In dealing with the dynamics or statics of a particle [or a system of
which act on the
see later] it is extremely important to take into account all those forces
the system.
isolating
particle [or on the system of particles]. This process is often called
CONSTRAINED MOTION
surface as, for
In some cases a particle P must move along some specified curve or
bowl of
hemispherical
of
a
surface
inner
3-3
the
or
example, the inclined plane of Fig.
is called a
move
must
particle
the
which
on
surface
or
Such a curve
Fig. 3-4 below.
constraint and the resulting motion is called constrained motion.
third law
Just as the particle exerts a force on the constraint, there will by Newton's
described
often
is
force
reaction
This
particle.
the
on
constraint
be a reaction force of the
motion
of
direction
the
parallel
to
and
to
normal
f,
and
N
by giving its components
and is
friction
to
due
force
the
f
is
practice,
in
arise
which
respectively. In most cases
motion.
the
taken in a direction opposing
CHAP.
3]
65
n\
>&^
s^
s^\ a
Fig. 3-4
Fig. 3-3
Problems involving constrained motion can be solved by using Newton's second law
and then solving these equations subject to
to arrive at differential equations for the motion

initial conditions.
FRICTION
In the constrained motion of particles, one of the
most important forces resisting motion is that due to
friction. Referring to Fig. 3-5, let N be the magnitude
of the normal component of the reaction of the constraint on the particle m. Then it is found experimentally that the magnitude of the force f due to
friction is given by
/
where
/*
is
/JV
(P)
Fig. 3-5
called the coefficient of friction. The direction of f is always opposite to the

The coefficient of friction, which depends on the material of both
direction of motion.
the particle and constraint,
is
taken as a constant in practice.
STATICS IN A UNIFORM GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

As
forces
indicated in Chapter 2, a particle is in equilibrium under the influence of a system of

and only if the net force acting on it is F = 0.
if
Solved Problems
UNIFORM FORCE FIELDS AND UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

3.1.
A particle of mass m moves along a
Fi
straight line under the influence of a constant force of magnitude F. If its initial
speed
is
velocity
find
and
after time
t.
(c)
the speed, (b) the

the distance traveled
(a)
Fig. 3-6
66
(a)
the straight line along which the particle P moves is the x axis, as shown in
Fig. 3-6 above. Suppose that at time t the particle is at a distance x from origin 0. If i is a
unit vector in the direction OP and v is the speed at time t, then the velocity is vi. By Newton's
we have
4r(mvi)
Fi
= F
m^j
dt
or
dt
= dt
dv
Thus
where
t
a constant of integration.
and
so that from (2), c x = v
is
c-^
From
the velocity at time
(5)
= t+C!
To
find c x
Since v
vi,
dse/d*
and F
Fi.
at
0,
we
{2)
note the initial condition that
or
ti
* +
c 2 to
+ t
at
(S)
F
H
find
c2
*=(, + )*
be the constant of integration,
*+
0.
Thus
(k)."
*+
3.2.
we
or
*
a;
dt
(8),
Then on integrating, assuming
Since
If
we have from
dv
(1)
t is
vi
where v
or
i.e.
(c)
Assume that
second law
(6)
[CHAP.
we have
+ *
()*
Referring to Pr oblem 3.1, sho w that the speed of the particle at any position x
vl + (2F/m)x.
given by v =
is
Method
1.
From
we
find
Method
2.
From
(S)
we have
of Problem 3.1,
- v).
(m/2F)(v 2
{1)
of Problem 3.1,
_ F
~ m'
'
i.
Method 3.
Change
when g =
in kinetic
= Work
or
$mv* - %mv%
0,
we
find
energy from
done in moving
F(x
- 0). Then
c3
g/2
to
particle
vdv = ?-dx
e.
_ F
v2
_ F
dx/dt,
Integrating,
dv dx
dx dt
*1 = ,
dx
m'
Since v
Substituting into
)/F.
obtain the required result.
we have
dt
we
Solving for v
dv
or since v
= m(v - v
J*
+
,
c3
and hence v
any time
from *
V{j
(2F/m)x.
= V^ + (2F/m)x.
to
any position x
(4)
and simplifying,
CHAP.
3]
67
LINEAR MOTION OF FREELY

FALLING BODIES
3.3.
object of mass m is thrown vertically upward from the earth's surface with speed vo.
An
F=
Find (a) the position at any time, (b) the time

taken to reach the highest point and (c) the
maximum height reached.
(a)
Let the position vector of

at any time t be
r = xi + yj + zk.
Assume that the object starts
when t = 0. Since the force acting on
at r =
the object is mgk, we have by Newton's law,
d2 r
dv
m-r-
dt2
where v
the velocity at time
is
= mgk
.
Integrating
t.
= gtk +
V(jk
-^ =
or
Then
since
yields
(4)
when
r
t
c2
0,
(6)
The highest point
(c)
At time
or, equivalently,
= VfJg
is
maximum
the
0,
reached when v
(2)
is v<jk>
we have from
et
(2),
Vok so that
gt)k
(v
(S)
(*)
%gt2 )k +
Thus the
0.
ct
-gt)k
(v
(v t
(J)
-fl*
once yields
the initial velocity]
[i.e.
Integrating
(1)
dt
= -gtk +
v
Since the velocity at
Fig. 3-7
dv
c2
(5)
position vector is
(v Q t-$gt2)k
0,
gt)k =
(v
height reached
is,
(6)
^gt2
(7)
0, i.e.
at time
from
(7),
vjg.
= i%/2g.
Another method.
If we assume, as is physically evident, that the object must always be on the z axis, we may
avoid vectors by writing Newton's law equivalently as [see equation (1) above and place r = zk]
= -g
= 0, we find
z = v t - %gt 2
cPz/dt2
from which, using
as above.
3.4.
= 0,
The answers
dz/dt
to (6)
=v
and
at
(c)
are then obtained as before.
Find the speed of the particle of Problem 3.3 in terms of

Method
1.
From Problem
3.3,
equations
v
Solving for
in the first equation
/v
=
Method
2.
From
Vo
dt
3.
(7),
gt,
(1)
distance
from origin O.
we have
\gt2
and substituting into the second equation, we
-v\
= g,
Then on integrating, vV2

Method
and
/v
2 _ 2
-v\ 2 = v^-v
-*-
\-T-)-tg (-T-)
equation
dv
(3)
its
of Problem 3.3
have, since v
dv dz
dz
i.e.
= gz + c 3
we
dt
Since
_
=
~ g9
=v
at
= vk
__.
..
or
z
= 0,
and v
c3
2gz
dz/dt,
dv
Tz =
= v^/2
find
~g
and thus v2
See Problem 3.9 for a method using the principle of conservation of energy.
v2
2gz.
68
[CHAP.
MOTION OF PROJECTILES
3.5.
A projectile is launched with initial speed
v at an angle a with the horizontal. Find
(a) the position vector at any time, (b) the
time to reach the highest point, (c) the
maximum height reached, (d) the time of
flight
(a)
back to earth and
the range.
(e)
Let r be the position vector of the projecThen

tile and v the velocity at any time t.
by Newton's law
d2 r
i.e.,
dv
dt2
v
v
at
we
0,
(5)
It follows that the projectile
(b)
At
(2)
cx
the yz plane so that the initial velocity
is in
j
(v
sin a
cos a
sin a
is
(4)
gt)k
(5)
(S),
v cos a
and integrating, we obtain

r
equivalents,
from
find
or,
= -gtk +
the initial velocity of the projectile
Assume
-flrk
Integration yields
Since
Fig. 3-8
(1)
=
0,
cos a)tj
(v
(v
cos a)*,
{(v Q sin
2
a)t- %gt2 }k
- \g&
sin a)*
(v
(6)
(7)
remains in the yz plane.
the highest point of the path the component of velocity v in the

Vq sin a
t =
and
gt =
v Q sin a
direction is zero.
Thus
(8)
is
(c)
the required time.
Using the value of
obtained in
we
(&),
find
from
Maximum
(d)
The time of
flight
back to earth
{v
or since
height reached
9
the time
y&
t
(e)
The range
is
is
twice the time in
Show
(v
cos a)
is
{v
sin a)(y/v
cos a)
2v sin a \
- y{yh
a parabola in the yz plane.
aj^sin 2 a
sina\ 2
2g
(9)
when
- gt] =
<i0)
(6).
_
-
the second equation of (7) in Problem 3.5,

into the third equation of (7) in Problem 3.5, we find
i.e.
t>
2v sin a
cos a) 2
i.e.,
vl sin 2a
2v sin a cos a
that the path of the projectile in Problem 3.5
0,
t[(v Q sin a)
From
which
the value of y at the time given by (10),
Range
3.6.
when
t * 0,
Note that this
-y
sin a)
(v
is
sin a)t
that
(7)
sin a
'v
is
a parabola.
we have
or
Substituting this
y/(v cosa).
y tan
(f//2 V )2/
sec2 a
CHAP.
3.7.
3]
Prove that the range of the projectile of Problem 3.5

ing angle a
maximum when
the launch-
45.
By Problem
or a
is
69
3.5(e)
the range
This
is (v sin 2a)/ g.
is
maximum when
sin 2a
1,
i.e.
2a
90
45.
POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

IN A UNIFORM FORCE FIELD
3.8.
Prove that a uniform force field is conservative, (b) find the potential correspondin a
ing to this field and (c) deduce the potential energy of a particle of mass
uniform gravitational force field.
(a)
(a)
F = F
If the force field is as indicated in Fig. 3-1, then
V XF
d/dx
d/dy
d/dz
k.
We
have
-F
Thus the force
(b)
-F
F =
(c)
3.9.
dV.
dV. dV j -
= -VV
V = FQ z +
conservative.
field is
If
c.
V=
at
dy
dz
Then
k.
then c
dx
dV
dx
= F
=0,
0,
dy
V=F
and so
dV =
=
F
dV
(z
For a uniform gravitational force field, F = -mgls. [see Fig. 3-2, page
to F = mg. Then by part (b) the potential or potential energy is V
Work Problem
According
P.E. at z
v2
Then
v*
K.E. at z
^mvl
we have
P.E. at
mgz
K.E. at z
|mi) 2
- 2gz.

3.10.
At time
parachutist [Fig. 3-9] having
a.
mg is located at z = and
traveling vertically downward with speed vo.
If the force or air resistance acting on the
weight of magnitude
is
parachute
is
proportional to the instantaneous
speed, find the (a) speed, (b) distance traveled
and
(a)
(c)
acceleration at
Assume
of
If
any time
> 0.
the parachutist (considered as a particle
mass m) is located at distance z from origin O.

k is a unit vector in the vertically downward
direction, then the weight is mgls. while the force

of air resistance is (3vk so that the net force
is
(mg
fiv)k.
Thus by Newton's law,

ra-r-k
at
= (mg
/3v)k
(1)
and corresponds
mg(z z Q).
62]
3.4 using the principle of conservation of energy.
to the principle of conservation of energy,
from which
dz
Fig. 3-9
MOTION
70
IN
A UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND PROJECTILES

dv
wi-jt
dt
i.e.
Integrating,
7f
Since
at
ln
Bv
mdv =
rmg Bv
or
mg ~ Bv ~
^
dt
ci
(*)
-jln
Then from
).
(mg-/3v)
(2),
jm
Thus
(b)
X-7*
From
(5),
= mg/B +
dz/dt
at
c2
0,
e " t/m
(c)
From
(5),
the acceleration
3.11.
Show that
Method
is
~ &t/m
{s)
integration,
mg/B)
C2
and thus
^+7 (*-?) a
-f-
(m/B)(v
f) e
Then by
^_^
v ~ 2
T+
m/
mg\ _ 3t/m
Mlm +
-jf^v --^je
= mpt
or
mg/B)e-W m
(v
Since
AM
= In (ra^r Bv
cx
0,
= jln(mg-pv
wgr
[CHAP.
-""-)
04)
given by
-(-f>-
e" m
('-S)'-"-
<*>
the parachutist of Problem 3.10 approaches a limiting speed given by mglp.
1.
equation (5) of Problem 3.10, v = mg/B + (v mg/B)e-W m

Then as t increases,
v approaches mg/B so that after a short time the parachutist is traveling with speed which is
From
practically constant.
Method
2.
approach a limiting speed, the limiting acceleration must be zero.

we have mg Bv hm =
or v lim = mg//3.
If the parachutist is to
Thus from equation
3.12.
(1)
of Problem 3.10
A particle of mass m is traveling along the x axis such that at t
it is
located at x
and has speed vo. The particle is acted upon by a force which opposes the motion
and has magnitude proportional to the square of the instantaneous speed. Find the
(a) speed, (b) position and (c) acceleration of the particle at any time t > 0.
(a)
Suppose particle P is at a distance x from O at

* =
and has speed v [see Fig. 3-10]. Then the
force F = Bv 2 i where B >
is a constant of
proportionality. By Newton's law,
m-rri
dt
Integrating,
when
0,
2
= Bv
^ i
or
-5v2
(6)
is
Since
Thus
(J)
1/v = Bt/m + c v
we have c = -1/iv
1
which
= dt
F = -Bv 2 i
Fig. 3-10
/3t
or
wv
tr
Bv t +
the speed.
From W,
f=
.r?+ m
Bv
'
.
Then
f
J
i.
=
(*
-*-* =
Jf Bv t + m
,
=
Bv
dt
Jf t + m/Bv
or
'
CHAP.
3]
Since
at
(c)
From
-^ln(-^V
c2
0,
(+
Thus
= f'( i+
ln
^)-f te)
_ k _ d ( mv \ =
~ dt
dt\pv t + mj
PmVQ
(f3v t
u\
+ m)*
Note that although the speed of the particle continually decreases,
it
never conies to
rest.
(a) speed and (b) acceleration of the particle of Problem 3.12 as a

function of the distance x from O.
Determine the
Method
From
1.
parts
and
(a)
(6)
of Problem 3.12,
+ m\
m In
/fiv
fiv Q t
s=jln(^J
and the acceleration
is
From
2.
dv
Pn
dt
equation
(1)
when x =
0,
c3
= /8v
m -=
ax
=
In v
v
v
-** /m
and
Thus
(4.)
we have
dv
n 2
= Bv
= mv-jdx
v = x.
m
In (v/v
Pvl _ 2Bx/m
dt
m-j- -77
dx dt
dt
= 0,
/3v t
of Problem 3.12.
dv dx
dv
i>
_ Br/m dx
of Problem 3.12
m-77 =
or since
or
given in magnitude by
which can also be obtained from equation
Method
mv
"
and
Then
3.14.
^)
(a),
3.13.
71
lnv
Integrating,
= Bx/m
or v
VQe
fix/m
c3 .
Since
- ^/.
Suppose that in Problem 3.5 we assume that the projectile has acting upon it a force
due to air resistance equal to pv where /? is a positive constant and v is the instantaneous velocity. Find (a) the velocity and (b) the position vector at any time.
(a)
The equation of motion
in this case is
cPt
m-j-g
Dividing by
be written as
= mgk
e Pt/m
Integration yields
initial
Using
eJ
and multiplying by the integrating factor
{ e fit/m y } =
The
dv
m ~Jt^~
Py =
or
/?v
velocity or velocity at
this in (2)
we
v
t
0/m dt
eP t/m ,
C)
the equation can
-gefit/m^
- e& t/m k
cx
(2)
v Q sin a k
(8)
is
Vo
v o c s o]
v Q cos a
find
ci
#k
v<>
sin a
^-k
-I
72
Thus
becomes on dividing by
(2)
(b)
(4)
v sin a
k)e~^ m
and integrating, we
~"g-( v 0COSa
^(1
Using
(6) in (5),
at
m9
v sinak)e-^"
^ e-flt/m)k
<* jl
v
f-(t
<
(5)
(*)
'
find
sin a k)(l
- e-"t/m) - 2M
-/3t/m
_ 2?M
Prove that the projectile of Problem 3.14 attains a limiting velocity and
Method
Ca
/?
J8
we
(4)
0,
mv Q
= -^(cosa
j +
3.15.
e~W)k
find
fi
Since
(7)
find its value.
1.
Refer to equation (4) of Problem 3.14. As t increases, e~ t/m approaches zero.

velocity approaches a limiting value equal to v
= (mg/(3)k.
llm
Method
e^ t/m ,
cos a
(v
[CHAP.
Thus the
2.
If the projectile is to
from equation
(1)
approach a limiting velocity its limiting acceleration must be zero.

of Problem 3.14, -mgk - 0v llm =
or v lim = -(mg/p)k.
CONSTRAINED MOTION
3.16. A particle P of mass m
slides
Thus
without rolling
down a f rictionless inclined plane AB of angle a

[Fig. 3-11]. If it starts from rest at the top A
of the incline, find (a) the acceleration, (b) the
velocity and (c) the distance traveled after
time
(a)
t.
N/
N. pjf/
Since there is no friction the only forces acting

= mgk and the reon P are the weight
action force of the incline which is given by the
normal force N.
W = -mgk
mg
cos a e 2
from the top A of the inclined plane, we have

by Newton's second law
m-j-zisei)
since the resultant equal to
W+N
is
mg
sin a
d?s/d&
Thus the acceleration down the

(6)
Since
ds/dt
is
the speed,
dv/dt
on integrating. Using the

speed at any time t is
incline at
(2)
velocity is
the incline.
ve t
e^ as indicated
g
<J>
in Fig. 3-11.
From
(I)
we have
sin a
any time
or
flrsina
initial condition
(g sin ajte^
raflrsinae!
(2)
a constant equal to g sin
is
a.
can be written
The
Fig. 3-11
+ N =
-
si" a i
<^.
Let e x and e2 be unit vectors parallel and

perpendicular to the incline respectively. If we
denote by s the magnitude of the displacement
d2
inff
at
(g sin a)t
t
0,
ct
we have
cx
so that the
(g sin a)t
which has magnitude
(3)
(g sin a)t
in the direction e t
down
CHAP.
3]
(c)
Since
ds/dt,
can be written
(5)
ds/dt
on integrating. Using the

required distance traveled
condition
initial
is
,,
or
(g sin a)t
3.17.
2
%(9 sin a)t
at
we
0,
c2
c2
find
(a)
Since 8
I
(6)
W
/\
The speed
from equation
at B, the time t to reach the bottom is
2
^(g sin a )r
or
at
is
so that the
w,
AB
2
-|(p sin a)t
of the incline in Problem 3.16 is I, find (a) the time

speed at B.
particle to reach the bottom B of the incline and (&) the
If the length
73
(4)
taken for the
of Problem 3.16 given by
}/2l/(g sin a).
given from
of Problem 3.16 by
(5)
(g sin )r
V2tf* sin a.
MOTION INVOLVING FRICTION

3.18.
Work Problem
3.16
if
the inclined plane has
a constant coefficient of friction

(a)
N>
ju..
In this case there is, in addition to the forces

and N acting on P, a frictional force f [see Fig.
3-12] directed up the incline [in a direction opposite to the motion] and with magnitude
= pmg
v.mg
liN
ping cos a
i.e.
Then equation
(1) of Problem 3.16 is replaced
cP(*e t )
dt2
+ N +
<Ps/dt*
or
mg
sin a ti
mg
'
\/
e2
^>V/\^
*)'
cos a e 2
(2)
m-
vjW
W = -mgk
CO
cos a
Fig. 3-12
by
=
flr(sin
sin a x e x
mflr
/*
(S)
y.mg cos a ej
cos a)
g(sin a - ? cos a) provided

acceleration down the incline has the constant magnitude
great that the particle will
/icosa or tana > /* [otherwise the frictional force is so
not move at all].
Thus the
sin a
(6)
(c)
>
Replacing d2s/dt2 by dv/dt in U) and integrating as in part

speed at any time t to be
v = gr( S in a /t COS a)t
Replacing v by
<*/<**
in (5)
and integrating as
8
3.19.
^g(sina
(6)
in part (c) of
(i
cos
of Problem 3.16,
we
find the
(K x
lJ
Problem
3.16,
we
find
a)t 2
(6)
straight line OA [Fig. 3-13].

object slides on a surface of ice along the horizontal
comes to rest after
At a certain point in its path the speed is v and the object then 2
is v /2gx
traveling a distance xo. Prove that the coefficient of friction
An
Let * be the instantaneous distance of the

from O and suppose that at
mass
=
=
and dx/dt = v
0, x
time t
object of
Three forces act on the object, namely (1) the

= mg, (2) the normal force N of the
weight
ice surface on the object, and (3) the frictional
mg
force
Fig. 3-13
f.
By Newton's
second law
we
have,
if
is
the instantaneous speed,
= W + N +
w î
dt
(1)
74
But
N = -W
since
and the magnitude of

dv
Method
Write
1.
f is
m-î =
-fimgi
dv dx
dx"di
-m
Integrating, using the fact that
when x
(4)
From
2.
we
(2)
see that the object
dv
(1)
becomes
= -**
Tx
we
0,
= -mx +
find
v\l1
or
(-4)
(i.e.,
or
and noting that x
(7)
to rest
ngt
t = 0, we
t- frgfi
at
dx/dt
or
comes
v
Substituting this into
figt
we
fimgi,
figdx
v*/2
Integrating again, using the fact that x
(7)
v*/2gx Q
(5)
have, on integrating and using the fact that v
From
becomes
-figx Q
Method
-fig
dt
or
at
v*/2
dv
-^ =
or
so that
as
(2)
v dv
since
= pN = ymg
Then
Then
[CHAP.
at
0,
figt
(6)
find
(7)
= 0) when
t v //xg
we
obtain the required result.

3.20.
particle of
mass
a and b from pegs
m is
and
suspended in equilibrium by two inelastic strings of lengths

B which are distant c apart. Find the tension in each string.
mgk
Fig. 3-14
Fig. 3-15
Let
denote the weight of the particle and T t and T 2 the respective tensions in the strings
of lengths a and b as indicated in Fig. 3-14. These forces are also indicated in Fig. 3-15 and are
assumed to lie in the plane of unit vectors j and k. By resolving T 1 and T2 into horizontal and
vertical components it is clear that
Tx
sin a
Tx
cos a
where T 1 and T2 are the magnitudes of T x

angles at A and B. Also we have
Since the particle
is in
equilibrium
if
.and
T2
T2
sin
respectively and
p k
+ T2
cos
where a and
ft j
/J
if
the net force acting on
it is
zero,
(T2 cos p
cos a
cos a)j
are the respective
= mgk.
and only
= T + T2 + W
= 2 sin a k T
T2
j,
+ T2
sin
/?
(2\ sin a
+ T2
+ T2
sin
cos
/? j
mgk
- mg)k
we have
CHAP.
3]
From
this
we must have
T2
cos
/3
we
- T
cos a
0,
+ T2
sin a
_ mg cos p
~ sin + )'
my
j,
sin
(<*
The angles a and
can be determined from the law
/?
a2
COS -1
sin
ft
- mg =
find
From
75
c2
cos a
+ /?)
(<*
of cosines as
b2
b2
c2
a2
26c
2ac
these the tensions can be expressed in terms of a,
b, c.
3.21.
An
inclined plane [Fig. 3-16] makes an

angle a with the horizontal. A projectile is
launched from the bottom A of the incline
with speed vo in a direction making an
angle jB with the horizontal.
(a)
Prove that the range R up the incline

given by
2v 2 sin (/? a) cos /?
R =
(b)
is
g COS z a
Prove that the
maximum
Fig. 3-16
range up the incline
g(l
(a)
As
achieved
is
in
Problem
3.5,
when
/?
equation
=
(6),
The equation of the
(v
cos
(v
(v
sin
(v
/?)
is
(1)
\gt 2
(2)
y tan a
(3)
see that the projectile's path
sirt /3)t
lgt2 }k
line in the yz plane] is
\gt 2
2v (sin
sin a)
{(v Q sin p)t
/?)*,
we
cos/?)j
incline [which is
Using equations (2) in

values of t where
a/2.
the position vector of the projectile at any time
or
tt/4
given by
Umax
and
is
/?
cos a
and
cos
[(v
and the
(3)t]
cos
/3
incline intersect for those
tana
sin a)
2v sin
g cos a
(/J
a)
g cos a
t =
gives the intersection point A. The second value of t yields point B
the required point. Using this second value of t in the first equation of (2), we find
that the required range R up the incline is
The value
which
is
R =
y sec a
2v sin
{v
cos
/3)
flf
(b)
Method
1.
The range
(/?
o]
2v sin
(/3
a)
cos 2 a
COS a
can be written by using the trigonometric identity

sin
cos
B =
R =
{sin (A
+ B) +
vl
g cos 2 a
{sin (2/3
sin (A
a)
- B)}
sin a}
cos
/?
76
This is a maximum when

value of this maximum is
(1
g cos z a
1,
i.e.
#(1
20
-a =
T/2
or
a/2
g(l
fi
tt/4,
and the
sin a)
sin 2 a)
(1
sin a)
sin a)
2.
The required result can

finding maxima and minima.
3.22.
- o) =
be obtained by the methods of differential calculus for
also
Two
particles of masses mi and

2 respectively are
connected by an inextensible string of negligible mass
which passes over a fixed frictionless pulley of negligible mass as shown in Fig. 3-17. Describe the motion
by finding (a) the acceleration of the particles and
(b) the tension in the string.
Let us first isolate mass m,. There are two forces acting
'mWWXW
it:
= x gk, and (2) the force due to
(1) its weight
yg
the string which is the tension T = Tk. If we call a = dk
the acceleration, then by Newton's law
on
m
Next we
ak
mass
m gk
Tk
m2
(1)
m2 g
There are two forces acting

2
on it:
its weight
m 2 g = m^k, and (2) the tension
(1)
T = Tk [the tension is the same throughout the string
since the mass of the string is assumed negligible and inextensible].
of ra2
is
isolate
Since the string
(1)
is
Wig
inextensible, the acceleration
a = ak. Then by Newton's law
m2ak =
From
and
(2)
m2gk
Fig. 3-17
Tk
(2)
we have
mâ
we
-m 2 a
T =
2m m2
m + m2
T,
find
m ~ m2
g,
mi + m2
i
Thus the
particles move with constant acceleration, one particle rising and the other falling.
In this pulley system, sometimes called Atwood's machine, the pulley can rotate. However,
since it is frictionless and has no mass [or negligible mass] the effect is the same as if the string
passed over a smooth or frictionless peg instead of a pulley. In case the mass of the pulley
is not negligible, rotational effects must be taken into account and are considered in Chapter 9.
3.23.
particle
of
mass
m rests at the top A
frictionless fixed sphere of radius b.
of a
The par-
displaced slightly so that it slides (without rolling) down the sphere, (a) At what posi-
ticle is
it leave the sphere and (b) what will

speed be at this position?
The particle will slide down a circle of radius a
which we choose to be in the xy plane as indicated in
Fig. 3-18.
The forces acting on the particle are:
tion will
its
= mgj, and (2) the reaction force

weight
of the sphere on the particle normal to the sphere.
(1) its
Method
(a)
v,
R
Method
sin (2/3
[CHAP.
1.
Let the position of the particle on the circle be

measured by angle
and let v i and t be unit
vectors.
Resolving
into components in directions r x and $ lt we have as in Problem 1.43,
page 24,
Fig. 3-18
CHAP.
3]
=
=
+ (W #!)#,
r^ + (mg\
(W'r,)r,
( wgrj
= -mg
f x)*!
N = Nt
Also,
F = ma = m[(r
(2V
ra(r-r 2 )
While the particle
is
on the
Substituting
(4)
= g
sin
e,
we
(1)
= -mg
2r'e)
cos e
into the first equation of (S),
be = g
(3)
can be written
it
-*S (Bin#)
we
mg(Z
so that c x
Putting
sin 6
into
we
(4),
sin e
or
(5)
2)
if
Method
2.
is
we have v =
the speed,
By
the particle will
3 sin e
A +
be
K.E. at
+0
mgb
v2
or
Using the result of Problem

the radius of curvature
is
sin" 2/3
0,
i.e.,
(6)
2^/36
(7)
so that (7) yields
v2
= f&p
or
the conservation of energy, using the x axis as reference level,
P.E. at
find
e2
Then
and
find
N=
2/3
(4)
(2),
cos e
>
the particle stays on the sphere; but when
Now as long as
be just about to leave the sphere. Thus the required angle is given by
sin*
(2)
b.
Now when * = tt/2,

6ff2 = 2gr(l - sin a)
N =
(6)
we have
26,
Tt\2j
c 1#
page
x]
we have
see that
d /e 2 \
1.49,
(r'o
N mg sin 0,
Multiplying the second equation by
be 2/2
m(r'e
circle (or sphere),
mbe 2 =
Integrating,
mflr
cos
+ 2re)$
sin tf)^ mg cose 9
re 2 )r x
W+N =
= N-mg sine,
mg
sin o r x
Using Newton's second law and the result of Problem
Thus
77
1.35,
page
P.E. at
mgb
2gb(l
20, together
P +
K.E. at
fymv 2
sin e
yj\bg.
we have
sin e)
()
with Newton's second law, we have, since
6,
w+n
= = Cf.-I'-) =
= (N mg sin e)r mg
x
cos e 6 X
Using only the r t component, we have

v 2 /b
From
(8)
Method
1.
N mg sine
and (9) we find N = mg(3 sin e - 2) which yields the required angle sin" 1
The speed is then found from (8).
(5)
() as in
78
[CHAP.
UNIFORM FORCE FIELDS AND LINEAR MOTION OF
FREELY FALLING BODIES
3.24.
An object of mass m is dropped from a height H
negligible, then
is
3.25.
Work Problem
tude v
3.26.
3.27.
3.24 if the object is
Ans.
(y/v*
(a)
ground
(a) in
above the grou nd.

a time y/2H/g and
Prove that if air resistance

(b) with speed y/2gH.
thrown vertically downward with an
+ 2gH -
y/v*
(b)
)/g,
initial velocity of
magni-
+ 2gH
Prove that the object of Problem 3.3, page 67, returns to the earth's surface (a) with the same
speed as the initial speed and (6) in a time which is twice that taken to reach the maximum height.
ball
which
Ans.
(a)
thrown upward reaches
is
starting point,
3.28.
will reach the
it
With what speed was
(a)
80 ft/sec,
(6)
maximum
its
it
thrown?
height of 100 ft and then returns to the

How long does it take to return?
(6)
5 sec
which
is thrown vertically upward reaches a particular height

after a time t x on the
time t2 on the way down. Prove that (a) the initial velocity with which the ball was
thrown has magnitude $g(r t + t2 ) and (6) the height
= $griT2
ball
way up and a
3.29.
3.30.
3.31.
In Problem 3.28,
is
the
maximum
Ans. ^g(r t
height reached?
t2 ) 2
Two objects are dropped from the top of a cliff of height H. The second is dropped when the first
has traveled a distance D. Prove that at the instant when the first object has reached the bottom,
the second object is at a distance above it given by 2yDH D.
An
Ans.
from
elevator starts
160 lb
3.32.
what
man
(a)
rest
and attains a speed of 16 ft/sec in 2 sec. Find the weight of a

(a) moving up
(6) moving down.
in the elevator if the elevator is
200
lb,
120 lb
(6)
mass 3 kg moving in a straight line decelerates uniformly from a speed of 40 m/sec

m/sec in a distance of 300 m. (a) Find the magnitude of the deceleration. (6) How much
further does it travel before it comes to rest and how much longer will this take?
particle of
to 20
Ans.
3.33.
(a)
2 m/sec 2 ,
(6)
100 m; 10 sec
In Problem 3.32, what is the total work done in bringing the particle to rest
Ans. 2400 newton meters (or joules)
of 40 m/sec?
from the speed
MOTION OF PROJECTILES
3.34.
projectile is launched with a muzzle velocity of 1800 mi/hr at an angle of 60 with a

horizontal and lands on the same plane. Find (a) the maximum height reached, (6) the time
to reach the maximum height, (c) the total time of flight, (d) the range, (e) the speed after
1 minute of flight, (/) the speed at a height of 32,000 ft.
Ans.
3.35.
(a)
(a)
What
15.5 mi,
the
is
velocity 1 mi/sec
Ans.
3.36
A
is
3.37.
165 mi,
cannon has
# max and
its
(&)
71.4 sec,
(c)
maximum range
and
(6)
what
41.25 mi
(6)
is
maximum range
142.8 sec,
(d)
35.7 mi,
(e)
934 mi/hr,
(/)
1558 mi/hr
possible for a projectile fired from a cannon having muzzle

the height reached in this case?
given by
the time of flight
is
R max
Prove that
(a)
the height reached in such case
^R m& J2g.
launch a projectile from the ground so as to hit a given point on the ground
at a distance less than the maximum range. Prove that there are two possible angles
for the launching, one which is less than 45 by a certain amount and the other greater than
45 by the same amount.
It is desired to
which
3.38.
(a)
(6)
is
projectile
Prove that it must have

having horizontal range R reaches a maximum height
2
2
(6) at an angle with
(a) an initial speed equal to y/g(R + 16H )/8H and
been launched with
-1 (4H/y/R 2
the horizontal given by sin
16Jf? 2
).
CHAP.
3.39.
3]
projectile is launched at
79
an angle a from a
above sea level. If it falls into

of height
from the base of the
the sea at a distance
cliff, prove that its maximum height above sea
cliff
level is
H+
Ctan'q
+ Ptan)
_,_
Fl S- 3 " 19
4(H

3.40.
Assuming that air resistance

is thrown vertically upward with speed v
object of weight
proportionality is k, prove
of
constant
the
that
and
velocity
instantaneous
to
the
proportional
is
that (a) the object will reach a maximum height of
An
and that
(6)
Wkv
K2g
K 2g
the time taken to reach this
maximum
Kg
3.41.
3.42.
mass
is
Assuming
line under the influence of a constant force F.
a resisting force numerically equal to kv 2 where v is the instantaneous speed and k
moves along a straight

is
a constant, prove that the distance traveled in going from speed v x to v 2
(6)
mass
w
^
In
/F-kv\
F_
moves
If it starts
Can Problem
is
in a straight line acted upon by a constant resisting force of magni(a) how long will it take before coming to rest and
with a speed of v
Ana. (a) mv /F, (b) mv2 /2F
what distance will it travel in this time?
particle of
tude F.
3.45.
height
on a parachute falls from rest and acquires a limiting speed of 15 mi/hr. Assuming
resistance is proportional to the instantaneous speed, determine how long it takes to reach
air
that
Arts. 1.86 sec
the speed of 14 mi/hr.
is
3.44.
KV o
A man
that there
3.43.
ln ( 1
\
3.43 be
locomotive of mass
Explain.
worked by energy considerations?
travels with constant speed v along a horizontal track, (a) How long
come to rest after the ignition is turned off, if the resistance
a + /3v 2 where v is the in stantaneous speed and a and /3 are constants?
will it take for the locomotive to

to the
(b)
3.46.
motion
What
is
is
given by
Ana.
the distance traveled?
(a)
y/mlp tan" 1
(v Q VJ/Z),
(6)
(m/2/3) In (1
+ prf/a)
moves along the x axis acted upon only by a resisting force which is proportional
the speed is
to the cube of the instantaneous speed. If the initial speed is v and after a time r
v prove that the speed will be v in time 5t.
particle
3.47.
Find the
(6) v
.
3.48.
total distance traveled
Ana.
(a)
r,
(6)
by the particle of Problem 3.46
(a)
the time to reach the highest point
(6)
the
mv
height
is
(a)
|v
>
iv
Prove that for the projectile of Problem
maximum
in reaching the speeds
sina
tj
is
page
3.14,
-j In
f
(
2
mpg In
,
71,
/?v
1 H
/
I
sina\
)
Joraa\
1 H
CONSTRAINED MOTION AND FRICTION

3.49.
weight of 100 lb slides from rest down a 60 incline of length 200 ft starting from the top.
Neglecting friction, (a) how long will it take to reach the bottom of the incline and (6) what is
Ana. (a) 3.80 sec, (&) 105.3 ft/sec
the speed with which it reaches the bottom?
80
3.50.
3.51.
Work Problem
(a)
3.49 if the coefficient of friction is 0.3.
Ans.
(a) 4.18 sec,
(6)
[CHAP.
95.7 ft/sec
With what speed should an object be thrown up a smooth incline of angle a and length
from the bottom, so as to just reach the top and (6) what is the time taken?
I,
starting
Ans.
3.52.
3.53.
(a) y/2gl sin a,
(b) s/2l/(g sin a)
If it takes a time t for an object starting from speed v

that the coefficient of friction is v Q/gr.
What
force
is
on an icy surface to come to
rest,
needed to move a 10 ton truck with uniform speed up an incline of 30

Ans. 5.87 tons
prove
the
if
coefficient of friction is 0.1 1

3.54.
3.55.
A mass rests on a horizontal piece of wood. The wood is tilted upward until the mass
begins to slide. If the angle which the wood makes with the horizontal at that instant
prove that the coefficient of friction is n = tan a.
just
is
a,
A 400 kg mass on a 30 inclined plane is acted upon by a force of 4800 newtons at angle 30
with the incline, as shown in Fig. 3-20.
Find the acceleration of the mass if the incline (a) is
frictionless,
Ans. (a) 5.5 m/sec 2 (6) 5.0 m/sec2
(6) has coefficient of friction 0.2.
,
Fig. 3-21
Fig. 3-20
3.56.
Work Problem
Ans.
5.5
(a)
3.55 if the force of 4800
m/sec 2
2.6
(6)
newtons acts as shown in Fig.
3-21.
m/sec 2

3.57.
A 100 kg weight is suspended vertically from the center of a rope as shown in Fig.
Ans. T = 100 kg wt = 980 nt
Determine the tension T in the rope.
3-22.
y///////////////^^^^^
Fig. 3-24
Fig. 3-23
3.58.
AB and AC are ropes attached to the ceiling CD and wall BD at C and B respectively.
If the ropes AB and AC make angles e x and e 2 with the
weight
is suspended from A.
wall and ceiling respectively, find the tensions T t and T2 in the ropes.
In Fig. 3-23,
Ans.
3.59.
T,
W cos
cos (0x
W sin e
62
e2
'
T2
cos
(e 1
e2
in equilibrium on the inclined plane

Find the magnitude of the force F needed to keep mass
of Fig. 3-24 if (a) the plane is smooth, (6) the plane has coefficient of friction p.
.
AnS
'
{a)
_
mg
F =
sin a
I^T'
...
(6)
__
mg (sin a
fi
c^sl
cos a)
CHAP.
3.60.
3]
81
needed to pull a train weighing 320 tons from rest to a speed of 15 mi/hr
and (a) the track is horizontal, (6) the track is
inclined at an angle of 10 with the horizontal and the train is going upward? [Use sin 10 = .1737,
Ans. (a) 17.4 tons, (6) 129.6 tons
cos 10 = .9848.]
How much
force
is
in 20 seconds if the coefficient of friction is 0.02
3.61.
Work Problem
3.62.
3.60(6) if the train is
mass
train of
Wfl^sin a
(i
cos a)
Ans. 3.6 tons
incline.
down an inclined plane of angle a and coefficient of friction fi

Prove that the force needed to stop the train in a time t is given by
coasting
is
with constant speed v Q
going down the
mt>
/r.
3.63.
stone
is
dropped down a well and the sound of the splash is heard after time t. A ssuming the
2
2
is c, prove that the depth of the water level in the well is (y/c + Igcr c) /2g.
speed of sound
3.64.
A projectile is launched downward from the top of an inclined plane of angle a in a direction
making an angle y with the incline. Assuming that the projectile hits the incline, prove that
(a)
v
'
the ranee
given by
is
R =
2i>o sin
3.65.
i? max
~"
a)
incline is
y cos (y
9 cos 2 a
n Ksin a)
,,,,.,
(6) the maximum
.
and that
.,
range down the
g(l
A cannon is located on a hill which has the shape of an inclined plane of angle a with the horizontal.
A projectile is fired from this cannon in a direction up the hill and making an angle with it. Prove
/3
that in order for the projectile to hit the
3.66.
3.67.
3.68.
3.69.
3.70.
3.71.
hill
Is it possible to solve equation (1),
page
33,
M/ 3 2_sincog2a2a
by the method of separation of variables?
Explain.
When launched at angle 9 1 with the horizontal a projectile falls a distance D x short of its target,
while at angle 2 it falls a distance D 2 beyond the target. Find the angle at which the projectile
should be launched so as to hit the target.
An object was thrown vertically downward. During the tenth second of travel it fell twice as far
Ans. 16 ft/sec
as during the fifth second. With what speed was it thrown?
gun of muzzle speed v is situated at height h above a horizontal plane. Prove that the angle
at which it must be fired so as to achieve the greatest range on the plane is given by
-1
e = % cos
gh/(vl + gh).
In Fig. 3-25, AB is a smooth table and masses ra x
and w2 are connected by a string over the smooth
peg at B. Find (a) the acceleration of mass m 2
and (6) the tension in the string.
-JJ
m2 m
^T+nT2 g m2>mi
m2
(o)
-
'
jm^
Wi +
3.73.
tan
Suppose that two projectiles are launched at angles a and /3 with the horizontal from the
same place at the same time in the same vertical plane and with the same initial speed. Prove
that during the course of the motion, the line joining the projectiles makes a constant angle
with the vertical given by (a + /3).
AnS
3.72.
horizontally we must have
Work Problem
Fig>3 . 25
m2
3.71 if the table
AB
has
coefficient of friction
ft.
The maximum range of a projectile when fired down an inclined plane is twice the maximum
fired up the inclined plane. Find the angle which the incline makes with the horizontal.
range when
Ans. sin -1 1/3
82
3.74.
Masses
[CHAP.
and ra2 are located on smooth inclined planes

and a 2 respectively and are connected by
an inextensible string of negligible mass which passes
over a smooth peg at A [Fig. 3-26]. Find the acceleram-^
of angles a t
tions of the masses.
Ans. The accelerations are in magnitude equal to
Wi
m2 sin a 2
9
m + m2
sin a x
Fig. 3-26
3.75.
Work Problem
Wj
sin
<*!
Ans.
3.76.
3.74 if the coefficient of friction between the masses
m2
nm x cos a
mi + m2
sin a2
and the
incline is
ju.
[im2 cos a 2
Prove that the least horizontal force F needed to pull

over an obstacle
a cylinder of radius a and weight
of height b [see Fig. 3-27] is given in magnitude by
Wy/b(2a-b)/(a 3.77.
3.78.
6).
Explain mathematically why a projectile fired from

cannon A at the top of a cliff at height H above the
ground can reach a cannon B located on the ground,
while a projectile fired from cannon B with the same
muzzle velocity will not be able to reach cannon A.
m hangs from an inextensible string OA.

by a horizontal string AB so that OA makes
an angle a with the vertical. Find the tension in each string.
Ans. Tension in AB = mg tan a; in OA = mg sec a
In Fig. 3-28 the mass
It is pulled aside
3.79.
3.81.
3.82.
3.83.
y////////////.
acted upon by a resisting

it to travel a distance x
t = Ax 2 + Bx + C where A, B and C are constants.
is given by
Prove that the magnitude of the resisting force is proportional
to the cube of the instantaneous speed.
particle
moving along the x axis
force which
3.80.
Fig. 3-27
is
such that the time
is
for
projectile is to be launched so as to go from A to B

[which are respectively at the bases of a double inclined
plane having angles a and /3 as shown in Fig. 3-29] and
If the distance
just barely miss a pole of height H.
between A and B is D, find the angle with the horizontal
at which the projectile should be launched.
particle of mass
moves on a frictionless inclined
plane of angle a and length I. If the particle starts
from rest at the top of the incline, what will be its
speed at the bottom assuming that air resistance is equal
to kv where v is the instantaneous speed and k is constant?
Fig. 3-29
Problem 3.23 the particle P is given an initial speed v Q at the top of the circle
(or sphere), (a) Prove that if v ^ yfgb, the angle e at which the particle leaves the circle is given
by sin -1 ( + v^/Zgb). (b) Discuss what happens if v Q > ygb.
Suppose that
in
above sea level.

is situated at the top of a vertical cliff overlooking the sea at height
should be the least muzzle velocity of the cannon in order that a projectile fired from it
will reach a ship at distance D from the foot of the cliff?
cannon
What
3.84.
In Problem 3.83,
(a)
how long would
velocity on reaching the ship?
it
take the projectile to reach the ship and
(6)
what
is
the
CHAP.
3]
3.85.
83
uniform chain of total length a has a portion

b < a hanging over the edge of a smooth table
AB [see Fig. 3-30]. Prove that the time taken for
<
the chain to slide off the table

is
3.86.
If
y/a/g\n(a
the
table
y/a 2
if it
starts
Fig. 3-30
Problem 3.85 has
in
V
A
weight
(i
coefficient
3.87.
from rest
-b 2 )/b.
+ fig
of
friction
+ V 2
In
hangs on one side of a smooth
6(1
p,
[6(1 + fi~
+ n) an
prove
[9(W 2
3.88.
mass
[see Fig. 3-31].
-W )-W a]/W
2
Two monkeys of equal weight are hanging from opposite ends of a

rope which passes over a smooth fixed pulley of negligible mass.
The first monkey starts to climb the rope at a speed of 1 ft/sec
while the other remains at rest relative to the rope. Describe the
motion of the second monkey.
is
W////////A
Fig. 3-31
1 ft/sec.
Prove that
+ 19^)6/81.
if friction is negligible
vertical circle starting
3.91.
taken
Prove that the particle of Problem 3.23 will land at a distance from the base of the sphere
given by (4\^90
3.90.
time
1.
Ans. The second monkey moves up at the rate of
3.89.
the
fixed pulley of neg-
A man
himself
of weight
2 pulls
up so that his acceleration relative to the fixed pulley is a.
Prove that the weight W^ moves upward with acceleration given by
ligible
that
from
the time taken for a particle to slide down any chord of a

is the same regardless of the chord.
rest at the top of the circle
AB of Fig. 3-32 and point P where AB and

are in the same vertical plane. Find a point Q on
AB such that a particle starting from point P will
reach Q in the shortest possible time.
Given line
[Hint.
3.92.
Use Problem
Show how
to
3.90.]
work Problem 3.91 if line AB is reCan it be done for a space
placed by a plane curve.

Explain.
curve?
3.93.
Find the work done in moving the mass from the top of the incline of Problem 3.18 to the bottom.
Ans. mgl(sm a
3.94.
3.95.
n cos a)
The force on a particle having electrical charge q and which is moving in a magnetic field of intensity
or strength B is given by F = g(v X B) where v is the instantaneous velocity. Prove that if the
particle is given an initial speed v in a plane perpendicular to a magnetic field B of constant
strength, then it (a) will travel with constant speed v Q and (6) will travel in a circular path
of radius mv /qB. Assume that gravitational forces are negligible.
Prove that the period, i.e. the time for one complete vibration, of the particle of Problem 3.94
Ans. 2irm/qB
independent of the speed of the particle and find its value.
is
3.96.
3.94 if B is constant and the particle is given an initial speed v in a plane which
not necessarily perpendicular to the magnetic field. Can we define a period in this case? Explain.
Work Problem
is
84
3.97.
If a particle of electrical charge q and mass m moves with velocity v

having electric intensity E and magnetic intensity B the force acting on
is
given by
F =
Suppose that
respectively.
whose equation
in
an electromagnetic
it,
called the Lorentz force,
field
+ vXB)
B and E are constant and in the directions of the negative y and positive z axes
Prove that if the particle starts from rest at the origin, then it will describe a
cycloid in the yz plane
where
g(E
[CHAP.
qBt/m,
= mE/qB 2
and
is
b(e
sin
e),
6(1
cos e)
the time.
is
3.98.
(a) An astronaut of 80 kg wt on the earth takes oft" vertically in a space ship which achieves
a speed of 2000 km/hr in 2 minutes. Assuming the acceleration to be constant, what is his apparent
weight during this time? (b) Work part (a) if the astronaut has 180 lb wt on the earth and the
space ship achieves a speed of 1280 mi/hr in 2 minutes.
Ans. (a) 117 kg wt, (6) 268 lb wt
3.99.
In Problem 3.82,
3.100.
how far from
the base of the sphere will the particle land?
that a force F
cot a ^ fii > n 2
while Wi not move relative to
that
is on top of weight
The
2 which is in turn on a horizontal plane.
t
between
Suppose
x and
2 is ^ while that between
2 and the plane is fi 2
inclined at angle a to the horizontal is applied to weight W^.
Prove that if
then a necessary and sufficient condition that
2 move relative to the plane
In Fig. 3-33 weight

2 is
COS a
n 2 sin a
W
W
< F g
COS a
jii
Sin a
Fig. 3-33
3.101.
Discuss the results in Problem 3.100
3.102.
Give a generalization of Problem 3.100.
3.103.
if
any of the conditions are not
Describe the motion of the particle of Problem 3.97
if
E and B are
satisfied.
constants, and have the
same
direction.
3.104.
bead of mass
vertical
is
located on a parabolic wire with its axis

in Fig. 3-34 and
and vertex directed downward as
whose equation
cz
is
x2
If the coefficient of friction is
above the x axis at which the

Ans. \p?c
particle will be in equilibrium.
fi,
3.105.
find the highest distance
Work Problem
3.104
circle of radius 6
3.106.
the parabola
is
is
replaced by a vertical
tangent to the x axis.
Fig. 3-34
weight
is suspended from 3 equal strings of length I which are attached to the 3 vertices
of a horizontal equilateral triangle of side s. Find the tensions in the strings.
Ans. Wl/^/912
3.107.
if
which
- 3s 2
Work Problem
having n
sides.
3.106 if there are
n equal
strings attached to the
vertices of a regular polygon
CHAP.
3.108.
3]
85
rope passes over a fixed pulley A of Fig. 3-35. At one end

At the other end of the
of this rope a mass
l is attached.
rope there is a pulley of mass
2 over which passes another
Prove that the accelrope with masses
1 and ra 2 attached.
eration of the
mass
is
given by
m 1 M2 m2M Am m2
9
+ m^Mi + M2 + 4m xm2
3m 2M2 m^M x
(m x
3.109.
S7\
KM
d
with an engine having constant

automobile of weight
instantaneous power "P, travels up an incline of angle a.
Assuming that resistance forces are r per unit weight, prove
that the maximum speed which can be maintained up the
W(r +
Fig. 3-35
sin a)
An
automobile of weight
moves up an incline of angle a, powered by an engine having
constant instantaneous power eP. Assuming that the resistance to motion is equal to kv per unit
weight where v is the instantaneous speed and k is a constant, prove that the maximum speed
which
3.111.
An
incline is
3.110.
is
possible on the incline
is
(y/W2
sin 2 a
4k
WP W sin <x)/2kW.
chain hangs over a smooth peg with length a on one side and length
6,
where

other side. Prove that the time taken for the chain to slide off
3.112.
Prove that a bead
form of a
which
is
bottom
in the
given by
U+b
\ -
j
placed anywhere on a vertical frictionless wire [see Fig. 3-36] in the
cycloid
will reach the
is
b(e
sin e),
6(1
cos e)
same time regardless of the starting point and
Ans. vy/b/g
y
Fig. 3-36
find this time.
Chapter
The SIMPLE
J,,
HARMONIC
OSCILLATOR and the

SIMPLE PENDULUM
THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
m lies on a friction-
In Fig. 4-l(a) the mass
less horizontal table indicated
by the x axis.
attached to one end of a spring of negligible
mass and unstretched length I whose other end
is fixed at E.
It is
If
-nm^
m is given a displacement along the x axis
(a)
and released, it will vibrate or

back and forth about the equilibrium
[see Fig. 4-1(6)]
oscillate
position 0.
To determine the equation of motion, note

that at any instant when the spring has length
I + x
[Fig. 4-1(6)] there is a force tending to restore
to its equilibrium position. According
+x
-nmr^
to Hooke's law this force, called the restoring

force, is proportional to the stretch x
and
is
given by
Fig. 4-1
FR = - K xi
where the subscript
(1)
stands for "restoring force" and where is the constant of proportionality often called the spring constant, elastic constant, stiffness factor or modulus of
elasticity and i is the unit vector in the positive x direction. By Newton's second law we have
2
d (xi)
m ~aW
= ~ KX1
mx +
or
kx
(2)
This vibrating system is called a simple harmonic oscillator or linear harmonic oscillator.
This type of motion is often called simple harmonic motion.
AMPLITUDE, PERIOD AND FREQUENCY

OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
If
dx/dt
we
solve the differential equation (2) subject to the initial conditions

at t = 0, we find that
For the case where

Since cos
tat
A = 20,
= A cos o>t
m = 2 and
varies between
A graph of x vs.
where
o>
Problem
4.1.
1 and +1, the mass
oscillates
between x
appears in Fig.
8,
4-2.
86
= A and
s/K/m
see
(3)
= A and
A.
CHAP.
THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR AND THE SIMPLE PENDULUM
4]
87
Fig. 4-2
The amplitude of the motion

equilibrium position.
is
the distance
and
is
the greatest distance from the
The period of the motion is the time for one complete oscillation or vibration [sometimes called a cycle] such as, for example, from x = A to x = A and then back to
x = A again. If P denotes the period, then
p =
2ttU
The frequency of the motion, denoted by /,
2ir^/mU
the
is
f = P = 2^ =
In the general case, the solution of
x
write
and
(6) in
the
number
of complete oscillations or
We have
cycles per unit time.
where
{U)
cos mt
2^\m
(5)
(2) is
+ B
sin
where
o>t
are determined from initial conditions.
= VkTm
As seen
in
Problem
(6)
4.2,
we can
form
x
and where
= C cos (<at <)
C =
y/A 2
+ B2
where
and
<f>
<o
y/T/m
(7)
tan' 1 (B/A)
(8)
The amplitude in this case is C while the period and frequency remain the same as in
(4) and (5), i.e. they are unaffected by change of initial conditions. The angle
is called
<f>
the phase angle or epoch chosen so that
</>
If
v.
0,
(7)
reduces to
(3).
ENERGY OF A SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

If T is the kinetic energy, V the potential energy and
simple harmonic oscillator, then we have
T = %mv 2
and
V =
E = \mv + \K x
2
$kx 2
2
E= T+V
the total energy of a
(9)
(10)
See Problem 4.17.
THE DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

In practice various forces may act on a harmonic oscillator, tending to reduce the
magnitude of successive oscillations about the equilibrium position. Such forces are sometimes called damping forces. A useful approximate damping force is one which is proportional to the velocity and is given by
dx
FD = -Pv = -Pvi = -jB-î
(11)
88
[CHAP. 4
where the subscript D stands for "damping force" and where /? is a positive constant
called the damping coefficient. Note that FD and v are in opposite directions.
we assume the damping force (11), the

now called a damped harmonic oscillator, is
If in addition to the restoring force
of motion of the harmonic oscillator,
d2 x
m-T7z2
dt
kx
*"
dx
d2x
^ dt
'
on applying Newton's second law. Dividing by
/?/m
n dx
/3~rr
+
m^ns
""
dt2
or
WA
/?
M
dt
2y,
and
kItti
kX
equation
given by
(12)
calling
<o
(13)
this equation can be written
where the dots denote, as
+ 2y# +
2
o>
(U)
usual, differentiation with respect to
t.
OVER-DAMPED, CRITICALLY DAMPED AND
UNDER-DAMPED MOTION
Three cases arise in obtaining solutions
Case
1,
Over-damped motion,
>
<o ,
to the differential equation (14).

2
i.e.
/?
>
4ra
In this case (14) has the general solution
e' yt (Ae at
+ Be~ at
and where the arbitrary constants
Case
Critically
2,
where
and
2
2
y '= w ,
damped motion,
yV -
>
can be found from the

i.e.
4K
15 )
initial conditions.
where
Case
3,
and
B are found from initial
Under-damped or damped
e~ yt (A
Bt)
(16)
conditions.
oscillatory motion,
<
<o
i.e.
/3
<
4*<ra
= e~ yt (A sin \t + B cos \t)

= Ce~ yt cos (\t-<t>)
where
2
2
where C = V^ + ^ called the amplitude and
x
and
A
<,
V>
2
i
17 )
called the phase angle or epoch,
are determined from the initial conditions.

In Cases 1 and 2
damping is so large that no

and the mass m simply
oscillation takes place
returns gradually to the equilibrium position

x = 0. This is indicated in Fig. 4-3 where we
have assumed the initial conditions x = x
dx/dt 0. Note that in the critically damped
returns to the equilibrium position
case, mass
in
the over-damped case.
faster than
Critically
damped motion,
y*
= a?
Over-damped motion, y*
In Case 3, damping has been reduced to such

an extent that oscillations about the equilibrium
position do take place, although the magnitude
of these oscillations tend to decrease with time
as indicated in Fig. 4-3. The difference in times
Under-damped motion, y2
Fig. 4-3
<
u*
>
CHAP.
4]
between two successive maxima [or minima] in the under-damped [or damped
motion of Fig. 4-3 is called the period of the motion and is given by
p =
and the frequency, which
is
\A>
\/4kWI
the reciprocal of the period,
_
~ P ~
V^ ?"
7
k_
47rm
2tt
?![
2tt
oscillatory]
lg
-p
given by
is
V^m - p
_
~
89
2
y
47rm
2tt
'
Note that if p - 0, (18) and (19) reduce to (4) and (5) respectively. The period and
are sometimes called the natural period and natural
frequency corresponding to /? =
frequency respectively.
The period P given by (18) is also equal to two successive values of t for which
cos(A <) = 1 [or cos(Ai <j>) = 1] as given in equation (17). Suppose that the values
of x corresponding to the two successive values t n and t n +i = t n + P are x n and x n +i respecThen
tively.
= e-^/e-^ +P) =
xjxn+i
The quantity
which
a constant,
is
is
In
e^ p
(20)
= yP
(xjx n +i)
(21)
called the logarithmic decrement.
FORCED VIBRATIONS
Suppose that in addition to the restoring force
on the mass m a force F(t)i where
= F
F(t)
Then the
motion
differential equation of
Or
where
The general
2yi
solution of (24) is found
X
[which has already been found and
(24).
is
particular solution of (24)
is
Now,
as
we have
dx
/?
-7T
+ Fq cos at
f Q COS at
K /m,
2yX
(23)
(2U)
= FJm
(25)
o>
(26)
given by (15), (16) or (17)] to any particular solution of

given by [see Problem 4.18]
tan d,
(22)
by adding the general solution of
vV-<o
where
oy
w2
p/2m,
we impress
is
kX -
force fSvi
cos at
dx
m -rp
kx\ and damping
2 2
)
cos (at
* ya
=
a
+ 4yV
.
tt
/,)
(27)
(^5)
seen, the general solution of (26) approaches zero within a short time
and we thus call this solution the transient solution. After this time has elapsed, the motion
of the mass m is essentially given by (27) which is often called the steady-state solution.
The vibrations or oscillations which take place, often called forced vibrations or forced
oscillations, have a frequency which is equal to the frequency of the impressed force but
lag behind by the phase angle 4>.
90
[CHAP.
RESONANCE
The amplitude of the
steady-state oscillation (27)
oA
given by
is
(29)
VV-a>2 2 + 4 yV
)
assuming y ^ 0, i.e. p 0, so that damping is assumed to be present. The maximum value

of cA in this case occurs where the frequency /2tt of the impressed force is such that
a2
2
aR
-2y 2
w2
(30)
assuming that y < | 2 [see Problem 4.19]. Near this frequency very large oscillations may
occur, sometimes causing damage to the system. The phenomenon is called resonance and
the frequency ajl-n
The value
is
of the
called the frequency of resonance or resonant frequency.
maximum
amplitude at the resonant frequency
cA,
2y\A,
The amplitude
(29)
graph of cA
(31)
can be written in terms of a R as
aA
is
VV-a
2
)
4yV-y
(32)
2
)
vs. a 2 is
shown in Fig. 4-4. Note that the graph is symmetric around the
resonant frequency and that the resonant frequency, frequency with damping and natural
frequency (without damping) are all different. In case there is no damping, i.e. y =
or
all of these frequencies are identical.
In such case resonance occurs where the
/? = 0,
frequency of the impressed force equals the natural frequency of oscillation. The general
solution for this case is
cos
<at
+ B
sin
<at
75 sin at
(33)
From the last term in (33) it is seen that the oscillations build up with time until finally
the spring breaks. See Problem 4.20.
Resonant frequency
qA
v///////////////(
Frequency with damping
Natural frequency
without damping)
Fig. 4-4
Fig. 4-5
THE SIMPLE PENDULUM

A simple pendulum consists of a mass m
of length
pendulum
end of a massless string or rod

mass m, sometimes called the
pulled aside and released, the resulting motion will be oscillatory.
[which always remains straight,
bob, is
Calling
[Fig. 4-5] at the
i.e.
rigid].
If the
the instantaneous angle which the string
differential equation of
motion
is
[see
Problem
4.23]
makes with the
vertical,
the
CHAP.
4]
91
assuming no damping forces or other external forces are present.

For small angles [e.g. less than 5 with the vertical], sin 9 is very nearly equal to
9 is in radians, and equation (3U) becomes, to a high degree of approximation,
where
0,
-f
This equation has the general solution
where
t
0,
and
+ Bsin^/gllt
Vgllt
cos
For example,
then
is
0o,
at
(37)
that of simple harmonic motion. The period

,
P =
is
Vgllt
cos
6o
In such case, the motion of the pendulum bob

is given by
and the frequency
if
(36)
(38)
2-xyJTig
given by
fir.
{39)
[see
Problems 4.29 and
4.30]
dB
iir/2
fl
we can show
If the angles are not necessarily small,

that the period is equal to
P =
^^
VI -
W sin
where k = sin (9 /2). For small angles this reduces to (38).

For cases where damping and other external forces are considered, see Problems 4.25
and 4.114.
THE TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONAL HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

Suppose a particle of mass m moves in the xy plane
under the influence of a force field F given by
F = - Kl a?i where
and
(U)
2 yj
Fj
In this case the equations of motion of

given by
m dP
= ~K
x
'
= A
Fig. 4-6
cos -y/ajm
subjected to the force

various curves which
+ B
sin yj.jm
t,
= A 2 cos
to be determined
from the
yj*.jm
+ B2
y/ajm
initial conditions.
(A3)
The mass
often called a two-dimensional harmonic oscillator. The

describes in its motion are often called Lissajous curves or figures.
F = -k
2,
sin
field (41) is
These ideas are easily extended to a three dimensional harmonic

which is subject to a force field given by
< lf k
-/c 2l/j
= ~ K *y
d&
where Ai, B\, A%, B 2 are constants
where
m
F2 =
are
and have solutions

x
= Kjzi
are positive constants.
x\
2 y]
zk
oscillator of
mass
(U)
92
[CHAP.
Solved Problems
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND THE
SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
4.1.
A particle P of mass 2 moves along the
x axis attracted toward origin O by a force

numerically equal to Sx [see Fig. 4-7]. If it is initially at rest
(a) the differential equation and initial conditions describing the
whose magnitude
is
x = 20,
find
motion, (b) the position of the particle at any time,
(c) the speed and velocity of the particle at any time,
and (d) the amplitude, period and frequency of the
at
-8a?i
vibration.
(a)
Let r
of
xi
xi
d2
is
8xi.
be the position vector of P. The acceleration

d2 x
~ ~d+2*' ^ ne net f rce acting on P is
Fig. 4-7
d2 x.
2-^1 =
which
The general
solution of (1) is
When
d2x
or
-8jbi
0,
20
so that
Then
= A
A =
20.
The
so that on putting
0,
dx/dt
(1)
initial conditions
are
(2)
+ B
sin 2
(3)
+ B
sin 2t
(4)
at
cos It
Thus
20 cos It
dx/dt
dx/dt
20,
..
^p-+ 4x =
the required differential equation of motion.
is
x
(6)
jijjCî)
we
a;
-40
sin 2t
find
B=
+ 2B
cos 2t
Thus
0.
(5)
(5)
becomes
20 cos 2i
(0)
which gives the position at any time.

(c)
From
dx/dt
(6)
= -40
which gives the speed at any time.
sin It
î
dt
(d)
4.2.
(a)
Amplitude
Show
20.
Period
2tt/2
VA + B
2
and
<j>
frequency of the function in

(a)
cos at
i.e.
(b)
+B
sin at
\l
w.
tan
Frequency
cos at
-1
velocity
is
+B
sin
(S/A).
1/period
1/v.
can be written as
>t
cos
(6)
+ B2 (
W^
cos at
2
VA 2 + B 2 cos (t - *) =
<(>
cos w
sin
<f>
sin
to*)
Ccos(wt-0)
,
i.e.
of
)
sin w
VA 2 + B 2
\/A 2
+ # 2 (cos
+ B2
= maximum
(U -
Find the amplitude, period and
(a).
cos
Amplitude
given by
-40sin2ti
= A/ VA 2 + 2 and sin = B/y/A 2 + B 2

=
C VA 2 + 2 We generally choose that value
g ^ v.
where
and
that the function
where C =
The
Frequency
w/2*-.
CHAP.
4.3.
4]
Work Problem
30,
4.1 if
the left with
(b) to
= 20 but is moving (a) to the right with speed

Find the amplitude, period and frequency in
at x
is initially
93
speed 30.
each case.
(a)
The only
difference here
by dx/dt = 30 at t
Problem 4.1 becomes
dx/dt
that the condition
is
Then from
0.
which gives the position of
20 cos 2t
at any time.
at
Problem
of
(5)
This
of Problem 4.1
we
4.1
B=
find
15,
is
replaced
and
(3)
15 sin 2t
may
of
CO
be written [see Problem
4.2]
as
\
V(20)
I
1/(20)2+
(15)2
25{|cos2i
+f
where
which can be found from
is
V(20)2
sin 2t
(15)2
\
J
- 0)
25 cos (2t
= f
sin
f,
(2)
15
(15) 2
sin2}
cos
The angle
cos 2t
20
(2)
often called the phase angle or epoch.
Since the cosine varies between 1 and +1, the amplitude = 25. The period and frequency are the same as before, i.e. period = 2w/2 = w and frequency = 2/2?r = II v.
(b)
at t
In this case the condition dx/dt =
at t = 0. Then B 15 and the position
which as
in part (a)
cos f
20 cos It
4.4.
replaced by
dx/dt
= -30
15 sin 2t
=
=
sin
25{|cos2t- f
sin2t}
cos 2t
25{cos
sin ^ sin 2i)
25 cos (2t
0)
= f
The amplitude, period and frequency are the same as in part (a). The only difference
We often describe
is
$ = 
spring of negligible mass, suspended vertically from one end, is stretched a

distance of 20 cm when a 5 gm mass is attached to the other end. The spring and
mass are placed on a horizontal frictionless table as in Fig. 4-l(a), page 86, with the
suspension point fixed at E. The mass is pulled away a distance 20 cm beyond the
equilibrium position O and released. Find (a) the differential equation and initial
conditions describing the motion, (b) the position at any time t, and (c) the amplitude,
period and frequency of the vibrations.
(a)
The gravitational force on a 5 gm mass [i.e. the weight of a 5 gm mass] is 5g = 5(980) dynes =
Then since 4900 dynes stretches the spring 20 cm, the spring constant is
4900 dynes.
Thus when the spring is stretched a distance x cm beyond the
K = 4900/20 = 245 dynes/cm.
equilibrium position, the restoring force is 245xi. Then by Newton's second law we have,
if
xi
is
the position vector of the mass,

5
The
(b)
initial conditions
The general
are
solution of (1) is

(c)
*g*> = _245zi
(*)
we
find
x = 20 cos It we see that:

vib/sec or l/2v cycles/sec.
From
=
x
20,
dx/dt
= A
A=
20,
or
cos It
B=
amplitude
^+ 49*
(2)
sin It
($)
so that
(1)
at
+ B
20 cm;
period
20 cos
It.
2tt/7 sec;
frequency
7/2ir
94
4.5.
mass m moves along the x axis, attracted toward a fixed point O

by a force proportional to the distance from O. Initially the particle is at
distance x from
and is given a velocity v away from 0. Determine (a) the
position at any time, (b) the velocity at any time, and (c) the amplitude, period,
frequency, and maximum speed.
particle of
on
it
(a)
The force
of attraction toward
kx'i
where k is a
Then by Newton's
is
positive constant of proportionality.
second law,
d?x.
Solving
we
(1),
We
also
kxi
or
have the
cos y/ic/m
+ B
at
we
find,
at
is,
using
The amplitude
From
(7),
From
(3),
is
or
(0)
(3)
Thus
sin yic/m
+ B y/lc/m
B=
that
(5),
V~i</ni t
+ B
V*/
using
#0 cos
at
(4)
cos
yV
vWk. Thus
vk/w
v Q \Zm/K sin
(5)
(4)
becomes
(8)
yx^+mvUic
-tt
the period
is
tan -1 (v /x
(7)
0)
yW/c
( #o y/x/m sin VxTm
\/x 2
^Jit/m
V^n +
(7)
(8)
+ mv
2 /ic
cos
yVm
sin (yfic/mt
k?/w. sin {\[7hn
0)
<j>)
) i
(3)
yxJ+mv*/K.
by
P=
is
cos (vk/ot
(7),
dx
given from
the speed
sin
A =
that
(2),
find,
=
(c)
dx/dt
'
velocity
(2)
x cos V ii/m
where
The
can be written
4.2, this
(6)
we
a;
Using Problem
(1)
Fig. 4-8
= x Q yjulm
dx/dt
so that
dx/dt
sin yjn/m
using
From
m =0
initial conditions
From
F = Kxi
KX
find
= A
4.6.
[CHAP.
2srV'ic/m.
maximum when
The frequency
is
sin (y/T/mt -</>)
1/P
2iry/m/K.
1; this speed
is
v^ 2 + kb 2 /.
,
mass 20 kg moves with simple harmonic motion on the x axis. Initially

located at the distance 4 meters away from the origin x = 0, and has
2
Find (a) the
velocity 15 m/sec and acceleration 100 m/sec directed toward * = 0.
position at any time, (b) the amplitude, period and frequency of the oscillations, and
An object
(t = 0) it
of
is
when
(c)
the force on the object
(a)
If x denotes the position of the object at time
Now
4,
dx/dt
-rr/10
sec.
t,
then the
-15, d 2 x/dt 2
= -100
conditions are
initial
at
(1)
for simple harmonic motion,
= A
Differentiating,
we
find
dx/dt
d2 x/dt 2
cos
u>t
+ B
sin at
+ Ba cos at
= Aw 2 cos ut - Ba 2 sin at
Aw
sin at
(3)
(4)
CHAP.
4]
Using conditions
simultaneously,
in {2), (S)
(1)
we
A=
find
4,
and
we
(4),
find
5 = 3
5,
4 cos 5t
A,
-15
-100
Bw,
95
= -Aw 2
Solving
so that
3 sin 5t
(5)
which can be written
(6)
From
(c)
Magnitude of acceleration
we
(tf)
where
amplitude
see that:
Force on object
4.7.
5 cos (5t #)
5 m,
cos ^
period
=^
= 100 cos 5t + 75
= (mass) (acceleration) = (20 kg)(75
d2 x/dt2
sin 5*
20 lbwt object suspended from the end of a verspring of negligible mass stretches it 6 inches.
(a) Determine the position of the object at any time
if initially it is pulled down 2 inches and then released, (b) Find the amplitude, period and frequency of the motion.
the spring.
the object.
Position
is
(6)
75 m/sec 2
at
5/2jr vib/sec.
tt/10.
1500 newtons.
mm^x?
tical
Let D and E [Fig. 4-9] represent the position of the

end of the spring before and after the object is put on
m/sec2 )
frequency
2jt/5 sec,
(a)
sin
D
.5
the equilibrium position of
ft
Choose a coordinate system as shown in Fig. 4-9

so that the positive z axis is downward with origin at
zft
the equilibrium position.
By
\
ft,
Hooke's law, since 20 lb wt stretches the spring

40 lb wt stretches it 1 ft; then 40(.5 + z) lb wt
+ z)
Thus when the object is at

position F there is an upward force acting on it of
magnitude 40(.5 + z) and a downward force due to its
weight of magnitude 20. By Newton's second law we
stretches
it
(.5
ft.
Fig. 4-9
thus have
H^k
Solving,
Now
at
20k
= A
z
t
0,
=%
and
dz/dt
40(.5
4.8.
From
(2):
amplitude
Work Problem
ft,
period
2jt/8
W2 +
+ B sin St
=
A , B =
initial velocity of
=
=
^ cos
(1)
and
v/4 sec,
frequency
4/v vib/sec.
down 3 inches (instead of 2 inches)

2 ft/sec downward.
In this case the solution (1) of Problem 4.7 still holds but the initial conditions are: at
dz/dt = 2. From these we find A = \ and B = \, so that
= I
cos St
sin Bt
y/2/4 cos (St
Thus amplitude = \/2/4 ft, period = 2a-/8 = jt/4 sec, frequency = 4Ar
and frequency are unaffected by changing the initial conditions.
\ and
4.9.
64,
4.7 if initially the object is pulled
and then given an

z
or
cos St
thus
0;
(b)
+ z)k
0,
ir/4)
vib/sec.
Note that the period
uniform angular speed a around a circle of radius 6. Prove

projection on a diameter oscillates with simple harmonic motion of period
about the center.
particle travels with
that
2tt/g>
its
Choose the circle in the xy plane with center at the origin O as in Fig. 4-10 below.
the projection of particle P on diameter
chosen along the x axis.
AB
Let
be
96
If the particle is initially at B,
I BOP
have
The projection Q of
b cos ut
P
r
from O at any time
Then the
ut.
on the x axis
then in time
position of
b sin ut
is
we
at time
[CHAP.
will
t
is
(1)
at distance
b cos ut
(2)
From (2) we see that the projection Q

with simple harmonic motion of period 2ir/w about
oscillates
t.
Fig. 4-10
the center O.

4.10.
in Problem 4.1 the particle P has also a damping force whose magnitude
numerically equal to 8 times the instantaneous speed. Find (a) the position and
(b) the velocity of the particle at any time, (c) Illustrate graphically the position of
the particle as a function of time t.
y
Suppose that
is
(a)
In this case the net force acting on
8a;i
Fig. 4-11]
doc
dt
ond law,
d2 x
is
Then by Newton's
8-rri.
-8i
[see
-
sec-
dx
di
8î
Fig. 4-11
i*
This has the solution [see Appendix, page 352, Problem C.14]
x
t = 0,
x - 20 and
the position at any time t.
When
(b)
The
velocity
V
(c)
is
0;
and
40,
^
.
20e~ 2t
(1
+ 2t)
gives
-80e-i
The graph of a; vs. is shown in Fig. 4-12. It is

seen that the motion is non-oscillatory. The particle approaches O slowly but never reaches it.
This is an example where the motion is critically
Fig. 4-12
damped.
4.11.
a;
given by
dx
dx/dt
= e-(A + Bt)
thus A = 20, B =
gm
moves along the x axis under the influence of two forces:

O which in dynes is numerically equal to 40 times
from
the instantaneous distance
O, and (ii) a damping force proportional to the
instantaneous speed such that when the speed is 10 cm/sec the damping force is
200 dynes. Assuming that the particle starts from rest at a distance 20 cm from O,
(b) find
(a) set up the differential equation and conditions describing the motion,
period
and
amplitude,
the
determine
the position of the particle at any time, (c)
graph
the
motion.
frequency of the damped oscillations, and (d)
(i)
(a)
particle of
mass 5
a force of attraction to origin
Let the position vector of the particle
as indicated in Fig. 4-13.

tion (directed toward O) is
r
xi
damping force /
where /?
(S dx/dt
attrac-
-20(dx/dt)i
-40i
The magnitude
be denoted by
Then the force of
(1)
proportional to
Then
is constant.
the speed, so that /
since / = 200 when dx/dt = 10, we have /? = 20 and
and
/ = 20 dx/dt. To get , note that when dx/dt >
x >
the particle is on the positive x axis and moving to
of the
40*i
is
O
Fig. 4-13
CHAP.
41

Thus the resistance force must be directed toward the
the right.
plished
if
- 20
97
This can only be accom
left.
This same form for f is easily shown to be correct

[see Problem 4.45].
< 0, dx/dt <
(2)
>
if
<
dx/dt
0,
0,
<
dx/dt
0,
>
0,
Hence by Newton's second law we have

d*x.
b
-20%
dt
dP
dx
d x
1M + *M +
z
Since the particle starts from rest at 20
(3)
SX
cm from
dx/dt
20,
40*1
O,
04)
we have
at
(5)
where we have assumed that the particle starts on the positive

just as well assume that the particle starts on the negative side,
(b)
e at
a solution of
is
a2
Then the general
i(-4 V16
20
at
we
0,
find
Thus by
dx/dt
(c)
From
at
- 32) = -2
2%
e~ 2t (A cos2t
from
(6)
+B
A=
that
e~ 2t (20 cos 2t
sin2t)
20,
+B
(6)
i.e.,
sin 2t)
(7)
(d)
The graph
shown
is
0,
+ 2B
we have from
20e-2'(cos 2t
cos 2t)
B=
(8),
sin 2t)
(-2e~2t)(20 cos 2t
20.
Thus from
20\/2 e" 2 * cos (2t
+B
we
(7)
sin 2t)
(8)
obtain
ir/4)
(9)
4.2.
amplitude
(9):
(e- 2 t)(-40 sin 2*
a;
using Problem
zero as
20].
differentiation,
dx/dt
Since
solution is
x
Since
which case x
in
if
(-4)
4a
side of the x axis [we could
= 20V2 e _2t cm,
in Fig. 4-14.
period
2jt/2
tt
sec,
frequency
Note that the amplitudes of the
1/V vib/sec.
oscillation decrease
toward
increases.
20V2
Fig. 4-14
4.12.
Find the logarithmic decrement in Problem

Method
The maxima
1.
(or
minima) of * occur where dx/dt

dx/dt
when
occur
n-/2, 3s-/2, 5xr/2,
e -2(ir)/ e -2(27r) > etc., i.e. e 2v .
- -80e- 2t
sin2
0.
From
(9)
of Problem 4.11,
the minima
....
The maxima occur when t = 0, v, 2v,
;
....
The ratio of two successive maxima is e -2 (0)/ e -2(7r) or
Then the logarithmic decrement is 8 =ln(e2w ) = 2w.
0, ir/2, w, 3n-/2, 2ir, 5ir/2,
when
4-11.
98
Method
t
n+
(9) of Problem 4.11, the difference between two successive values of

for which cos(2t tt/4) 1 (or 1) is w, which is the period. Then
n+
Method
From
3.
4.13.
ra
and
(13), (18)
5,
and
e 27r
\n(x n /x n +
20y/2e- 2tn+i
since
t,
denoted by
yP
k
20,
^ irm
\(
2 ^ft
[Problem 4.11, equation
40
2b-
we have
pages 88 and 89,
(21),
1)
(3)],
2w.
Determine the natural period and frequency of the particle of Problem
4.11.
The natural period is the period when there is no damping. In such case the motion
given by removing the term involving dx/dt in equation (3) or (4) of Problem 4.11. Thus
d 2 x/dt2
Then:
4.14.
tn
20\/2e-2tn
Xn
Then
2.
From
and
[CHAP.
natural period
Sx
or
2irl2y[2 sec
a;
irly[2 sec;
= A
+ B
cos 2y[2t
sin 2y/2t
= y[2h
natural frequency
is
vib/sec.
For what range of values of the damping constant in Problem 4.11 will the motion
(a) overdamped, (b) underdamped or damped oscillatory, (c) critically damped?
be
Denoting the damping constant by p, equation
Then the motion

(a)
Overdamped
if
(/3/5)
(b)
Underdamped
if
(p/5)
(c)
Critically
n dx
-**
..
40 * 1
dtff
Problem 4.11
of
(3)
_
'
d#
replaced by
is
dx
_
+ P5Tt +8x
2x
is:
[Note that this
4.15.
2 x.
>
32,
i.e.
/
p > 20 v 2.
p < 20^2.
the case for Problem 4.11 where p
is
damped
if
<
32,
(p/5)
i.e.
32,
i.e.
20.]
20V2.
Solve Problem 4.7 taking into account an external damping force given numerically
in lb wt by pv where v is the instantaneous speed in ft/sec and (a) /? = 8, (b) p = 10,
(c)
12.5.

20 d 2 z
I^
(a)
If
/8
8,
then
d 2 z/dt 2

2
(6)
If
10,
is
then
or
SB dz
_.
64,
+ 12.8 dz/dt + 642 = 0. The solution is

z = e~ 6At (A cos4.8 + J? sin 4.8t)
1/6,
dz/dt
-?-e-6.4t(3 C0S 4.8
damped
d2 z/dt2
^ + f^+
d2z
dz.
= 20k-40(.5 + ,)k-/3 |k
The motion
is
at
4 sin 4.8*)
oscillatory with period
Udz/dt
64z
z
we
0,
Jg
2?r/4.8
~8
A =
%,
'
4t
J3
1/6,
cos < 4 8t
-
2/9 so that
~ 53 8
'>
5V/12 sec.
= 0. The solution
= e~ 4t (A+Bt)
Solving subject to the initial conditions gives
A=
find
is
B=f
then
- \e~ 4t
(1
+ U).
CHAP.
4]

The motion
(c)
If
/?
damped
is critically
d2 z/dt 2
12.5 then
20dz/dt
any decrease
since
64z
/?
would produce oscillatory motion.
The solution
0.
is
= Ae-u + Be-
A =
Solving subject to initial conditions gives
The motion
in
99
1/6,
B=
-1/24; then
- \e~^ - ê~ 16t
overdamped.
is
ENERGY OF A SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

4.16.
Prove that the force F = - K xi acting on a simple harmonic oscillator

servative, (b) Find the potential energy of a simple harmonic oscillator.
(a)
(a)
VXF
We have
d/dx
d/dy
d/dz
given by
so that
is
con-
conservative.
is
kx
(6)
The
potential or potential energy
is
~ KXl
Then dV/dx
responding to
4.17.
dV/dy
kx,
0,
we
dV/dz
0,
find
where
F--VV
or
fdV. ,BV. +,8V.k

J
*T
-(jr + ^
V=
from which
so that
V=
fax
fax
+ c. Assuming V =
cor-
2.
Express in symbols the principle of conservation of energy for a simple harmonic

oscillator.
By Problem
4.16(6),
we have
Kinetic energy
or
fafiv
which can also be written, since v

Another method.
The
Potential energy
fax
as
dx/dt,
differential equation for the
Total energy
fan{dx/dt) 2
+ fax2 =
E.
motion of a simple harmonic oscillator
is
md2 x/dt 2 = kx
Since
dx/dt
v,
this
can also be written as
dv
=
m,-
~ KKXx
li
dt =
Integration yields
fanv
+ fax 2 =
dx =
m dv
~ KX
dxlt
r
or
>
i.e.
dv
dx
mv-=-
= kx
E.
FORCED VIBRATIONS AND RESONANCE

4.18.
Derive the steady-state solution (27) corresponding to the differential equation

on page 89.
The
differential equation is
,,
x + 2ya? +
u2x
(24)
/ cos at
(1)
c 2 sin at
(*)
Consider a particular solution having the form

X
Ci
cos at
100
where
and
cx
c 2 are to be determined.
(-a
*?!
2yaC2
(a 2
or
Solving these simultaneously,
we
Cl
w 2 )cj
w 2Cl
by Problem
page
4.2,
= 2ya/(a2 2
(<o
2yac2
(<o
/o
(a 2
tan
(a)

V( 2
Using
v.
2 c2
2
<* )c
(4)
<o
2 2
)
(5)
4y 2 a2
2ya sin
at]
(
in
~ a2
2 2
<o
\/>
/o/^yV^Y 2
<o
2 2
2.
find as required
0)
0,
maximum
is
<o
2 2
)
4y 2 2
(1)
- 2(<o 2 - 2y 2 )a 2 + w 4
- 2(w 2 - 2y 2 )a 2 + 2 - 2y 2 2 +
2 - 2
[a 2 - ( 2 - 2y 2 2 + 4y 2
y
=
=
=
4y 2a 2
The function
= 0,
= V" 2 2y 2
For
4.20.
the resonant fre-
that the value of this
(b)
the denominator [or the square of the denominator]
a minimum.
is
To
a4
a4
(a>
(a>
)]
2(a 2
(a 2
a>
Vw 2 2y 2 where
w2 2 +
4y 2a 2 has a
2 )2a
y2
d2 U/da 2
gives the
-4(<o 2
< ^w 2
- 2y 2 <
minimum
8y 2 a
<o
(<o
- 2y 2
2
)
a2
is
w 2 2y 2 , and the
given from (i) by
=
For
0.
minimum
a(a 2
or
maximum when
or
<o
+ 2y 2 =
)
Now
dPU/da 2
(7)
<f>)
)-
$Tda
a
(at
maximum where
is
Problem 4.18
cos (at
4y 2 a2 cos
4y 2 a 2
- 2y and
we
(5),
2
)
This is a minimum where the first term on the last line is zero, i.e. when
value is then 4y 2 (w 2 y2 ). Thus the value of the maximum amplitude
i.e.
e)
minimum, write
(a 2
Method
(3)
4y 2 a 2
in
(7)
that the amplitude in Problem 4.18
The amplitude
cos at
(a 2
cos at
/o [("
/o/vV find this
/ cos at
92,
quency is determined from a

amplitude is / /(2y\/ w 2 -y 2 ).
Method
2/ yw
_
~
V( 2
Prove
find
w 2 c 2 ) sin at
2yac x
2yaC x
we
(1),
2yac 1
- a 2 c2 -
-/,
a2
+ 4y 2
2 2
<o
_
~
4.19.
into
(2)
becomes
(2)
where
(a 2 c
12a 2
a
4<o 2
8y 2
= Vw 2 - 2y 2
d2 U/da 2
8(a> 2
- 2y 2 >
)
0.
Thus
value.
(a) Obtain the solution (33), page 90, for the case where there
impressed frequency is equal to the natural frequency of the
is
no damping and the

(b) Give a
oscillation,
physical interpretation.
(a)
find
Now
Substituting
cos at
t)
- 2 Cl + 2yac 2 +
from which
Thus
u 2c
[CHAP.
The case
{23) or (24),
to be considered is obtained
page
89.
We
by putting y
or
(3
and a
in equations
thus must solve the equation
a2 x
/ cos
tot
(*)
CHAP.
41
To
the general solution of
we add
find the general solution of this equation
101
u 2x
(*)
to a particular solution of (1).
Now
is
(2)
To
+ B
would do no good
find a particular solution of (1) it
c t cos ut
to
sin ut
(#)
assume a particular solution of the form
c 2 sin ut
substitute (-4) [which is identical in form to {3)] into the left side of
must therefore modify the form of the assumed particular solution
Appendix C, the assumed particular solution has the form
since
when we
We
get zero.
in
cos ut
t{Ci
cos ut
Substituting
(5),
t( u 2 c x cos ut
(6)
and
into
(7)
cx
and
c2
quired particular solution

The general solution of (1)
= A
cos wt
+ B
is
sin
we would
As seen
w)
(c x
cos ut
2( uc t sin ut
(5)
to
obtain
c 2 sin ut)
(6)
(7)
uc 2 cos ut)
find after simplifying
2uc 2 cos ut
Thus the
uc 2 cos ut)
u 2 c 2 sin ut)
sin ut
f /2u.
is
(5)
we
(1),
2uc
from which
t( c x sin ut
(4).
c 2 sin ut)
see that this yields the required particular solution, let us differentiate
To
{1),
cos ut
re-
(f /2u)t sin ut.
therefore
<ot
{fJ2u)t sin
tot
(5)
(6) The constants A and 5 in (8) are determined

from the initial conditions. Unlike the case with
damping, the terms involving A and B do not become
small with time. However, the last term involving t
increases with time to such an extent that the spring
A graph of the last term shown
will finally break.
in Fig. 4-15 indicates how the oscillations build up
in
4.21.
Fig. 4-15
magnitude.
a force
vertical spring has a stiffness factor equal to 3 lb wt per ft. At =
in
hangs
which
weight
lb
a
=
to
6
applied
is
12 sin4, t ^
given in lb wt by F(t)
of
the
position
find
the
damping,
equilibrium at the end of the spring. Neglecting
weight at any later time
t.
Using the method of Problem
4.7,
we have by Newton's second
d2 z
= -Sz +
32 dt2
d?z
^-|
Solving
When
'
0,
and
dz/dt
= A
0;
cos At
then
z
162
+ B
A =
2
law,
12 sin At
64 sin 4t
sin 4t
(1)
8t cos At
B = 2 and
sin At - 8t cos At
0,
(2)
physically the
t gets larger the term St cos At increases numerically without bound, and
spring will ultimately break. The example illustrates the phenomenon of resonance. Note that
the natural frequency of the spring (4/2*r = 2/w) equals the frequency of the impressed force.
As
102
4.22.
Work Problem
4.21 if
F(t)
In this case the equation
Problem
of
(1)
d
and the
solution of (1)
2 z/dt 2
4.21
becomes
16z
160 cos 5t
(1)
Using conditions
(2)
in (5),
8(cos 4t
dz/dt
0,
at
sin 4*
(2)
8 cos 6t
(8)
is
we
tÔ.
conditions are
initial
The general
Gt,
30 cos
[CHAP.
A =
find
cos 6t)
+ B
cos4
8,
and
8{cos(5-)
cos(5
)}
16 sin
sin 5t
The graph of z vs. t is shown by the heavy curve of Fig. 4-16. The dashed curves are the curves
= 16 sin t obtained by placing sin 5t = 1. If we consider that 16 sin t is the amplitude of
sin5, we see that the amplitude varies sinusoidally. The phenomenon is known as amplitude
modulation and is of practical importance in communications and electronics.
z
Fig. 4-16
THE SIMPLE PENDULUM

4.23.
Determine the motion of a simple pendulum of length

vibrations and no resisting forces.
and mass
Let the position of

at any time be determined by s,
the arclength measured from the equilibrium position
[see Fig. 4-17].
Let o be the angle made by the pendulum
string with the vertical.
If T is a unit tangent vector to the circular path of
the pendulum bob m, then by Newton's second law
m dP T =
or, since
sin e
(1)
le,
<&8
to
-mg
For small vibrations we can replace sin e by B so that

a high degree of accuracy equation (2) can be replaced by
dH
dP + 5<
(3)
which has solution
= A
Taking as
initial conditions
coay/gTlt
de/dt
e
From
this
we
see that the period of the
=
=
at
e
cos
pendulum
+ B
t
sinVFT^*
0,
we
VoU t
is 2iry/l/g.
find
A=
assuming small
CHAP.
4.24.
4]
Show how to obtain the equation (2) for the

103
pendulum of Problem 4.23 by using
= I - I cos e - 1(1 - cos o). Then by the conserva= OC potential energy as a horizontal plane through
the
level
for
reference
[taking
the
tion of energy
the lowest point O] we have
We
from Fig. 4-17 that
see
B +
Potential energy at
Id,
Differentiating both sides of
mgl
4.25.
(2)
sin e h
agreement with equation
Work Problem
cos
e)
Total energy
constant
= E
^m(ds/dt) 2
(1)
becomes
this
mgl{\
in
Kinetic energy at
mgl(l
Since
AC
OA
4.23
if
(2)
cos
+ \ml2 (de/dt) 2 = E
e)
with respect to
t,
we
+ ml2
(2)
find
or
(g/l) sin
of Problem 4.23.
a damping force proportional to the instantaneous velocity
is
taken into account.

In this case the equation of motion
of Problem 4.23
(1)
2s
m dd^ T = -mgsmeT Using
le
and replacing
sin o
hy
Case
1.
is
Case
2.
p 2 /4m2 <
is
Case
3.
B 2 /4m2
e~-^ t/2m
damped
the case of
is
dt
-g
sin e
ds
-B ^
+ B smut)
(A cosut
the case of critically
B 2/4m 2
>
where w
y/g/l
B 2 lkm2
underdamped motion.
oscillations or
g/l
e~^ t/2m (A+Bt)
damped motion.
g/l
e
This
g/l
This
or
arise:
This
replaced by
for small vibrations, this becomes
dt*
Three cases
ds
Tt
is
2s
e -3t/2m(^ e \t
J5 e -xt)
where
V)8
/4m2
g/l
the case of overdamped motion.
In each case the constants A and B can be determined from the initial conditions. In Case 1
there are continually decreasing oscillations. In Cases 2 and 3 the pendulum bob gradually returns
to the equilibrium position without oscillation.

4.26.
Find the potential energy for

harmonic oscillator.
(a)
In this case the force
is
(a)
the
two dimensional and
given by
F = k^xi
VXF =
Since
a function
0,
the force field
such that
the three dimensional
(b)
is
conservative.
F = VV. We
K 2 yj
Thus a potential does
exist,
thus have
dV
dV
av,
i.e.
there exists
104
from which
dV/dx
dV/dy
Kl x,
dV/dz
K 2 y,
V =
We
F = k
we have
In this case
then find as in part
potential energy
+ ^ K2 y2
particle
in general
moves
it
xy plane in a force field given by F

move in an elliptical path.
has mass
equation of motion
ra, its
= F =
m-jp
or, since
xi
+ fa z 2
1k 22/2
in the
will
If the particle
the required potential energy.
is
is
V = fax* +
4.27.
This
K 2 y] - K S zk which is also conservative since V X F = 0.

- k x, 8V/dy = K 2 y, dV/dz = k 3 z from which the required
xi
dV/dx
(a),
or
1^*2
choosing the arbitrary additive constant to be zero.

(b)
[CHAP.
d
mî
oc
+ yj,
Then
ic
ct
ct
i/
= - KX
Prove that
is
-kxi
K yj
- K xi -
+ m-~j
= - K xi - K yj.
(l)
K yj
dîj
= - Ky
m-^
(2)
These equations have solutions given respectively by

x
= A
cos yj kItyi
+ A2
sin
V^M
t,
t
the particle
= ai + bj and movin g with velocity dr/dt =
B = b, A 2 Vis/mU, B 2 = v 2 y/m/K and so
Let us suppose that at
is
located
vxi
+ v 2}.
cos y/ n/m
+ B2
sin
V'/c/m
(3)
at the point whose position vector

Using these conditions, we find A t =
is
a,
where
v{\fmTic,
a cos wt
dx cy
r= 3
ad be
Squaring and adding, using the fact that

(dx
(62
Now
d2 )x 2
cy)*
2(cd
cos 2 ut
(ay
an
sin ut
bx) 2
(a*
(4)
sin at
we
find,
(4)
if
ad
= be,
ay bx
j
=
ad be
j
+ sin 2 w =
+ ab)xy +
we
1,
find
= (ad- be) 2
+
c 2 )y*
(ad
- be) 2
(5)
the equation
Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 = D
is
b cos ut
Solving for sin ut and cosut in
v 2 y/m/K.
cos ut
or
c sin wt,
ellipse if
B -4AC <
2
To determine what
(5)
is,
B - 4AC =
2
a parabola
0,
we
where
see that
4(cd
if
A =
+ ab) 2 -
provided ad = be. Thus in general the path

the ellipse reduces to the straight line ay
b2
4(b 2
A>0, C >
0,
D>
B 2 4AC = 0, and a hyperbola if B 2 -4AC>0.

+ d2 B = -2(cd + ab), C = a2 + c 2 so that
,
+ d?)(a2 + c 2 =
is
an
bx.
ellipse,
and
if
-4(ad -
be) 2
<
A -C
it is
a circle.
If
ad
be
4.28.
cylinder having axis vertical floats in a liquid of density a. It is pushed down

and released. Find the period of the oscillation if the cylinder has weight
and cross sectional area A.
slightly
CHAP.
4]
105
Let RS, the equilibrium position of the cylinder, be distant

from the liquid surface PQ at any time t. By Archimedes'
principle, the buoyant force on the cylinder is (Az)a. Then by
z
Newton's second law,
W d?z
= Azo
rrs"
9 d&
d?z
gAo
dt*
Solving,
c t cos
and the period of the
yJgAolW t
oscillation is
^JgAaJW t
c 2 sin
2vyW/gAo.
Fig. 4-18
Show that if the assumption of small vibrations

simple pendulum is
4.29.
d<f>
41 S.
where k
VI ~k 2 sin 2

[equation (34), page 91]
sin
(<9
/2)
*/,
simple pendulum
for a
not made, then the period of a
is
d2 e
small vibrations
if
are not assumed
is
(1)
dt*
Let
de/dt
Then
u.
dH
d&
and
_
~
du
du
Integrating
(2)
we
Now when
u2
we
so that
(2g/l)(cos e
cos e
or
and
Thus
de/dt
P/4 at
(5)
let
cos0 o )
cos e
we must use
U)
to
the minus sign in
0,
(4)
Vcos
where
0,
identity
C e
cos e
cos e
the period,
is
de
e
(5)
cos e
2 sin 2 (*/2)
1,
with a similar one replacing
can be written
P
Now
^(2g/l)(cose
de
Vcos
Making use of the trigonometric
can be written
we have
[T
(3)
motion where the bob goes from
-us
at
(S)
= - y/(2g/l)(cos o
Separating the variables and integrating,
to one fourth of the period, then
de/dt
cos
~(g/l) cos e
restrict ourselves to that part of the
which represents a time equal

so that it becomes
by
de
obtain
-r-
du
= -fsin*
de
Since
_
~
de dt
becomes
(1)
If
du de
dt
vir
sin (e/2)
d*
Vsin
sin
(<?
(0 o /2)
/2) sin
sin 2 (<?/2)
(7)
106
Then taking the
differential of both sides,
(7)
we
when
see that
2 sin
0,
<f>
if
we have small
as

we have already
cos

<f>
<j>
jt/2.
Hence
(6)
becomes,
d_
<VJr-=2=
\ Vl -
k 2 sin 2
vibrations,
k2
and when
0;
_
*
(e /2)
Vl -
as required,
Note that
becomes
sin (e /2) cos
sin (e /2),
de
Also from
(0/2) de
\ cos
or calling k
[CHAP. 4
if
i.e.
equal to zero very nearly, then the period
is
VJC^
(8)
(9)
^VI
seen.
The integral in (8) is called an elliptic integral and cannot be evaluated exactly in terms of
in terms
elementary functions. The equation of motion of the pendulum can be solved for
of elliptic functions which are generalizations of the trigonometric functions.
4.30.
Show
that period given in Problem 4.29 can be written as
The binomial theorem

<!+*).>
If
!,
this
states that if
= k 2
<
then
1,
&=$* + "Vffr" - +
p.
can be written
d + aO-i/2 =
Letting
\x\
sin 2
<
AyjUg
we
to v/2,
find
djp
r
yl
ir/2
+ ^f* - f^frf* 3 +
and integrating from

/*ir/2
-\ x
f
-j
2.vw{i +
k 2 sin 2o^
,o
tf>
+ |
A;
sin 2
+ 2T4 **
sin4
1
"
d(f>
'
'
|
(i)'*. + (!)'* +
}
(Hfcf)'"' +
where we have made use of the integration formula
/2
The term by term integration
4.31.
bead of mass
is
is
a
"0^
2
sin a,
possible since
constrained to
l*3'5---(2w-l)
2
|fc|
<
.4.6---(2n)
ff
1.
move on a
frictionless wire in the
shape of a
cycloid [Fig. 4-19 below] whose parametric equations are
a(cj>
sin
</>),
a(l
cos
</>)
CO
a vertical plane. If the bead starts from rest at point O, (a) find the
speed at the bottom of the path and (b) show that the bead performs oscillations
with period equivalent to that of a simple pendulum of length 4a.
which
lies in
CHAP.
4]
(a)
Let
and
let s
107
be the position of the bead at any time t

be the arclength along the cycloid measured from point O.
By
the conservation of energy, measuring
AB
potential energy relative to line

through the
minimum point of the cycloid, we have
P + K.E. at P = P.E. at O + K.E.

mg(2a-y) + im(ds/dt) 2 = mg(2a) +
P.E. at
Thus
At
(b)
(ds/dt) 2
the lowest point
From
part
Then
(ds/dt) 2
(a),
{ds/dt) 2
2a 2 (l
cos
2
<f>)^>
When
<
equation of
0,
2w,
a2 (l
cos
$2
or
2
<f>)
2y/ga.
P =
P/2
$2
where
sin 2
<f>
is
y/g/at
see
cos
2
<f>)]>
cx
(4)
Hence from the second
the period.
2w-ya/g
the same as that of a simple pendulum of length
is
2a2 (l
Thus
<f>
Airya/g
a2
g/a.
and
For some interesting applications
4.32.
-\j2g(2a)
</>)
(t),
and the period
cos
= yfgja,
2ga{l
when
0;
ds/dt
is
(dy/dt) 2
dtp/dt
or
But
2gy.
(dx/dt) 2
(2)
2gy
2a the speed
at
Problems
4a.
4.86-4.88.
particle of mass
is placed on the inside
of a smooth paraboloid of revolution having
equation cz = x 2 + y 2 at a point P which is at

height
above the horizontal [assumed as the
xy plane]. Assuming that the particle starts

from rest, (a) find the speed with which it
reaches the vertex 0, (b) find the time r taken,
and (c) find the period for small vibrations.
It is convenient to choose the point P in the yz
plane so that x =
and cz = y 2 By the principle
of conservation of energy we have if Q is any point
on the path PQO,
.
where
8 is the
P.E. at
P +
mgH
arclength along
P.E. at
Q +
m(0) 2
mgz
K.E. at
OPQ
or
(a)
Putting
(6)
We
0,
we
have, since x
fds\
\dtj
Thus
(I)
= 2g(H-z)
and
fdx\*
\dtj
can be written
^7
dt
decreasing with
see that the speed
cz
fdyY
\dtj
(1
$m(ds/dt) 2
y2
,
"*"
(1)
= s/2g(H z)
ds/dt
is
K.E. at
measured from O. Thus

(ds/dt) 2
using the negative sign since s
Fig. 4-20
is
t.
y]2gH at the vertex.
fdz\
\dt)
_
~
fdyY.W/dy
\dtj
"*"
c2 \dt
<*+Wt)
+ 4y 2/c 2 )(dy/dt) 2 = 2g(H - y 2 /c). Then
= - y/2gc -=
Vc +
2
or
4y2
V2^c
dt
+ 4i/2
yfcH - y*
V"c2
,
dy
108
Integrating, using the fact that
= V^H
and thus y
at
while at
[CHAP.
t,
0,
we have
T
f
I
y2gc
,
dt
A)
Letting
yJcH cos
-^
and
this
(9,
J^
Vc2 +
^/ c
2
2
1== r \^H Vc + %
F
I
VcH - 2/2
v20C J
4y2
dy
#~
or
2
2/
<fy
the integral can be written
Vc 2 + 4c#
can be written
v/2
where
cos 2 9 de
jiJ
=
fc
sin 2
d*
y/T^W^Jde
+ AH)
y/AH/{c
Vc 2 + 4cH - AcH
<
(3)
(4)
The integral in (5) is an elliptic integral and cannot be evaluated in terms of elementary
functions. It can, however, be evaluated in terms of series [see Problem 4.119].
particle oscillates back
The
(c)
and forth on the inside of the paraboloid with period given by
4t
m r
/2
VI -
fe
sin 2
(5)
cZg
For small vibrations the value of & given by &) can be assumed so small so as to be zero
for practical purposes. Hence (5) becomes
P =
2w^fJc
The length of the equivalent simple pendulum
is
+ A~H)j29
I
^(c
AH).
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
gm moves along the x axis attracted toward the point O on it by a force

equal to 60 times its instantaneous distance x cm from O. If the
numerically
in
and (c) frequency of
particle starts from rest at x = 10, find the (a) amplitude, (6) period
vib/sec
(c)
Vb/2jt
sec,
Ans. (a) 10 cm, (6) 2jt/Vb
the motion.
4.33.
particle of
mass 12
dynes which
is
O of 20 cm/sec, determine
the particle of Problem 4.33 starts at x = 10 with a speed toward
O for the first time.
reaches
the
particle
when
its amplitude, period and frequency. (6) Determine
(b) 0.33 sec
vib/sec;
=
frequency
=
sec,
=
V5/2*period
cm,
2^/V5
Ans. (a) Amplitude
(a) If
4.34.
6^
force proportional
moves on the x axis attracted toward the origin O on it with a
x - 2.5 cm
reaches
and
=
cm
x
at
rest
5
from
starts
it
to its instantaneous distance from O. If
t after it starts,
(6) the speed
any
time
at
position
the
(a)
find
2
sec,
after
time
first
for the
vibration, (d) the maximum acceleration,
at x = 0, (c) the amplitude, period and frequency of the
4 35
particle
(e)
the
Ans.
maximum
speed.
a = 5cosM/6);
cm/sec
(a)
(e) 5?r/6
(6)
5W6
cm/sec;
(c)
cm, 12
sec,
1/12 vib/sec;
(d)
5^/36 cm/sec2
axis, prove that (a) the acceleration

a particle moves with simple harmonic motion along the x
velocity
is numerically greatest in the
the
path,
the
(6)
of
ends
is numerically greatest at the
path, (d) the velocity is zero
the
of
middle
middle of the path, (c) the acceleration is zero in the
at the ends of the path.
4 36
If
4 37
particle
'
'
and
its
moves with simple harmonic motion
maximum
Ans. v/2
sec,
acceleration
2/v vib/sec
is
80 ft/sec 2
in a straight line.
Its
maximum
speed
is
20 ft/sec
Find the period and frequency of the motion.
CHAP.
4.38.
4]
moves with simple harmonic motion.
particle
equilibrium position
4.39.
A
8
particle
cm and
is
If
its
acceleration
A, prove that the period of the motion
is
109
at distance
from the
2tt^D/A.
moving with simple harmonic motion has speeds of 3 cm/sec and 4 cm/sec at distances
cm respectively from the equilibrium position. Find the period of the motion.
Ans. Av sec
4.40.
An
8 kg weight placed on a vertical spring stretches it 20 cm. The weight is then pulled down
a distance of 40 cm and released, (a) Find the amplitude, period and frequency of the oscillations.
(b) What is the position and speed at any time?
Ans. (a) 40 cm, 2ir/l sec, 7/2tt vib/sec
(b)
40 cos It cm,
= 280
sin It cm/sec
4.41.
mass of 200 gm placed at the lower end of a vertical spring stretches it 20 cm. When it is in
equilibrium, the mass is hit and due to this goes up a distance of 8 cm before coming down again.
Find (a) the magnitude of the velocity imparted to the mass when it is hit and (6) the period of
the motion.
Ans. (a) 56 cm/sec, (6) 2jt/7 sec
4.42.
kg mass at the end of a spring moves with simple harmonic motion along a horizontal straight
with period 3 sec and amplitude 2 meters, (a) Determine the spring constant. (6) What is the
maximum force exerted on the spring?
Ans. (a) 1140 dynes/cm or 1.14 newtons/meter
line
(6) 2.28
4.43.
When
10 5 dynes or 2.28 newtons
a mass
hanging from the lower end of a vertical spring i s set into motion,
Prove that the period when mass m is added is Py/l + m/M.
with period P.

4.44.
(a) Solve the equation
d2 x/dt2 + 2 dx/dt + 5x at t
and (6) give a physical interpretation of
Ans. (a) x J. e -t(10 cos 2* -5 sin 2i)
4.45.
Verify that the damping force given by equation

position
4.46.
4.47.
(2)
of Problem 4.11
is
5,
oscillates
dx/dt
= -3
correct regardless of the
particle.
A 60 lb weight hung on a vertical spring stretches it 2 ft. The weight is then pulled down 3 ft
and released, (a) Find the position of the weight at any time if a damping force numerically
equal to 15 times the instantaneous speed is acting. (6) Is the motion oscillatory damped, overdamped or critically damped?
Ans. (a) x - 3e-(4+l), (6) critically damped
Work Problem
Ans.
4.48.
and velocity of the
subject to the conditions

the results.
it
(a)
4.46
4e~ 2t
if
the
e~ 8t
damping force
overdamped
is
numerically 18.75 times the instantaneous speed.
(b)
In Problem 4.46, suppose that the damping force is numerically 7.5 times the instantaneous speed.
Prove that the motion is damped oscillatory. (6) Find the amplitude, period and frequency of
the oscillations, (c) Find the logarithmic decrement.
(a)
Ans.
(b)
Amplitude
= 2^3 e~^
ft,
period
ir/yfz sec,
frequency
= yfzh
4.49.
Prove that the logarithmic decrement is the time required for the
an oscillation to reduce to 1/e of this value.
4.50.
The natural frequency of a mass vibrating on a spring

damping is 16 vib/sec. Find the logarithmic decrement.
4.51.
is
vib/sec;
maximum
20 vib/sec, while
Ans. 3/4
(c)
2^/V3
amplitude during
its
frequency with
Prove that the difference in times corresponding to the successive maximum displacements of a
oscillator with equation given by (12) of page 88 is constant and equal to
dampe d harmon ic
4n-m/\/4/cm
4.52.
Is
the
/3 2
difference
oscillator the
in
same as
times between successive minimum displacements of a damped harmonic

in Problem 4.51? Justify your answer.
110
[CHAP.
FORCED VIBRATIONS AND RESONANCE

4.53.
The position of a
particle moving along the x axis is determined by the equation d2 x/dt2 + Adxldt +
20 cos 2t. If the particle starts from rest at x = 0, find (a) x as a function of t, (b) the
amplitude, period and frequency of the oscillation after a long time has elapsed.
8*
Ans.
4.54.
(a)
(b)
Amplitude
cos 2t
+ 2 sin 2t - e~ 2t (cos 2t + 3 sin 2t)

= yfh, period = v, frequency =
1/v
Give a physical interpretation to Problem 4.53 involving a mass at the end of a vertical spring.
What is the natural frequency of such a vibrating spring? (c) What is the frequency of the
impressed force?
Ans. (b) y/2/ir, (c) 1/tt
(a)
(b)
4.55.
The weight on a vertical spring undergoes forced vibrations according to the equation
d2 x/dt 2 + 4x = 8 sin at where x is the displacement from the equilibrium position and w >
is a
constant. If at t = 0, x =
and dx/dt = 0, find (a) x as a function of t, (b) the period of
the external force for which resonance occurs.
Ans.
4.56.
(a)
(6)
=
=
(8 sin ut
or
4w
sin 2t)/(4
period
<o
if
^ 2;
sin 2t
2t
cos 2t
if
it
A vertical spring having constant 17 lb wt per ft has a 32 1b weight suspended from it. Ah
A damping
external force given as a function of time t by F(t) = 65 sin4t,
is applied.
force given numerically in lb wt by 2v, where v is the instantaneous speed of the weight in ft/sec,
(a) Determine the
is assumed to act.
Initially the weight is at rest at the equilibrium position,
position of the weight at any time. (6) Indicate the transient and steady-state solutions, giving
physical interpretations of each, (c) Find the amplitude, period and frequency of the steady-state
i0
[Use
solution.
Ans.
32 ft/sec 2 .]
4e -t cos4t
Amplitude
(c)
y/Vf
period
ft,
cos4t
frequency
v/2 sec,
2/tr
vib/sec
cm by a force of 50 dynes. A mass of 10 gm is placed on the lower end

After equilibrium has been reached, the upper end of the spring is moved
up and down so that the external force acting on the mass is given by F(t) = 20 cos at, t0.
(a) Find the position of the mass at any time, measured from its equilibrium position. (6) Find the
value of (o for which resonance occurs.
of
spring
the
Ans.
4.58.
+ sin 4t 4 cos 4*
-t
Transient, 4e
cos4t; steady-state, sin4i
=
(a)
(6)
4.57.
(a)
is
stretched 5
spring.
(20 cos ut)/(l
- u 2 - 20
)
cos
(b)
t,
A periodic external force acts on a 6 kg mass suspended from the lower end of a vertical spring
having constant 150 newtons/meter. The damping force is proportional to the instantaneous speed
of the mass and is 80 newtons when the speed is 2 meters/sec. Find the frequency at which
Ans. 5/6v vib/sec
resonance occurs.
THE SIMPLE PENDULUM

4.59.
4.60.
Find the length of a simple pendulum whose period is 1 second. Such a pendulum which registers
Ans. 99.3 cm or 3.26 ft
seconds is called a seconds pendulum.
Will a pendulum which registers seconds at one location lose or gain time when
another location where the acceleration due to gravity is greater? Explain.
it
is
moved
to
Ans. Gain time
4.61.
simple pendulum whose length is 2 meters has its bob drawn to one side until the string makes
an angle of 30 with the vertical. The bob is then released, (a) What is the speed of the bob as
(c) What
(6) What is the angular speed at the lowest point?
it passes through its lowest point?
is the maximum acceleration and where does it occur?
Ans.
(a)
2.93 m/sec,
(6)
1.46 rad/sec,
(c)
2 m/sec2
CHAP.
4.62.
4.63.
4]
HI
Prove that the tension in the string of a vertical simple pendulum of length I and mass m
by mg cos e where a is the instantaneous angle made by the string with the vertical.
is
given
seconds pendulum which gives correct time at a certain location is taken to another location
it is found to lose T seconds per day. Determine the gravitational acceleration at the second
location.
Ans. g(l T/86,400) 2 where g is the gravitational acceleration at the first location
where
4.64.
What
is
the length of a seconds pendulum on the surface of the moon where the acceleration due
approximately 1/6 that on the earth?
Ans. 16.5 cm
to gravity is
4.65.
simple pendulum of length I and mass

hangs vertically from a fixed point O. The bob is given
initial horizontal velocity of magnitude v
Prove that the arc through which the bob swings
in one period has a length given by 41 cos -1 (1 v 2/2gl)
an
4.66.
Find the minimum value of v
in
vertical circle with center at 0.
Problem 4.65
Ans.
order that the bob will
in
make a complete
2~\fgl

4.67.
mass 2 moves
xy plane attracted to the origin with a force given by

the particle is placed at the point (3, 4) and given a velocity
of magnitude 10 in a direction perpendicular to the x axis, (a) Find the position and velocity of
the particle at any time. (6) What curve does the particle describe?
particle of
F = 18*i 50?/j.
Ans.
4.68.
4.69.
(a) r
Find the
At
3 cos 3t
[4
in the
cos ht
+2
sin 5] j,
= 9
energy of the particle of Problem
total
sin St
[10 cos 5t
- 20
sin 5t] j
Ans. 581
4.67.
two dimensional harmonic oscillator of mass 2 has potential energy given by V = S(x 2 + 4y 2 ).
and velocity of the oscillator at time t =
are given respectively by
r = 2i j and v = 4i + 8j, (a) find its position and velocity at any time t >
and (6) determine the period of the motion.
If the position vector
Ans.
(a)
(2 cos At
+ sin 4t)i + (sin St - cos 8)j,
(4
cos 4t
-8
sin 4*)i
+ (8
cos 8i
+8
sin 8*)j
(6) s-/8
4.70.
Work Problem
V=
4.69 if
8(x 2
+ 2y 2).
Is there
a period defined for the motion in this case?
Explain.
4.71.
of mass
moves in a 3 dimensional force field whose potential is given by
^k(x 2 + 4y 2 + 16z 2 ). (a) Prove that if the particle is placed at an arbitrary point in space
other than the origin, then it will return to the point after some period of time. Determine this
time. (6) Is the velocity on returning to the starting point the same as the initial velocity? Explain.
particle
V=
4.72.
Suppose that
in
Problem 4.71 the potential
to the starting point?
is
V=
%k(x 2
+ 2y 2 + 52
).
Will the particle return
Explain.
4.73.
A
is
vertical spring of constant k having natural length I is supported at a fixed point A.

placed at the lower end of the spring, lifted to a height h below
and dropped.
the lowest point reached will be at a distance below
4.74.
4.75
Work Problem
4.73 if
Given the equation

if
damping proportional
mx + /3x + kx =
E = \mx 2 + \kx 2
decreases with time.
then
E=
given by
to the instantaneous velocity is
mass
taken into account.
damped oscillations of a harmonic oscillator. Prove that

Thus show that if there is damping the total energy E
for
-p'x 2
What happens
A
Prove that
+ mg/ K + y/m 2 g 2/ K 2 + 2mgh/n.
to the
energy lost? Explain.
112
4.76.
(a)
A =
where
(6)
4.77.
4.78.
Prove that
Use
and
cos (at
+ A\ + 2A A 2
y/A\
+ A2
4> x )
cos
(^ -
cos (at
)
+ A2
+ A2
sin^t
/ A-l
 2 \
'
cos <t>J
demonstrate that the sum of two simple harmonic motions of the same frequency
in the same straight line is simple harmonic of the same frequency.
to
(a)
Give a vector interpretation to the results of Problem 4.76.

equal.
Discuss Problem 4.76 in case the frequencies of the two simple harmonic motions are not
motion simple harmonic? Justify your answer.
Is the resultant
4.79.
and y from two mutually perpendicular
particle oscillates in a plane so that its distances x

axes are given as functions of time t by
= A
cos (at
= B
X ),
cos (at
</>
2)
the rectangle defined by

(a) Prove that the particle moves in an ellipse inscribed in
b (&) p r ove that the period of the particle in the elliptical path is 2ir/a.
y
4.80.
Suppose that the particle of Problem 4.79 moves so that

X
where
assumed
is
= A
COS (at
+ 0i),
be a positive constant which
to
COS (at
assumed
is
+ et +
Illustrate
Problem 4.80 by graphing the motion of a particle which moves

x
4.82.
+ n-/4),
3 cos(2t
in the
path
4 cos (2.4t)
which is on a frictionless
In Fig. 4-21 a mass
points A and B by
fixed
to
table is connected
two springs of equal natural length, of negligible mass and spring constants /q and /c 2 reis displaced horizontally
spectively. The mass
that the perio d of
Prove
released.
then
and
oscillation is given
4.83.
2)
much smallertiian a. Vrvve

rectangle x - A, y - B.
to be
that the particle oscillates in slowly rotating ellipses inscribed in the

4.81.
= A,
by
P=
2v-\/'m/(K 1
K2
-nmr-
m -^TOKT^-
A
Fig. 4-21
k 2 ).
spring having constant k and negligible mass has

one end fixed at point A on an inclined plane of
at the other end, as indicated
angle a and a mass
If the
in Fig. 4-22.
mass
m is pulled down
a distance
below the equilibrium position and released, find

the displacement from the equilibrium position at any
time if (a) the incline is frictionless, (6) the incline
has coefficient of friction /i.
x
4.84.
particle
located at
4 85.
4.86.
moves with simple harmonic motion along the x

*
a, b
and
respectively.
Fig. 4-2
axis.
At times
Prove that the period of oscillation
is
2tQ an dJ*o
cos -i (a
i*
)/26*
location is taken to another locati or where

seconds pendulum giving the correct time at one
rod be lengthened or shortened in
pendulum
the
must
By how much
it loses 5 minutes per day.
order to give the correct time?
is susvertical pendulum having a bob of mass

pended from the fixed point O. As it oscillates, the
A [or OC\
string winds up on the constraint curves OB
ABC is a
as indicated in Fig. 4-23. Prove that if curve
the same
be
will
oscillation
of
period
the
cycloid, then
penregardless of the amplitude of the oscillations. The

The
pendulum.
cycloidal
a
called
is
dulum in this case
of
curves ODA and OC are constructed to be evolutes
the cycloid.
[Hint.
Use Problem
4.31.]
Iig.4-A
CHAP.
4.87.
4]
A bead slides down a frictionless wire located in a vertical plane. It is desired to find the
shape of the wire so that regardless of where the bead is placed on the wire it will slide under
the influence of gravity to the bottom of the wire in the same time. This is often called the
tautochrone problem.
Prove that the wire must have the shape of a cycloid.
Use Problem
[Hint.
4.88.
4.31.]
Prove that the curves
ODA
OC
and
of Problem 4.86 are cycloids having the
same shape as the
ABC.
cycloid
4.89.
113
simple pendulum of length I has its point of support moving back and forth on a horizontal line
from a fixed point on the line is A sin ut, t ^ 0. Find the position of the
pendulum bob at any time t assuming that it is at rest at the equilibrium position at * = 0.
so that its distance
4.90.
Work Problem
4.91.
4.92.
4.89 if the point of support moves vertically instead of horizontally and

the rod of the pendulum makes an angle O with the vertical.
vertical elastic spring of negligible weight
and having its upper end fixed, carries a weight

lower end. The weight is lifted so that the tension in the spring is zero, and then it is
released. Prove that the tension in the spring will not exceed 2W.
its
having constant
has a pan on top of it with
on it [see Fig. 4-24]. Determine the largest frequency with which the spring can vibrate so that the weight
will remain in the pan.
vertical spring
a weight
4.94.
at
A particle of mass
moves in a plane under the influence of forces of attraction toward fixed
points which are directly proportional to its instantaneous distance from these points.
Prove
that in general the particle will describe an ellipse.
W at
4.93.
if
/c
spring has a natural length of 50 cm and a force of 100 dynes

required to stretch it 25 cm. Find the work done in stretching
the spring from 75 cm to 100 cm, assuming that the elastic limit
is not exceeded so that the spring characteristics do not change.
is
Ans. 3750 ergs

4.95.
A
x
moves
particle
= Acosw,
in the
=B
xy plane so that its position is given by

Prove that it describes an arc of a
cos 2ut.
parabola.
4.96.
A
y
Fig. 4.24
particle
= Bcos(w 2 t +
rational or not.
4.97.
4.98.
4.101.
4.102.
2 )-
Find the period of a simple pendulum of length

vertical is
(a)
30,
(6)
60,
(c)
meter
if
the
maximum
d2 x/dt2
(a)
its
Ay,
position
angle which the rod
90.
A simple pendulum of length 3 ft is suspended vertically from a fixed point. At t = the bob is
given a horizontal velocity of 8 ft/sec. Find (a) the maximum angle which the pendulum rod
makes with the vertical, (b) the period of the oscillations.
Ans.
4.100.
<f>
The position of a particle moving in the xy plane is described by the equations

d 2 y/dt2 = -4x. At time t =
the particle is at rest at the point (6, 3). Find
and (b) its velocity at any later time t.
makes with the

4.99.
in the xy plane so that its position is given by

x = A cos (u^ + 9^),
Prove that the particle describes a closed curve or not, according as a t /u 2 is
In which cases is the motion periodic?
moves
(a)
cos" 1 2/3
41
48',
(6)
1.92 sec
Prove that the time averages over a period of the potential energy and kinetic energy of a
simple harmonic oscillator are equal to 2tt 2A 2IP 2 where A is the amplitude and P is the period
of the motion.
A cylinder of radius 10 ft with its axis vertical oscillates vertically in water of density 62.5 lb/ft3
with a period of 5 seconds. How much does it weigh?
Ans. 3.98Xl0 5 lbwt
A
V=
particle moves in the xy plane in a force field whose potential is given by

x2
xy y 2 .
If the particle is initially at the point (3, 4) and is given a velocity of magnitude 10 in a direction
parallel to the positive x axis, (a) find the position at any time and (6) determine the period of
the motion
if
one exists.
114
4.103.
4.104.
4.105.
[CHAP.
t
the particle is at the
In Problem 4.96 suppose that a x /a 2 is irrational and that at
particular point (x ,y ) inside the rectangle denned by x = A, y B. Prove that the point
(x ,y ) will never be reached again but that in the course of its motion the particle will come
arbitrarily close to the point.
particle oscillates on a vertical frictionless cycloid with its vertex downward. Prove that the
projection of the particle on a vertical axis oscillates with simple harmonic motion.
A mass of 5 kg at the lower end of a vertical spring which has an elastic constant equal to
20 newtons/meter oscillates with a period of 10 seconds. Find (a) the damping constant, (6) the
Ans. (a) 19 nt sec/m, (6) 3.14 sec
natural period and (c) the logarithmic decrement.
4.106.
4.107.
mass of 100 gm is supported in equilibrium by two identical

springs of negligible mass having elastic constant equal to
50 dynes/cm. In the equilibrium position shown in Fig. 4-25
the springs make an angle of 30 with the horizontal and are
100 cm in length. If the mass is pulled down a distance of
2 cm and released, find the period of the resulting oscillation.
thin hollow circular cylinder of inner radius 10 cm is fixed
A particle is placed on the inner
frictionless surface of the cylinder so that its vertical distance
so that its axis is horizontal.
above the lowest point of the inner surface is 2 cm. Find

and
(a) the time for the particle to reach the lowest point
(b) the period of the oscillations which take place.
4.108.
cubical box of side a and weight
period of vibration
4.109.
vibrates vertically in water of density
spring vibrates so that
Ans.
0,
dx/dt
at
r*
yrriK
4.110.
Work Problem
4.111.
its
equation of motion
find
0,
it
F(u) sin
V /m
(t
4.109
is
kx
F(t)
as a function of time
u)
t.
du
if
spring vibrates so that
its
at
v
If x = 0, x
resonance will occur.
d2 x/dt2
kx
(a) find x at
0,
taken into account.
to dx/dt is
equation of motion
is
5 cos
any time
cot
and
2 cos 3wt
(6)
determine for what values of a
the
at its lower end. At t =
mass
that
its distance
so
vertically
move
to
made
suddenly
spring is in equilibrium and its
position of the mass
from the original point of support is given by A sin a t, t 0. Find (a) the
occurs.
resonance
which
for
of
<o
values
the
at any time and (b)
vertical spring having elastic constant k carries a
upper end
4.113.
2 x/dt*
ô
4 112
Prove that the
{2ir/a)^<jg/W.
is
md
If
o.
(a)
Solve d*x/dt*
sin
cos
is
where x
0,
dx/dt
at
0,
and
(6)
give a physical
interpretation.
4.114.
where damping and external forces are

Discuss the motion of a simple pendulum for the case
present.
CHAP.
4.115.
4.116.
4]
115
Find the period of small vertical oscillations of a cylinder of radius a and height h floating
with its axis horizontal in water of density a.
vertical spring
having
elastic constant
2 newtons per meter has a 50
gm
weight suspended
force in newtons which is given as a function of time t by F(t) = 6 cos4 t, t ^

is applied.
Assuming that the weight, initially at the equilibrium position, is given an upward
velocity of 4 m/sec and that damping is negligible, determine the (a) position and
(6) velocity
of the weight at any time.
from
it.
4.117.
In Problem 4.55, can the answer for = 2

the limit as u - 2? Justify your answer.
4.118.
An
by taking
oscillator has a restoring force acting on it whose magnitude is kx ex 2 where

compared with k. Prove that the displacement of the oscillator [in this case often
anharmonic oscillator] from the equilibrium position is given approximately by
where
4.119.
be deduced from the answer for
and
Prove that
if
</>
= A
cos (ut-<f>)
A 2
^-{cos2(ut
is
small
called
an
d>)-3}
OK
are determined from the initial conditions.
the oscillations in Problem 4.32 are not necessarily small, then the period
is
given by
Chapter 5
CENTRAL FORCES
and PLANETARY MOTION
CENTRAL FORCES
Suppose that a force acting on a particle of
mass
(a)
is
such that [see Fig.
it is
always directed from
away from
(b)
5-1]:
toward or
a fixed point O,
magnitude depends only on the distance

r from O.
its
call the force a central force or central

as the center of force. In symforce field with
bols F is a central force if and only if
Then we
F = f(r)n =
where
ri
The
f(r)
<
f(r)r/r
Fig. 5-1
(1)
r/r is a unit vector in the direction of
r.
central force is one of attraction toward

respectively.
or f(r) >
or repulsion from
according as
SOME IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF CENTRAL FORCE FIELDS

If a particle
moves
The path or
1.
a plane.
are valid.
in a central force field, then the following properties
orbit of the particle
This plane
is
must be a plane
curve,
often taken to be the xy plane.

of the particle is conserved,
i.e.
the particle
See Problem
moves
in
5.1.
constant. See Problem 5.2.
2.
The angular momentum
3.
drawn
The particle moves in such a way that the position vector or radius vector
the
words,
other
In
times.
equal
in
areas
equal
to the particle sweeps out
from
time rate of change in area
See Problem 5.6.
is
constant.
This
is
i.e. is
sometimes called the law of areas.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION FOR A PARTICLE

IN A CENTRAL FIELD
the motion of a particle in a central force field takes place in a plane. Choosing this
plane as the xy plane and the coordinates of the particle as polar coordinates (r, 6), the equations of mo-
By Property
1,
tion are found to be [see
Problem
m(r-r) =
5.3]
(2)
f{r)
m(r'e+ 2r9) =
where dots denote

time
(r,)
(8)
differentiations with respect to
t.
116
Fig. 5-2
CHAP.
5]
From
equation
we
(3)
find
r2 6
This
is
117
related to Properties 2
constant
(4)
and 3 above.
IMPORTANT EQUATIONS DEDUCED FROM

THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION
The following equations deduced from the fundamental equations
and
(2)
(3)
often
prove to be useful.
h2

=
3
1
-!
f(r)
du
where u =
(K\
'
1/r.
d0 2
r\de)
mh2
POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A PARTICLE IN A CENTRAL FIELD
A central force field is a conservative

This potential which depends only on r
given by
=
V(r)
hence it can be derived from a potential.

apart from an arbitrary additive constant,
field,
is,
-jf(r)dr
(g)
This is also the potential energy of a particle in the central force

additive constant can be obtained by assuming, for example, 7 =
as r-* oo.
field.
at r
The arbitrary
or
V -*
By
using
im^ + rê
),
(8) and the fact that in polar coordinates the kinetic energy of a particle
the equation for conservation of energy can be written
im(r2 + r2 6 2 )
or
E is the total
energy and
mh
and
- f
\m(r2 + r2 6 2 )
where
also as
In terms of u
is
Vfdr\
f(
=
1/r,
we can
f2
f(r)
S) ~
dr
J ^ dr
(P)
(io)
equation (10) can also be written as
(4),
= E
V(r)
Using
constant.
2
is
also write equation (9) as
f^V
KdeJ
^
+ u2 _
=
.
2(E~V)
mh2
(I 3 )
DETERMINATION OF THE ORBIT FROM THE CENTRAL FORCE

If the central force field is prescribed,
;d, i.e. if f(r) is given, it is possible
possi
to determine
the orbit or path of the particle. This orbit
rbit can be obtained in the form
r{0)
(
118
i.e.
r as a function of
9,
which are parametric equations
or to use equations
(4)
r{t),
(IS)
9{t)
terms of the time parameter
in
To determine the orbit in the form (U)

or (11). To obtain equations in the form (15),
(A)
or in the form
r
with
[CHAP.
and
t.
convenient to employ equations (6), (7)

sometimes convenient to use (12) together
is
it
it is
(5).
DETERMINATION OF THE CENTRAL FORCE FROM THE ORBIT

Conversely
if
the orbit or path of the particle, then we can find the correspondcentral
If the orbit is given by r = r(9) or u = u(9) where u = 1/r, the
we know
ing central force.

force can be found from
mh2
f(r)
de*
f(Vu)
or
2 /dr\ 2
,de)
[d2 r
-mh 2u2
d2u
de 2
(16)
+u
(17)
can also be
which are obtained from equations (6) and (7) on page 117. The law of force
obtained from other equations, as for example equations (9)-(13).
many
important to note that given an orbit there may be infinitely

which the orbit is possible. However, if a central force field exists
It is
it is
force fields for
unique,
i.e.
it is
the only one.
CONIC SECTIONS, ELLIPSE, PARABOLA AND HYPERBOLA

and a
Consider a fixed point
Suppose that a point
in the plane of
from
to its distance
from point
line
Then the curve described by P

polar coordinates (r, 9) by
AB
is
XV
Focus
<
\^ A'
/
/
^ SFig. 5-3
[See Fig. 5-4 below.]
is
Note that the major axis

length 2a.
Dir
the center of the ellipse and CV = CU = a

axis, then the equation of the ellipse can be written as
r/\
is called
value of the eccentricity.
If
\p
a focus, the line AB is

called a directrix and the ratio e is called the
The curve is often called a conic
eccentricity.
section since it can be obtained by intersecting
Three
a plane and a cone at different angles.
possible types of curves exist, depending on the
Ellipse:
^-
(18)
COS 9
distance
.
11
^ ^v
See Problem 5.16.
The point
in Fig. 5-3.
its
always equal to the positive constant
given in
is
AB distant D from 0, as shown

and AB moves so that the ratio of
fixed line
is
is
the length of the semi-major
a(l-e2 )
i
(19)
cos e
the line joining the vertices
and
of the ellipse
and has
CHAP.
5]
If b is the length of the
119
semi-minor axis
[CW or CS in Fig. 5-4] and c is the distance

CO from center to focus, then we have the
important result
\Za 2
b2
ac
(20)
circle can be considered as a special case

of an ellipse with eccentricity equal to zero.
2.
Parabola:
[See Fig. 5-5.]
The equation
of the parabola is
(21)
cos
We can consider a parabola to be a

limiting case of the ellipse (19) where -* 1,
which means that a - o [i.e. the major
axis becomes infinite] in such a way that
a(l - 2 ) = p.
Hyperbola:
>
Fig. 5-5
[See Fig. 5-6.]
The hyperbola consists of two branches

as indicated in Fig. 5-6. The branch on the
left is the important one for our purposes.
The hyperbola
is
lines of Fig. 5-6

totes.
The
is called
asymptotic to the dashed
which are
intersection
asymp-
asymptotes
The distance CV = a
the center.
from the center C
called its
C of the
to vertex
is
called the
semi-major axis [the major axis being the

distance between vertices V and U by analogy with the ellipse]. The equation of the
hyperbola can be written as
r
a(<2
=
1
- l)
cos 9
(22)
Fig. 5-6
Various other alternative definitions for conic sections may be given. For example, an
can be defined as the locus or path of all points the sum of whose distances from two
fixed points is a constant. Similarly, a hyperbola can be defined as the locus of all points
the difference of whose distances from two fixed points is a constant. In both these cases
the two fixed points are the foci and the constant is equal in magnitude to the length of
ellipse
the major axis.
SOME DEFINITIONS IN ASTRONOMY

A solar system is composed of a star [such
as our sun] and objects called planets which

revolve around it. The star is an object which emits its own light, while the planets do
not emit light but can reflect it. In addition there may be objects revolving about the
planets. These are called satellites.
In our solar system, for example, the moon is a satellite of the earth which in turn is a
planet revolving about our sun. In addition there are artificial or man-made satellites
which can revolve about the planets or their moons.
120
[CHAP.
The path of a planet or satellite is called its orbit. The largest and smallest distances
of a planet from the sun about which it revolves are called the aphelion and perihelion
respectively. The largest and smallest distances of a satellite around a planet about which
it
revolves are called the apogee and perigee respectively.
revolution of a body in an orbit is called its period. This is

sometimes called a sidereal period to distinguish it from other periods such as the period
The time for one complete
of earth's motion about
its axis, etc.
KEPLER'S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION
/^
Before Newton had enunciated his famous laws

of motion, Kepler, using voluminous data accumulated by Tycho Brahe formulated his three laws
concerning the motion of planets around the sun
^N^pianet
[see Fig. 5-7].

1.
Every planet moves

ellipse
2.
in
an orbit which
is
an
with the sun at one focus.
Fig. 5-7
The radius vector drawn from the sun
to
any planet sweeps out equal areas
in
equal times (the law of areas, as on page 116).

3.
of the periods of revolution of the planets are proportional to the cubes

of the semi-major axes of their orbits.
The squares
NEWTON'S UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION

law and equations (16) or (17), Newton was able to deduce his
famous law of gravitation between the sun and planets, which he postulated as valid for any
objects in the universe [see Problem 5.21].
Newton's Law of Gravitation. Any two particles of mass mi and m 2 respectively and
By
using Kepler's
first
distance r apart are attracted toward each other with a force
F
where
is
_ Gmim2
ri
^3)
a universal constant called the gravitational constant.
using Newton's law of gravitation we can, conversely, deduce Kepler's laws [see
Problems 5.13 and 5.23]. The value of G is shown in the table on page 342.
By
ATTRACTION OF SPHERES AND OTHER OBJECTS

using Newton's law of gravitation, the forces of attraction between large objects
such as spheres can be determined. To do this, we use the fact that each large object is
composed of particles. We then apply the law of gravitation to find the forces between
particles and sum over these forces, usually by methods of integration, to find the resultant
force of attraction. An important application of this is given in the following
By
uniform spheres of masses mi and m 2 respectively

which do not intersect are attracted to each other as if they were particles of the same
Theorem
mass situated
5.1.
Two
solid or hollow
at their respective geometric centers.
Since the potential corresponding to
-^^ri
(24)
CHAP.
5]
121
V = -Q*
{25)
is
it is
between objects by
also possible to find the attraction
then using
F = -y7.
finding the potential and
first
See Problems 5.26-5.33.
MOTION IN AN INVERSE SQUARE FORCE FIELD

As we have seen, the planets revolve in elliptical orbits about the sun which is at one
focus of the ellipse. In a similar manner, satellites (natural or man-made) may revolve around
planets in elliptical orbits. However, the motion of an object in an inverse square field of
attraction need not always be elliptical but may be parabolic or hyperbolic. In such cases
the object, such as a comet or meteorite, would enter the solar system and then leave but
never return again.
The following simple condition
an
in
terms of the
energy
total
determines the path of
object.
(i)
if
(ii)
if
(iii)
if
E<
E=
E>
Other conditions
in
the path
is
an
the path
is
a parabola
the path
is
a hyperbola
ellipse
terms of the speed of the object are also available.
See Problem 5.37.
In this chapter we assume the sun to be fixed and the planets do not affect each other.
Similarly in the motion of satellites around a planet such as the earth, for example, we
assume the planet fixed and that the sun and all other planets have no effect.
Although such assumption is correct as a first approximation, the influence of other

planets may have to be taken into account for more accurate purposes. The problems of
dealing with the motions of two, three, etc., objects under their mutual attractions are often
called the two body problem, three body problem, etc.
Solved Problems
CENTRAL FORCES AND IMPORTANT PROPERTIES

5.1.
Prove that
if
a particle moves in a central force
field,
then
its
path must be a plane
curve.
Let
F =
f(r) r x
be the central force

r
since r 1
is
field.
X F =
Then
f(r) r
rx
(1)
a unit vector in the direction of the position vector
r.
Since
F = mdv/dt,
this
can be
written
X dx/dt =
(2)
|(rXv) =
(3)
or
Integrating,
where h
is
we
find
a constant vector.
X v
= h
Multiplying both sides of
rh =
(-4)
(4)
by
(5)
using the fact that r (r X v) = (r X r) v = 0. Thus r is perpendicular to the constant vector h,

and so the motion takes place in a plane. We shall assume that this plane is taken to be the
xy plane whose origin is at the center of force.
122
5.2.
Prove that for a particle moving
in a central force field the
[CHAP.
angular
momentum
is
conserved.
From
equation
of Problem 5.1,
(4)
we have
X v = h
where h
is
Then multiplying by mass m,
a constant vector.
w(r X
= mh
v)
(1)
Since the left side of (1) is the angular momentum, it follows that the angular
conserved, i.e. is always constant in magnitude and direction.
momentum
is
EQUATIONS OF MOTION FOR A PARTICLE IN A CENTRAL FIELD

5.3.
Write the equations of motion for a particle in a central

By Problem 5.1 the motion of the particle takes place in a
field.
plane. Choose this plane to be

the xy plane and the coordinates describing the position of the particle at any time t to be
polar coordinates (r, e). Using Problem 1.49, page 27, we have
(mass) (acceleration)
net force
f( r ) r i
m{(r
Thus the required equations
re 2 )r 1
m(r e
Show
that r 2 6
Method
(3)
(r 2 e)
m (r
2re)
is
Method
and so
By Problem
Then from equation
1.49,
(4)
5.5.
2rre)
d_
~r
di
(r 2 e)
(1)
rt
and
frj
rbei
of Problem 5.1
$x
X v =
f(r
i.e.
rx)
ro(r
X oj = r2 tfk
(2)
the unit vector in a direction perpendicular to the

Using h = fik in (2), we see that
in the direction r X v.
where k
rk
plane of motion [the xy plane],

r2 e
27, the velocity in polar coordinates is
page
h
X
(8)
a constant.
2.
2r'e)
(2)
f{r)
r2
since
dt
where h
of Problem 5.3 can be written
m(r
Thus
re 2 )
(*)
a constant.
h,
Equation
1.
2r'e)0i}
by
of motion are given
m(r -
5.4.
{r'o
is
h.
Prove that r2 & = 2A where A is the time rate

at which area is swept out by the position
vector
r.
time At the particle moves from

The area AA swept out by the
position vector in this time is approximately half the
area of a parallelogram with sides r and Ar or [see
Suppose that
M to N
in
[see Fig. 5-8].
Problem
1.18,
page
15]
AA = A|rXAr|
Dividing by Ai and letting
lim
At-0
AA
At
A-*0,
Ar
lim - r X
At
At-tO 2
I
|r
v|
Fig. 5-8
CHAP.
5]
A = i|rXv| =
i.e.,
using the result in Problem
Thus r2 o - 2A, as
5.4.
\r2
required.
A = Ak = i(rXv) =
is
5.6.
The vector quantity
^(r2 *)k
often called the areal velocity.
in a central force field the areal velocity is constant.
Prove that for a particle moving

By Problem
5.4,
r2
The
result
\hk =
r2 6k
often stated as follows:
is
center, then the radius vector
This result
times.
Then the
a constant.
A =
5.7.
123
is
Show by means
sometimes called the law of areas.
r
is
d2u
1/u
that the differential equation for the
- f(l/u)
+ u
,
do 2
5.4 or equation (S) of
r2 o
Substituting into equation
1/u,
we have
-tt
dt
From
this
we
we
5.3,
/r3
,du\
d (
dr
we have
hu 2
(1)
find
)
(2)
f(r)
de\r
du\ do
Te)d-t
_
~
(5)
"
W^
t,2..2
d2u
//\
(4)
see that (2) can be written
m(-h 2 u 2 d2 u/do 2 - h2 u?) =

or,
h/r2
d (
= Tt = dt\- h Te) =
5.3,
h_ dr_
_vdu
dr cfo _
_
=
= -z _
= -*~
~ -^^r
do
de dt ~ r2 do
dr
or
Problem
of
(2)
mh u2
Problem
m(fif
^h, a constant vector
a particle moves in a central force field with O as

to the particle sweeps out equal areas in equal
If
path of the particle in a central field
Now
is
drawn from O
of the substitution
From Problem
areal velocity
^+
as required,
= "
f(l/u)
(5)
^f
POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

FOR CENTRAL FORCE FIELDS
5.8.
Prove that a central force field is conservative and

potential energy of a particle in this field.
(a)
Method
If
find the corresponding
1.
we can
that the field
find the potential or potential energy, then we will have also incidentally
exists, it must be such that
if the potential
conservative.
Now
is
F-rfr
where F
f(r) r x
is
the central force.
F
since
(b)
Since
dr
dr
We
f(r) r t
V
= -dV
dr
f(r)-
r dr.
we can determine
(1)
have
such that
-dV =
f(r)dr
proved
dr
f(r)
dr
124
V = -
for example,
it
follows that the field
Method
Method
VXF=
can show that
The
1.
but this method
directly,
tedious although straightforward.
is
Method
is
2.
The equations of motion for a
Multiply equation
(1)
by
r,
equation
Then integrating both
sides,
we
re 2
r2
"*"
1.49,
page
27]
r2 * 2
f(r)dr
- E
2re)
by Problem
5.3,
(1)
f(r)
(2)
re and add to obtain
r o
lm^(r2 +
This can be written
rre 2 )
r 2 'e 2 )
f(r)r
(3)
f f(r) dr
U)
= E
(5)
obtain
i
m(r2
r2
'e
f(r)
dr
that the differential equation describing the motion of a particle in a central
can be written as
h2
2r
From Problem
5.9
^\
we have by
have
also
Substituting
we
+ 1*]-ff(r)dr = E
the conservation of energy,
_
~
{2) into (1),
l\dej
|m(r2
r2 e 2 )
(5)
e
h/r 2
If
(b)
Use
dr
dt
= E
dr
~d6
= E
l[() 2+r2]-J'w *
(a) to
(1)
find
">-J'"*
u=l/r, prove
(a)
f(r)
_ dr do _
~ Tedt ~
dr
since
[Problem
particle in a central field are,
by
(2)
m(r r
We
is
a constant.
m(r 6
field
im(rHrV) -
or
m(r
Show
y2
s0 tnat
reOi
+ V = E
imt) 2
rr t
in a central force field.
principle of conservation of energy can be expressed as
Then the
5.11.
represents the potential or potential energy.
(2)
velocity of a particle expressed in polar coordinates
5.10.
(2)
Write the conservation of energy for a particle of mass
where
2.
We
5.9.
conservative and that
is
dr
f(r)
[CHAP.
that v 2
f2
= ^2 {(d%/^) 2 + u2 }.
prove that the conservation of energy equation becomes

(du/dOf
v?
= 2(E-V)/mh2
CHAP.
5]
From
(a)
equations
(i)
v2
From
(b)
and
r2
we have
of Problem 5.7
(3)
'
r2^2
hHdu/de) 2
(l/u2 )(hu2 2
)
the conservation of energy [Problem 5.9] and part
x mv 2
'
= i m (f2 + r e 2)
-V
= e
hu 2
hdu/de.
2 {(du/de) 2
u2
Thus
}
(a),
(du/de) 2
or
125
+ u2 = 2(E - V)/mh2
DETERMINATION OF ORBIT FROM CENTRAL FORCE,

OR CENTRAL FORCE FROM ORBIT
5.12.
Show
that the position of the particle as a function of time
can be determined
from the equations

t
where
J*
h/r2
Then assuming the
- f
h2 /r2 )
m + m- Jf
r2
or
positive square root,
5.13.
Show
that
if
5.9,
= E
-%
r
G(r)'
[G(r)]-v*dr
h/r 2
is
find
dt
as
r2 de/h
and integrating.
denned by
= -Kir2
K>0
an inverse square law of attraction, then the path of the particle
i.e.
Method
is
a conic.
1.
In this case f(l/u)
we
the law of central force

/(r)
2 2
y/Gir)
and so separating the variables and integrating, we
The second equation follows by writing
-^^
2m r
we have
dr/dt
r2 d6
energy of Problem
dr
f(r)
dr
f(r)
JS '
dr
f(r)'
JK
in the equation for conservation of
%m(r2
= | f
m + m Jf
G(r)
v '
Placing
[G(r)]-"*dr,
= Ku2
Substituting into the differential equation of motion in Problem 5.7,
find
d2u/de 2
+ u = K/mh 2
(l)
This equation has the general solution
= A
cos 8
4-
sin
+ K/mh 2
(2)
or using Problem 4.2, page 92,
1,e "
It is
= K/mh 2 + C
cos
{o
cos
(e
- 0)
0,
in
K/mh 2 + C
always possible to choose the axes so that
<j>
<p)
which case we have
K/mh 2 + Ccoss
{$)
126
[CHAP.
This has the general form of the conic [see Problem 5.16]
Then comparing
(5)
and
(6)
we
or
Since
2.
= -K/r 2 we
/(r)
we assume
If
5.10,
= C
e/p
m/i2 /K,
f(r)
-K/r +
as
dr
V -
that
-> ,
from which
To
Obtain the constant
show that the
Cj
and so
E + r
\^^
conic
of
an
is
we
find the solution
where
is
E and (b) thus

E < 0, E = 0,
-Ku
(1)
in
1.
The
potential energy
is
v = - f
f(r)
dr
(K/r2) dr
-K/r
where we use u = \/r and choose the constant of integration so that

equation (5) of Problem 5.13,
u - 1/r = K/mh 2 + C cos e
Thus from Problem
5.11(6) together
(Csê^ +
c2
or
C >
assuming
(6)
(5)
terms of the total energy

parabola or hyperbola according as
Problem 5.13
ellipse,
(11)
respectively.
Method
(a)
then
(10)
By separating variables and integrating [see Problem 5.66]

expressed in terms of the energy E.
E>
(9)
cx
-ff/r
2r
(a)
(8)
page 124, we find
mh 2 /dr\ 2 +r2
4
dej
5.14.
(7)
= mh 2 C/K
V =
Using Problem
(6)
COS
(e/p)
have
a constant.
c x is
1/p
tf/mft 2
V = -
where
=
COS 6
see that
1/p
Method
with
2E
^p + rf
if
Method
this
this with
2.
we
+
,
Now from
(2)
2K
^p(^p + C cos.
.
V^ ^
c =
or
(-4)
of
Problem
5.16,
E=
2E
-^
in part (a), the equation of the conic

1
From
0.
we have
K
V
cose)
i^+C
K2
V =
K2 +
2lT
0.
Using the value of C
Comparing
(1),
lim
see that the conic is
and a hyperbola
The value of C can
if
an
E > 0,
{V
L
we
becomes
2ffmft 2
see that the eccentricity is
^1+^
ellipse if 7
since in
(4)
#2
<
[but greater than -K/2mfc}, a parabola

e-1 and e>l respectively.
e < 1,
such cases
also be obtained as in the second
method of Problem
5.13.
CHAP.
5.15.
5]
Under the
127
moves
influence of a central force at point 0, a particle

force.
in a circular orbit
which passes through O. Find the law of

Method
1.
In polar coordinates the equation of a circle of radius a

passing through O is [see Fig. 5-9]
Then
since
de 2
~~
d2
1/r
2a cos
we have
(sec 8)/2a,
du
sec e tan e
de
2a
(sec fl)(sec 2 e)
tan
(sec 6
fl)(tan e)
2a
sec 3 9
sec 9 tan 2 9
2a
Fig. 5-9
Thus by Problem
5.7,
f(l/u)
cPu
-mh 2 u2
^-f
+u
{sec 3
mh2u2
2a
-8mh 2 a2 u5
,.
Thus the force

Method
2.
is
2a cos
mh
2
-7- \
r4
2a
cos e
sec e
mh2u2
1)}
2a
2 sec 3 e
power of the distance from O.
fifth
page 118, we have
in equation (16),
2a
one of attraction varying inversely as the
Using
sec 8 tan 2 e
8m h 2 a2
IS
/(")
(tan 2
sec
/ sec 3 9
-mh 2 u2
2a cos
sin 0) 2
(2a
2a cos
SaHnh2
4amh 2
r4 cos 9
CONIC SECTIONS. ELLIPSE, PARABOLA AND HYPERBOLA

5.16.
Derive equation
page 118, for a conic section.
(18),
Referring to Fig.
page 118, by
5-3,
definition of a conic section
rid
or
we have
for any point
on
it,
r/e
(1)
eD
(2)
Corresponding to the particular point Q, we have
p/D
But
Then from
(2)
and
(3),
if
5.17.
>
is
a circle
r cos
if
=
e
r(l
0,
or
r cos 9
= r (1 +
cos
8)
(5)
eliminating D,
an
cos
or
9)
r
1
ellipse if
<
<
1,
(4)
COS
a parabola
if
and a hyperbola
1.
Derive equation
r
we have on
p
The equation
(19),
page 118, for an
ellipse.
Referring to Fig. 5-4, page 119, we see that when

using equation (4) of Problem 5.16,
= OU. Thus
0,
= OV
and when
v,
128
OV =
But since 2a
is
p/(l
OU =
e),
2a
Thus the equation
of the ellipse
p/(l
or
from which
a(l
in Fig. 5-4,
From Problem
5.17,
page 119,
equation
(5)
From Problem
5.17,
equation
(3)
and the
is
From
An
5.20.
e)
and
that
(a)
- e) =
2a
(*)
(3)
U)
COS 9
- e ),
a(l
equation of
4^
1
^
1
OU =
(b)
^r^
16
+ e).
(1),
a(l
"e
( 1
(i)
(1),
a<1
(a)
e>
Fig. 5-4, page 119,
we have
= CO = CV - OV - a-a(l-e) =
From
are as in Problem 5.19 and b

2
c = \Za - b\ (b) b = a^/l -
is
[see
Prdblem
Fig. 5-4, page 119, and the definition of an ellipse,
CZ__
= QV =
VE
VE
= __^
139].
using
(1)
and the result of Problem
OW
= eCE =
e(CV
(OW) 2 = (OC) 2 + (CW) 2
From Problem
5.19
and part
(a),
a2
ys = ^=^
e
(i)
divided by the distance from
5.19,
+ VE) =
or a2
we have
or
VE
OW/CE -
Then
ae.
the length of the semi-minor axis, prove
Also since the eccentricity is the distance from O to

to the directrix AB [which is equal to CE], we have
or,
page
5.73(c),
ellipse.
(6)
p/(l
and the second equation of
analogous result holds for the hyperbola
If a
(a)
a where c is the distance from the center to the focus of the

the length of the semi-major axis and e is the eccentricity.
Prove that
a
first
^+
ou =
5.19.
OV =
(a)
OV =
(b)
- e2
o(l
(a)
(-0
is
Prove that
p/(l-e)
the length of the major axis,
OV + OU =
5.18.
[CHAP.
b2
&2
e[a
+ c2
+ a2 e 2
(a-c)/e]
i.e.
or
= V^2 -
ea
&2
a-c =
= ay/1- e2
KEPLER'S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION AND

NEWTON'S UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION
5.21.
Prove that
if
a planet
is
to revolve
around the sun
in
an
elliptical
path with the sun
inversely as
at a focus [Kepler's first law], then the central force necessary varies
the square of the distance of the planet from the sun.
distance from the sun,
If the path is an ellipse with the sun at a focus, then calling r the
we have by Problem
5.16,
CHAP.
5]
where
<
1.
Then the central force

f(l/u)
on substituting the value of u in
is
From
5.22.
= ^mh2 u 2/p
u)
we have on
(2)
= -mh
f(r)
(1)
given as in Problem 5.7 by
= -mh2 u 2 (d2 u/de 2 +

(1).
^costf
cos o
129
(2)
replacing u by 1/r,
= -Kir 2
2 /pr 2
(S)
Discuss the connection of Newton's universal law of gravitation with Problem 5.21.
Newton arrived at the inverse square law of force for planets by using Kepler's
law and the method of Problem 5.21. He was then led to the idea that perhaps all objects
of the universe were attracted to each other with a force which was inversely proportional to the
square of the distance r between them and directly proportional to the product of their masses.
This led to the fundamental postulate
Historically,
first
GMm
_
where
is
is
Equivalently, the law of force
the universal gravitational constant.
same as
the
(1)
(3)
of
Problem
5.21
where
K = GMm
5.23.
(2)
The squares of the periods of the various planets are

proportional to the cubes of their corresponding semi-major axes.
Prove Kepler's third law:
are the lengths of the semi-major and semi-minor axes, then the area of the
Since the areal velocity has magnitude h/2 [Problem 5.6], the time taken to sweep
over area vab, i.e. the period, is
a and
If
ellipse is nab.
_
~
vab
h/2
Now
by Problem 5.17 equation
(1)
and
(2)
we
Problem
= aVl ~
Then from
(3),
5.20(6),
<?,
On
GM = gR
m
Calculate the
mass
From Problem
6.38 X 10 8 cm,
g 1.32
10 25
we have
(2)
2irw>i 2 a^ 2 IK^ 2
P2 =
or
4ir 2
maVK
to the cubes of the
semi-major axes.
is
i.e.
r R where R
equal to the weight
GMm/R 2 = mg
5.25.
5.13 equation (8),
'
the earth's surface,
on an object of mass
and Problem
= a(l-e 2 = mhVK
Thus the squares of the periods are proportional
Prove that
,^\
K
find
P =
5.24.
2vab
is
the radius, the force of attraction of the earth

is the mass of the
of the object. Thus if
mg
GM =
or
gR 2
of the earth.
5.24,
GM = gR 2
980 cm/sec 2
and
M - gR /G.
2
or
6.67
Taking
the
X 10~ 8 cgs units, we
radius
find
of
the
earth as
27 gra =
M = 5.98 X 10
lb.
ATTRACTION OF OBJECTS
5.26.
Find the force of attraction of a thin uniform rod of length 2a on a particle of
mass
placed at a distance b from
its
midpoint.
130
[CHAP.
Choose the x axis along the rod and the y axis

perpendicular to the rod and passing through its
center O, as shown in Fig. 5-10. Let a be the mass
per unit length of the rod. The force of attraction
dF between an element of mass o dx of the rod and
is, by Newton's universal law of gravitation,
Gmadx
dF
x2
(sin e
b2
Gmox dx
(X 2
from Fig.
since
5-10,
_,
b tanfl
j)
Gmvb dx
62)3/2
sin e
_
~
X2
+ 62)3/2
x/y/x 2
Fig. 5-10
b 2,
cos $
b/y/x 2
Gmox dx
=
Let
cos e
)^ 2
(x
x 2 +ftb 22)3/2
(
_.
2j
b2
Then the
(x 2
ft
2 3'2
)
Xa
+ b 2 )*' 2
x
total force of attraction is
Gmabdx
Gmabdx
(x 2
Then when
in this integral.
0,
0;
dx
(X 2
+ 62
and when
3 /2
)
a,
tan -1
(a/6).
Thus the integral becomes

tan
-2Gmabj
(a/b)
Since the mass of the rod
is
b se( 2 Q d$
M = 2aa,
this
<s>)
3/ 2
by/a2
'
+b 2
can also be written as
GMm
^,
2Gmcra
2
2
(b
- sec
by/a 2
+b 2
Thus we see that the force of attraction is directed from

and of magnitude 2Gmaa/by/a 2 + b 2 or GMmfby/a 2 + 6 2
to
center of the rod
the
5.27.
mass
lies
on the perpendicular through the center of a uniform thin circular
and at distance
between the plate and the mass m.
plate of radius a
Method
from the
center.
Find the force of attraction
1.
Let n be a unit vector drawn from point P where

is located to the center O of the plate.
Subdivide the
circular plate into circular rings [such as ABC in
Fig. 5-11] of radius r and thickness dr. If a is the mass
per unit area, then the mass of the ring is a{2wrdr).
S ince all points of the ring are at the same distance
y/r2 + b 2 from P, the force of attraction of the ring on
m will
\Vr2 +
fe
be
,_
Ga{2vr dr)m
r2
cos
62
<f>
Go 2irr dr mb
(
r2
4. ,2)3/2
"
(1)
where we have used the fact that due
to
symmetry the
resultant force of attraction is in the direction n.

integrating over all rings from r =
to r = a,
find that the total attraction is
= 2vGomb
To evaluate the integral, let r 2 + 6 2

and u = yja 2 + b 2 when r a, the result
Fig. 5-11
-r
so that
is
By
we
r dr
(
r2
r dr
-j.
(2)
&2)3/2
= u du. Then
since
u=
when
CHAP.
5]
v^+b*
IwGomb n
If
we
a be the value of $
let
when
udu
2irGom n
F = lirGom n
Thus the force
is
from
directed
y/a2
+b 2
can be written
this
a,
131
to the center
(1
cos a)
(3)
cos a).
of the plate and has magnitude 2irG<rm(l
Method 2.
The method of double integration can also be used. In such case the element of area at A is
rdrde where 6 is the angle measured from a line [taken as the x axis] in the plane of the
circular plate and passing through the center O. Then we have as in equation (1),
Ga(r dr do)mb
r2
-(-
J,2)3/2
and by integrating over the circular plate
Gamb
/* S
^0 =
r=0
5.28.
r dr de
(r 2
Xa
2irr
6 2 ) 3/2
(r 2
dr
2TrGom n
6 2 )3/ 2
(1
cos a)
uniform plate has its boundary consisting of two concentric half circles of
inner and outer radii a and b respectively, as shown in Fig. 5-12. Find the
attraction
force of
mass
on a
of the plate
located at the center 0.
convenient to use polar coordinates

of area of the plate [shaded
in Fig. 5-12] is dA = r dr de, and the mass is
ardrde. Then the force of attraction between
It
(r, e).
is
The element
dA and O
Fig. 5-12
is
_ _
Thus the
(cos e
XC
G{ardrde)m
^va2
),
The method of
5.29.
sin e
j)
+
.
..
sin en
j)
(cos o
sine
we have
= 2Mh(b 2 a2
de
2Gaw
In
Problem
and the force can be written
AGMm
fb\
^2-^2) ^ (^-j,
.
single integration can also be used
into circular rings as in
j)
X=o
r=a
Gam In
M o(vb
(cos e
total force of attraction is
)=0
Since
G{ar dr de)m
by dividing the region between r
and
5.27.
Find the force of attraction of a thin spherical

m at a distance r > a from its center.
shell of radius
a on a particle
of
mass
Let
such as
be the center of the sphere.
ABCDA
of Fig. 5-13 below
Subdivide the surface of the sphere into circular elements
by using parallel planes perpendicular to OP.
The area of the surface element
ABCDA
as seen from Fig. 5-13
2^{a sin e)(a de)
2va2 sin
is
de
since the radius is a sin e [so that the perimeter is 2ir(a sin )] and the thickness is ade.
is 2rra 2 a sin e de.
if a is the mass per unit area, the mass of
ABCDA
Then
132
[CHAP.
Since all points of ABCDA are at the same distance w = AP from P, the force of attraction of
is
the element ABCDA on
G(2va2 a
de)m
sin 6
cos
in*
<p
(1)
where we have used the fact that from symmetry the
net force will be in the direction of the unit vector
Now from Fig.

PE
PO - EO
from P toward O.
AP
Using
in
(2)
(1)
ade
a cos
e
(2)
AP
together with the fact that by the
cosine law
w2 =
we
5-13,
a2
r2
2ar cos
(3)
find
G{2ira 2 a sin e de)m{r
dF
(a 2
r2
2ar cos
a cos
0)
e)
3/2
Fig. 5-13
Then the
total force is
We
2TrGa 2 am
(r
+ a) 2
so that
w = r + a.
a cos e) sin e
2ar cos 0) 3/2 de
=
'
a COS
(4)
a2
2ar sin
-f-
r2
w
if
given by (3) in place of 6.

Also when 6 = ir,
r > a.
Work Problem
5.29
)2
x:
if
<
a2
r2
2r
dw
w2
de
_ w 2\
2ar
irGaam n
When
we have
becomes
(4)
r2
In addition,
2w dw
5.30.
can evaluate the integral by using the variable

2ar + r 2 = (r a) 2 so that w = r a
= 0,
a 2 + 2ar + r2 =
Then
(r
(a 2
"J.
&TrGa2om n
r2
a.
However, in evaluating the

In this case the force is also given by (4) of Problem 5.29.
yields w 2 = (a r) 2
we note that on making the substitution (3) of Problem 5.29 that e =
w a r if r < a. Then the result (4) of Problem 5.29 becomes
integral
or
F
Thus there
means that
5.31.
= wGaom
Jo
dw
no force of attraction of a spherical shell on any mass placed inside.

such case a particle will be in equilibrium inside of the shell.
will be
in
Prove that the force of attraction in Problem 5.29

the spherical shell were concentrated at its center.
The mass of the
shell is
M = AttcPo.
Thus the force
is
is
the
same as
if all
the
F = (GMm/r 2 )n, which
This
mass of
proves the
required result.
5.32.
Find the force of attraction of a solid uniform sphere on a mass m placed outside
of it and (b) prove that the force is the same as if all the mass were concentrated
(a)
at its center.
(a)
We
of
can subdivide the solid sphere into thin concentric spherical
from the center and dp is the

attraction of this shell on the mass m is
any of these
force of
shells
shells.
thickness, then
If p is the distance
5.29 the
by Problem
CHAP.
5]
d
where
to
is
the
a
mass per unit volume.
d P )m
Then the
total
AirGomn f a
M ^waPo,
We
is
(2)
can be written as
first
potential
Then the
dV due
element
to the
G{2tto, 2 o
ABCDA
Problem
5.130].
finding the potential due to the
sin e
is
do)m
G{2va2 a
__
V 2 +
If
>
a this yields
If
<
it
the force
de)m
2ar cos
< a
the force
+ y)2
r2
2ar cos
-,/(.-
4:irGa 2 cnn
GMm
r)2
is
F
if
sin e
V = kwGaom
yields
> a
V a2 +
2irGaam ^/
(
if
r2
total potential is
2irGa2 am
GMm \
-VV = -V
GMm
,2
is
F =
in
[see
F = (GMm/r2 )n, which
mass were concentrated at
the
all
if
can also use triple integration to obtain this result
dV
and
from
distribution.
The
Then
force obtained by integrating
(*)
same as
the
Derive the result of Problems 5.29 and 5.30 by
mass
(1)
G{% va s )am n
Xa>^ dp
Since the mass of the sphere is

shows that the force of attraction
the center.
(6)
is
5.33.
G<x(4t7 P 2
133
-VV =
agreement with Problems 5.29 and
-V(-4s-Gaam) =
5.30.
5.34.
An
is projected vertically upward from the earth's surface with initial

Neglecting air resistance, (a) find the speed at a distance
above the
earth's surface and (6) the smallest velocity of projection needed in order that the
object never return.
object
speed
(a)
Vo.
Let r denote the radial distance of the object at time t

from the center of the earth, which we assume is fixed
[see Pig. 5-14].
If
is the mass of the earth and R is
its radius, then by Newton's universal law of gravitation
and Problem 5.29, the force between m and
is
GMm
(1)
rj is a unit vector directed radially outward from

the earth's center in the direction of motion of the object.
where
If v is the speed at
ond law,
time
t,
we have by Newton's
sec-
Fig. 5-14
134
GMm r
r2
[CHAP.
dv
i
Tt
This can be written as
dv dr
dr dt
Then by integrating, we
GM
= GM/r +
v 2 /2
find
dv
dr
or
r2
ct
tt)
Since the object starts from the earth's surface with speed v
so that
<?!
vjj/2
GM/.R.
Then
2GM (i-i) +
Thus when the object
at height
is
we have v = v
when r =
becomes
(4)
(5)
above
earth' surface,
ve the earth's
i.e.
= R + H,
2GMH
R(R + H)
=
=
V
v
Using Problem
2GMH
V
^jvl
,
-R(R + H)
can be written
5.24, this
2gRH
!~2
H -*
As
(b)
oo,
the limiting speed
(6)
\<~R+H
becomes
vX ~ 2GM/R
since
lim /p
H-t (it
=
+ /3)
v^ 2 - 2gR
or
The minimum
1.
(6)
initial
speed occurs where
= V2GM/R =
(7)
(7)
is
zero or where
y/2gR
(8)
This minimum speed is called the escape speed and the corresponding velocity
escape velocity from the earth's surface.
5.35.
Show
is
that the magnitude of the escape velocity of an object
5.36.
called the
earth's surface
about 7 mi/sec.
From
we
from the
is
find
equation
(*)
of Problem 5.34,
Taking
y/2gR.
32 ft/sec 2
and
R=
4000 mi,
6.96 mi/sec.
Prove, by using vector methods primarily, that the path of a planet around the sun
is an ellipse with the sun at one focus.
Since the force
F between
the planet and sun
we have
_ w
~ m
dv
dv
-=r
(4),
since r
rr.,
dv
-37
at
rr-
= rX
at
{1)
ri
r2
r2
,-.
(2)
we have
r
av^
GMm
_
~
GM
x-r
dt
Also, by Problem 5.1, equation
Now
dt
is
(y
-r-r,.
at
X v
= h
(3)
Thus from
(S),
\
f dr,
r
lX (,
+ -)
(j
dr,
= ^r.x-J
W)
CHAP.
5]
From
135
(2),
GM
dv
But
(4)
since
is
above and equation

a constant vector,
X h
-jr
at
drA
{("-^>-<'.-")-i
page
(7),
*A
[f
= - GM
using equation
dr i
or,
= GM ^r
5.
at
(v
so that
h)
^r i
d
|(vxh) = GM-
v X h
Integrating,
= GM r +
from which
r
where
c is
(v
= GM t
h)
r1
(v
h)
(r
v)
hh
h2
h2
[see
Problem
GMr +
GM +
which is the equation of a conic.

required result is proved.
c cos e
(8)
Since the only conic which
of Problem 5.13,
(4)
of Problem 5.14 and
mh2
n
2
= -g^ = a(l-e
E -
from which
v2
or
27],
is
a closed curve
elliptical
is
an
ellipse,
the
path in an inverse square
a
of Problem 5.17,
(3)
we have
2Emh2 \
K2~J
...
(*)
(2)
V=
Kir,
(3)
Kf2
a
m \r +h)
(*)
can similarly show that for a hyperbola,
v2
-*
in either (3) or (4)]
= 2K/mr
(man-made) satellite revolves about the earth at height H above the

Determine the (a) orbital speed and (b) orbital period so that a man in the
artificial
surface.
satellite will
(a)
-(---)
m \r a I
while for a parabola [which corresponds to letting
An
page
-K/2a
Thus by the conservation of energy we have, using
5.38.
1.72(a),
re cos
the angle between c and r x
the semi-major axis.
We
= GMr +
e is
h2/GM
(c/GM) cos
m \r
is
re cos 6
Prove that the speed v of a particle moving in an

field is given by
where a
and
c,
h2
and so
By
rr x
an arbitrary constant vector having magnitude
Since
5.37.
GMr +
be in a state of weightlessness.
Assume that the earth is spherical and has radius R. Weightlessness will result when the
centrifugal force [equal and opposite to the centripetal force, i.e. the force due to the cen-
136
[CHAP.
acceleration] acting on the man due to rotation of the satellite just balances his
attraction to the earth. Then if v is the orbital speed,
tripetal
mv l _
R+H ~
If
GMm _
(R
gR*m
+ H)* ~
(R
small compared with R, this
is
(b)
is
2tt(R
+ H)
2u(R
+ H)
^7
5.39.
is
+ H)g
(a)
y/(R
distance traveled in one revolution

time for one revolution, or period
Thus
If
R
_
~ R+H
y/Rg approximately.
Orbital speed
Then from part
or
+ H)*
small compared with R, this
is
R+H
1
R )V
:
2iry/R/g approximately.
Calculate the (a) orbital speed and (b) period in Problem 5.38 assuming that the
height
above the earth's surface is small compared with the earth's radius.
Taking the
4.92 mi/sec
5.40.
and
earth's
(b)
P=
radius
2-n-^R/g
and
4000 miles
as
hr
1.42
32 ft/sec 2
we
find
(a)
= y/Rg -
85 minutes, approximately.
Find the force of attraction of a solid sphere of radius a on a particle of mass

a distance b < a from its center.
By Problem
shell containing
shown dashed
at
5.30 the force of attraction of any spherical

in its interior [such as the spherical shell
in Fig. 5-15] is zero.
Thus the force
of attraction on
is the force due to a
sphere of radius b < a with center at O. If a is the mass
per unit volume, the force of attraction is
G(f7r&3)<rm/&2
= (^Gam)b
Thus the force varies as the distance
from the mass
to the
center.
Fig. 5-15
CENTRAL FORCES AND EQUATIONS OF MOTION
5.41.
Indicate which of the following central force fields are attractive toward origin O and which
are repulsive from O.
(a)
F =
F = Kxjyfr,
> 0; (c) F = r(r- ljr^r2 + 1);
(6)
(d) F = sin wr r v
-4^;
Ans. (a) attractive; (6) repulsive; (<;) attractive

2n < r < 2n + 1, attractive for 2n+l<r<2n
5.42.
Prove that
5.43.
Give an example of a force
in
if
<r<
where
repulsive
1,
0, 1, 2,
if
rectangular coordinates the magnitude of the areal velocity
field directed
toward a fixed point which
is
>
r
.
is
1;
(d)
repulsive for
^{xy
yx).
not a central force
field.
CHAP.
5.44.
5.45.
Derive equation
If
its
5.46.
5]
page 117.
(7),
a particle moves in a circular orbit under the influence of a central force at

speed around the orbit must be constant.
(K
ma2 v\
Show
(a)
that the differential equation for the orbit in Problem 5.46
do 2
(1
y)u
Solve the differential equation in
(b)
sin 2 a)
mr3
dt2
5.48.
prove that
its center,
particle of mass m moves in a force field defined by F = -Kr^r3

If it starts on the positive
x axis at distance a away from the origin and moves with speed v in direction making angle
a with the positive x axis, prove that the differential equation for the radial position r of the
particle at any time Ms

d2 r
5.47.
137
(a)
where
y'
is
given in terms of u
ma2 v2
1/r
by
sin2 a
and interpret physically.
particle is to move under the influence of a central force

always constant and equal to v
Determine all possible orbits.
field
so that its orbital
speed
is
POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

5.49.
Find the potential energy or potential corresponding to the central force
F = -Krjr*,
(a)
Ans.
5.50.
-K/2r2
(a)
(b)
F=
(b)
a/r
{air2
+ 0/r)r lf
p/2r2
(c)
(c)
\Kr2
F = Krr u
(d) 2ypr,
(d)
(e)
F=
r x /yfF,
(e)
fields
F=
sin a-r
defined
by
r^
(cosr)/ir
Find the potential energy for a particle which moves in the force field F = Krjr2 (b) How
is done by the force field in (a) in moving the particle from a point on the circle
r = a >
to another point on the circle r = 6 > 0?
Does the work depend on the path? Explain.
Ans. (a) -Kir, (6) K(a-b)/ab
(a)
much work
5.51.
Work Problem
5.52.
particle of mass
moves in a central force field defined by F = Krjr*. (a) Write an equation
for the conservation of energy. (6) Prove that if
is the total energy supplied to the particle,
5.50 for the force field
F = -Krjr.
Ans.
(a)
-K\nr,
-K In (a/6)
(6)
then
5.53.
its
speed
given by
= yjKlmr2 + 2E/m.
A particle moves in a central force field defined by F = Kr2 r v It starts

o n the circle r = a.
(a) Prove that when it reaches the circle
r =
V2#(a3 -
5.54.
is
6 3 )/3w
and that
(6)
its
speed will be
the speed will be independent of the path.
mass m moves in a central force field F = Kxjrn where K and n are constants.
from rest at r = a and arrives at r =
with finite speed v
(a) Prove that we must
n < 1 and K > 0. (b) Prove that v = y/2Ka i - n/m{n- 1). (c) Discuss the physical sig-
particle of
It starts
have
nificance of the results in
5.55.
from rest at a point
By
differentiating
both
(a).
sides
of
equation
(IS),
page 117, obtain equation
(6).
DETERMINATION OF ORBIT FROM CENTRAL FORCE OR

CENTRAL FORCE FROM ORBIT
5.56.
5.57.
particle of mass
moves in a central force field given in magnitude by f(r) = Kr where
a positive constant. If the particle starts at r a, e =
with a speed v in a direction
perpendicular to the x axis, determine its orbit. What type of curve is described?
is
(a)
Work Problem
(6)
Discuss the cases
5.56 if the speed is v
0,
ir
in
a direction making angle a with the positive * axis.
and give the physical
significance.
138
5.58.
[CHAP.
particle moving in a central force field located at r =

describes the spiral
that the magnitude of the force is inversely proportional to r3
e~
Prove
5.59.
Find the central force necessary to make a particle

describe the lemniscate r 2 = a 2 cos 2d [see Fig. 5-16].
Ans.
5.60.
5.61.
force proportional to r~ 7
a*cos2
Obtain the orbit for the particle of Problem 5.46 and

describe physically.
Prove that the orbits r

possible for the case of
e~ e and r = 1/8 are both

an inverse cube field of force.
Explain physically how this
5.62.
r2
(a)
Show
that
if
Fig. 5-16
is possible.
the law of force
given by
is
F =
r4 cos
r2 cos 3 e
then a particle can move in the circular orbit r 2a cos 8.

(b) What can you conclude about
the uniqueness of forces when the orbit is specified?
(c) Answer part (b) when the forces are
central forces.
5.63.
What
central force at the origin O is needed to make a particle move around O with a speed
inversely proportional to the distance from O.
(b) What types of orbits are possible in
such case?
Ans. (a) Inverse cube force.
(a)
which
is
5.64.
Discuss the motion of a particle moving in a central force
5.65.
Prove that there
5.66.
is
field
given by
F =
(a/r2
+ )8/r3 )r
no central force which will enable a particle to move in a straight
Complete the integration of equation (12) of Problem

of the same problem.
[Hint. Let r = 1/u.]
5.13,
1.
line.
page 125 and thus arrive at equation
(5)
5.67.
Suppose that the orbit of a particle moving in a central force field is given by 8 = e(r). Prove
mh 2 [2e' + re" + r2 (e') 3
that the law of force is
where primes denote differentiations with
5
3
]
respect to
5.68.
(a)
,.
r.
Use Problem
inversely as r 3
show that if
Graph the orbit in
5.67 to
(6)
(a)
1/r,
the central force
is
one of attraction and varies
and explain physically.
CONIC SECTIONS. ELLIPSE, PARABOLA AND HYPERBOLA

5.69.
The equation
(c)
of a conic
is
12
-^,
the length of the major axis,
(d)
Graph the conic, finding (a) the foci,

cos 8
the length of the minor axis, (e) the distance
(6)
the vertices,
from the center
to the directrix.
5.70.
Work Problem
5.69 for the conic
24
=
3
'
5 cos 8
5.71.
Show
5.72.
Find an equation for an ellipse which has one focus at the origin,
Ans. r = 9/(5 + 4 cos 8)
and its major axis of length 10.
that the equation of a parabola can be written as
sec 2 (8/2).
its
center at the point (4,
0),
CHAP.
5.73.
5]
In Fig. 5-17, SR or TN is called the minor axis of

the hyperbola and its length is generally denoted
by 26. The length of the major axis
is 2a,
while the distance between the foci O and O' is 2c
%\
x/'
>^
VU
[i.e.
the distance from the center
or O'
(a)
Prove that
(b)
Prove that
= +
= aVe 2 1 where
a2
b 2.
Prove that
re's
\f
y
e is
>^
c
etc.
Compare with
results for
'
\x
//
the eccen-
tricity.
(c)
n.,
m_\
/ y / /Cx U \
/yy
^H\
is C].
c2
//
\\lxrX \
to a focus
139
^>
the ellipse.
Fig. 5-17
5.74.
Derive equation
5.75.
In rectangular coordinates the equations for an ellipse and hyperbola in standard form are given by
(22),
page 119, for a hyperbola.
*2
tf
2
+,y2 =
v2
x2
and
V ~V
where a and b are the lengths of the semi-major and semi-minor axes. Graph these
equations, locating vertices, foci and directrices, and explain the relation of these equations to
equations [19), page 118, and (22), page 119.
respectively,
5.76.
Using the alternative definitions for an ellipse and hyperbola given on pages 118-119, obtain the
equations (19) and (22).
5.77.
Prove that the angle between the asymptotes of a hyperbola
KEPLER'S LAWS AND NEWTON'S

5.78.
is
2 cos -1
(1/e).
LAW OF GRAVITATION
Assuming that the planet Mars has a period about the sun equal to 687 earth days approximately,
mean distance of Mars from the sun. Take the distance of the earth from the sun as
find the
Ans. 140 million miles
93 million miles.
5.79.
Work Problem
5.78 for
(a)
225 earth days respectively.

5.80.
Jupiter and
Ans.
(a)
(b)
Venus which have periods of 4333 earth days and
484 million miles,
Suppose that a small spherical planet has a radius of 10
What would
be the acceleration due to gravity at

on this planet if he weighed 80 kgwt on earth?
(a)
5.81.
km
its
(b)
67 million miles
and a mean density of 5 gm/cm 3

(6) What would a man weigh
.
surface?
due to gravity on the surface of a spherically shaped planet P is g P while its

density and radius are given by aP and R P respectively, prove that g P = %irGR P eP where G
the universal gravitational constant.
If the acceleration
mean
is
5.82.
If L, M, T represent the dimensions of length,

gravitational constant.
Ans. L3 _1 T~ 2
5.83.
mass and
time, find the dimensions of the universal
Calculate the mass of the sun using the fact that the earth is approximately
it and makes one complete revolution about it in approximately 365 days.
150
5.84.
10 6 kilometers
Ans. 2 X 10 30 kg
from
Calculate the force between the sun and the earth if the distance between the earth and the sun is
taken as 150 X 10 6 kilometers and the masses of the earth and sun are 6 X 10 24 kg and 2 X 10 30 kg
respectively.
Ans. 1.16 X 10 24 newtons
ATTRACTION OF OBJECTS
5.85.
5.86.
Find the force of attraction of a thin uniform rod of length a on a mass

Ans. GMm/b(a
the same line as the rod and distance 6 from an end.
outside the rod but on
+ b)
In Problem 5.85 determine where the mass of the rod should be concentrated
Ans. At a point in the rod a distance y/b(a + b)
same force of attraction.
so as to give the
6
from the end
[CHAP.
14 ()
5.87.
Find the force of attraction of an infinitely long thin uniform rod on a mass
Arts. Magnitude is 2Gmafb
from it.
5.88.
angle ^.
is in the form of an arc of a circle of radius 6 and central
circle
of
the
center
the
placed
at
on
mass
a
wire
the
of
attraction
of
force
the
uniform wire
2Gam
r
6V
where
and yp
5.89.
is
at distance b
magnitude by
mass of the wire and a
the
is
sin
Prove that
is
given in
(vfr/2)
the mass per unit length. Discuss the cases
v/2
7r.
AB
is a thin rod of length 2a and

In Fig. 5-18,
a mass located at point C a distance 6 from the
Prove that the force of attraction of the rod
rod.
is
on
has magnitude
^^
D/
Ua + (3)
sin
ao
a direction making an angle with

given by
_ / cos/3 + cosoA
tan 1
the
in
rod
/^
Discuss the case
5.90.
5.91.
s'
^\ \
/^
\v
^ r
VsiniS-sinay
lem
\^^~~ ~~' '-"""

E Â~^ /?
2a
and compare with Prob-
/?
Fig. 5-18
5.26.
prove that the rod of Problem 5.89 can be

which has its
replaced by a wire in the form of circular arc BEG [shown dashed in Fig. 5-18]
attraction is toward
the
of
direction
the
that
Prove
E.
at
rod
the
tangent
to
and
is
at
C
center
the midpoint of this arc.
By comparing Problem
hemisphere of mass
force of attraction
Ana.
(a)
GMm/2a2
(a)
if
36
(b)
with Problem
5.89
5.88,
located at
and radius a has a particle of mass
the hemisphere is a thin shell, (6) the hemisphere
its
is
center.
Mm/2a2
hemisphere
having outer radius a and inner radius
5.92.
Work Problem
5.93.
and planets
Deduce from Kepler's laws that if the force of attraction between sun
planet.
particular
2
the
of
independent
be
magnitude by ym/r then y must
5.91 if the
Find the
solid.
is
shell
b.
is
given in
5 94
cone has height
placed at
its
and radius a.
. ^
magnitude
vertex has
Prove that the force of attraction on a particle of mass

\
1
/ 24- W2 /
GMm
^ A1 ~
"
5.95.
Find the force of attraction between two non-intersecting spheres.
5 96
distance a
placed outside of a uniform solid hemisphere of radius a at a
force of attraction is
the
that
Prove
center.
its
through
base
the
to
on a line perpendicular
particle of
mass
is
given in magnitude by GMm{\f2
5.97.
Work
(a)
Problem
(b)
5.26,
l)/a2
Problem
5.27,
and
(c)
Problem
5.94
by
first finding
the potential.
5.98.
particle
is
projected vertically
maximum
upward from the
height
reached above the earth's surface
(a)
Prove that the
(b)
Discuss the significance of the case where v\
(c)
Prove that
if
is
small, then
it is
earth's surface with initial speed v
2gR.
equal to v%/2g very nearly.
is
H=
v 2 R/(2gR
- v\).
CHAP.
5.99.
5]
(a)
Prove that the time taken
maximum
reach the
to
R+
HJ
(b)
5.100.
(a)
Prove that
Prove that
resistance
if
if
is
very small compared with R, then the time in
an object
negligible
is
height of Problem 5.98
R + H wo _JR-H
2R
\R + H
[H
~
^~2tUr
dropped
is
it will
to
141
very nearly ^2H/g.
(a) is
the earth's surface from
hit the earth with a speed
is
a height H, then
if
- ^2gRH/(R + H) where R
air
is
the radius of the earth.

(b)
(a) for the cases where

H
Take the radius of the earth as 4000 miles.
Calculate the speed in part

respectively.
100 miles
and
H=
10,000 miles
5.101.
Find the time taken for the object of Problem 5.100 to reach the earth's surface in each of
the two cases.
5.102.
What must be the law of force if the speed of a particle in a central force field
proportional to r~ n where n is a constant?
5.103.
What velocity must a space ship have in order to keep it in an orbit around the earth at a
distance of (a) 200 miles, (6) 2000 miles above the earth's surface"
>9
5.104.
An
is thrown upward from the earth's surface with velocity v

Assuming that
and that air resistance is negligible, find its velocity on returning.
object
to earth
5.105.
(a)
What
is
the
work done by a space ship of mass
in
is
it
to
be
returns
moving from a distance a above the
earth's surface to a distance 6?
5.106.
(6)
Does the work depend on the path? Explain.
(o)
Prove that it is possible for a particle to move in a

field whose law of force is /(r).
(b)
Suppose the particle of part

it
will return to the orbit,
w
but
(c)
5.107.
5.108.
is
4U
i.e.
Illustrate the result in

stability can occur.
(6)
'
{a)
by considering
(c) For
n <
Ans.
were suddenly stopped
GmM(a
b)/ab
circle of radius
a in any central force
is displaced slightly from its circular orbit.

the motion is stable, if
If the moon were suddenly stopped in its

assuming that the earth remained at rest?
If the earth
(a)
(a)
af
.l
unstable otherwise.
Ans.
3/(a)
f(r)
>
1/r"
there
is
and deciding for which values of n

stability.
how long would it take to

Ans. About 4 days 18 hours
orbit,
in its orbit,
Prove that
how long would
it
take for
it
fall
to
the earth
to fall into the
sun?
Ans. About 65 days

5.109.
Work Problem
5.110.
Find the velocity of escape for an object on the surface of the moon. Use the fact that the
acceleration due to gravity on the moon's surface is approximately 1/6 that on the earth and
that the radius of the moon is approximately 1/4 of the earth's radius.
Ans. 1.5 mi/sec
5.111.
An
page 133, by using energy methods.
object is dropped through a hole bored through the center of the earth. Assuming that the
resistance to motion is negligible, show that the speed of the particle as it passes through the
center of the earth is slightly less than 5 mi/sec.
[Hint.
5.112.
5.34,
Use Problem
5.40,
page
136.]
In Problem 5.111 show that the time taken for the object to return
is
about 85 minutes.
14 2
5.113.
Work Problems
and 5.112
5.111
if
the hole
[CHAP.
straight but does not pass through the center of
is
the earth.
5.114.
Discuss the relationship between the results of Problems 5.111 and 5.112 and that of Problem 5.39.
5.115.
How
5.116.
Prove Theorem
5.117.
Discuss Theorem 5.1
5.118.
5.119.
5.120.
would you explain the fact that the earth has an atmosphere while the moon has none?
the spheres intersect.
space ships move about the earth on the same elliptical path of eccentricity e. If they are
separated by a small distance D at perigee, prove that at apogee they will be separated by the
Two
- e)/(l + c).
Explain how you could calculate the velocity of escape from a planet. (6) Use your method to
Ans. (6) 5 km/sec, or about 3 mi/sec
calculate the velocity of escape from Mars.
(a)
5.122.
Work Problem
5.125.
if
Find the force of attraction between a uniform circular ring of outer radius a and inner radius
and a mass m located on its axis at a distance 6 from its center.
5.121.
5.124.
page 120.
Explain how you could use the result of Problem 5.27 to find the force of attraction of a solid
sphere on a particle.
distance D(l
5.123.
5.1,
5.121 for
(a)
Jupiter,
(b)
Venus.
Ans.
(a)
about 38 mi/sec,
(6)
about 6.3 mi/sec
Three infinitely long thin uniform rods having the same mass per unit length lie in the same plane
and form a triangle. Prove that force of attraction on a particle will be zero if and only if the
particle is located at the intersection of the medians of the triangle.
Find the force of attraction between a uniform rod of length a and a sphere of radius
do not intersect and the line of the rod passes through the center.
Work Problem
5.124 if the rod
is
situated so that a line
b if
drawn from the center perpendicular
they
to the
line of the rod bisects the rod.
5.126.
A
If
the
4^-2(a
5.127.
a revolves in a circular orbit about a planet of radius b with period P.

between their surfaces is c, prove that the mass of the planet is
distance
shortest
satellite of radius
+ b + c)3/GP 2
one complete
Given that the moon is approximately 240,000 miles from the earth and makes
earth.
the
of
mass
the
find
approximately,
revolution about the earth in 27 days
Ans. 6 X 10 24 kg
5.128.
Discuss the relationship of Problem 5.126 with Kepler's third law.
5.129.
Prove that the only central force
5.130.
Work Problem
5.131.
5.32,
field
F whose
page 132, by using
divergence
is
zero
is
an inverse square force
field.
triple integration.
is placed
uniform solid right circular cylinder has radius a and height H. A particle of mass
end. Prove that the
on the extended axis of the cylinder so that it is at a distance D from one
force of attraction is directed along the axis and given in magnitude by
^^{H
+ Va2 + Z)2- Va2 + (D + H)2}
aH
2
5.132.
5.133.
Suppose that the cylinder of Problem 5.131 has a given volume.

when the particle is at the center of one end of the cylinder is a
Work
(a)
Problem 5.26 and
(&)
Problem
5.27
Prove that the force of attraction
maximum when alH =
(9
assuming an inverse cube law of attraction.
- y/ll).
CHAP.
5]
5.134.
Do the results of Problems 5.29 and 5.30 apply

Explain.
5.135.
What would
5.136.
there
is
an inverse cube law of attraction?
be the velocity of escape from the small planet of Problem 5.80?
spherical shell of inner radius a and outer radius 6 has constant density
gravitational potential V(r) at distance r from the center is given by
2ua(b 2
V(r)
27r(j(b 2
47tct(6 3
5.137.
if
143
If Einstein's
theory of relativity
of a planet becomes
-a2
- lr - 4a
a3 )/3r
2
3 /3r
<
<
>
<
Prove that the
a.
taken into account, the differential equation for the orbit
is
d 2u
mh2
do 2
'
y = 3K/mc2 c being the speed of light, (a) Prove that if axes are suitably chosen, then
the position r of the planet can be determined approximately from
where
/K
+mh cos
aO
2
where
, L92
yK/mh
(b) Use (a) to show that a planet actually moves in an elliptical path but
that this ellipse slowly
rotates in space, the rate of angular rotation being 2iryK/mh 2
(c) Show that in the case of
Mercury this rotation amounts to 43 seconds of arc per century. This was actually observed, thus
offering experimental proof of the validity of the theory of relativity.
.
5.138.
Find the position of a planet in its orbit around the sun as a function of time
where it is furthest from the sun.
5.139.
At apogee
5.140.
measured from
of 200 miles from the earth's surface, two space ships in the same elliptical path are
500 feet apart. How far apart will they be at perigee 150 miles assuming that they drift without
altering their path in any way?
particle of mass
is located on a perpendicular line through the center of a rectangular
plate
of sides 2a and 26 at a distance
from this center. Prove that the force of attraction of the plate
on the particle is given in magnitude by
GMm Sin _j
.
ab
ab
\^(a 2
+ D 2 )(b 2 + D 2
5.141.
Find the force of attraction of a uniform infinite plate of negligible thickness and density
a
on a particle at distance D from it.
Ans. 2iroGm
5.142.
Points where r =
are called apsides [singular, apsis], (a) Prove that apsides for a central
force field with potential V(r) and total energy
are roots of the equation V(r) + h2/2r2 = E.
(b) Find the apsides corresponding to an inverse square field of force,
showing that there are
two, one or none according as the orbit is an ellipse, hyperbola or parabola.
5.143.
particle
moving
Find the law of

5.144.
5.145.
in a central force field travels in
force.
a path which
Ans. Inverse fourth power of r.
is
the cycloid
Set up equations for the motion of a particle in a central force field if it takes place
where the resistance is proportional to the instantaneous speed of the particle.
satellite
has
its
largest and smallest orbital speeds given by v max and
that the eccentricity of the orbit in which the satellite moves
is
i;
Prove that
if
is
y/v max vmin
in
medium
Prove
equal to
the satellite of ProbLem 5.145 has a period equal to
path having major axis whose length
a(l-cose).
min respectively.
max
5.146.
t,
then
it
'
vr
moves
in
an
elliptical
MOVING
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Chapter 6
NON-INERTIAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS

particles
In preceding chapters the coordinate systems used to describe the motions of
importance,
practical
of
were assumed to be inertial [see page 33]. In many instances
however, this assumption is not warranted. For example, a coordinate system fixed in
the earth is not an inertial system since the earth itself is rotating in space. Consequently
relative to the earth
if we use this coordinate system to describe the motion of a particle
the motion of
consider
to
we obtain results which may be in error. We are led therefore
particles relative to
moving coordinate systems.
ROTATING COORDINATE SYSTEMS

In Fig. 6-1 let XYZ denote an inertial coordinate
system with origin O which we shall consider fixed
in space. Let the coordinate system xyz having the
same origin O be rotating with respect to the XYZ
system.
Consider a vector A which is changing with

time. To an observer fixed relative to the xyz system
the time rate of change of A = Aii + A 2 j + A 3k is
found to be
dA
dAi
dt
~df
dA,
dt
dAt
(1)
dt
indicates the derivative

where subscript
moving (xyz) system.
in the
However, the time rate of change of A relative

XYZ system symbolized by the subscript
be [see Problem 6.1]
found
to
is
to the fixed
where
a>
is
dA
dA
dt
dt
called the angular velocity of the xyz
DERIVATIVE OPERATORS
Let D F and D M represent time
Then we
Fig. 6-1
o>
(2)
system with respect to the
derivative operators in the fixed and
XYZ
system.
moving systems.
can write the operator equivalence
DF
D M + oX
(3)
the fixed and moving

This result is useful in relating higher order time derivatives in
systems. See Problem 6.6.
144
CHAP.
6]
145
VELOCITY IN A MOVING SYSTEM

If, in
particular, vector
is
the position vector r of a particle, then
_
~
dr
dt f
dr
+ *>Xr
dt
DFr = DMx +
or
gives
(2)
<o
a)
(5)
Let us write
=
=
=
vp|F
vp(M
vmif
Then
(-4)
= D Fr = velocity of particle P relative to fixed system

M = D M r = velocity of particle P relative to moving system
= velocity of moving system relative to fixed system.
dr/dt F
\
dr/dt
\
x r
or
(5)
can be written
v pif
v P|M
v M|F
ACCELERATION IN A MOVING SYSTEM

2
If D F = d2/dt 2 F and D^ = d2 /dt
M are second
2
(6)
derivative operators with respect to
and moving systems, then application of
in the fixed
D F2 r = D M2 r +
(Z>
<o)
Problem
(3) yields [see
2 X
D Mr +
6.6]
r)
(7)
Let us write
= D Fr =
P relative to fixed
aP|F
a P|M
= d 2 r/dt 2 M = D^r = acceleration of particle P relative

= D m<*) X r + 2a. X D M r + X X r)
= acceleration of moving system relative to fixed system
acceleration of particle
a Mir
Then
d2 r/dt 2
can be written
*P|F
CORIOLIS
The
moving system
(o,
(7)
to
system
last
**P|M
"*"
aM|F
(#)
AND CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION

two terms on the right of
acceleration respectively,
(7)
are called the Coriolis acceleration and centripetal
i.e.,
Coriolis acceleration
2o
Centripetal acceleration
The second term on the right
of
(7) is
D Mr
2<o
x vM
(9)
r)
(10)
sometimes called the linear acceleration,
i.e.,
/j
Linear acceleration
(Dâ)
M ' x r
v
(~
\dt
M/
Z>M o> is called the angular acceleration. For many cases of practical importance
the rotation of the earth] <a is constant and D M <a = 0.
and
The quantity <o x
(o>
r) is
(11)
[e.g.
in
often called the centrifugal acceleration.
MOTION OF A PARTICLE RELATIVE TO THE EARTH

Newton's second law
(7)
we
is strictly applicable only to inertial systems. However, by using

obtain a result valid for non-inertial systems. This has the form
mD^r = F - m(D M a) X r - 2m(u x D M r) - mx( B

where F
the resultant of
fixed or inertial system.
is
all
Xr)
(12)
forces acting on the particle as seen by the observer in the
146
[CHAP.
In practice we are interested in expressing the equations of motion in terms of quantities

by an observer fixed on the earth [or other moving system]. In such case
determined
as
and write (12) as
subscript
the
may
omit
we
m ddtv
m(m X
r)
m[ x
2m(o> x v)
(13)
r)]
For the case of the earth rotating with constant angular o> about
(13) becomes
2
2m(<o X v) - m[ X (o> x r)]
m 2
its
axis,
*>
and
(U)
dt
CORIOLIS
AND CENTRIPETAL FORCE
Referring to equations (13) or
we
(14)
often use the following terminology
Coriolis force
Centripetal force
= m[ x
Centrifugal force
= -m[ x
2ra( x
r)
x
(
2ra(o>
v)
r)]
r)]
MOVING COORDINATE SYSTEMS IN GENERAL

In the above results we assumed that the coordinate systems xyz and XYZ [see Fig. 6-1] have common origin O. In case they do not have a common
origin, results are easily obtained from those already
considered.
Suppose that
is
the position vector of origin
Then
[see Fig. 6-2].
relative to origin
if
R and
denote the velocity and acceleration of Q relative

to O, equations (5) and (7) are replaced respectively
by
D Fr = R +
=
R +
+ <oXr
ZXr
dr
dt
<
xr
(15)
Fig. 6-2
and
Dl*
R + D M2 r +
Similarly equation (14)
is
^r
m dt
+S+
(D M <o) x
2. x
iXr + 2Xv +
DMr +
. x ( x
)X(a Xr)
r)
(16)
replaced by
F - 2m(u X
v)
m[<a
x(<aX
r)]
mR
(17)
THE FOUCAULT PENDULUM

Consider a simple pendulum consisting of a long string and heavy bob suspended
from a f rictionless support. Suppose that the bob is displaced from its equilibrium
position and is free to rotate in any vertical plane. Then due to the rotation of the earth,
the plane in which the pendulum swings will gradually precess about a vertical axis. In the
vertically
northern hemisphere this precession is in the clockwise direction if we look down at the
earth's surface. In the southern hemisphere the precession would be in the counterclockwise direction.
Such a pendulum used for detecting the earth's rotation was

in 1851 and is called Foucault's pendulum.
first
employed by Foucault
CHAP.
6]
147
Solved Problems
ROTATING COORDINATE SYSTEMS

6.1.
An
observer stationed at a point which is fixed relative to an xyz coordinate system

with origin O [see Fig. 6-1, page 144] observes a vector A = Ad + A 2j + Ask. and
calculates its time derivative to be
fri
+ ~dT^-
~rfj~i
Later, he finds that he
and his coordinate system are actually rotating with respect to an XYZ coordinate
system taken as fixed in space and having origin also at 0. He asks, "What would
be the time derivative of A for an observer who is fixed relative to the XYZ coordinate system?"
dA
If
fixed
dA
and rr
dt f
and
denote respectively the time derivatives of
dt
moving systems,
show that there
dA
dA
dt
dt
exists a vector quantity
relative to the
<*>
A
Hence such an
To the fixed observer the unit vectors i, j,k actually change with time.
observer would compute the time derivative as
dA
dA x
dt
dt
Since
j
and
dAl
dt \m
\f
from
dk
+ A 2 d\ + A ZTt
ft
di
dt
(1)
dk
di
d)
+ Aa 3 dt
+ ^1^7
+ A 2^
dt
dt
.
perpendicular to
is
di/dt
dj/dt
a 3k
dk/dt
a5i
0,
differentiation yields
Thus a 4
i *
dk
0,
i-^dt
jT+
dt
= a v
Similarly from ik
and a 6 = a 3 Then
,di
dj
ij
(3).
A^
(2)
and must therefore
lie
in
the plane
Then
k.
Similarly,
From
dA
3
-^k
+
dt
dt
a unit vector, di/dt
is
dAI
i.e.,
of
dA 2
î
dt
such that
ji*
dt
di
=
+ ^k
dt
,
_
=
a 2k
(S)
a4 i
U)
a 6j
0-
and a 5
>dy
But
i -3ia 4
dt
from
= a 2 from jk =
;
(4)
and
di
-Tz'j
dt
.rfk+dl.i,
k
J'-^t+Tt*
dt
dt
0,
al
di/dt
= aj +
dj/dt
a 2k,
a 3k
dk/dt
a t i,
= a 2 i
atf
It follows that
di
=
^dt + A 2 ^ + A s -^
dt
.
(-iA 2
- a 2A 3 )i +
(iA l
-a sA s )j +
which can be written as
Then
where
if
<a
we
choose
u1i
a3
lf
+ 2 j + w 3k.
<o 2 ,
at
_ 2
<*i
Ai
A2
A3
this determinant
w3
W2
<0 3
<>
becomes
(a 2A!
+ a 3A 2)k
(6)
148
From
and
(2)
(6)
we
dt
6.2.
Let
D F and D M be
dA
is
moving system
the angular velocity of the
relative to the fixed system.
symbolic time derivative operators in the fixed and moving systems
DF
dA
DFA
definition
Then from Problem
D M + x
=
=
derivative in fixed system
derivative in
dt
DmA =
moving system
~di
6.1,
D F A = D M A + XA = (D M +
X
equivalence of the operators D F = D M +
which shows the
6.3.
dt
j?
Demonstrate the operator equivalence
respectively.
By
find, as required,
dA
The vector quantity
[CHAP.
o>
Prove that the angular acceleration
same
the
is
co
X)A
both
in
XYZ
and xyz coordinate
systems.
Let
A=
Since dm/dt
in
<o
is
Problem
Then
6.1.
da
da
~dt
~dl
to
da
~di
the angular acceleration, the required statement
is
proved.
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION IN MOVING SYSTEMS

6.4.
Determine the velocity of a moving particle as seen by the two observers in

Problem 6.1.
Replacing
by the position vector r of the
particle,
dr
dt
dr
dt
we have
o,
(1)
If r is expressed in terms of the unit vectors i, j,k of the moving coordinate system, then the
velocity of the particle relative to this system is, on dropping the subscript M,
dr
dx
dt
dt
6.5.
velocity (3)
is
dz
dt
di 3
to the fixed
and the velocity of the particle relative
The
dy^
dr
dr
~di
dt
system
is
(2)
from
(1)
v
+ wXr
.
sometimes called the true velocity, while
(3)
(2) is
the apparent velocity.
An xyz coordinate system is rotating with respect to an XYZ coordinate system

having the same origin and assumed to be fixed in space [i.e. it is an inertial system].
The angular velocity of the xyz system relative to the XYZ system is given by
a)
time
2ti
t
t j
(2t
+ 4)k where
as observed in the
(a) the apparent velocity
is
the time.
and
(b)
The
position vector of a particle at
given by r = (t 2
the true velocity at time
xyz system
is
+ l)i t = 1.
6ij
4 3 k.
Find
CHAP.
6]
(a)
The apparent
any time
velocity at
is
dr/dt
At time
(6)
The true
this is
I.Xr
At time
this
6j
any time
velocity at
dr/dt
2i
(2ti
2ti
[2ti
6j
12t 2 k
12k.
is
- 6j +
12t%)
t2 )
(2t
+ 4)k] X
[(t 2
l)i
6j
4%]
is
2i
6j
12k
2-16
2-6
6.6.
149
34i
2j
2k
Determine the acceleration of a moving particle as seen by the two observers

Problem 6.1.
The acceleration of the particle as seen by the observer in the fixed XYZ system
Using the operator equivalence established in Problem 6.2, we have
in
is
D F x D F {D F r).
D F (D F r) = D F (D M r +
*>
r)
= (D M + X )(D M r + x r)
= D M {D M r + X r) + u X (D M r + .Xr)
= D^r + D M X r) + X D M r + X
a.
(a>
or since
DM
(<*
r)
(D M m)
r)
X (D M r),
- DmT +
Dlr
o>
+ 2.X
(D MW ) X r
(D M r)
X ( X
r)
(1)
If r is the position vector expressed in terms of i, j,k of the moving coordinate system, then
the acceleration of the particle relative to this system is, on dropping the subscript M,
<ffr
d?x.
dt 2
The acceleration of the
(Pr
6.7.
The apparent acceleration at any time

d fdr\
d2 r
(b)
this is
2i
2i
d*z
dt 2
dt 2
/dr
..
(g)
is
given from
this equals
24k
2i
40i
(4i
+
+
(b)
as
(1)
+ ttX(wXr)
(2) is
the apparent acceleration
the true acceleration of the particle in
is
d
eft
(2-
61
+ 12^)
2i
24*k
6j
+ 4k)}
24k.
The true acceleration at any time
At time
~ dt\dtj
dt2
At time
d2 y.
sometimes called the true acceleration, while
Find (a) the apparent acceleration and

Problem 6.5.
(a)
^ + ^ Xr + 2wX U^
dt 2 |f
F
(3) is
particle relative to the fixed system
d2 r
The acceleration
dt 2
is
- 2j + 12k) X (2i - 6j + 12k)

+ (2i - 2j + 2k) X (2i - 6j + 4k)
+ (2i - j + 6k) X {(2i - j +
24k
184j
(48i
- 24j - 20k) +
36k
(4i
6k)
(2i
- 4j - 8k) +
(-141
212j
+ 40k)
150
CORIOLIS
6.8.
acceleration and
From Problem
(c)
we
6.5
6.5,
find
From Problem
6.5
(a)
From
parts
(a)
we
and
the centripetal
(b)
1.
have,
=
=
2 X dr/dt
48i
24j
= (4i - 2j + 12k) X
- 20k
(2i
- 6j +
12k)
have,
=
=
Centripetal acceleration
(c)
the Coriolis acceleration,
their magnitudes at time
Coriolis acceleration
(b)
AND CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION
Referring to Problem
(a)
[CHAP.
a.
-14i
=
+ 212j +
X
r)
(2i
- j + 6k) X
(32i
+ 4j - 10k)
40k
we have
(6)
Magnitude of Coriolis acceleration
Magnitude of centripetal acceleration
V(48)
V(-14)
(-24)2
(212)2
(_ 2 o)2
4\/205
2\/ll,685
40 )2

6.9.
Express Newton's second law for the motion of a particle relative to an XYZ
(6) Use (a) to find an equation of
coordinate system fixed in space (inertial system).
motion for the particle relative to an xyz system having the same origin as the XYZ
system but rotating with respect to it.
(a)
(a)
2
2
the mass of the particle (assumed constant), d r/dt F its acceleration
particle
as viewed in the
the
on
acting
all
forces
of
resultant
and
F
the
system
then Newton's second law states that
If
is
2
m ddtr \F =
2
(b)
Using subscript
Problem 6.6,
d?r
(1),
-2
dt \m
dt2
(1)
denote quantities as viewed in the moving system,
to
we
we have from
....
w dt
+.X(.Xr)
+iXr+2.XÎ
dt \m
.
()
find the required equation
F - m(iXr) - 2w(. xfjl

) - m[. X
dt \m
=
m^
dt 2 m
in the fixed
fixed system,
(.
(*)
r)]
provided it is clear that all quantities except F are as

can drop the subscript
the
determined by an observer in the moving system. The quantity F, it must be emphasized, is
If we do remove the subscript
resultant force as observed in the fixed or inertial system.
and write dr/dt = v, then (3) can be written
We
d2v
6.10.
= F - w(i X r) - 2m( X
Calculate the angular speed of the earth about

Since the earth makes one revolution
86,400 sec, the angular speed is
w
The
actual time for one revolution
=
is
[2tt
86^400
v)
m[ X
(*>
(4)
r)]
its axis.
radians] about its axis in approximately 24 hours
7.27
X 10-5
closer to 86,164 sec
rad/sec
and the angular speed
7.29
X lO" 5
rad/sec.
CHAP.
6]
151

6.11. Work Problem 6.4 if the origins of the XYZ
and xyz systems do not coincide.
Let R be the position vector of origin Q of the
xyz system relative to origin O of the fixed (or inertial)
XYZ
system
ticle
dr\
dt \m
Now
= R+r
XYZ
The velocity of the parmoving system is, as before,
[see Fig. 6-3].
relative to the
dx.
dt
dt
-i
dy
"rrj
dt
dz
(1)
dt
the position vector of P relative to O is

and thus the velocity of P as viewed in the
system
dp
dt
dv
is
di
(R
+ r)
\
"
H\f +
= * +
dv
dt
di
Xr
using equation (3) of Problem 6.4. Note that R is the

this reQ with respect to O. If R =
duces to the result of Problem 6.4.
velocity of
6.12.
Work Problem
XYZ
6.6 if the origins of the
Referring to Fig.
Fig. 6-3
6-3, the acceleration of the particle
as before,
d?r
dt2
Since the position vector of
XYZ
system
&x i+
dfr
relative to
is
= R + r,
dt 2
d*yd?z
dt2
K1)
dt 2
'
the acceleration of
as viewed in the
dt 2
R +
S + ^Xr + 2.X*+X(
dt2
using equation (S) of Problem 6.6. Note that R

R=
this reduces to the result of Problem 6.6.
Work Problem
6.9 if the origins of the
The
position vector of the particle

required equation of motion is
dt
dt
is
XYZ
relative
the acceleration of
Xr)
tt
Using the result
(2)
of Problem 6.12 in
d2 r
dt 2
where F
6.14.
is
mR
= F
the force acting on
(1),
If
to
the
fixed
(XYZ) system
is
p.
Then the
(1)
we
m(i X
(2)
with respect to O.
d?P
dt 2
(6)
is,
d2 r
dm,
J^+'i
dt 2
(a)
moving system
relative to the
is
d 2p
6.13.
dt2
dt 2
obtain
r)
2m(<*
v)
m[ X
(o>
r)]
as viewed in the inertial system and where
r.
Find the equation of motion of a particle relative to an observer on the earth's

surface.
152
[CHAP.
We assume the earth
to be a sphere with center

rotating about the Z axis with
also use the fact that
angular velocity = wK.
the effect of the earth's rotation around the sun is
negligible, so that the XYZ system can be taken as
at
[Fig.
6-4]
We
an
inertial system.
Then we can use equation (2)

For the case of the earth, we have
Problem
6.12.
R =
of
o>
(1)
(o>
X R)
(2)
-2E,
F =
first equation arising from the fact that the rotation of the earth about its axis proceeds with constant angular velocity, the second arising from the
fact that the acceleration of origin Q relative to O
the
is the centripetal acceleration, and the third arising

from Newton's law of gravitation. Using these in
(2) of Problem 6.12 yields the required equation,
GM
p
dt*
assuming that other forces acting on
We
a)
(*
Fig. 6-4
X R)
2(<*
v)
X ( X
[such as air resistance,
etc.]
r)
(4)
are neglected.
can define
GM
g-p
as the acceleration due to gravity, so that
|^ =
Near the
earth's surface the last
term
(4)
in
tt
(*
X R)
(5)
becomes
2(
(6)
can be neglected, so that to a high degree of
v)
r)
(6)
approximation
2(
v)
(7)
In practice we choose g as constant in magnitude although it varies slightly over the earth's
surface. If other external forces act, we must add them to the right side of equations (6) or (7).
6.15.
Show that if the particle of Problem 6.14 moves near the earth's surface, then the
equations of motion are given by
where the angle A

From
Fig. 6-4
is
= 2(w
= g +
2>
cos A y
cos A x
m sin A
z)
2o>sinXy
the colatitude [see Fig. 6-4] and 90
-A
is
we have
K =
=
an(j s0
(K-i)i
(sin X)i
(K-j)j
Oj
= mK =
+ (K-k)k
(cos X)k
sin X
=
i
-sin X
w cos X
+
k
cos X
the latitude.
CHAP.
6]
Then
Xv
+ yj + zk)
(xi
i
w cos \
=
Thus from equation
( w cos X
= gk. +
Equating corresponding
coefficients of
(u cos \
z)j
a sin X
z)j
u sin X
( sin X
y)k
we have
2( cos \ x
2<o
sin X
2/
we
j,k on both sides of this equation,
i,
= 2w cos X y
= 2(u cos X x +
g + 2u sin X
An
2 cos X y
6.16.
y
y)\
of Problem 6.14
(7)
sin X
<o
153
find,
as required,
(1)
sin X z)
<o
(2)
(3)
initially at rest is dropped to the earth's surface from a height

mass
small compared with the earth's radius. Assuming that the angular speed
of the earth about its axis is a constant >, prove that after time t the object is
deflected east of the vertical by the amount %<gt 3 sin A.
object of
which
is
Method
1.
assume that the object is located on the z axis at * =

(i) and (2) of Problem 6.15 we have on integrating,
We
0,
0,
<o
sin X z)
[see Fig. 6-4].
From
equations
x
Since at
0,
0,
(5)
Then
2(o
cos X
j/,
0,
2<o
cos X y
0,
c it
cos X x
= we have c = 0,
= 2(w cos X x + w sin X
2(w
V
0,
ft
z)
c2
2u sin X
ft.
2a sin X
ft
c2
Thus
(i)
of Problem 6.15 becomes
g +
'z
2w sin X y
4u 2 sin X [cos X
a;
sin X (z
h)]
But since the terms on the right involving u 2 are very small compared with g we can neglect them
or
at t = 0, we have c 3 =
and write z = g. Integration yields z = gt + c 3 Since 1 =
.
= -gt
Using equation
(2)
and the
j/
Then neglecting the
first
first
=
=
term,
equation of
4w 2
cos 2
at
we have
0,
c4
=
2/
Then
since
at
0,
c5
2/)
2w sin
= ûg
(!), ()
y
z
find
t3
c4
t
2.
Integrating again,
c5
so that, as required,
ûg
sin X
t3
(3)
2.
Integrating equations
we
Integrating,
ag sin X
sin X
of Problem 6.15
X gt
t2
wg sin X
(2)
( 2u sin X)(gt)
sin X gt.
and y
Method
1/
we have y = 2
y
Since y
equation
(1) in
(2(0 cos X)(2w cos X
(2)
and
()
of Problem 6.15,
we have
= 2w cos X + c
= 2(w cos X x + sin X z) +
= gt + 2w sin \y + c z
2/
(o
c2
154
Using the fact that at t =

= 2o>h sin X, c 3 = 0. Thus
0,
and
0;
[CHAP.
h,
0,
we have
ex
0,
c2
2w cos X
i/
2(<o cos X
gt + 2w
we
Integrating these
w sin X
2)
2uh sin X
using the above conditions,
find,
2w cos X
y
sin X
2aht
du
J" y
sin X 2w
igt 2
cos
XI
x du
2w sin X
dw
(5)
y du
2w sin X
(6)
unknowns are under the integral sign, these equations are called integral equations.
method called the method of successive approximations or method of iteration to
obtain a solution to any desired accuracy. The method consists of using a first guess for x, y, z
Since the
We
shall use a
under the integral signs in (4), (5) and (6) to obtain a better guess. As a first guess we can try
under the integral signs. Then we find as a second guess
x 0, y = 0, z =
x
Substituting these in
x
Using these
0,
in (4), (5)
2cofct
and
1/
and
(5)
(4),
0,
2wfti sin X,
gt2
and neglecting terms involving
(6)
sin X
2<o
sin X(7ii
^g&) ûg&
<o
2
,
we
and again neglecting terms involving w 2 we
(6)
[ugt3
0,
sin X,
i9t
find the third guess

z
sin X,
&*
find the fourth guess
Since this fourth guess is identical with the third guess, these results are accurate up to terms
involving w 2 and no further guesses need be taken. It is thus seen that the deflection is
y = jûgt3 sin X, as required.
,
6.17.
Referring to Problem 6.16, show that an object dropped from height h above the
earth's surface hits the earth at a point east of the vertical at a distance
%oih sin A yjlhlg.
From
and
(2)
z-h-
Problem 6.16 we have on integrating, z=_-gt 2 + c. Since z-h at t - 0, c-h

\g&. Then at z = 0, h = gt 2 or t = V^ft/fl'. Substituting this value of t into (5)
of
we
of Problem 6.16,
find the required distance.

6.18.
Derive an equation of motion for a simple

pendulum, taking into account the earth's
rotation about its axis.
Choose the xyz coordinate system of Fig. 6-5.
Suppose that the origin O is the equilibrium position
of the bob B, A is the point of suspension and the
length of string AB
is T, then we have
=
=
(T-i)i
cos a
'
-T
is
(T-j)j
+ T
x\
If the tension in the string
I.
cos p
Ti
+ T
y\
l
Since the net force acting on

tion of motion of B is given
m^J-
(T-k)k
k
z
(1)
is
by
T + mg - 2m( X
cos y
T
+ mil
v)
T + mg,
[see
the equa-
Problem
m<*
6.14]
r)
(*)
Fig. 6-5
CHAP.
6]
If
we
neglect the last term in
= gk
put g
(2),
and use
(1),
155
then
(2)
can be written in component
form as
mx =
my =
+ 2muy cos \
T(y/l) 2mu(x cos \ + z sin X)
= T(l z)/l mg + 2mJy sin X
m*z
6.19.
T(x/l)
(S)
(4)
(5)
that the bob of the simple pendulum in Problem 6.18 undergoes small
oscillations about the equilibrium position so that its motion can be assumed to take
place in a horizontal plane, simplify the equations of motion.
By assuming
Making the assumption that the motion of the bob takes place in a horizontal plane amounts
assuming that z and z are zero. For small vibrations (l z)/l is very nearly equal to one.
Then equation (5) of Problem 6.18 yields
to
T mg + 2muy
= mg 2muy
or
Substituting
(1)
and
into equations (3)
gx
= ^j-
gy
^j-
sin X
(1)
we
of Problem 6.18 and simplifying,
(4)
sin X
2axy sinX
2ayy
^y
+
,
sin X
obtain
,>
2wj/cosX
(2)
/ff
2 <oa; cosX
(3)
These differential equations are non-linear because of the presence of the terms involving xy
However, these terms are negligible compared with the others since , x and y are
and yy.
small. Upon neglecting them we obtain the linear differential equations
6.20.
gx/l
gy/l
2uy cos X
(-4)
2(o* cos X
(5)
Solve the equations of motion of the pendulum obtained in Problem 6.19, assuming
suitable initial conditions.
Suppose that
initially the
A >
of magnitude
0,
To
bob
x
(-4)
and
(5)
K2 =
so that they
become
we
given a displacement from the z axis

initial conditions are
at
of Problem 6.19,
g/l,
K2 x +
= -K2 y -
it
=
is
convenient to place
a cos X
(2)
2ay
(8)
2ax
U)
Multiplying equation
convenient to use complex numbers.
(1)
(4)
by
and adding
to
(3),
find
Then
calling
iy
= -K2 (x + iy) +
u = x + iy,
this
u
If
A, y
x
y
It is also
0,
is
Then the
released.
is
it
0,
find the solution of equations
the yz plane and
is in
after which
Cey*
= -K2 u -
2iau
Now
since
V
a2
w 2 cos 2 X
=
is
-K2 (x + iy) -
2ia(x
+ iy)
can be written
where C and y are constants,
so that
2a (y-ix)
(-2i
or
this
u + 2iau +
(5)
becomes
2iay
+ K2 =
V -4a 2 - 4K2 )/2 =

/
small compared to
y
K2 u =
K2 = g/l,
= ia iK
-ia
Wa 2 + K2
we can
(6)
write
(7)
156
Then
solutions of the equation are (allowing for complex coefficients)
(C 1
and the general solution
where d> C 2 C 3
,
C4
+ iC2 )e- Ka - K
e i0
iy
(C x
(CîCJe-*"- +
iC4 )e- + K>t
(C 3
(C 3
+ tC4 )e- + K)t
+ ism 6,
costf
+ iy,
e~ ie
cos e
sin
(9)
can be written
(8)
- K)t -
t'C 2 ){cos (a
(5)
Using Euler's formulas
are assumed real.
and the fact that u
and
>t
is
[CHAP.
sin (a
- K)} +
+ iC4 ){cos ( + #) -
(C 3
sin (a
+ K)t)
Equating real and imaginary parts, we find
- #)* + C 2
d cos
-dam (a -K)t
Using the
C 3 = -d.
a cos X
0,
we
0,
we
sin (a
from
find
from
find
K)t
+ X)t
sin (a
+ C4
cos (a
(10)
that
(10)
+ K)t
(11)
d+C
or
that
(10)
/Vff/l- wcosX
a\
small compared with
is
+ K)t + C4
cos (a
-K)t - C 3
at
at
X_
C
"
U +
c*
- K)t + C 3
cos (a
Similarly, using
Now since
C4 = C2
+ C2
condition
initial
sin (
C2
"
Vx^77+
we
-\fgjl,
w cosx,
have, to a high degree of approximation,
Thus equations
Using the
find
C2 =
(10)
-d
initial
sin (a
condition
Thus
-|A.
and
(1)
y
and
- K)t
d cos a + K + C sin
+ d sin + K) + C cos
)
Similarly using
0-
(a
d=
yields
+ K)t
(a
=A
- K)t + |A
\A cos (a - K) + \A
= \A
sin (a
sin (a
+ K)t
cos (a
+ X)t
at
(15)
t
0,
we
= A
2/
= A COSK*
a;
= A
cosy/gilt sin(ucosXt)
j/
= A
cos
cos
Kt sm at
#)*
"1
COS at
(*)
i-
6.21.
(12)
become
(15)
e.,
cos (a
(1*)
0,
- K)t -
sin (a
- K)t + C 2
or
become
(ii)
cos ( - X)t + C2
V^
cos (w cos
Give a physical interpretation to the solution
H)
(15) of
Problem
6.20.
In vector form, (15) can be written
w here
is
x\
i
2/j
= A
sin ( cos X)t
cos
j
V'gilt n
cos (w cos \)t
a unit vector.
[namely,
is very small compared with the period of n
pendulum
the
physically
Thus
vector.
turning
slowly
a very
axis.
axis which is slowly rotating (or precessing) about the z
The period of cos yfgllt [namely, 2ttV^]

2tt/((ocosX)].
It follows
oscillates in a plane
that
through the
is
and the bob is at y = A. After a time t = 2^/(4 w cosX), for example,

j
as
the rotation of the plane is proceeding in the clockwise direction
that
J-V^j
so
n
2
the
In
cosX>0].
[where
viewed from above the earth's surface in the northern hemisphere
southern hemisphere the rotation of the plane is counterclockwise.
provide laboratory
The rotation of the plane was observed by Foucault in 1851 and served to
axis.
its
about
earth
the
of
evidence of the rotation
Now
at
l\/2i
0,
n =
CHAP.
6]
157
6.22.
The vertical rod AB of Fig.
6-6 is rotating with

constant angular velocity <>. A light inextensible
string of length I has one end attached at point O
of the rod while the other end P of the string has a
mass
attached. Find (a) the tension in the string
and (b) the angle which string OP makes with the
vertical when equilibrium conditions prevail.
Choose unit vectors i and k perpendicular and parallel
respectively to the rod and rotating with it. The unit vector
j can be chosen perpendicular to the plane of i and k.
Let
= I sin e i I cos e k
r
be the position vector of
with respect to O.
Three forces act on particle

(i)
The weight, mg =
(ii)
The centrifugal
mgk
Fig. 6-6
force,
-m{a X
(iii)
The
tension,
When
T =
the particle
is in
=
=
r)}
sin e
-m{[tok]
m{[wk] X
+ T
[I
sin e
(al sin e j)}
cos B k])}
= ma2
sin
Then
+ muH sin 6 T sin e + T cos k =

2
(mu sin d T sin $)i + (T cos 6 mg)k =
tow2 sin 6 T sin
-
i.e.,
or
T
Solving
and
(1)
(2)
rod
AOB
simultaneously,
OP with mass
pendulum.
Since the string

called a conical
cos 6
([wk]
equilibrium, the resultant of all these forces is zero.
mgk.
6.23.
we
cos 6
find
at
mg
(a)
(1)
T = mu2
(2)
l,
(6)
cos -1 (g/u2 l).
describe the surface of a cone the system
is
sometimes
[Fig. 6-7] rotates in a vertical plane [the yz plane]
about a horizontal
perpendicular to this plane [the x axis] with constant angular
velocity w. Assuming no frictional forces, determine the motion of a particle P of
mass
which is constrained to move along the rod. An equivalent problem exists
when the rod A OB is replaced by a thin hollow tube inside which the particle can move.
axis through
Fig. 6-7
At time
the y axis.
i
= j X k.
increasing
t let r be the position vector of the particle and e the angle

made by the rod with
Choose unit vectors j and k in the y and z directions respectively and unit vector
Let rj be a unit vector in the direction r and e 1 a unit vector in the direction of
e.
158
[CHAP.
There are three forces acting on P:

(i)
The weight, rag
= mgk mg
(ii)
The centrifugal
force,
-ra[o
(iii)
(*
mg
rx
sin
=
=
=
r)]
ra-^To2
dt
=
=
m-7r^r 1
or
It follows
that
N = mg cos
mg
(ma
a,
ra^k +
mg
at
ra<o 2 rr x
2V0J
+ mu 2 rr +
+ (N mg cos ff)^
cos
sin 0)r x
wt
if
d2 r/d2
we assume that
perpendicular to the rod since there are
is
mg
0j
iVOj
and
we have
a constant,
rr t )]
d2 r/d2
Since
(i
ra[coi(wi rrj.) rr (wi wi)]

ra[0 wVrj] = ra-uVr!
sine r t
2r
9X
-ra[wi
The reaction force N = N8 t of the rod which

no frictional or resistance forces.

d2 x
If
cos
0,
(i)
sin
we assume
w2r
dr/dt
u2r
at
-sr sin u
we
find
0.
Then
(i)
becomes
(2)
or in terms of hyperbolic functions,

r
6.24.
r cosht
--^jsinhwt
(-4)
that under suitable conditions the particle of Problem 6.23 can oscillate
the
rod with simple harmonic motion and find these conditions, (b) What
along
the particle if the conditions of (a) are not satisfied?
to
happens
(a)
(a)
(6)
Show
The particle will oscillate with simple harmonic motion along the rod if and only if r =
and v = 0/2<o. In this case, r = (g/2<*2 ) sin at. Thus the amplitude and period of the simple
harmonic motion in such case are given by g/2u> 2 and 2n-/w respectively.
If
(g/2u)
ur
then
r-
e _wt
(g/2a 2 )
harmonic after some time. Otherwise the mass
6.25.
+ ^-sinw*
smut and
the motion
is
approximately simple
will ultimately fly off the rod if it is finite.
projectile located at colatitude X is fired with velocity v in a southward direction

t.
at an angle with the horizontal, {a) Find the position of the projectile after time
original
the
of
the
east
toward
deflected
is
(b) Prove that after time t the projectile
vertical plane of motion
by the amount
Xtz
^<*g sin
(a)
We
Assuming the
use the equations of Problem 6.15.
x
Also, the initial velocity is
=
v
0,
v cos
a,
wô cos (a
0,
cos a
0,
X)
sin a
projectile starts at the origin,
at
sin
we have
U)
so that
at
(2)
CHAP.
6]
Integrating equations
and
(2)
(1),
we
of Problem 6.15,
(3)
2oj
2(w
gt + 2w
cos X
159
obtain on using conditions
v cos a
cos X x
(3)
w sin X
sin X y
(2),
z)
(4)
v sin a
(5)
Instead of attempting to solve these equations directly we shall use the method of iteration
or successive approximations as in Method 2 of Problem 6.16. Thus by integrating and using
conditions (1), we find
c y du
2wcosX
(v
cos X
sin a)t
x du
2u sin X
gt 2
2w sin X
cosa)(
(t;
(6)
du
(7)
y du
(8)
Jo
As a first guess we use x = 0, y = 0,

become, neglecting terms involving w 2
under the integral signs.
Then
(6),
(7)
and
(8)
To obtain a better guess we now use

(8),
(v
cos a)t
(v
sina)
(9)
(10)
and
(9), (10)
- \g&
(11)
under the integral signs
(II)
in (6), (7)
and
thus arriving at
X
= uv
COS a)t
(V
cos (a
sin a)t
(i)
(12)
\)t 2
^wgt3
sin X
(13)
2
Iflrt
(14)
where we have again neglected terms involving

Further guesses again produce equations
2
(12), (13) and (14), so that these equations are accurate up to terms involving
w2 .
(6)
From
equation (13)
by the amount
6.26.
we
see that the projectile
ûgts sin X
cos (a
wi;
X)
t2 .
is
deflected
If
toward the east of the xz plane

Problem 6.16.
this agrees with
Prove that when the projectile of Problem 6.25 returns to the horizontal,
the distance

o>vl sin
;r-
to the west of that point
where
(3
it
cos a cos A
would have landed assuming no axial rotation
projectile will return to the horizontal

(v
Using
this value of
sin a)t
^gt2
in equation (13) of
will be at
sin a sin A)
of the earth.
The
it
when
or
Problem
6.25,
=
t
we
0,
i.e.,
(2v
sin a)/g
find the required result.
160
[CHAP.
ROTATING COORDINATE SYSTEMS. VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
= 2i 3j + 5k
An xyz coordinate system moves with angular velocity
6.27.
relative to a fixed or
*
coordinate system having the same origin. If a vector relative to the xyz system
A = sin t i cos t j + e -t k, find (a) dA/dt relative to
is given as a function of time t by
the fixed system, (b) dA/dt relative to the moving system.
inertial
Ans.
6.28.
XYZ
(a)
(6 cos t
(b)
cos
t i
- 3e-*)i +
+ sin t j
Find d2A/dt2 for the vector
(6 sin t
e _t
2e-*)j
(3 sin t
2 cos
e-')k
of Problem 6.27 relative to
(a)
the fixed system and
(6)
the moving
system.
Ans.
(a)
cos
(6
sin t
(b)
6.29.
+ Ue-î + (40 cos * - 23 cos t + 16e~')k

+ cos t j + e _t k
+
i
45 sin
(10 sin
6 sin
lle-^j
xyz coordinate system is rotating with angular velocity o = 5i 4j 10k relative to a fixed
coordinate system having the same origin. Find the velocity of a particle fixed in the xyz
system at the point (3, 1, 2) as seen by an observer fixed in the XYZ system.
An
XYZ
Ans. 18i-20j
6.30.
Discuss the physical interpretation of replacing
Problem
(6)
6.31.
+ 17k
6.6,
by
<*
-*>
in
(a)
Problem
page 148, and
6.4,
page 149.
Explain from a physical point of view
expect the result of Problem
why you would
6.3,
page 148,
to be correct.
6.32.
xyz coordinate system rotates with angular velocity = cos t i + sin t j + k with respect to a
XYZ coordinate system having the same origin. If the position vector of a particle is given
by r = sin t i - cos t j + tk, find (a) the apparent velocity and (6) the true velocity at any
(6) (t sin t + 2 cos *)i + (2 sin t - t cos t)j
Ans. (a) cos t i + sin t j + k
time t.
An
fixed
6.33.
Determine (a) the apparent acceleration and

Problem 6.32.
Ans. (a) -sin ti + cos t j
(6) (2t cost - 3 sin
CORIOLIS
the
(6)
t)i
(3
true
cos
acceleration
2t sin
)j
the
of
(1
particle
of
t)k
AND CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATIONS AND FORCES
the northern hemisphere, (a) Would the path of the ball,

when it is not
if the Coriolis force is taken into account, be to the right or to the left of the path
taken into account as viewed by the person throwing the ball? (6) What would be your answer
Ans. (a) to the right, (6) to the left
to (a) if the ball were thrown in the southern hemisphere?
6.34.
6.35.
What would
6.36.
Explain why water running out of a vertical drain will swirl counterclockwise in the northern
hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. What happens at the equator?
6.37.
6.38.
ball
in
be your answer to Problem 6.34
if
the ball were thrown at the north or south poles?
In Problem 6.37, where would the centrifugal force be

(a)
at the equator,
(6)
maximum,
(a)
(a)
35.0
kg wt,
(6)
17.5
minimum?
(a)
the equator
(b)
colatitude 30.
kg wt
flows northward with a speed v at colatitude X. Prove that the left

river of width
of the river will be higher than the right bank by an amount equal to
where w
(6)
(6)
at the north and south poles.
(2D uv cos\)(g 2
6.41.
(a)
Find the centrifugal force acting on a train of mass 100,000 kg at

Ans.
6.40.
thrown horizontally
on the earth's surface is a

Prove that the centrifugal force acting on a particle of mass
velocity vector o> and
angular
to
the
perpendicular
and
earth
the
vector (a) directed away from
2
(6) of magnitude mu> R sin X where X is the colatitude.
Ans.
6.39.
is
is
Prove that the result in part
If the river of
the angular speed of the earth about
Problem
how much higher
(a) is
all
1'2
its axis.
practical purposes equal to (2Duv
cos \)/g.
km wide and flows at a speed of 5 km/hr at colatitude 45,

Ans. 2.9 cm
bank be than the right bank?
6.40 is 2
will the left
for
V cos^)-
bank
CHAP.
6.42.
6.43.
6]
161
An
automobile rounds a curve whose radius of curvature is p. If the coefficient of friction

prove that the greatest speed with which it can travel so as not to slip on the road is Vwff-
Determine whether the automobile of Problem 6.42
(a) p
500
ft,
(6)
50
will slip if the speed is 60 mi/hr,
is
.05
/j,
and
Discuss the results physically.
ft.

6.44.
An
If air resistance is neglected,

is dropped at the equator from a height of 400 meters.
far will the point where it hits the earth's surface be from the point vertically below the
initial position?
Ans. 17.6 cm toward the east
object
how
6.45.
Work Problem 6.44 if the object

(a) 15.2 cm toward the east
is
dropped
(a)
at colatitude 60
and
at the north pole.
(6)
Ans.
6.46.
An
object
returns
6.47.
An
it
thrown vertically upward at colatitude X with speed v
is
will be at a distance
westward from
its
Prove that when
starting point equal to (av\ sin X)/Sg 2
How
object at the equator is thrown vertically upward with a speed of 60 mi/hr.

position will it land?
Ans. .78 inches
it
far from
its initial
6.48.
6.49.
With what speed must the object of Problem 6.47 be thrown in order that
Ans. 406 mi/hr
on the earth which is 20 ft from its original position?
An
object
thrown downward with initial speed v

by the amount
is
it
return to a point
Prove that after time
the object
is
deflected east of the vertical
wv sin X
6.50.
Prove that
if
surface, then
t2
6.52.
Prove that
a.
mgly/l 2
a2
If
t3
the object of Problem 6.49 is thrown downward from height h above the earth's
will hit the earth at a point east of the vertical at a distance
Suppose that the mass

radius
sin X
it
2
^JP^ (Vv + 2gh
6.51.
ûg
(a)
of a conical
the
speed
)H^v 2Q + 2gh +
pendulum of length
is
ayfg/^/l
and
2v
moves
(6)
the
path
is
in
a horizontal
tension
in
the
circle
of
string
is
an object
is
dropped to the earth's surface prove that
its
a semicubical parabola.

6.53.
why
Explain physically
when viewed from above
the plane of oscillation of a Foucault pendulum should rotate clockwise

the earth's surface in the northern hemisphere but counterclockwise in
the southern hemisphere.

6.54.
How
long would
revolution if the
Ans.
6.55.
(a)
take the plane of oscillation of a Foucault pendulum to

is located at (a) the north pole,
(6) colatitude 45,
it
pendulum
23.94 hr,
(6)
33.86 hr,
(c)
make one complete

(c)
colatitude 85?
92.50 hr
Explain physically why a Foucault pendulum situated at the equator would not detect the
rotation of the earth about its axis. Is this physical result supported mathematically? Explain.

6.56.
xyz coordinate system rotates about the z axis with angular velocity o> = cos t i + sin t j
XYZ coordinate system where t is the time. The origin of the xyz system
has position vector R = ti j + t2k with respect to the XYZ system. If the position vector of
a particle is given by r = (Zt + l)i 2tj + 5k relative to the moving system, find the (a) apparent
An
relative to a fixed
velocity
and
(6)
true velocity at any time.
apparent
and
6.57.
Determine (a)
Problem 6.56.
6.58.
Work (a) Problem 6.5, page 148, and (b) Problem 6.7, page 149,
xyz system relative to the origin of the fixed XYZ system is R =
the
acceleration
(6)
the
true
acceleration
if
t2 i
of
the
particle
in
the position vector of the
2tj + 5k.
162
[CHAP.
6.59.
Prove that due
mass
at
to the rotation of the earth
colatitude
is
m^(g -
u2
about
sin 2 x) 2
its
axis the app arent weight of an object of
w 2#
sjn x
cos X )2
where R
is
the*
radius
of
the earth.
6.60.
Prove that the angle

given by
is
tan
/?
g
6.61.
6.62.
6.63.
makes with the true
vertical
sin X cos X
u 2R sin 2 X
'
Explain physically why the true vertical and apparent vertical would coincide at the equator
and also the north and south poles.
A stone is twirled in a vertical circle by a string of length 10 ft. Prove that it must have a
speed of at least 20 ft/sec at the bottom of its path in order to complete the circle.
A
car
[Fig. 6-8] is to
circular
loop
Assuming the track

at which it must
particle of
go completely around the vertical

a without leaving the track.
frictionless, determine the height
of radius
H
6.64.
which the apparent vertical at colatitude
/?
mass
is
start.
m is constrained to move on a friction-
a which rotates about a fixed

diameter with constant angular speed w. Prove that the
particle will make small oscillations about its equilibrium
position with a frequency given by 2vau/-\/ a2 w4 g 2
less vertical circle of radius
6.65.
Discuss what happens in Problem 6.64
6.66.
hollow cylindrical tube

of length 2a [Fig. 6-9]
rotates with constant angular speed about a vertical
axis through the center O.
particle is initially at rest
if
yfg/a.
Fig. 6-8
AOB
CJ>
in the
tube at a distance & from O.
tional forces, find (a) the position

the particle at any time.
6.67.
(a)
How
long will
it
Assuming no
and
(6)
frac-
the speed of
take the particle of Problem 6.66 to

(&) what will be its speed as
~B
come out of the tube and

it
6.68.
6.69.
6.70.
Ans.
leaves?
In (a
y/a2
b2
Fig. 6-9
)
Find the force on the particle of Problem 6.66 at any position
in the tube.
A mass, attached to a string which is suspended from a fixed point, moves in a horizontal circle
having center vertically below the fixed point with a speed of 20 revolutions per minute.
Find the distance of the center of the circle below the fixed point.
Ans. 2.23 meters
A
particle on a frictionless horizontal plane at colatitude X is given
northward
6.71.
(a)
direction.
Prove that
it
an
initial
speed v
describes a circle of radius v /(2w cos X) with period
The pendulum bob of a conical pendulum describes a horizontal circle of radius

pendulum is I, prove that the period is given by 4ir 2 y/l 2 a2 /g.
a.
n7(<o
in
cos
X).
If the length
of the
6.72.
6.73.
move on a circular wire of radius a and coefficient n is given an initial

Assuming no other forces act, how long will it take for the particle to come to rest?
particle constrained to
velocity v
(a) Prove that if the earth were to rotate at an angular speed given by y2g/R where R is its
would be
radius and g the acceleration due to gravity, then the weight of a particle of mass
the same at all latitudes. (6) What is the numerical value of this angular speed?
Ans.
(b) 1.74
X 10~3
rad/sec
CHAP.
6.74.
6.75.
6.76.
6]
163
so that no
tank containing water rotates about its axis with constant angular speed &>
water spills out. Prove that the shape of the water surface is a paraboloid of revolution.
Work
Problem 6.16 and
cylindrical
(a)
Problem
(6)
6.17,
accurate to terms involving w 2 .
Prove that due to the earth's rotation about its axis, winds in the northern hemisphere traveling
to a low pressure area are rotated in a counterclockwise sense when
viewed above the earth's surface. What happens to winds in the southern hemisphere?
from a high pressure area
6.77.
Prove that in the northern hemisphere winds from the north,

and west are deflected respectively toward the west,
north, east and south as indicated in Fig. 6-10. (b) Use this to
(a)
east, south
explain the origin of cyclones.
6.78.
Find the condition on the angular speed so that a particle will

describe a horizontal circle inside of a frictionless vertical cone
of angle
a.
6.79.
Work Problem
6.80.
The period of a simple

the ceiling of a train
PVp~9/y/v*
6.81.
6.82.
6.78 for a hemisphere.
pendulum is given by P. Prove that its period when it is suspended from

moving with speed v around a circular track of radius p is given by
+ p 2g2.
Work Problem
6.25 accurate to terms involving w 2
A thin hollow cylindrical tube OA inclined at angle a with the

horizontal rotates about the vertical with constant angular speed
w [see Fig. 6-11]. If a particle constrained to move in this tube
is initially at rest at a distance a from the intersection O of the
tube and the vertical axis of rotation, prove that its distance r
from O at any time t is r = a cosh (ut cos a).
6.83.
Work Problem
6.84.
Prove that the particle of Problem 6.82

between the distances from O given by
6.82 if the rod has coefficient of friction
sin a / l
w2
tan a
tan a + n
assuming tan a <

6.85.
jit
and
is
in stable equilibrium
+ n tan a
\ tan a fi
Fig. 6-11
l//x.
A train having a maximum speed equal to v is to round a curve with radius of curvature p. Prove
that if there is to be no lateral thrust on the outer track, then this track should be at a
av\l yjv\
+ P 2g 2
where a
is
the distance between tracks.
directed toward the west and at angle a with

terms involving 2 are neglected, then the time taken to reach
projectile is fired at colatitude X with velocity v
the horizontal. Prove that

the maximum height is
if
2uv sin X sin a cos a
v sin a
Compare with the case where w =

6.87.
/i.
sin a ( 1
w2
height above the inner track given by
6.86.
In Problem 6.86, prove that the
0,
ff
i.e.
maximum
2
v sin 2 a
2g
Compare with the case where
<o
that the earth does not rotate about
0.
height reached
2uv% sin X
sin 2
g*
is
a cos a
its axis.
164
6.88.
Prove that the range of the projectile of Problem 6.86

Vq sin 2a
[CHAP.
is
(8 sin 2
uVq sin a sin X
6)
3^2
Thus show that if terms involving co 2 and higher are neglected, the range will be larger, smaller
or the same as the case where <o = 0, according as a > 60, a < 60 or a 60 respectively.
6.89.
If a projectile is fired with initial velocity v x i

v 2 j + v 3k from the origin of a coordinate system
fixed relative to the earth's surface at colatitude X, prove that its position at any later time t
will be given by
vxt
uv 2 t 2 cos X
v2 t
at 2 ^! cos \
v3t
gt 2
neglecting terms involving
6.90.
6.91.
Work Problem
co
v 3 sin
X)
ûgt 3 sin X
uv 2 t 2 sin X
2.
6.89 so as to include
terms involving
co
but exclude terms involving
co
3.
An object of mass m initially at rest is dropped from height h to the earth's surface at colatitude X.
Assuming that air resistance proportional to the instantaneous speed of the object is taken into
account as well as the rotation of the earth about its axis, prove that after time
deflected east of the vertical by the amount
" X
2t
[(g
^3
~ 2hp 2 )(l - e-Pt) +
phte-Bt
pgt
+ \g$ 2 t 2
the object
is
neglecting terms of order w 2 and higher.
6.92.
Work Problem
6.93.
6.91,
obtaining accuracy up to and including terms of order u 2
and angle a located at colatitude X is so situated that

I
under the influence of gravity from north to south. If the
particle starts from rest at the top, prove that it will reach the bottom in a time given by
frictionless inclined plane of length
a particle placed on
it
would
slide
2ul sin X cos a
y g sin a
and that
its
speed at the bottom
yj2gl sin a
neglecting terms of order
6.94.
co
3g
is
f ul sin a cos a sin X
2.
(a) Prove that by the time the particle of Problem 6.93 reaches the bottom
a deflection of magnitude
2Zco
\\
g
-5to
(&)
the east or west respectively according

Discuss the case where cos (a + X) = 0.
21
as
cos (a
(c)
Use the
X)
X)
is
greater than
result of
(a)
to
or less than zero.

arrive at the result
of Problem 6.17.
6.95.
Work Problems
6.93
and 6.94
if
have undergone
...
COS (a
sin a
will
it
the inclined plane has coefficient of friction
(i.
SYSTEMS
Chapter 7
of
DISCRETE AND CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS

Up to now we have dealt mainly with the motion
PARTICLES
which could be considered

which we are concerned
or point mass. In many practical cases the objects with
Such systems
be considered as collections or systems of particles.
as a particle
of an object
can more realistically
particles can be considered as separated

are called discrete or continuous according as the
from each other or not.
finite number
For many practical purposes a discrete system having a very large but
system can
continuous
a
Conversely
system.
continuous
of particles can be considered as a
particles.
of
number
finite
but
large
of
a
consisting
be considered as a discrete system
DENSITY
convenient to
For continuous systems of particles occupying a region of space it is often

volume density or briefly density.
define a mass per unit volume which is called the
of particles, then the density can
At
volume
a
of
mass
Mathematically, if AM is the total
be defined as
<t
aM
hm At
,.
m
v-U
atô
the density
a function of position and can vary from point to point. When
uniform.
density or simply
is a constant, the system is said to be of uniform
When the continuous system of particles occupy a surface, we can similarly define a
occupy a line [or curve]
surface density or mass per unit area. Similarly when the particles
we can define a mass per unit length or linear density.
The density
RIGID
is
AND ELASTIC BODIES
distances between
In practice, forces applied to systems of particles will change the
bodies. In some
elastic
individual particles. Such systems are often called deformable or
purposes
practical
for most
cases, however, deformations may be so slight that they may
in which
model
be considered non-existent. It is thus convenient to define a mathematical
regardless
same
the
the distance between any two specified particles of a system remains
of rigid bodies is
mechanics
The
body.
rigid
a
called
is
system
Such
a
forces.
applied
of
considered in Chapters 9 and 10.
DEGREES OF FREEDOM
of coordinates required to specify the position of a system of one or
particles is called the number of degrees of freedom of the system.
The number
Example
A
the
more
1.
particle
number
moving freely
position.
in space requires 3 coordinates, e.g. (x, y, z), to specify its
of degrees of freedom
is 3.
165
Thus
166
Example
[CHAP.
2.
system consisting of
Thus the number
position.
particles
moving freely
of degrees of freedom
in space
3N
requires
coordinates to specify
its
is 32V.
A rigid body which can move freely in space has 6 degrees of freedom,
are required to specify the position. See Problem 7.2.
i.e.
6 coordinates
CENTER OP MASS
Let
mu m
2,
n, r2
.
be the position vectors of a system of
rN
.,m N respectively
The center
mass or centroid of the system of
of
+ m2r2 +
m + m2 +
mxxx
where
in place of
^m
is
particles
of
masses
the total
+ mNrN
+ mN
_
~
We
mass of the system.
particles is defined as that point
having position vector

r
[see Fig. 7-1].
(2)
sometimes use
or simply J)
..2
Fig. 7-1
Fig. 7-2
For continuous systems of

volume density
is
o-,
particles occupying a region
of space in which the
the center of mass can be written
rdi
or
J
where the integral
is
taken over the entire region

f
then
(3)
xi
yj
zk,
dr
[see Fig. 7-2].
xvi
y vj
If
we
write
z vk
can equivalently be written as
_
~
and
where the
X
total
mass
=
is
S WyXy
M
JaXdr
%
M
>
_
~
2)
-,
'
yv
'
aydr
<V
*J CD
*"K
JaZdr
(5)
given by either
M
M
=
=
^m
\
<rdr
(6)
(7)
CHAP.
The
7]
integrals in
(3),
or
(5)
167
can be single, double or triple integrals, depending on
(7)
which may be preferable.

In practice it is fairly simple to go from discrete to continuous systems by merely
replacing summations by integrations. Consequently we will present all theorems for
discrete systems.
CENTER OF GRAVITY
If a
system of particles
is in
a uniform gravitational
field,
the center of mass
is
some-
times called the center of gravity.
MOMENTUM OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

If v, = dxjdt = r is the velocity of m the total momentum of the
v,
] rav
can show
[see
Problem
This
is
is
^m
rv
(8)
Mi
(9)
that
7.3]
M^
Mv =
where v = di/dt
defined as
v=l
v=l
We
is
system
the velocity of the center of mass.
expressed in the following
Theorem
The
7.1.
total
M of the
the total mass
of a system of particles can be found

the velocity v of the center of mass.
momentum
system by
by multiplying
MOTION OF THE CENTER OF MASS

Suppose that the internal forces between any two particles of the system obey Newton's
Then if F is the resultant external force acting on the system, we have [see
Problem 7.4]
,_
,
third law.
F
This
is
ft
M w>
M dt
<
I0)
expressed in
Theorem 7.2. The center of mass of a system of particles moves as

and resultant external force were applied at this point.
if
the total mass
Putting
F=
in (10),
we
find that
^m
v=l
\v
constant
(11)
Thus we have
Theorem
then the total
is
7.3.
on a system of particles is zero,

conserved. In such case the center of mass
If the resultant external force acting
momentum remains
constant,
i.e. is
either at rest or in motion with constant velocity.
This theorem
tion of
is
Theorem
often called the principle of conservation of

2-8,
page 37.
momentum.
It is
a generaliza-
168
[CHAP.
ANGULAR MOMENTUM OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

The quantity
O
is called
the total angular
2m
momentum
[or
{rXv v )
moment
of
(12)
momentum]
of the system of particles
about origin 0.
THE TOTAL EXTERNAL TORQUE ACTING ON A SYSTEM

If F is the external force acting on particle
force
Fv
or torque about 0.
then
v,
x F
is
called the
moment
of the
The sum
N
A
is called
2r
X F
(iS)
the oaZ external torque about the origin.
RELATION BETWEEN ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND

TOTAL EXTERNAL TORQUE
If we assume that the internal forces between any two particles are always directed
along the line joining the particles [i.e. they are central forces], then we can show as in
Problem 7.12 that
da
dt
Thus we have
Theorem 7.4. The total external torque on a system of particles is equal to the time
rate of change of the angular momentum of the system, provided the internal forces
between particles are central forces.
CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

Putting
A=
in (U),
we
find that
^m
(rv
v)
constant
(15)
Thus we have
Theorem
7.5.
If the resultant external torque acting
then the total angular
momentum remains
constant,
i.e.
on a system of particles
is
is zero,
conserved.
This theorem
is often called the principle of conservation of angular

generalization of Theorem 2.9, page 37.
momentum.
It is the
KINETIC ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

The
total kinetic
energy of a system of particles is defined as

\ N
j N
T = Jm,t)J =
sXm,^
(16)
WORK
in
If Tv is the force (external and internal) acting on particle v, then the total work done
moving the system of particles from one state [symbolized by 1] to another [symbolized
by
2] is
W12
v=l
yWr
*s
(17)
CHAP.
As
7]
in the case of a single particle,
Theorem
where the
7.6.
The
total
kinetic energy
is
we can prove
169
the following
work done in moving a system of particles

2\ to another where the kinetic energy is T2 ,
W12
= T 2 -T,
from one
state
is
(is)
POTENTIAL ENERGY. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

When
energy
external and internal, are conservative, we can define a total potential

of the system. In such case we can prove the following
all forces,
Theorem 7.7. If T and V are respectively the

energy of a system of particles, then
T+V =
This
is
total kinetic
energy and
constant
total potential
(19)
the principle of conservation of energy for systems of particles.
MOTION RELATIVE TO THE CENTER OF MASS

It is often useful to describe the motion of a system of particles about [or relative to]
the center of mass. The following theorems are of fundamental importance. In all cases
primes denote quantities relative to the center of mass.
of
Theorem 7.8. The total

mass is zero. In symbols,
linear
momentum
N
Y,
v=X
of a system of particles about the center
mv<
^m
rv
(20)
v=l
Theorem 7.9. The total angular momentum of a system of particles about any point
equals the angular momentum of the total mass assumed to be located at the center of mass
plus the angular momentum about the center of mass. In symbols,
2m
Mv +
v=l
v (r'
v
v'v )
(21)
Theorem 7.10. The total kinetic energy of a system of particles about any point O
equals the kinetic energy of translation of the center of mass [assuming the total mass
located there] plus the kinetic energy of motion about the center of mass. In symbols,
|5>X
= ^Mv2 +
(22)
Theorem 7.11. The total external torque about the center of mass equals the time rate
of change in angular momentum about the center of mass, i.e. equation (lb) holds not
only for inertial coordinate systems but also for coordinate systems moving with the
center of mass. In symbols,
da'
-W
If motion is described relative to points other than the center of mass, the results
in the
above theorems become more complicated.
IMPULSE
If
is
the total external force acting on a system of particles, then
170
[CHAP.
dt
(U)
St.
h
is called
the total linear impulse or briefly total impulse.
As
in the case of one particle,
we can prove
Theorem
7.12.
Similarly
if
The
is
total linear
impulse
is
momentum.
equal to the change in linear
the total external torque applied to a system of particles about origin O,
then
t2
A eft
is called
the total angular impulse.
Theorem
7.13.
The
total
We
(25)
can then prove
angular impulse
is
equal to the change in angular
momentum.
CONSTRAINTS. HOLONOMIC AND NON-HOLONOMIC CONSTRAINTS

Often in practice the motion of a particle or system of particles is restricted in some
way. For example, in rigid bodies [considered in Chapters 9 and 10] the motion must be such
that the distance between any two particular particles of the rigid body is always the same.
As another example, the motion of particles may be restricted to curves or surfaces.
The
limitations on the motion are often called constraints.
If the constraint condition
can be expressed as an equation

<(ri,r 2 ,
...,rw
t)
(26)
connecting the position vectors of the particles and the time, then the constraint
holonomic. If it cannot be so expressed it is called non-holonomic.
is
called
VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENTS
Consider two possible configurations of a system of particles at a particular instant
which are consistent with the forces and constraints. To go from one configuration to
the other, we need only give the vth particle a displacement Sr* from the old to the new
position. We call Sr, a virtual displacement to distinguish it from a true displacement
[denoted by dr v which occurs in a time interval where forces and constraints could be
changing. The symbol 8 has the usual properties of the differential d; for example,
S(sin0) = cos0 80.
]
STATICS OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES.

PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK
In order for a system of particles to be in equilibrium, the resultant force acting on each
where F v 8r v is called
particle must be zero, i.e. F = 0. It thus follows that F, 8r v =
then
have
the virtual work. By adding these we
2Fv8r =
(27)
v=l
If constraints are present,
then
we can
F
write
= F a) +
l
F< c)
(28)
where F< a) and F< c) are respectively the actual force and constraint force acting on the vth
particle. By assuming that the virtual work of the constraint forces is zero [which is true
for rigid bodies and for motion on curves and surfaces without friction], we arrive at
CHAP.
7]
Theorem 7.14.
work of the actual
system of particles
forces
is
zero,
in equilibrium if
is
171
and only
if
the total virtual
if
i.e.
F< 0)
8r
(29)
v=l
This
is
often called the principle of virtual work.
EQUILIBRIUM IN CONSERVATIVE FIELDS.

The results for equilibrium of a particle in a conservative force field [see page 38]
can be generalized to systems of particles. The following theorems summarize the basic
results.
Theorem
If
7.15.
coordinates q v q 2
V is the total potential of a system of particles depending on

then the system will be in equilibrium if
W^
Since the virtual
work done on the system
"
".
(31) is equivalent to the principle of virtual
Theorem
is
7.16.
8o2
'
system of particles
>
()
is
".
work.
be in stable equilibrium
will
if
the potential
a minimum.
In case
depends on only one coordinate, say q

v
dV
sufficient conditions are
dW
Other cases of equilibrium where the potential
not a
is
minimum
are called unstable.
D'ALEMBERT'S PRINCIPLE
Although Theorem 7.14 as stated applies to the statics of a system of particles, it can be
restated so as to give an analogous theorem for dynamics. To do this we note that
according
to Newton's second law of motion,
F
or
(so)
where p v is the momentum of the vth particle. The second equation amounts to saying
that a moving system of particles can be considered to be in equilibrium under
a force
F - p v i.e. the actual force together with the added force -p which is
often called the
reversed effective force on particle v. By using the principle of virtual work we
can then
arrive at
,
Theorem
7.17.
system of particles moves in such a way that the
2 (F^
With
this theorem,
which
as a special case of statics.
is
a)
p.)
8r
total virtual
work
often called D'Alembert's principle,
we can
consider dynamics
172
[CHAP.
Solved Problems
DEGREES OF FREEDOM
7.1.
Determine the number of degrees of freedom

(a) a particle moving on a given space curve; (b)
plane;
(a)
five particles
(c)
rigid rod
moving
moving freely
in space;
in
each of the following cases:

moving freely in a
two particles connected by a
five particles
(d)
freely in a plane.
The curve can be described by the parametric equations x = x(s), y = y(s), z = (s) where
s is the parameter. Then the position of a particle on the curve is determined by specifying
one coordinate, and hence there is one degree of freedom.
particle requires two coordinates to specify its position in the plane. Thus 5 2 = 10
coordinates are needed to specify the positions of all 5 particles, i.e. the system has 10 degrees
of freedom.
(b)
Each
(c)
Since each particle requires three coordinates to specify

degrees of freedom.
(d)
Method 1.
The coordinates of the two particles can be expressed by {x lf y{) and (x 2 ,y 2 ),
of 4 coordinates. However, since the distance between these points is a constant a
of the rigid rod],
we have
(x 1
x2 2 +
)
(l/i
2/2) 2 =
Thus there are 4
expressed in terms of the others.
ft2
its position,
5*3 = 15
the system has
i.e.
a total
[the length
so that one of the coordinates can be
1 =
degrees of freedom.
Method 2.
The motion is completely specified if we give the two coordinates of the center of mass
and the angle made by the rod with some specified direction. Thus there are 2 + 1 = 3 degrees
of freedom.
72.
Find the number of degrees of freedom for a rigid body which (a) can move freely
in three dimensional space, (b) has one point fixed but can move in space about
this point.
(a)
Method
1.
If 3 non-collinear points of a rigid
body are fixed
of
9.
(x x
in space, then the rigid
Let these points have coordinates (x lt y x zj, {x 2 y 2

Since the body is rigid we must have the relations
in space.
- x2 2 +
(y x
- y2 2 +
)
- z2
(x 3 - x
(z t
2
)
=
+
constant,
z 2 ), (x 3 ,
y3
- x 5 2 + (y 2 - y 3 2 +
+ (z 3 - z 2 = constant
(x 2
body
is
also fixed
z 3 ) respectively,
{z 2
- z3
2
)
a total
constant,
(y 3 - y x )
t)
x)
hence 3 coordinates can be expressed in terms of the remaining 6. Thus 6 independent
coordinates are needed to describe the motion, i.e. there are 6 degrees of freedom.
Method
To
2.
An axis through this point

rotation about the axis
specify 2 ratios of the direction cosines of this axis.
can then be described by 1 angular coordinate. The total number of coordinates required,
3 + 2 + 1 = 6.
i.e. the number of degrees of freedom, is
is fixed if
(6)
one point of the rigid body requires 3 coordinates.
fix
we
The motion is completely specified if we know the coordinates of two points, say (x^y^Zj)
and (x 2 ,y 2 ,z 2 ), where the fixed point is taken at the origin of a coordinate system. But since
the body is rigid we must have
x\
+ y\ +
z\
from which
constant, x\
3 coordinates
+ yl + z\=
constant,
(x x
- x 2 2 + (y - y 2 2 +
)
can be found in terms of the remaining
3.
{z t
- z2 2 =
)
constant
Thus there are 3 degrees
of freedom.
CENTER OF MASS AND MOMENTUM OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

7.3.
Prove Theorem 7.1, page 167: The total momentum of a system of particles can be
of the system by the velocity v of the center
found by multiplying the total mass
of mass.
CHAP.
7]
The center of mass
Then the
7.4.
total
is
by
momentum
2 rn v
^
v
2 i^v v 2
is
definition,
173
,,
M dr/dt
= Mx.
Prove Theorem
as
if
7.2, page 167: The center of mass of a system of particles moves

the total mass and resultant external force were applied at this point.
Let F be the resultant external force acting on particle

v due to particle \.
We shall assume that f = 0,
force on itself.
while
particle
By Newton's
second law the total force on particle
F" +
where the second term on the
dPy
f
the internal force on

does not exert any
is
J2
~dt
f x is
particle
i.e.
dP>
(w
r ">
left represents the resultant internal force
on particle
due to
all
other particles.
Summing
over
2F
Now
we
in equation (1),
2 2if.
find
tv \
m
d&
2m
rv I
according to Newton's third law of action and reaction,

left of {2) is zero. If we then write
(2)
f x
so
Xl>
that the double
summation on the
2 F
and
^^ m
1Y1
(2)
becomes
Since
is
the total external force on
all
rv
(3)
d2 r
= M-r^
(4)
particles applied at the center of
mass
f,
the required
result is proved.
7.5.
system of particles consists of a 3 gram mass located at (1, 0, -1), a 5 gram mass
1, 3) and a 2 gram mass at (3, -1, 1). Find the coordinates of the center of mass.
at (-2,
The
position vectors of the particles are given respectively
rt
Then the center

f
of
mass
3(i
is
k,
r2
7.6.
r3
3k,
3i
+k
- k) +
5(-2i
of the center of
+ j + 3k) +
+5+2
2(3i
- j + k)
10
+
,
3
10
+
,
7
5
mass are (J*.

A. 1)
1 0' 1
o
v
'
if the total momentum of a system is constant, i.e. is conserved, then the

center of mass is either at rest or in motion with constant velocity.
Prove that
The
total
momentum
of the system
is
given by
Then
7.7.
given by
Thus the coordinates
= -2i +
by
if
is
constant, so also
is
..
r2^r]
rff
dr/dt, the velocity of the center of mass.
why the ejection of gases at high velocity from the rear of a rocket will
the rocket forward.
Explain
move
Since the gas particles move backward with high velocity and since the center of mass does
not move, the rocket must move forward. For applications involving rocket motion, see Chapter 8.
174
7.8.
Find the centroid of a
solid region
Consider the volume element At v of the

this volume element is
[CHAP.
as in Fig. 7-3.
solid.
The
Ar
mass of
AM V =
o v At v
Ax v Ayv &z v
Ax v Ay v Az v
av
where a v is the density [mass per unit volume] and

Ax v Ay v Az are the dimensions of the volume element.
Then the centroid is given approximately by
,
2 r AM
2 AM
2r
2
<r
where the summation
2 * a Ax Ay Az
2 v ^ xv ^Vv ^ z
av Arv
is
At v
taken over
all
volume elements
Fig. 7-3
of the solid.
Ar
Taking the limit as the number of volume elements becomes infinite

or Ax v - 0, Ay v - 0, Az v - 0, we obtain for the centroid of the solid:
in
such a
way
that
dM
JJJ radxdydz
radr
dx dy dz
9.
where the integration

Writing
xi
is to
+ yj +
III
be performed Over %, as indicated.

f
zk,
xi
+ yj + zk,
can also be written in component form as
\\\ yadxdydz
x a dx dy dz
Find the centroid of the region bounded by the plane x

x = 0, y = 0, z = 0.
The
region, which
the results of Problem
is
a tetrahedron,
is
jJj zadxdydz
%
sss- dx dy dz
Jlf* dx dy dz
III adxdy dz
7.9.
this
+y+z =
To
a and the planes
find the centroid,
we use
7.8.
an
In forming the sum over all volume elements of the region, it is advisable to proceed in
orderly fashion. One possibility is to add first all terms corresponding to volume elements
and
contained in a column such as PQ in the figure. This amounts to keeping x v and y v fixed
adding over all z v Next keep * fixed but sum over all y v This amounts to adding all columns,
such as PQ, contained in a slab RS, and consequently amounts to summing over all cubes contained
This amounts to addition of all slabs such as RS.
in such a slab. Finally, vary x v
.
In performing the integration over %, we use these

same ideas. Thus keeping x and y constant, integrate
[base of column PQ] to z a x y [top
from z =
of column PQ]. Next keep x constant and integrate
with respect to y. This amounts to addition of columns
having bases in the xy plane [z = 0] located anywhere
from R [where y = 0] to S [where x + y = a or y =
At
= Axv Ayv Az
to y = a x.
and the integration is from y =
we add all slabs parallel to the yz plane, which
We
to x a.
amounts to integration from x
x],
Finally,
thus obtain
pa x
Jr>a
t
x=
pax y
a(xi
*A/
=
na
+ yj + zk) dz dy dx
*z =
paa x
s* xi
/*a
a dz dy dx
K
'x=Q
*^j/
Fig. 7-4
*^=0
Since a is constant in this case, it may be cancelled. The denominator without a

4
Thus the center
be a3 /6, and the numerator without a is (a /24)(i + j + k).
=
a/4.
=
=
a/4, z
a/4, y
f = (a/4)(i + j + k) or x
to
is
of
evaluated
mass
is
CHAP.
7.10.
7]
Find the centroid of a semi-circular region of radius

Method
Using rectangular coordinates.

Choose the region as in Fig. 7-5. The equation of the
since y ^ 0.
175
a.
1.
If a is the mass per unit area, assumed

are given by
constant,
JJ xdydx
x2
+ y2 =
a2 or y
y/a2
- x2
ss
Jtf^
=
dydx
ydydx
x
odA
xdy dx
ydydx
/.
is
then the coordinates of the centroid
ff dydx
<rdA
y/l^x*
xadA
circle
= a
dy dx
J-._ a
3/=0
V^? dydx
2a3 /3
4a
ira2 /2
3lT
"y=0
Note that we can write x immediately, since by symmetry the centroid is on the y axis.
The denominator for y can be evaluated without integrating by noting that it represents
the
semi-circular area which is %ira2
.
Fig. 7-5
Fig. 7-6
Method 2. Using polar coordinates.

The equation of the circle is r = a [see Fig. 7-6]. As before, we see by
symmetry that the
centroid must lie on the y axis, so that x = 0. Since
y = r sin e and dA=rdrde in polar
we can
coordinates,
write
yadA
(r sin 9 )
r dr de
2q3/3
r=0
dA
s%
7.11.
Sir
rdrde
Find the center of mass of a uniform solid hemisphere of radius

By symmetry the center of mass lies on the
z axis
[see Fig.
Aa
a.
Subdivide the hemisphere

of radius r, such as
ABCDEA. If the center G of such a ring is at
distance z from the center O of the hemisphere,
r 2 + z 2 = a2
Then if dz is the thickness of the
plate, the volume of each ring is
into
solid
7-7].
circular
plates
irr 2
and the mass
is
dz
ira(a 2
ir{a 2
z2
traz{a2
-z 2 )dz
Thus we have
dz.
z2
dz
z=
= la
Jz=0
va(a2
z2
dz
Fig. 7-7
176
[CHAP.
ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND TORQUE

7.12.
Prove Theorem 7.4, page 168: The total external torque on a system of particles is
equal to the time rate of change of angular momentum of the system, provided that
the internal forces between particles are central forces.
As
Problem
in equation (1) of
+ 2fx
x
f
(1
we have
7.4,
by r v X
dP v
-of
2 r X
(2)
Summing
over
we
in (4),
2 2rXf
vX
X
sum
in (5) is
which becomes on writing
X|/
since
(7)
is
CtC
2m
i
^
A = 2
*i/
XU
v)
(5)
+ *xXf x
rx
Xf x
i\^m
^
dt \f
XF
()
- r x X f vX
(r
"" v (r v
(7)
same direction as r rx it follows

Thus equation (5) becomes
Xv*"v )\
"
A =
or
"
d
dt
2 Wj/(r X v).
O =
F,
that the forces are central, i.e. f x has the

zero and also that the double sum in (5) is zero.
v (t v
j;
we suppose
2r
where
j-
according to Newton's third law,
-f x
rXf x
Then
(4)
composed of terms such as

rv
that
l>
l>
the double
(3)
v )}
^K(r,Xv,)}
f vX
(*)
find
2r,XF, +
Now
{1)
X ^(m v)
vv
d
^K(r,Xv
2 * X
r,XF, +
becomes
f x
X ^(mv)
Vv)
we have
r,XF v +
Since
d
{m "
Tt
WORK, KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

7.13.
page 169: The total work done in moving a system of particles

with kinetic energies 2\ and T 2 respectively is T2-T1.
another
from one state to
Prove Theorem
7.6,
pth particle in the system is
The equation of motion of the
Tv
Taking the dot product of both
F rv
tv \
Id,
Since
(2)
-^ (ra
'
>-.
r)
f i>x
over
in equation (5),
2^-r,
we
(1)
2 5t
2di
(2)
Id/
Id/{m
Summing
can be written
Tv'K
^(m,r,)
we have
sides with r,
==
Tv'K
2U
2\
^
2\
(3)
find
2F.r +
22U-r,
^(2,^)
U)
CHAP.
7]
Integrating both sides of
12
with respect to
(4)
2 ('rv 'r
<Zt
to
tx
( F v -l v dt +
ti
Using the fact that
dt
from
177
we
t2 ,
22
find
2
(
l
and the symbols
dr
t vX
-r v dt
and 2 for the states at times
and
tx
t2
respectively, this can be written
2 Cr
12
where Ti and T^ are the
'dr v
total kinetic energies at
12
22
( F v 'drv +
and
tx
fx
'
(5)
Since
respectively.
t2
T2 - T x
f fv 'dr v
(6)
the total work done (by external and internal forces) in

another, the required result follows.
moving the system from one
is
state to
It should be noted that the double sum in (5) indicating work done by the internal forces,
cannot be reduced to zero either by using Newton's third law or the assumption of central forces.
This is in contradistinction to the double sums in Problems 7.4 and 7.12 which can be reduced to zero.
7.14.
Suppose that the internal forces of a system of particles are conservative and are
derived from a potential
= V
Vxv (rw)
where
ticles
(a)
n = rv \ = V( x * ~ x ) 2 +
A and v of the system.
Prove that
Jf^-dr, = -
particle
(#*.
due to particle
Evaluate the double sum
22
(a)
The force acting on
BV Xv
hv
particle X
^
i vX
'drv
where
the distance between par-
f x is
the internal force on
of Problem 7.13.
f\v'dr v
dVXv
dVXv
in
~ ~J^ k
~S^d x VXv
-V x VXv
-ivX
producing the displacements drv and drx of particles
(2)
and X
is
i Xv
'drx
=
=
Then the
is
is
dVXv
The work done by these forces

respectively
2
)
Wxv.
~~B^ ~ ~d^
2 2 dVw
- zv
is
Wxv.
The force acting on
(z\
(r v \)
A.
(b)
particle
Vv) 2 +
v\
total
JdVXv
vKv
dVXv
dV Xv
dVXv
dVXv
~dVXv
work done by the internal forces
22fx-rfr
l,
is
-22<n\,
*
v
(s)
the factor on the right being introduced because otherwise the terms in the summation
would enter twice.
-]
178
(6)
By
integrating
(a),
we have
t Xy
dr v
of part
(3)
[CHAP.
-2
2 2)
lnt)
and
where y<
y2 mt)
22
--
J22v
t
7.15.
^ and
-r/(int)
U)
K2
denote the total internal potentials
2
at times
1/(int)
C*Vx
(5)
respectively.
Prove that if both the external and internal forces for a system of particles are
conservative, then the principle of conservation of energy is valid.
we have
If the external forces are conservative, then
- -VV
2 (\-dr
from which
where V[ ext) and y< ext) denote the
-2 fV,
(1)
T/(ext)
K2
v?
total external potential
2V
V
at times
tt
Using
and
respectively.
and equation
{2)
t2 - t x
where
of Problem 7.14(6) in equation
(4)
y{
v<
ext)
(int)
V (ext) +
Vi
ext)
v<
Int)
and
vj
Vo
y^
ext)
v - y2
(5),
+ y2(int)
Tt +
which
is
T2 + y 2
T + V
or
tx
and
find
(*)
are the respective total potential energies [external and internal] at times
from
we
of Problem 7.13,
(5)
y< int)
U)
We
t%.
constant
thus find
(5)
MOTION RELATIVE TO THE CENTER OF MASS

7.16.
be respectively the position vector and velocity of particle

\' = 0.
(b)
v
v r'v = 0,
the center of mass. Prove that (a)
v
Let
r^
and
\'
Let r^ be the position vector of particle v relative to O

and f the position vector of the center of mass C relative
Then from the definition of the center of mass,
to O.
where
2 mv
From
rv
Then substituting
(2)
^^m
into
'
(1),
Differentiating both sides of
rv
Fig. 7-8
v
we
(1)
we have
(3)
Fig. 7-8
(2)
find
2v m
from which
(b)
relative to
^m
^m
V
(a)
rv
with respect to
~
t,
(S)
we have
2 m* x =
v
CHAP.
7.17.
7]
Prove Theorem 7.9, page 169: The total angular momentum of a system of particles
about any point O equals the angular momentum of the total mass assumed to be
located at the center of mass plus the angular momentum about the center of mass.
Let r be the position vector of particle
mass C
O and
relative to
r'
relative to O, f the position vector of the center of
the position vector of particle
Differentiating with respect to
t,
we
find
i'
angular
total
a =
momentum
2m
v (r'v
(3)
(2)
to O, v is the velocity of particle v relative to
is
+ v)}
2 m,(r' X v) + 2 m (t X V
Xvp +
v)
2 m {l X v)
(3)
7.16,
K(<Xv)
J2^v<fXv
2 m Xv)
2 rn
\'V
2m
<
2 H, Mr X v)
v {f
Then
by Problem
2^{ + f)X( V
Now
\'
of the system about
Sw.fr.Xv,,)
tt)
where v is the velocity of the center of mass relative

O, and v'v is the velocity of particle v relative to C.
The
Then
relative to C.
<+*
*v
v (t
v)
-j
M{i X
v)
becomes, as required,
7.18.
179
2m(<Xv') + Af(fXv)
Prove Theorem 7.10, page 169: The total kinetic energy of a system of particles
about any point O equals the kinetic energy of the center of mass [assuming the
total mass located there] plus the kinetic energy of motion about the center of mass.
The
kinetic energy relative to
[see Fig. 7-8] is
Using equation
(2)
of Problem 7.16
we
(1)
can be written
^2^{(v + v;).(v + V ;)}
2 >
'
vv
2^v-v
*
since
find
rv
Thus
+ 2v'< +
v
h^^K'K
&
v
|(?^)v- + v.jsm.v;} + 2*^;,2
gMv2 + -
by Problem
7.16.
2 mv'
180
[CHAP.
IMPULSE
7.19.
Prove Theorem
momentum.
The
The
7.12:
total external force
by equation
_,
F
Then the
of
(4)
Problem
ifdH
M
is
-di?
equal to the change in linear
7.4 is
,.dv
lt
M*2
- M\_
total linear impulse is
CH
Ydt
X*
where p x
impulse
total linear
= Mx
and p2
Mv 2
dv
M ~^
dt
represent the total
momenta
at times
p2
tx
Pi
and
t2
respectively.
CONSTRAINTS. HOLONOMIC AND NON-HOLONOMIC CONSTRAINTS

7.20.
In each of the following cases state whether the constraint is holonomic or nonholonomic and give a reason for your answer: (a) a bead moving on a circular wire;
(b) a particle sliding down an inclined plane under the influence of gravity; (c) a
particle sliding down a sphere from a point near the top under the influence of gravity.
(a)
(6)
The constraint is holonomic since the bead, which can be considered a

to move on the circular wire.
The constraint
is
holonomic since the particle
is
constrained to
particle, is constrained
move along a surface which
is
in this case a plane.

(c)
the
is non-holonomic since the particle after reaching a certain location on
sphere will leave the sphere.
Another way of seeing this is to note that if r is the position vector of the particle
relative to the center of the sphere as origin and a is the radius of the sphere, then the
particle moves so that r2 a2 . This is a non-holonomic constraint since it is not of the
2
2
form (26), page 170. An example of a holonomic constraint would be r = a
The constraint
STATICS. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK. STABILITY

7.21.
Prove the principle of virtual work, Theorem 7.14, page 171.

For equilibrium, the net resultant force F v on each particle must
2F'8r
be zero, so that
(-0
But since F
= F (a) + F (c) where Fâ)
pth particle, (1)
and F< c) are the actual and constraint forces acting on the
can be written
2Fa) -8r + 2Ftc), 8'v

If
(2)
we assume
is zero,
that the virtual
so that
work
2F
7.22.
is
Co)
dr v
(2)
of the constraint forces is zero, the second
we have
which
sum on
the left of
W
/
a\
the principle of virtual work.
are located on a frictionless double incline and

7-9
connected by an inextensible massless string passing over a smooth peg [see Fig.
have
must
we
equilibrium
for
that
show
to
work
below]. Use the principle of virtual
Two
particles of
masses mi and
sin a x
sin a2
where a x and
a 2 are the angles of the incline.
m2
mi
CHAP.
7]
Method
181
1.
Let r x and r2 be the respective position vectors

of masses
1 and
2 relative to O.
The actual forces (due

and m2 are respectively
= m xS
F< a)
to gravity) acting on
= m 2g
F< a)
A,
^\B
00
Wlj
S\
According to the principle of virtual work,
2Fj 0)
or
F'<
0)
Sr x
-rv
+ F 2a)
Sr2
Fig. 7-9
(*)
where 5r x and Sr2 are the virtual displacements of

Sr x
wi 2 g
8r t sin a x
m 2g
mg
or
Then
since the string is inextensible,
8r t
i.e.
(mrf sin a x
But
we must have
since 8r x is arbitrary,
Method
ai
and
Sr2
m2
m^ sin a )Sî
8r2
_ m2
sm a 2
wh
(1)
in (2),
(4)
Sri,
(4)
becomes
m2g
sin ax
Using
or
sin x
incline.
(3)
8r2 sin a 2
+ 8r2 =
down the
sin a 2
0>
i-e>
(5)
2.
When
it is not clear which forces are constraint forces doing no work, we can take into account
forces and then apply the principle of virtual work. Thus, for example, taking into account
the reaction forces R x and R2 due to the inclines on the particles and the tension forces T and T ,
x
2
the principle of virtual work becomes
all
(m x g + T x
+ Rj)
8r x
(m 2g + T2
+ R2
Sr2
<*)
Now since the inclines are assumed smooth [so that

the reaction forces are perpendicular to the inclines]
we have
Ri'Srj
R2 *8r2 =
0,
(7)
Also, since there is no friction at the peg, the tensions Tj and T2 have the same magnitude.
Thus
we have, using the fact that 8r x and Sr2 are directed
down the corresponding

8r2 = -8r lt
Ta
8r x
+ T2
and the fact that
= -T 8r - T2 8r2
= {T2 -T )8r =
Sr2
inclines
since
T x = T2
Then using
mg
x
as obtained in
7.23.
5r x
m2 g
(7)
Sr2
and
(5), (6)
(8)
becomes
=
Fig. 7-10
(3).
Use Theorem
7.15,
page 171, to solve Problem
7.22.
Let the string have length I and suppose that the lengths of string OA and OB on the inclines
[Fig. 7-9] are x and l x respectively.
The total potential energy using a horizontal plane
through O as reference level is
V =
-m x gx
sin a t
m2g(l x)
sin a 2
Then for equilibrium we must have
It should
as
is
= m
be noted that
also evident physically.
sin a x
is
+ m^g sm a 2 =
not a
minimum
sinaj
m2
sin a 2
in this case so that the equilibrium is not stable,
182
[CHAP.
D'ALEMBERTS PRINCIPLE
7.24.
Use D'Alembert's principle
We
(m x g-
This can be written
or
since the string
Sr2
= Srj,
r2
..
x
r x )8r x
= rV Thus
ra2 r2 )
+ r%
m^
m2
m^ sin a
m
sin a
m +
x
up or down
We
goes
down
up the
or
0,
with
incline
acceleration according as
in these cases goes
constant
sin a x < m^g sin a 2 respectively.

sin a 2 or
xg
respectively with the same constant acceleration.
> m<$
8r x
m2 r
sina 2
flr
we have
constant,
becomes, after dividing by
(2)
+ V2 =
rx
0,
)Sr2
'r 2
to
(1)
#>
(2)
8r2
TOjjf
Thus particle
m2
sina 2
7.22.
Problem 7.22
Sr a
n =
m g sin a
in equation (3) of
..
8r x
sinaj
wijflf
m2 V
and
rx
(ra 2
rx
inextensible so that
is
+ (m2g -
r x )'8r x
sin**!
(TOjfli
Now
introduce the reversed effective forces
obtain
motion of the masses in Problem
to describe the
Particle 2
can also use a method analogous to the second method of Problem
7.22.
7.25.
masses mi and m 2 move

so that their relative velocity is v and the veloc-
Two
particles having
If M = m\ + w 2
= miw2/(wi + ra 2 is the
mass is v.
ity of their center of
the total mass and

)
reduced mass of the system, prove that the total
2
2
kinetic energy is $Mv + $ixv
is
ju,
Let r x r2 and f be the position vectors with re,
spect to
mass C
of
mass
x,
mass
m2
and the center of
respectively.
From
the definition of the center of mass,
we have
m 1T + m2r2
and
t =
r
m + m2
v = f
m \ + m 2\ 2 =
i + 2
i
or using v x
ix
v2
r2 ,
If the velocity of
relative to
m2 is
v,
vi
so that
Solving
(1)
and
(2)
simultaneously,
we
h -
- v2 =
mv
total kinetic
energy
vx
v2
(*)
_ _v _ m v
Wi + m2
v2
is
lîvf +
1
f2
Then the
K1 )
find
= V + , + ,'
vi
+ m2)v
then
= ^(r!-r2
(m x
m2V 2
!<-+*
mv
w
2
\\ 2
m
v
'"''
/_
l
1
^1%
+1^...
_
=
w
aô
+
,
1
-/iV 2
CHAP.
7.26.
7]
183
Find the centroid of a uniform semicircular

wire of radius a.
By symmetry [see Fig. 7-12] the centroid of
the wire must be on the y axis, so that x = 0. If ois the mass per unit length of the wire, then if ds
represents an element of arc, we have ds = ado
so that
y a ds
(a sin e)(a de)
Jcr ads
f-
2a?
de
2a
Fig. 7-12
n-a
7.27.
Suppose that n systems of particles be given having centroids at f i, f 2

f and
masses
x
2 ... .,M n respectively.
Prove that the centroid of all the systems
total
Mif +
l
Mi +
M +
Let system 1 be composed of masses

system 2 be composed of masses m 21
m n m 12
m22
,
+ Mn rn
+ Mn
located at r n r 12
located at r21 , r 22 , ....
.
i
all
systems
is
inn2
respectively.
Then by
m21 r21 + w22r22 +
ra u r u
^12*12
Similarly
definition,
Mi
m21 + m22 +
mnl rnl + mn2rn2 +
But the centroid for
m n r n + m vFn +
m n + m 12 +
21*21 + w 22r22 +
*2
Mi +
let
at
is
M
'
mn2fn2 +
^nl^nl
located at
+ m 12r 12 +) + (m21 r21 + m 22r22 +

+
+ (mnl rMl + mn2rn2 +
(w u + m 12 +
) + (w 21 + m 22 + ) +
+ (mnl + mn2 H
Mjt + M2r2 +
+ Mnrn
M + M2 +
+ Af
(m n r u
7.28.
solid of constant density

consisting of a cylinder of radius a and height
surmounted by a hemisphere of radius a
Af,
[see
'
Fig. 7-13].
Let f be the distance of the centroid of the solid from the
The centroid of the hemisphere of radius a is at distance fa +
from the base of the solid, and its mass is
= |â 3 r [see Problem 7.11].
x
*-~.
is
Then by Problem
/"
2
I
ira 2 Ho.
''iliiip'
'
M
is
*r
>s>s>
base.
The centroid of the cylinder of radius a and height H

at distance H from the base of the solid and its mass
"V
M2
7.27,
+ ff) + {TraWo){%H)
~
+ 7ro2Hff
+ 8aH + 6m
8a + 12H
(|,ra3q)(fa
|ira3 a
32
^-
Fig. 7-13
Base of
s olid
184
7.29.
[CHAP.
is cut out of a circular region of radius

Find the centroid of the shaded region thus obtained.
circular hole of radius a/2
in Fig. 7-14.
a,
as
shown
y %ira2o
'x
x a
Fig. 7-15
Fig. 7-14
By symmetry
the centroid is located on the x axis, so that
0.
TraPo concentrated at its

can replace the circular region of radius a by the mass
1
centroid x x = a [Fig. 7-15]. Similarly, we can replace the circular hole of radius a/2 by the
= \ira% o concentrated at its centroid x 2 = fa. Then the centroid is located
negative mass
2
We
on the x axis at
Mx
+
Mi +
l
7.30.
Mx
M
(Tra 2 a)(a)
2 2
ira 2 a
(-%ira 2 a)(%a)
\ira% o
uniform rod PQ [see Fig. 7-16] of mass m and length L has its end P resting
against a smooth vertical wall AB while its other end Q is attached by means of an
on the wall. Assuming that
inextensible string OQ of length I to the fixed point
the plane of P, Q and O is vertical and perpendicular to the wall, show that
equilibrium occurs
if
sin a
V4L 2 -
V4L 2 -
sm/3
lV&
There is only one actual force, i.e. the weight rag of the
Other forces acting are the force of the wall on the
rod and the tension in the string. However, these are constraint forces and can do no work. This can be seen since
if P were to slide down the wall no work would be done,
because the wall is frictionless and thus the force due to
the wall on the rod is perpendicular to the wall. Also if Q
rod.
were
to drop,
string at Q.
it
could only
move perpendicular
to
the
Let r be the position vector of the center of mass C

case also the center of gravity] relative to 0. Also
let i and j be unit vectors in the horizontal and vertical
directions respectively so that r = xi + yj.
[in this
From
Fig. 7-16,
Then from
(1),
OQ = OP + PQ
(1)
OQ = OC + CQ
(2)
on taking the dot product with
OQi
Since
or
OP
Fig. 7-16
0, this
= OP'i + PQ'i
reduces to
OQ'i
I
i,
sin a
= PQ'i
= L
sin
/?
CHAP.
7]
Similarly on taking the dot product of both sides of
Now
cos a
mg
and
(S)
(A),
and
Since
8y
COS a 8a
sin a 8a
are constants and since
from
(7),
and
we have on
(P),
work becomes
sin
cos
iin
So;
=
=
_
~
fi
Lcos/JS/3
(5)
lLsin/?S/?
(9)
1 sin/?
2 cos
(10)
(l/L) sin a
= Vl - (WL
fi
2
)
sin2
Dividing by sin a and squaring both sides,
we
sin/?
(11)
(U)
V4L2-
/2
(IS)
solid consists of a cylinder of radius -a
H on
a hemisphere of radius a, as indicated in Fig. 7-17. Prove that the solid is in stable
equilibrium on a horizontal plane if and only if
\/2.
C is at a distance
of the hemisphere given by
7.28 the centroid
from the center
3q2
+ SaH + 6ff2
8a + 12H
_
~
6ff2
8a
3a2
+ 12H
Then the distance of the centroid C above the plane
CP =
CD + DP = CB cos e + BQ
6W - 3a2 cos + a
8a + 12H
sin2 a
Z2
as required.
By Problem
(IS)
J2
find
Ly/Z
a/H >
(12)
sin a
iVs
uniform
and height
()
sin2 a
VL2 -
V4L2-
d.
can be written
Vl -
7.31.
S/3
division,
so that
and from
(7)
has the same properties as the differential operator
sin a
(3),
(10)
8y
(i
sin
Thus equation
(6)
= L cos SfS
= 8y \L sin
cos a
Now from
(5)
these equations become
(5)
8yj
or
ZcosaSa
From
given by
is
we have
(4)
Sr
mg 8y =
becomes
this
(5),
j,
cos /?
the only actual force, the principle of virtual
is
Now from
since
+ \L
8xi
mg
Using
a virtual displacement of the center of mass

Sr
Since
with
(2)
= OC'j + CQ'j
OQ'j
or
185
is
CB
186
energy
so that the potential
aW
do 2
i.e.
7.32.
3a2
3a2
2 -6H2\
-=
M# /3a
or
sin 9
0,
8a
- 6#2
+ 12H
3a2 - 6ff2 \
8a + 12H
M#
cos 9
0=0
0.
>
ends suspended
its
fixed points at the
same
.B
hori-
//T
Find an equation for the
curve in which
it
A*lf-
J^*r
rium under the tensions of magnitude T and

T + AT due to the rest of the chain and also
*T
the weight ag As of the element of chain. Now

from Fig. 7-18 if the directions of the vectors
corresponding to T and T + AT make angles
of 9 and 9 + A9 with the x axis respectively,
we have as the condition for equilibrium [neglecting terms of order (A9) 2 and higher],
+ AT)
cos
(9
hangs.
Let A and B [Fig. 7-18] be the fixed points.

element of the chain of length As is in equilib-
(T
i.e.
a/H > V2.
or
zontal level.
An
'3a2
M^
uniform chain has
from two
6ff2
will be stable if
,=o
- 6H 2 >
n*
dV
=
-,.v
Equilibrium
occurs where
Then the equilibrium
(or potential) is
V
tp
[CHAP.
+ A9)i +
+ AT)
(T
(T
or
(T
sin (9
+ AT)
+ AT)
cos
sin (9
Ae
agAs
,,
/,
J
i
Fig. 7-18
+ A9)j -
+ A9)
{9
(T cos
+ A9) - T
sin 9
+ T
sin 9
j)
ag] As
cos 9
(1)
(2)
ag As
Equation (1) shows that the horizontal component T cos 9 must be a constant, which we shall take
as T which corresponds to the tension at the lowest point of the chain, where 9 = 0. Thus
Tcos9
From
(2)
we
find on dividing
(T
= Tn
{3)
by A9,
+ AT)
sin(fl
+ Afl)
As
sin9
A9
Taking the limit of both sides of U) as A9

d
d9
Using
(?)
to eliminate T, (5)
-* 0,
(T sin
we
9)
find
9)
Tn
where
ag
do
Thus from
Tjag.
(7)
and
Now
ds
d9
ag
(5)
becomes
d
j- (T tan
or
tt)
A~9
dx
de
9,
(6)
b sec 2 9
sec 2 9
dy
COS
ds
T9
-f-
ds
(7)
= sm9n
(8)
(*),
dx
dx ds
d9
ds d9
dy
dy ds
de
ds d9
(cos 9)(b sec 2 9)
b sec 9
(sin 9){b sec 2 9)
b sec 9
(9)
tan
(10)
CHAP.
7]
Integrating
(9)
and
(10)
with respect to
=
=
05
we
$,
find
6 In (sec 6
c2
b sec $
tan
From
(11)
(15)
and
we
(12)
find
Cj
c2
0,
we have
(1)
by
sec 2 e
tan 2
b In (sec
b sec
(15),
we
find
sec e
Adding
(15) to (17")
and using
(1-4),
y
This curve
is
we
Cj
(11)
(12)
i.e.
at
0,
and
b.
Then
Thus
0.
sec 6
But
Then dividing
e)
Let us assume that at the lowest point of the chain,
from
187
tan
(IS)
e)
(14)
ff
tan
tan
tan 6
(sec
e* /b
tf)(sec
(15)
tan
e)
(10)
e~*/ b
(17)
find
|(ex/b
e -*/b)
called a catenary [from the Latin,
6 cosh
(15)
meaning chain]
DEGREES OF FREEDOM
7.33.
7.34.
Determine the number of degrees of freedom in each of the following cases: (a) a particle moving
on a plane curve; (6) two particles moving on a space curve and having constant distance between
them; (c) three particles moving in space so that the distance between any two of them is
always constant.
Ans. (a) 1, (b) 1, (c) 6
Find the number of degrees of freedom for a rigid body which

(6) has two points fixed but can otherwise move freely.
plane,
7.35.
(a)
moves
Ans.
parallel to a fixed
(a) 3,
(6)
Find the number of degrees of freedom for a system consisting of a thin rigid rod which can
freely in space and a particle which is constrained to move on the rod.
Ans. 4
move
CENTER OF MASS AND MOMENTUM OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

7.36.
7.37.
7.38.
7.39.
ABCD
quadrilateral
has masses 1, 2, 3 and 4 units located at its vertices A( 1,-2,2),
B(S, 2, -1), C(l, 2, 4) and D(3, 1, 2). Find the coordinates of the center of mass.
Ans. (2, 0, 2)
A system consists of two particles of masses x and m2 Prove that the center of mass of the
system divides the line joining Wj to m 2 into two segments whose lengths are in the ratio m? to Wj.
A bomb dropped from an airplane explodes in midair.
then the center of mass describes a parabola.
Prove that
if
air resistance is neglected,
respectively have position vectors r t = 5ti 2t2j + (St 2)k,

r3 = (2* - 1)1 + ( 2 + 2)j - tfk where t is the time.
Find (a) the velocity of the center of mass at time t = 1 and (6) the total linear momentum
of the system at t = 1.
Ans. (a) 3i 2j k, (6) 181 12j 6k
Three particles of masses

r2
(2t
- 3)i +
(12
2, 1, 3
- 5t2 )j +
(4
+ 6* - 3*3)k,
188
7.40.
7.41.
Three equal masses are located at the vertices of a triangle.

located at the intersection of the medians of the triangle.
A
y
Prove that the center of mass
is
uniform plate has the shape of the region bounded by the parabola
x 2 and the line y
in the xy plane. Find the center of mass.
Ans. x
7.42.
[CHAP.
0,
= ^H
Find the center of mass of a uniform right circular cone of radius a

and height H.
Ans. That point on the axis at distance i? from the vertex.
7.43.
The shaded region of Fig. 7-19 is a solid spherical cap of height

cut off from a uniform solid sphere of radius a. (a) Prove that the
centroid of the cap is located at a distance f (2a H) 2 /(Sa H) from
AB.
the base
7.44.
Discuss the cases
(b)
0,
a and
H=
Fig. 7-19
2a.
Find the center of mass of a uniform plate bounded by

= sin x and the x axis.
Ans. x tt/2, y ir/&
7.45.
Find the center of mass of a rod of length I whose denfrom one end O.
sity is proportional to the distance
Ans. |Z from end

7.46.
Find the centroid of a uniform solid bounded by the

planes Ax + 2y + z = 8, x 0, y = 0, 2 = 0.
Ans. f
7.47.
j^(i
+ 2j + 4k)
bounded by the paraboloid of revoluand the plane z = H [see Fig. 7-20].

Ans. x = 0, y = 0, z = %H
Find the centroid.
uniform
tion
x2
solid is
+ y2 =
cz
Fig. 7-20
ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND TORQUE

7.48.
2, 3 and 5 move under the influence of a force field so that their

2
position vectors relative to a fixed coordinate system are given respectively by r x = 2ti 3j + t k,
2
total
the
(a)
l)k where t is the time. Find
*j + (2t
4k and r3 = < i
r3 = (t + l)i + 3tj
angular momentum of the system and (b) the total external torque applied to the system, taken
with respect to the origin.
Ans.
(a)
(b)
7.49.
- 12t)i + (6t 2 - lOt - 12)j +

-12i + (12* - 10)j + lOtk
(31
Work Problem
(21
7.48 if the total angular
5* 2 )k
momentum and
torque are taken with respect to the
center of mass.
7.50.
7.51.
7.52.
7.53.
7.54.
Verify that in (a) Problem 7.48 and (6) Problem 7.49 the total external torque
time rate of change in angular momentum.
is
equal to the
In Problem 7.48 find (a) the total angular momentum and (b) the total external torque taken
about a point whose position vector is given by r = ti - 2tj + 3k. Does the total external torque
equal the time rate of change in angular momentum in this case? Explain.
Verify Theorem
7.9,
page 169, for the system of particles of Problem
State and prove a theorem analogous to that of Theorem

torque applied to a system.
Is the
angular
momentum
conserved in Problem 7.38?
7.9,
Explain.
7.48.
page 169, for the
total external
CHAP.
7]
189
WORK, ENERGY AND IMPULSE

7.55.
Find the total work done by the force

positions at time
7.56.
Is the
work
of Problem 7.55 the
to be concentrated there?
7.57.
7.59.
of Problem 7.48 in
t
moving the
(a)
72.5,
(6)
same as that done on the center of mass assuming
7.61.
Verify Theorem
mass
all
and
(b) t
2.
30.5
in
Problem 7.48 at times
Find the total impulse applied to the system of Problem 7.48 from
Ans. lOi + 4k
the connection of your result with Problem 7.58.
Prove Theorem
their
Explain.
Find the total linear momentum of the system of particles

Ans. (a) 17i + 4j + 14k, (6) 27i + 4j + 18k
(6) t = 2.
7.60.
from
particles
Ans. 42
2.
Find the total kinetic energy of the particles in Problem 7.48 at times (a) t
Discuss the connection between your results and the result of Problem 7.55.
Ans.
7.58.
field
to their positions at time
7.13,
to
(a) t
and
and discuss
page 170.
7.13,
page 170, for the system of particles
in
Problem
7.48.
CONSTRAINTS, STATICS, VIRTUAL WORK, STABILITY AND D'ALEMBERT'S PRINCIPLE

7.62.
In each case state whether the constraint is holonomic or non-holonomic and give a reason for
your answer: (a) a particle constrained to move under gravity on the inside of a vertical paraboloid
of revolution whose vertex is downward; (6) a particle sliding on an ellipsoid under the influence
of gravity; (c) a sphere rolling and possibly sliding down an inclined plane; (d) a sphere rolling
down an inclined plane parallel to a fixed vertical plane; (e) a particle sliding under gravity on
the outside of an inverted vertical cone.
Ans. (a) holonomic, (6) non-holonomic, (c) non-holonomic, (d) holonomic, (e) holonomic
7.63.
and
[Fig. 7-21] has weights
lever
2
t
at distances a t and a 2 from the fixed support B.
Using the principle of virtual work, prove that a
necessary and sufficient condition for equilibrium is
ABC
ax
a2
W*
W*
IE
Og
7.64.
Work Problem
7.63 if one or
more additional weights
are placed on the lever.
7.65.
Fig. 7-21
An inextensible string of negligible mass hanging

over a smooth peg at B [see Fig. 7-22] connects one mass
frictionless inclined plane of angle a to another
x on a
Using D'Alembert's principle, prove that
mass
2
the masses will be in equilibrium if
2 =
1 sin a.
7.66.
Work Problem
tion
7.67.
7.65 if the incline has coefficient of fric-
Ans.
ft.
m2 =
m^sin
fi
cos a)
Fig. 7-22
mass m has its ends on a smooth wall and floor

The foot of the ladder is tied by an inextensible
rope of negligible mass to the base C of the wall so that the
ladder makes an angle a with the floor. Using the principle
of virtual work, find the magnitude of the tension in the rope.
ladder
AB
of
[see Fig. 7-23].
Ans.
7.68.
\mg
Work
tential
is
cot a
Problem 7.63 and (6) Problem 7.65 by using the poenergy method. Prove that the equilibrium in each case
(a)
unstable.
Fig. 7-
190
7.69.
7.70.
7.71.
[CHAP.
A thin uniform rod of length I has its two ends constrained to move on
the circumference of a smooth vertical circle of radius a [see Fig. 7-24].
Determine conditions for equilibrium.
Is the equilibrium of the rod of
solid
hemisphere of radius a
plane of angle
Explain.
Problem 7.69 stable or not?

is
located on a perfectly rough inclined
a.
<
-1
(a)
Prove that
(b)
Are there any other values of a for which equilibrium can occur?
Which of these, if any, yield stable equilibrium?
in stable equilibrium if
it is
sin
(3/8).
principle to obtain the equations of motion of masses
7.72.
Use D'Alembert's
7.73.
Work Atwood's machine problem
7.74.
Use D'Alembert's
Problem
[see
7.22,
Fig. 7-24
and
w2
of Problem 7.65.
page 180] by using D'Alembert's principle.
principle to determine the equations of motion of a simple pendulum.
7.75.
7.76.
7.77.
Prove that the center of mass of a uniform circular arc of radius a and central angle a
located on the axis of symmetry at a distance from the center equal to (a sin a)/a.
Discuss the cases
(a)
and
tt/2
Problem
in
7.75.
Work Problem
Ans. The
7.79.
circle of radius a is removed from a uniform circular plate

of radius b > a, as indicated in Fig. 7-25. If the distance between their centers A and B is D, find the center of mass.
Ans. The point at distance a 2D/(b 2

7.78.
(6)
is
- a2
below B.
7.77 if the circles are replaced
point at distance a3 D/(b 3
- a3
by spheres.
below B.
Prove that the center of mass does not depend on the origin
of the coordinate system used.
7.80.
Prove that the center of mass of a uniform thin hemispherical

a is located at a distance a from the center.
Fig. 7-25
shell of radius
7.81.
the angular momentum of a

Let the angular momentum of the moon about the earth be A. Find
mass. Assume the masses
system consisting of only the earth and the moon about the center of
Ans.
respectively.
m)
and
e A/(M e +
by
m
e
of the earth and moon to be given
7.82.
Does Theorem
page 170, apply
in case the
angular
momentum
is
taken about an arbitrary
Explain.
point?
7.83.
7.13,
In Fig. 7-26, AD, BD and CD are uniform thin rods

of equal length a and equal weight w. They are
smoothly hinged at D and have ends A, B and C on a
smooth horizontal plane. To prevent the motion
of ends A, B and C, we use an inextensible string
ABC of negligible mass which is in the form of an
equilateral triangle.
If a
weight
is
suspended
equal angles a with

from
the horizontal plane, prove that the magnitude of
so that the rods
the tension in the string

7.84.
make
is
cot
a.
is removed
7.83 if the weight
and suspended from the center of one of
Work Problem
from
%V% (W + 3w)
Fig. 7-26
the rods.
7.85.
Derive an expression for
an arbitrary
point.
(a)
the total angular
momentum and
(b)
the total torque of a system about
CHAP.
7.86.
7.87.
7]
Prove that the torque about any point P is equal to the time rate of
change in angular momentum about P if and only if (a) P is fixed in
space, (b) P coincides with the center of mass or (c) P is moving with
a velocity which is in the same direction as the center of mass.
solid of constant density consisting of
circular cone of radius a

radius a [see Fig. 7-27].
Ans. At height (a 2
7.88.
7.89.
and height
+ H 2 )/(2a + H)
above O.
Work Problem
7.87 if the density of the cone
the hemisphere.
Ans. At height (a2
is
twice the density of

above O.
+ 2H 2 )/(a + H)
A hemisphere of radius a is cut out of a uniform solid cube of side

the center of mass of the remaining solid.
uniform chain of
in the
7.91.
a right
surmounted by a hemisphere of
Fig. 7-28
7.90.
191
middle
is
>
2a
Fig. 7-29
45kgwt
is
[see Fig. 7-28].
Find
Fig. 7-30
suspended from two fixed supports 15 meters apart.

Ans. 450 kg wt
If the
sag
20 cm, find the tension at the supports.
chain of length L and constant density a is suspended from two fixed points at the same
horizontal level. If the sag of the chain at the middle is at a distance
below the horizontal
line through the fixed points, prove that the tension at the lowest point of the chain is
a(L2 - 4D 2 )/8D.
7.92.

l ,m 2 ,m 3 are located at the vertices of a triangle opposite sides having
lengths a lt a2 ,a 3 respectively. Prove that the center of mass lies at the intersection of the angle
bisectors of the triangle if and only if mj/aj =
2 /a 2 =
3 /a 3
7.93.
Masses
7.94.
7.95.
m2
are on a frictionless circular cylinder connected by an inextensible string of

(a) Using the principle of virtual work, prove that the system
in equilibrium if
(b) Is the equilibrium stable?
Explain.
1 sin ai =
2 sin a 2
negligible
is
and
mass
Work Problem
[see Fig. 7-29].
7.93 if friction is taken into account.
Derive an expression for the total kinetic energy of a system of particles relative to a point
may be moving in space. Under what conditions is the expression mathematically
simplified? Discuss the physical significance of the simplification.
which
7.96.
Find the center of mass of a uniform plate shown shaded in Fig. 7-30 which is bounded by the
hypocycloid x 2 ' z + y 2' s = a2' 3 and the lines x = 0, y = 0. [Hint. Parametric equations for the
hypocycloid are x a cos 3 e, y = a sin 3 e.]
Ans. x y = 256a/315jr
192
7.97.
Let
(a)
m m2 m 3
1(
be
Prove that the
the
masses of three particles and
total kinetic
[CHAP.
v 12 v23 v 13 be their relative

,
energy of the system about the center of mass
m m2v\2 + m2m3V23 + m m
m + m2 + m
x
7.98.
7.99.
7.100.
Generalize the result in
(a).
A chain of variable density is suspended from two fixed points on the same horizontal level.
Prove that if the density of the chain varies as the horizontal distance from a vertical line
through its center, then the shape of the chain will be a parabola.
Discuss the relationship of Problem 7.98 with the shape of a suspension bridge.
A solid consists of a uniform right circular cone of vertex angle a on a uniform hemisphere of
the same density, as indicated in Fig. 7-31. Prove that the solid can be in stable equilibrium on
a horizontal plane if and only if a > 60.
Fig. 7-32
uniform solid [see Fig. 7-32] consists of a hemisphere of radius a surmounted by a cube of
side b symmetrically placed about the center of the hemisphere. Find the condition on a and b
Ans. alb
for stable equilibrium.

7.102.
> yWv-
Find the centroid of the area bounded by the cycloid

x
and the x
7.103.
Ans.
axis.
(ira,
a(e
sin
a(l
cos
e)
Prove that if the component of the torque about point P in any direction is zero, then the
component of angular momentum about P in that direction is conserved if (a) P is a fixed point,
(c) P is a point moving in the same direction as
(6) P coincides with the center of mass or
the center of mass.
the angular
momentum
In Problem 7.103,
7.105.
Prove that the virtual work due to a force

respond to all components of the force.
is
conserved only
is
equal to the
if
sum
(a),
(6)
or
(c)
occurs?
works which cor-
of the virtual
Explain.
2
2
uniform solid having the shape of the paraboloid of revolution cz = x + y
the xy plane, assumed horizontal. Prove that if the height of the paraboloid
< f c.
equilibrium is stable if and only if
7.108.
Explain.
Prove that it is impossible for one sphere to be in stable equilibrium on a fixed sphere which is
occur
perfectly rough [i.e. with coefficient of friction p = 1]. Is it possible for equilibrium to
at all?
7.107.
e),
5a/6)
7.104.
7.106.
is
,2
i v'x Z
Fig. 7-31
7.101.
velocities.
(6)
Work Problem
7.107
if
the xy plane
is
inclined at an angle a with the horizontal.
c
is
>
rests on
H, then the
CHAP.
7.109.
7]
193
In Fig. 7-33, AC and BC are frictionless wires in a vertical plane making angles of 60 and 30
respectively with the horizontal. Two beads of masses 3 gm and 6 gm are located on the wires,
connected by a thin rod of negligible mass. Prove that the system will be in equilibrium
when the rod makes an angle with the horizontal given by tan -1
(#y3
Fig. 7-33
7.110.
Prove each of the following theorems due to Pappus.

(a)
C in a plane is revolved about an axis in the plane which does not intersect
then the volume generated is equal to the area bounded by C multiplied by the distance
traveled by the centroid of the area.
If a closed curve
it,
(b)
an arc of a plane curve (closed or not) is revolved about an axis in the plane which does
it, then the area of the surface generated is equal to the length of the arc
multiplied by the distance traveled by the centroid of the arc.
If
not intersect
7.111.
Use Pappus' theorems

circular wire,
7.112.
(c)
to find (a) the centroid of a semicircular plate, (b) the centroid of a semithe centroid of a plate in the form of a right triangle, (d) the volume of a cylinder.
Find the (a) surface area and (6) volume of the doughnut shaped region obtained by revolving
a circle of radius a about a line in its plane at a distance b > a from its center.
Ans.
(a)
Aâb,
(b)
lâ^b
Chapter 8
APPLICATIONS to
VIBRATING SYSTEMS,
ROCKETS and COLLISIONS
VIBRATING SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES

If two or more particles are connected by springs [or interact with each other in some
equivalent manner], then the particles will vibrate or oscillate with respect to each other.
As seen
Chapter 4, a vibrating or oscillating particle such as the simple harmonic

bob of a simple pendulum, has a single frequency of vibration. In the case
of systems of particles, there is generally more than one frequency of vibration. Such
frequencies are called normal frequencies. The motions of the particles in these cases are
in
oscillator or
often called multiply -periodic vibrations.
mode
[i.e. a particular way in which vibration occurs, due to particular

example] in which only one of the normal frequencies is present is called
a normal mode of vibration or simply a normal mode. See Problems 8.1-8.3.
of vibration
initial conditions for
PROBLEMS INVOLVING CHANGING MASS. ROCKETS

Thus far we have
restricted ourselves to motions of particles having constant mass.

important class of problems involves changing mass. An example is that of a rocket
which moves forward by expelling particles of a fuel mixture backward. See Problems
An
8.4
and
8.5.
COLLISIONS OF PARTICLES
During the course of their motions two or more particles may collide with each other.
Problems which consider the motions of such particles are called collision or impact
problems.
In practice we think of colliding objects, such as spheres, as having elasticity. The
time during which such objects are in contact is composed of a compression time during
which slight deformation may take place, and restitution time during which the shape is
restored. We assume that the spheres are smooth so that forces exerted are along the
common normal to the spheres through the point of contact [and passing through their
centers]
can be direct or oblique. In a direct collision the direction of motion of both

along the common normal at the point of contact both before and after collision.
collision which is not direct is called oblique.
collision
spheres
is
Fundamental in collision problems is the following principle called Newton's

which is based on experimental evidence. We shall take it as a postulate.
collision
rule
Newton's collision rule. Let v 12 and v^ be the relative

common normal before and after impact. Then
along the
V 12
~
194
~~
eV 12
velocities of the spheres
CHAP.
8]
APPLICATIONS TO VIBRATING SYSTEMS, ROCKETS AND COLLISIONS
195
The quantity c, called the coefficient of restitution, depends on the materials of which the
the
and 1. If e =
objects are made and is generally taken as a constant between
collision is called perfectly inelastic or briefly inelastic.
If
the collision
is
called
perfectly elastic or briefly elastic.
is
In the case of perfectly elastic collisions the total kinetic energy before and after impact
the same.
CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES

For some problems the number of particles per unit length, area or volume is so large
that for all practical purposes the system can be considered as continuous. Examples are a
vibrating violin string, a vibrating drumhead or membrane, or a sphere rolling down an
inclined plane.
The basic laws of Chapter 7 hold for such continuous systems of particles. In applying
them, however, it is necessary to use integration in place of summation over the number
of particles and the concept of density.
THE VIBRATING STRING

Let us consider an elastic string such as a violin or piano string which is tightly
and x = I of the x axis [see Fig. 8-1]. If the
stretched between the fixed points x =
string is given some initial displacement [such as, for example, by plucking it] and is then
released, it will vibrate or oscillate about the equilibrium position.
Pig. 8-2
Fig. 8-1
denote the displacement of any point x of the string from the equilibrium
then the equation governing the vibrations is given by the
partial differential equation
If
we
let
Y(x,
position at time
t)
[see Fig. 8-2],
d2
Y =
2
dt
where
if
is
c<
d2
dx 2
the (constant) tension throughout the string and a
is
the (constant) density
[mass per unit length of string],
Tfa
The equation (1) holds in case the vibrations are assumed

at any point of the string is much less than one.
(2)
so small that the slope dY/dx
BOUNDARY-VALUE PROBLEMS
The problem of solving an equation such as (1) subject to various conditions, called
boundary conditions, is often called a boundary-value problem. An important method
for solving such problems makes use of Fourier series.
196
[CHAP.
FOURIER SERIES
Under
certain conditions [usually satisfied in practice and outlined below] a function
defined in the interval

has the series expansion
f(x),
f\ x )
where the
<x<
+ 21 and
o"
ttn
having period
cos ~~
,y
sm ~T~ )
Fourier
coefficients in the series, called
coefficients, are
(3)
given by
+ 2l
n-irX
cos
-j
21 outside of this interval,
aa?
s*y + 2l
sm
dx
(5)
7-
Such a
series is called the Fourier series of
For many problems
/(a;).
or I.
ODD AND EVEN FUNCTIONS

If
I,
certain simplifications can occur in the coefficients
(4)
and
(5)
as indicated
below:
1.
If f(-x)
f(x),
an
/(a;)
cos
bn
aaj,
(6)
In such case f(x) is called an even function and the Fourier series corresponding to
f(x) has only cosine terms.
2.
If
f(-x)
-f(x),
an
6n
0,
fX'^> sin
= ax
{7)
In such case f(x) is called an odd function and the Fourier series corresponding to
has only sine terms.
If f(x) is neither
even nor odd
its
f(x)
Fourier series will contain both sine and cosine terms.
Examples of even functions are x 4 Sx 6 + 4x 2 5, cos a;, e x + e~ x and the function shown
graphically in Fig. 8-3. Examples of odd functions are x 3 ,2x 5 5x 3 + 4, sinx, e x e~ x and
the function shown graphically in Fig. 8-4.
,
Examples of functions which are neither even nor odd are x 4 + x 3 x + cos x and the
function shown graphically in Fig. 8-5.
,
fix)
Fig. 8-3
Fig. 8-4
If a function is defined in the "half period" x =

then the function is known throughout the interval
Fig. 8-5
to
I <
x = I and is specified as odd,

x < I and so the series which
CHAP.
8]
197
contains only sine terms can be found. This series is often called the half range Fourier
to x = I which is specified as even
sine series. Similarly, a function denned from x =
has a series expansion called the half range Fourier cosine series.
CONVERGENCE OF FOURIER SERIES

Let us assume the following conditions on
f{x) is defined in y
1.
f(x)
and
its
<
f(x):
Hx)
< y + 21.
/(*i
+ 0)
derivative f'(x) are piece-
wise continuous in y < x < y + 21. [A

function is said to be piecewise continuous in an interval if the interval can
be divided into a finite number of subintervals in each of which the function
is continuous and bounded, i.e. there
B>
such that
is
a constant
B.
B < f(x) <
An example of such a
function is indicated in Fig. 8-6.]
/(* 2
At each point of discontinuity, for example, Xi [or x 2 in Fig. 8-6, f(x) has
from the right and left denoted respectively by f(xi + 0) and f{xi 0)
3.
+0)
Fig. 8-6
finite limits
[or f(x 2
+ 0),
f(X2~0)}.
4.
f(x)
has period
21, i.e.
f(x
+ 21) =
f(x).
These conditions if satisfied are sufficient to guarantee the validity of equation (3)
[i.e. the series on the right side of (3) actually converges to f(x)) at each point where f(x)
is
continuous.
by
[/(#
0) 4-
At each point where f(x) is discontinuous, (3) is still valid if f(x)

f(x 0)], i.e. the mean value of the right and left hand limits.
The conditions described above are known as Dirichlet
is
replaced
conditions.
Solved Problems

8.1.
Two
equal masses
are connected by
springs having equal spring constant k,
as shown in Fig. 8-7, so that the masses
are free to slide on a frictionless table
AB. The walls at A and B to which the
ends of the springs are attached are fixed.
Set up the differential equations of
motion of the masses.
Let x x i and x 2i [Fig. 8-8] denote the displacements of the masses from their equilibrium
positions C and D at any time t.
"
T5WKT
nit
J^RRKP
C ,#"
-OH5ffir>
Fig. 8-7
C
^1
-nmu^-
uni
*ii
"ChJ
x2i
Lj- ww^-
^^m^
P
Fig. 8-8
198
[CHAP.
Consider the forces acting on the first mass at P. There will be a force due to the spring on
the right given by K (x 2 i aî) = K (x 2 - aî, and a force due to the spring on the left given
by
KXyi. Thus the net force acting on the first mass at P is
k(x 2
way
In the same
)i
the net force acting on the second
mass at Q
x 2 )i
k(x x
KX t i
is
kx 2 i
Then by Newton's second law we have

d2
m-r^(x x \)
k(x 2
1 )i
KX t i
d2
=
m
m x2 =
or
8.2.
'x\
Find (a) the normal frequencies and

system in Problem 8.1.
(a)
Let x 1 = A t cos at,

after simplifying,
x2
= A2
cosut
k(x 2
~ 2Xi)
(l)
k(x 1
2x 2
(2)
the normal
(b)
and
in equations (1)
modes
of vibration for the
Then we
of Problem 8.1.
(2)
find,
(2K-mu 2 )A - KA 2 =
(1)
-icA 1
Now
if
Ay and
A2
are not both zero,

2k
(2/c
Solving for w 2
?ww 2 )(2c mw2

)
we
find
<o
Aktyi
(o
Then the normal
(2/c-m2)A
ffllO
2k
jc
is
(b)
Ww 2
k2
\/16k 2
m w4
2
<*>
4/cra<o 2
3/c
12/c 2 m2
giving
w2
and
/c/m
or
3/c/m
(.4)
system are given by

.
/ = 7T \\~
2v \ m
The normal frequencies are
(2)
we must have
(or natural) frequencies of the

1
and
\\\
m
1
3/c
(5)
2tt
characteristic frequencies
also called
and the determinant
(5)
and
(2).
called the characteristic determinant or secular determinant.
To find the normal mode corresponding

Then we find
to
let
yficfm,
w2
ic/m
in equations (i)
= A2
In this case the normal mode of vibration corresponds to the motion of the masses in the
[i.e. both to the right and both to the left] as indicated in Fig. 8-9.
same
direction
Normal mode corresponding
to
Normal mode corresponding
yj nlm
(1)
and
().
Then we
yZic/m
Fig. 8-10
Fig. 8-9
Similarly to find the normal
to
mode corresponding
to
find
A 2
ySK/m,
let
3ic/m
in equations
CHAP.
8]
199
of the masses in opposite

In this case the normal mode of vibration corresponds to the motion
left, and vice versa] as
the
to
moves
other
the
right
the
directions [i.e. when one moves to
indicated in Fig. 8-10 above.
working this problem we could also just as well have assumed,
In
x2
x2
8.3.
= B 2 sin a t
- C2 e
ibit
= A
xx
or
+B
cos at
= A2
x2
sin at,
cos at
+ B2
xt
= B sin at,
= C e*,
x
xx
or
sin at
is held at its equilibrium position while

to the right of its
magnitude a >
of
the second mass is given a displacement
of each mass
position
the
Find
released.
equilibrium position. The masses are then
Suppose that
at
any
Problem
in
8.1 the first
mass
later time.
Writing
Wl
and
^f^Jm
= V^c/w,
xx
x2
= D
the general motion of both masses
C cosu 1 t + C2
1
+ D2
coswx*
is
described by
sin ujt
+ C3
cos<o 2
+ C4
sin w 2 i
(-0
sinwjt
+ D3
cos u 2 *
+ D
sin a 2 t
(2)
where the coefficients are all constants. Substituting these into equation (1) or equation (2) of
t,
Problem 8.1 [both give the same results], we find on equating corresponding coefficients of cos Wl
sin a^t, cos u 2 t, sin a 2 t respectively,
=C
Dj
Thus equations
We now
(1)
and
x2
=
,
we
C + C3 =
these conditions
1
From
these
we
Thus equations
where a x
cos o^t
+ C2
sin u x t
Cxcosuit
+ C2
sin u x t
= V'/c/w,
0,
x2
a,
C - C3 =
xx
0,
x2
cos
<o
2<
cosu 2 t
(4)
\a,
C 2 W! + C4
a,
w2
+ C3
C3
+ C4
~ C4
sin a 2 t
(3)
sina 2 t
(4)
at
(5)
find respectively
0,
C =
and
D 4 = -C4
subject to the initial conditions
find
(5)
C 3 C4
Xl
From
D 3 = -C 3
can be written
(2)
xx
determine Cj,C 2
D 2 = C2
lf
C2 =
0,
<o 2
0,
C 2 o^ - C4 w 2 =
C 3 = -ia, C 4 =
()
give the required equations
xi
^(cos w x t
cos
o>
2 t)
(7)
x2
â(cos u^t
cos
o)
2 t)
{8)
= v 3*/m.
Note that in the motion described by (7) and (8), both normal frequencies are present. These
equations show that the general motion is a superposition of the normal modes. This is sometimes
called the superposition principle.
CHANGING MASS. ROCKETS

8.4.
Derive an equation for the motion of a

rocket moving in a straight line.
be the total mass of the rocket at

time t. At a later time t + At suppose that
+ Am due to expulsion of a mass
the mass is
Am of gas through the back of the rocket.
Note that Am is actually a positive quantity
Let
o
Aw
v
1
+ Av
m + Am
since
Am
is
Fig. 8-11
assumed negative.
Let v and v + Av be the velocities of the rocket at times t and t + At relative to an inertial
system with origin at O. The velocity of the mass of gas ejected from the back of the rocket relative
is the velocity of the gas relative to the rocket.
to O is v + v where
200
Since the change in

Total
momentum
momentum
{(ra
where F
at
of the system
t
+ At
+ Am)(v + Av) +
Equation
+v
(-Am)(v
impulse
- mv
)}
at
At
(l)
can be written as
(1)
m Av
M ~
Then taking the
we
limit as At -> 0,
Am
vi,
= -v
F =
i,
Av
AT
Am
find
m dv
di ~
Fi, this
dm
-dT
becomes
dv
m Tt
+
.
8.5.
the net external force acting on the rocket.
is
Writing v
momentum
total
we have
equal to the impulse,
is
[CHAP. 8
dm
It
Find the velocity of the rocket of Problem 8.4 assuming that gas is ejected at a
constant rate and at constant velocity with respect to it and that it moves vertically
upward
in a constant gravitational field.
If the
gas
rocket at t can be written
ejected at constant rate
is
s\
(m -at)
/
Integrating,
If
at
we
t
F = -mg\
Since
0.
dv
0,
if
which
in
(2)
is
= -gt -
dv
^
or
v In
-at where
dm/dt
- at) +
(ra
-a, equation
= -9 +
the mass of the

of Problem 8.4
is
(S)
aV
^
o
{1)
cx
(2)
the rocket starts from rest, then
=
Thus
and
v
i.e.
m=m
then
0,
= -(m - a t)g
av
find
>
F - -mg)
(or
becomes
the speed at any time.
m +
v In
The
gt + v n
velocity
Note that we must have m - at >

which case the rocket will be out of
or
cx
0,
is
\n
v In
\m (
cx
at J
vi.
otherwise there will be no gas expelled from the rocket,
fuel.
Two masses mi and m 2 traveling
8.6.
in the same straight line collide. Find the velocities

of the particles after collision in terms of the velocities before collision.
Assume that the straight line is taken to be

the x axis and that the velocities of the particles
before and after collisions are v,,v 9 and vi, v,
1
respectively.
By Newton's
collision rule,
i-v =
By
e(v 2
-v-v
v2
page 194,
- Vl
momentum
Fig. 8-12
(1)
the principle of conservation of
Total
/~\
momentum,
after collision
total
momentum
m \[ + m2V2 = m \ + m2v2
x
before collision
(2)
CHAP.
8]
Solving
(1)
and
(2)
simultaneously,
(m x
V2
8.7.
201
Discuss Problem 8.6 for the case of
- em2 )v + m 2 (l + e)v 2
fltj + W&2
1
(l
(a)
(S)
+ e)vj + (m2 w 1 )v 2
m t + m2
a perfectly inelastic collision,
(b)
a perfectly
elastic collision.
(a)
Here we put
and
in (3)
of Problem 8.6 to obtain
(4)
m^Vi
vi
Wj +
mv
2
ra 2
v2
m^ + m2V
mj +
'
Thus after collision the two particles move with the same
were stuck together as a single particle.
(b)
Here we put
in (3)
vi
and
(ra x
(-4)
m2
velocity,
i.e.
they move as
if
they
of Problem 8.6 to obtain
m2)v + 2m2v 2
^ j,^
wii + m 2
1
v2
2m l \ l +
-
m,
m^v2
+ w2
(mj
These velocities are not the same.
8.8.
Show
that for a perfectly elastic collision of the particles of Problem 8.6 the total
kinetic energy before collision equals the total kinetic energy after collision.
8.7(&),
we have
Total kinetic energy after collision
m )v! +
m +m
(m x
2 mi
8.9.
total kinetic
wv
i
2
i
+ ~m 2v2 2
2w 2v 2l
2%
C2m l v 1
(w2 m!)v2 ]
z
2
energy before
collision
Two
spheres of masses mi and ra 2 respectively, collide obliquely.

after impact in terms of their velocities before impact.
Find their
velocities
Let v 1 ,v 2 and vi,v 2 be the velocities of the

spheres before and after impact respectively, as
indicated in Fig. 8-13. Choose a coordinate system
so that the xy plane is the plane of v t and v 2 and
so that at the instant of impact the x axis passes
through the centers C t and C2 of the spheres.
,
By
the conservation of
m
From
v1
Fig. 8-13
+
we
m 2v 2 =
momentum, we have
w^vi
wi 2v 2
(1)
Fig. 8-13
see that
vi
v2
vi
v2
Substituting equations
(2)-(5)
in (1)
îCcos *i
v 2 (cos *2
î(cos
<Pi i
v 2 (cos
2 i
sin e j)
sin e % j)
sin j)
sin 2 j)
and equating
<f>
(3)
U)
(5)
<f>
coefficients
of
and
j,
we have
202
ra^
cos e i
m 2 v 2 cos B 2 =
m^ cos
!
By Newton's
m2 v'2 cos
m2 2 sin
i>
[CHAP.
(7)
<p 2
we have
collision rule,
Relative velocity after impact along x axis
e{relative
or
vi
which on using equations
{2)-(5)
v2
velocity before impact along x axis}

i
-e(v!
e(v l cos
v2
i)
(*)
becomes
v[ cos 0!
v 2 cos
<f>
v 2 cos
e 2)
()
Furthermore, since the tangential velocities before and after impact are equal,
or
Equation
From
(7)
is
(9)
we
V x COS 0!
and
(6)
V 2 COS
(12)
vi'j
v 2 *3
v2
(10)
v x sin
el
v[ sin
v 2 sin
e2
v'2
<f>
(J*)
sm 02
(18)
automatically satisfied by using equations (12) and
equations
Then using
Vi'j
and
vi
(15)
we
(13).
find
(wj
m 2 e)v
1 (l
+ e)Vi
+ (m2 wiie)^
+ m2
+ m2 (l + e)t> 2
+ m2
cos
cos
cos e 2
cos #2
find
m2 e)v
î(cos 0i
(m l
~~
sin
X j)
cos
ra2 (l
+ e)v 2
cos
m + m2
sin e x
2 sin e 2
t>i
v2
v 2 (cos 02
m^l + e)i>!
sin $2
J)
+ (m2 m
wij + m2
cos *!
1 e)v 2
cos
2 i
t>
CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES

8.10.
Derive the partial differential equation

of a vibrating string.
(1),
page 195, for the transverse vibrations
Ax
Fig. 8-14
Let us consider the motion of an element of the string of length As, greatly magnified in
Fig. 8-14.
The forces acting on the element due to the remainder of the string are given by the tensions,
as shown in Fig. 8-14, of magnitude T(x) and T(x + A) at the ends x and x + As of the element.
CHAP.
8]
The net horizontal force
in direction
[T(x
The net
+ Ax)
vertical force in direction
[T(x
acting on the element
+ Ax) -
cos e(x
+ Ax)
sin 6(x
is
T(x) cos e(x)]i
acting on the element
+ Ax)
203
(1)
is
T(x) sin e(x)]j
(2)
we assume
that the horizontal motion in direction i is negligible, the net force (1) is zero.
Using the fact that the acceleration of the element is d 2 Y/dt2 approximately and that its mass is
a As where a is the mass per unit length, we have from (2) and Newton's second law,
If
a As
or, dividing
d2
-TT^- j
[T(x
+ Ax)
or
Taking the limit as Ax
_
~
As d*Y
Ax
dt 2
T(x
(3)
T(x
+ Ax) -
T(x) sin 6(x)
U)
Ax) sin e(x
+ As) -
T(x) sin e(x)
Ax
becomes
this
>Rs)
Since
sin 6{x
Ax
/AY\*d 2 Y
\Ax J dt2
-* 0,
+ Aas)
'
"d 2 Y
Vl +
U2
tan
sin 9
(5)
T(x) sin e(x)] j
by Ax j,
G
equation
+ Ax)
sin 6 (x
dx(
Tsin
&
dY/dx
Vl +
tan2 e
(dY/dx) 2
can be written
I
2
+ (&Y\ PY2
\8xJ
TdY/dx__
_j_
dx
dt
Vl +
(6)
(dY/dx)*
To simplify
is
this equation we make the assumption that vibrations are small so that the slope dY/dx
small in absolute value compared with 1. Then we can neglect (dY/dx) 2 compared with 1 and
W becomes
If
we
further assume that the tension
constant, (7) becomes
d2
constant throughout the string and that a
is
where
c2
8.11.
(8)
dx
Unless otherwise specified, when
T/a.
refer to equation
we
also
C2
c2
idr
2
dt 2
is
deal with the vibrating string
we
shall
(8).
Derive the equation of Problem 8.10
if
the string
is
horizontal and gravity
is
taken
into account.
In this case we must add to the right hand side of equation
on the element due to gravity
mg = a As gj
The
effect of this is to replace equation (8) of

d2
dt2
Problem 8.10 by
C2
FOURIER SERIES
8.12.
Graph each of the following

f
<)/<*>
<x <
= |_3
-5
functions.
<*<0
Peri d
10
&Y _
dx 2
(3)
of Problem 8.10 the force
204
[CHAP. 8
/(*)
~*~
Per iod
3
1
-25
-20
-15
-5
-10
--
10
15
--
20
25
Fig. 8-15
Since the period is 10, that portion of the graph in 5 < x < 5 (indicated heavy in
Fig. 8-15 above) is extended periodically outside this range (indicated dashed). Note that f(x)
is not defined at x = 0, 5, 5, 10, 10, 15, 15, etc. These values are the discontinuities of f(x).
^
<
sin x
(b)
f{x)
77
x
x
^
<
-nr
Period
2tt
2tt
/<*)
J
-St
/
/
\.
2w
2r
3a-
Av
Fig. 8-16
Note that
Refer to Fig. 8-16 above.
8.13.
Prove
sin
y- dx
kirX
j
j ax
sin
8.14.
Prove
(a)
(b)
where
(a)
kirX
j dx
m-n
m-rrX
cosjdx
si
sin
m-rrX
5 cos j- dx
C
\
+ B)}.
m = n,
m = n,
B =
by Problem
n-irx
sin ( kir)
m-rrX
i sin i dx
m= n
m=n
{cos (A
8.13,
cos ( kir)
+ j
kit
t~
kir
kir
sin
any of the values
cos (A
if
continuous everywhere.
is
trigonometry: cos A cos
if
7 sin
kir
TlirX
'
cos kir
Kir
x and
fc= 1,2,3,
if
-j
kvx
fltrX
cos
From
Similarly
kirX
m and n can assume
Then,
kir
kir
j- dx =
cos
j- cosj,
cos
f(x) is defined for all
1, 2, 3, ...
- B) +
cos (A
+ B)},
sin
sin
B =
^{cos (A
- B) -
CHAP.
8]
m = n,
If
J.sm-r sm-r
mirx
We
have
sin
C
J_
If
sin
rl
o,-~
sin
8.15.
gj
-
2mrx\
(l-cos
)d*
/..
If
2
and
J_
sin
r
i
8.13, if
(m + n)irx
1 -)**
+ *i
.
2mrx
i
sm
respectively.
Then by Problem
(m n)vx
sin(A+B)}.
nvX j
m
~ -y^=x cos
dx
results of parts (a)
-J^l+COSjd*
'-i
-r
these integrals are equal to 2/ and
mirx
nirx
_~
cos
dx
y,
dx
A cosB = ^{sin(A-B) +
m = n,
The
dx
m==
if
replaced by
nwx
-i
Note that
205
we have
j^ COS COS
(6)
do;
m + n,
=
remain valid even when the limits of integration
(6)
I, I
are
21 respectively.
If
A +
f[x)
2,
nCosy
h bn
smJ J
prove that by making suitable assumptions concerning term by term integration of

infinite series, that for
(a)
(a)
an
n=
\^ f{x)co^dx
(b)
bn
=
\
f(x)sin^dx,
(c)
A = ^.
Multiplying
by cos
-|-
and integrating from -Z
J%(*)coB*pfe
am l
Thus
Multiplying
A +
f( x)
(6)
1, 2, 3,
(1)
by
sin^p
/(). in Spcfc
I,
6n
using Problem 8.14,
sin^
(i)
we have
7 J
(f)
m=
'^
cos|
da;
and integrating from -I
cos^f da
if
if
to
I,
m=
1, 2, 3,
using Problem 8.14, we have
J' sin^fd*
to
J^^cos^f
6m Z
Si
{* sin^cos^fd,
(Jf)
sin^sin^f,
206
Thus
(c)
bm
Integration of
(1)
from
m=
Putting
The above
to
sinj^-dx
f(x)
if
m=
[CHAP.
1,2, 3, ...
using Problem 8.13, gives
Z,
/()<*
2AI
we
in the result of part (a),
when
results also hold
or
= tIf
find
f(x)
^J
the integration limits I,
dx
f(x)
dx
and
so
are replaced by
o
-~
A _
y,
+ 21.
parts above we have assumed interchange of summation and integration.

assumption is not warranted, the coefficients a m and b m as obtained above are
called Fourier coefficients corresponding to f(x), and the corresponding series with these values
of am and b m is called the Fourier series corresponding to f(x). An important problem in this
case is to investigate conditions under which this series actually converges to f(x). Sufficient
conditions for this convergence are the Dirichlet conditions given on page 197.
Note that
Even when
8.16.
(a)
in all
this
Find the Fourier
coefficients
corresponding to the function
-5<z<0
0<z<5
TO
f(x)
'
[3
(b)
Write the corresponding Fourier
(c)
How
should f(x) be defined at x
of f(x)
10
series.
-5, x
and x = 5
in order that the
Fourier
in Fig. 8-17 below.
shown
is
-5 ^ x ^ 5?
series will converge to f(x) for
The graph
Period
Period
-10
10
Fig. 8-17
(a)
Period
21
10 and
Choose the interval y to y
5.
+ 2l
an
=
=
(0)
V n^r
an
0,
bn
to 5, so that y
r5
-r
/(*)
yj7
3 /
-I
5 \
nir
cos
Jf
(3)
cos^f
fa|
n#0
if
'5
If
f cos^f dx
f^sin^f =
|
-5
21 as
5.
|J_5 /(*)cos^
f(x)cos^dx
\f
sm-y-
mrx\
>
5
I
5
/-5
r
..
ovx
-=-
cos
da;
das
3(1
3
g
gj
3.
/(as)
sin
-g-
cos
da;
rnr)
das
jT cos^ dx
Then
CHAP.
8]
(b)

The corresponding Fourier
a
( ~ cos nirX
(n
^
v<
+
i
series is
nirx\
sm
j
bn
3
2
i.
nwx
^cos nv) sm-g-
3(1
=
Since f(x) satisfies the Dirichlet conditions,
"x +
points of continuity and to
"x
6 /
+
,
(c)
207
^(
we can say
~ ^
irx
Sin -5-
If
we
3tr
-5-
+
.
5vx
-T +
Sm
'
that the series converges to f(x) at
(3
+ 0)/2
At *
at points of discontinuity.
which are points of discontinuity, the series converges to

the graph.
Sin
-5,
as
3/2
all
and
5,
from
seen
redefine f(x) as follows,

'3/2
= -5
-5 < x <
f(x)
3/2
<
<
.3/2
then the series will converge to f(x) for
8.17.
show that
If f(x) is even,
(a)
Letting x
/()
an
(a)
cos^ cfe
5 ^
x
x
<
=
Period
10
5
5
5.
^^ +
/() cos
f J"
cos^dx,
f(x)
| J"
bn
(b)
J'
/(*)
0.
cos^ dx
u,
/"/<*) cos*|*<fc
ljV*)cos(^)d%
since by definition of an even function
f(u)
lJ*V)cos^fdM
fff(x)cos^dx
Then
f(u).
*n
If
we make
\
y//()coB^d
+|J
=
/(^)sin^f d*
= -u
/(*)eos^te
/(*)sin^<*s +
|J
the transformation
2p ifa
-j f f(u)Bin^du
fix) sin
J*
in the first integral
f{-u) sin
(=f^)
f(x)sm?fLdx
on the right of
<fc*
\f
-]
(I),
we
f(- u) sin
(1)
obtain
<*
-\ f f(x)sin^dx
(2)
where we have used the fact that for an even function f(-u) = f(u) and in the last step that
dummy variable of integration u can be replaced by any other symbol, in particular x. Thus
from (1), using (2), we have
the
~lj
8.18.
Expand
(a)
f(x)
x,
<x<
2,
M sm j dx
f( x >
in a half
n-n-x
range
(a)
f
I
,.
/(*)
mtx ,
sinz-dx
.
sine series,
(b)
cosine series.
Extend the
definition of the given function to that of the odd function of period 4

Pig. 8-18 below. This is sometimes called the odd extension of /(). Then 21
1
4,
shown
2.
in
208
[CHAP.
/(*)
/
/
-1
-6
71
/-4
-2
/
if
O
7
'y
Fig. 8-18
Thus a n ~
and
bn
1J
j dx
/() sin
5
{w(^-)-(k
,,
Then
/(a;)
4
cos nir sin
2i
n = 1 %7T
v<
-4 /
(b)
nirx
sm-y- dx
~0
77-3
sin
nirx \
sin
-g-
cosjt
%7ra;
2ttx
-21 S in^-+
.
3jra;
gSin^-
Extend the
This
is
definition of f(x) to that of the even function of period 4

the even extension of f(x). Then 21 = 4, 1 = 2.
shown
in Fig. 8-19 below.
Fig. 8-19
Thus
bn
0,
,.
rura \
\71tt
(cos
("
a;
sm-j-
/ 2
(*)
nirx
1177
/ 4
-5\n2
M
(1)
v
cosy- dx
HrC
ir
if
1)
M/V
If
Then
0,
= r
I
/(a?)
asda;
2.
>
2V
It
-^-^(cosrair
COS
wx
T+
,
32 COS
should be noted that the given function f(x)
by the two different
series in (a)
and
(6).
1)
cosr
SwX
"gx,
1
+ g2COS^~ +
5irx
,
<
<
2,
is
represented equally well
CHAP.
8]
209
SOLUTIONS OF VIBRATING STRING PROBLEMS

8.19.
Find the transverse displacement of a vibrating string of length

if
the string
is initially
given a displacement f(x) from
its
I with fixed endpoints

equilibrium position and
then released.
Let the transverse displacement of any point x of the string at time t be Y(x, t). Since the
and x I of the string are fixed, we must have Y(0, t) =
x
and Y(l, t) = 0. Since
the initial displacement is f(x), we have Y(x, 0) = f(x); and since the initial velocity is zero, we
have Yt (x, 0) =
where Y t denotes the partial derivative with respect to t. We must thus solve
the boundary-value problem
ends
&X.
a<2
Y(0,t)
Y(l,t)
0,
Assume a solution to (1) of

t.
Then substituting into
only on
d2Y
form
(1),
using
Y(x,0)=f(x),
0,
X"
(x,0)
(2)
where X depends only on x and T depends

d2 X/dx 2 and T" to denote d2 T/dt 2 we have
Y = XT
the
dx*
to denote
X T" =
c2
X" _
X ~
X" T
T"
c2
(3)
Since one side depends only on x and the other side depends on t while x and
the only way in which (2) can be valid is if each side is a constant, which
-X 2
are independent,
shall take as
we
Thus
- _ x2
II
2
~
*? X ~
X" + \*X =
or
T"
0,
\ z cH
These equations have solutions
X = A
Thus a
solution
is
= XT =
t)
the first condition in
so that A t =
[since
do not want]. Thus
B B2
b,
Using the
second
1,2,3, ...
Thus
= A 2 cos Xct + B 2
sin Xx,
+ B
{A x cos \x
t)
+ B2
{A 2 cos Xct
the second factor
if
Y(x,
B A2
Bi
sin \x)(A 2 cos Xct
zero then the solution
is
sin Xx (6 cos Xct
sin Xx (A 2 cos Xct
+ B2
t\
t)
differentiating with respect to
*\
/
{x,t)
sin Xct)
(i)
a sin
is
identically zero,
which we
sin Xct)
Xct)
(5)
a.
sin
nwx
j- (
I
b cos
nirct
that
+
.
sin \l
a sin
_
-
t,
this
or
nvct\
j
j
v
Y
+ B2
sin Xct)
condition of (2 ) in (5), we see

= mr/l and the solution so far is
v(
x (x,
By
sin Xct
we have
(2),
on writing
cos \x
given by
Y(x,
From
Xl
n-ir
where
(6)
becomes
nirX (
sin^
nircb
nvct
T-sn-T
nirca
nirct\
r cos-r J
so that the fourth condition in (2) gives
Y
from which a
0.
Thus
(6)
(x,0)
in^(p)
becomes
v/~
Y(x,
*\
t)
u
b
sin
n7rX
-j-
cos
n-n-ct
y
(7)
210
[CHAP.
To satisfy the third condition of (2) we use the fact that solutions of (7) multiplied by constants
as well as sums of solutions are also solutions [the superposition theorem or principle for linear
differential equations]. Thus we arrive at the solution
Y(x,
ja
t)
T7-/
b n sin
2i
n=l
Using the third condition of
{2) in (8)
nvx
j
nvct
cos
,.
(8)
we must have
00
Y(x,0)
But
this is
sin^
(9)
simply the expansion of f(x) in a Fourier sine series and the coefficients are given by
bn
Thus the
2
n=l
f(x)
solution
T1
f( x )
sin^ dx
Jo
given by
is
Y(x,t)
The method of
8.20.
^1
Y XT
assuming
solution
/(x)sin^^jsin^cos^
j|j*
is
(10)
often called the method of separation of variables.
string with fixed ends is picked up at its

center a distance
from the equilibrium
position and released. Find the displacement at any position at any time.
From
ment
we
Fig. 8-20
of the string
is
see that the

given by
initial displace-
0<x^l/2
(2Hx/l
Y(x,0)
NOW
\ 2H{l . x)/l
|/2 Si
f(x) sin
ff
l/2
< I
%K
sin
v2
2Hx
2H
C
I
jX
nirx
sm -j
dx
(t
mrx
sc)
sm r~ dx
w "-/ 2 )
n2
in equation ilO) of
Problem
8.19,
find
.
Y{x,
JX
t)
SH
^
2i
sin imr/2)
nvx
nirct
sm ~T~ cos r~
.
z2
Sirct
3rrx
1
vet
SH f 1
^2\Y2Sm T c0S -r ~ sm ~r cos ~r +
n9
n=l
.
8.21.
-j dx
on using integration by parts to evaluate the integrals. Using this
we
n fl
bn
f(x)
-n-X
1
52
5n-aj
sin_
5vct
r cos ~r
"
Find the normal frequencies and normal modes for the vibrating string
Problem 8.20.
The normal mode corresponding
the solution of Problem 8.20,
to the lowest
i.e.,
8H
r4
The frequency
is
normal frequency
is
given by the
_._. vet
sm =-
cos
,
<>
given by f x where
2Wi =
or
= ~
\7
first
term
in
in
CHAP.
8]
211
Since the cosine varies between 1 and +1, the mode is such that the string oscillates as in
Fig. 8-21 from the heavy curve to the dashed curve and back again.
Fig. 8-21
Fig. 8-22
The next higher frequency
mode corresponding
given by the
is
to
the next term
in
the
series which, except for sign, is
81?
3irx
Zirct
^2 sin cos-y-
In this case the frequency
is
2W
The mode
is
given by
or
fs
Yl
2^-
The higher normal frequencies are given by
f*
The amplitudes of modes corresponding
/a
fl
2z\7'
'"
2i\7>
to the even frequencies
/4
2!\a'
21
are zero, so that these frequencies are not present.
\ 7'
*"
In a general displacement, however, they
would be present.
Because of the fact that all higher normal frequencies are integer multiples of the lowest
normal frequency, often called the fundamental frequency, the vibrating string emits a musical
note. The higher frequencies are sometimes called overtones.
8.22.
Find the transverse displacement of a vibrating string of length I with fixed endpoints if the string is initially in the equilibrium position and is given a velocity
distribution defined by g(x).
In this case
we must
solve the boundary-value problem

a2
r _
Y(0,t)
Y(l,t)=zO,
0,
C2
3<2
<py
CO
5*2
Y(x,0)
0,
(x,0)
g(x)
The method of separation of variables and application of the first two conditions of
as in Problem 8.19,
V(rr
X
\x,
+\
t)
nirX
J j
sin
I
However,
in this case if
we apply
w~
we
x{x,
\"
niTCt
"+
:
_
=
*\
t)
first
t)
the third condition of
Y(x,
To satisfy the fourth condition

arrive at the solution
( 6U cos
wo
a sin
nvX
(2)
.
sin
a ai
sin
"
"
we
(2\;
vields
% =
C \
""
find
0,
so that
nvct
-^~-
note that the superposition principle applies, so that
2,
=i
an sin f sin
'
we
212
From
this
we have by
differentiation with respect to
v
Y
N
(x, t)
2i
n=X
or
(x, 0)
g{x)
mrcan
7
I
Thus the required
C
I
solution
is,
v/ i\
Y(x,t)
cos
on using
S
2
sin
~T
l
nirx
smj ax
g(x)
nirc
<*)
in
(-4)
an
or
| Jf
mrx
ain-
ir()
nvx
sm
<te|
sin
si
(o)
-.
Find the transverse displacement of a vibrating string of length I with fixed endpoints if the string initially has a displacement from the equilibrium position given
by f(x) and velocity distribution given by g(x).
The solution to the given problem
Thus the required solution is
Y(x,t)
"I7
show that
v,
The solution to
become infinite and
plane respectively].
dx
sm
nirx
cos
WB
nirct
I
nirX
n=l
sin
W
J/g(x)-sm-^-dx>
I
sm
r-
nrrct
on to a fixed horizontal plane. If

rebound with velocity cv.
it
hits the plane
will
problem can be obtained from the results of Problem 8.6 by letting

2
while v x = v [where subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the particle and
Then the respective velocities after impact are given by
v2
lim
lim
remains
of the solutions to the Problems 8.19 and 8.22.
this
m 2 -+o
Thus the
it
sum
the
/(*) sin^j^-
8.24. A particle is dropped vertically
with velocity
is
8.25.
dx
sm7
I
g(x)
see that
n T?%
8.23.
we
series
n ct
~
w=l
Then by the method of Fourier
t,
nwX
sm ~t~
=
2
nircan
[CHAP.
velocity of
v(
Vo
the particle
lim
m 2 -+oo
{{mjm^ e}v
r
1 + {m 1 /m 2
.,
lim
after
ev
(7n 1
/m2)(l + e)v
r
;
impact
is
r-
The
-ev.
velocity
the
of
plane of course
zero.
Suppose that the particle of Problem 8.24 is dropped from rest at a height H above
the plane. Prove that the total theoretical distance traveled by the particle before
coming to rest is given by #(1 + e 2 )/(l - e 2 ).
Let v be the speed of the particle just before it hits the plane. Then by the conservation of
= + mgH or v 2 - 2gH. Thus by Problem 8.24 the particle rebounds with
energy, \mv 2 +
speed ev and reaches a height {ev) 2/2g = e2 H. It then travels back to the plane through the
2
distance e 2H. Thus on the first rebound it travels through the distance 2e H.
By
similar reasoning
distance 2e4 H, 2e6 , ....
H + 2e H
2
we
+2e*H + 2e6#+
using the result
find that
Then the
on the second, third,
rebounds
it
total theoretical distance traveled before
= H+
+ r + r2 + rs +--- ~
2*ff(l
1/(1
- r)
+ e2 + e* +
if
\r\
<
1.
= H+
travels through the

coming to rest is
^^ = #(fz")
CHAP.
8.26.
8]
Two
particles having
masses
are traveling on the x axis
and
213
(assumed
with velocities vd and V\i

respectively. Suppose that they collide
frictionless)
and that after the
collision (impact) their

are v 2 i and V2 i respectively.
Prove that the velocities of the center of
mass before and after collision are equal.
velocities
By
the conservation of
Total
momentum
before impact
or
Let x and
The
(mx
8.27.
mv 2 \ +
MV
mv 2 +
MV2
be the respective coordinates of the particles.
velocity of the center of
velocity of the center of
particle of
length
momentum
mass before impact
starts initially
to reach the
mass
L which
(mv,
down
2i
is
given
is
+ MVJ/im + M)
mass after impact
slides
after impact
Then the center of mass
+ MX)/(m + M).
rx
The
MV
mVl
f
total
+ MVxi
mtî
by
Fig. 8-23
momentum,
is
f2
= (mv 2 + MV2 )/(m + M). Thus ^ =
a frictionless incline of angle
<*,
mass
*f
2.
and
on a horizontal frictionless plane [see Fig. 8-24]. If the particle

from rest at the top of the incline, prove that the time for the particle
is
bottom
is
given by
2L(M + m si n 2 a)
(M + m)g sin a
Choose a fixed vertical xy coordinate

system as represented in Fig. 8-24. Let R be
the position vector of the center of mass C
of the incline, A the (constant) vector from
C to the top of the incline, and s the position
vector of the particle relative to the top of
the incline. Then the position vector of particle
with respect to the fixed coordinate
system is R + A + s. Since the only force
acting on the particle is the weight mg of the
particle, we have by Newton's second law
applied to the particle,
d2 ,
m-jp
(R+A. + s) = mg
dt*
Writing
s,
(2)
(1)
and
-^-j
dt 2
s,
where
ss lt
Sl
becomes
d2 X
Multiplying by
Fig. 8-24
(2)
dt 2
R- Xi+Yj,
direction of
this
d%
dt 2
Sl
is
a unit vector down the incline in the
-91
becomes
d2 X
dt2
Sl
' *
X
d2
cPs
dt 2
Sl
'
Sl
ffSi
'
COSa
d s
+__
9 sin a
()
214
[CHAP.
Since the net horizontal force acting on the system consisting of the particle and incline is zero, the
momentum in the horizontal direction before and after the particle starts sliding is zero. Then
total
M^-i
at
+ m~CR + A + s)'i =
dt
m -j- cos a
(M + m) -j-
Differentiating
with respect to
(4)
(M + m)g
subject to the conditions
8.28.
(M + m)g
sin a
M + m sin
at
ds/dt
0,
+ m)g sin a]
I + m sin 2 a
2
J
(5)
dt2
(6)
we
0,
find
C(M
when
cPs
sin a
M + m m cos
~~
dt 2
which,
find
yields
(3)
(j2 s
(6)
m cos a
M+m
_
~
dt2
Integrating
(-4)
and solving for d2 X/dt2 we
d2 X
Substituting into
t2
yields the required time.
L,
Solve the vibrating string Problem 8.19

The boundary-value problem
t)
taken into account.
is
is
d2
F(0,
gravity
if
Y(l, t)
0,
0,
d2
Y(x,
Y
=
0)
f(x),
(x, 0)
(2)
Because of the term g the method of separation of variables does not work
order to remove this term, we let
Y(x,t)
in the equation
Thus we
and conditions.
d2
Z(0,
The equation
t)
\fr(0)
Z(l,
0,
and conditions
(4)
d 2Z
f(l)
(3)
f(x)
Z(x, 0)
0,
become similar
(5)
In
find
t)
Z(x,t)
in this case.
f(x)
/(*),
(x, 0)
to
problems already discussed
0,
=
if
(5)
we
choose $
such that
efy"
In this case
(4)
and
*(0)
0,
dt 2
Now from
we
(6)
obtain c2
we
0,
t)
find
c
(6)
become
(5)
Z(0,
f(l)
=
f"
0,
gl/2c 2 .
Z(l,
g/c 2
t)
=
or
Thus
0,
Z(x, 0)
$(x)
Kn
dx 2
f{x)
= gx 2 /2c 2 + c
- f(x), Z
x
+ c2
(x, 0)
and since
(8)
^(0)
0,
f(l)
0,
CHAP.
8]

The
solution to equation
Z(x,
t)
with conditions
(7)
| f
as in Problem 8.19,
(8) is,
- *(*)}
[/(*)
8.29.
t)
^2
||
[/<*)
- JL
_ fa)
X2
^
A
sin
dx
sin
and thus
Y(x,
215
da
sin
nirx
cos
nirct
2^
sin
** +
cos
J?L
(jB
_ lx)
Assume that a continuous
string, which is fixed at its endpoints and vibrates

replaced by
particles of mass
at equal distances from each other.
Determine the equations of motion of the particles.
transversely,
is
We assume that the particles are connected to each other by taut, elastic strings
having constant tension T [see Fig. 8-25].
We also assume that the horizontal distances
between particles [i.e. in the direction of the
unit vector i] are equal to a and that the
transverse displacement [i.e. in the direction
of the unit vector j] of particle v is Y We
v
assume that there is no displacement of any
particle in direction i or i.
.
Let us isolate the rfh particle.

and {v + l)st particles. We have
The forces acting on
Transverse force due to
{v
- l)st
Transverse force due to
{v
Then by Newton's second law the
Si
d*
particle
l)st particle
due to the
fY Y
T
Y
fY
T
on particle
(v
- l)st
\
) j
\
)
-*(*^=0i-r(*^)i
=
d?Y
this particle are those
total transverse force acting
m -W v =
le
Fig. 8-25
-(Y*-i-2Y v + Yv +
(^-i-2^+^ +
1)
i)
(1)
To take into account the fact that the endpoints are fixed, we assume two particles
corresponding to v =
and r =
for which Y = 0, YN + 1 = 0. Then on putting = 1 and
v =
in equation (1), we find
N+l
^
8.30.
^-2Y + Y
i
^(YN _ -2YN
?s =
^>
Obtain the secular determinant condition for the normal frequencies of the system
of particles in
Let
Problem
Y v = A v cosat
8.29.
in equations (1)
and
(2)
of Problem 8.29.
-A_! + (2- ma /T)A v - A v + 1

a2
(2
ma?IT)A x
- A2 =
Putting
~A N _ +
0,
mtuP/T
cA 2
-A =
(2
Then after simplifying we
2,
.,
N- 1
- ma^/T)A N =
-A 2
0,
-A +
1
0,
...,
(l)
(2)
(3)
these equations can be written
cA 1
find
-A N _ +
1
cA N
216
Then
if
we wish
Av
solutions such that
of the coefficients be zero,
require that the 2Vth order determinant
i.e.,
-1
-1
-1
-1
AW
we must
= 0,
[CHAP.
..
..
-1
..
..
..
The normal frequencies are obtained by solving
-1
-1
-1
this equation for the
values of w 2
Although we have used Y v = A v cos cot, we could just as well have assumed Yv = B v sin wt
or Yv = A v cos at + B v sin at or Y v = Cv e iat The secular determinant would have come out to be
the same [compare the remarks at the end of Problem 8.2(6)].
.
8.31.
Prove that the normal frequencies in Problem 8.30 are given by
By expanding
we have
2T
<D
cos
ma
solve the difference equation

Substituting this into (1),
determined.
p2
call
2 cos
cp
(e
A!
1,
if
we
Thus
1.
(3)
A N = p N where p
~
on dividing by pN 2
find
take
is
a constant to be
cos
No -
Vc 2 -4
then
0,
Thus
assume that
(1),
we
c2
(I)
are formally satisfied
(2)
A2
c,
= 2 in (i), we see that equations

Putting
conditions consistent with (1) and (2) are
we
...,N
= cAN -i - A N _ 2
Ax
Also,
If
1,
the determinant A N of Problem 8.30 in terms of the elements in the first row,
AN
To
a=
N+l
cos 6
,i0
sin e
solutions of the difference equation are

ifl)N
e iN0
cos
Ne +
(e~ ie ) N
and
sin Nff
e~ Nie
sin
No
Since constants multiplying these solutions and sums of solutions are also solutions [as in
the case of linear differential equations], we see that the general solution is
= G
AN
Now from
equations
(3)
we have
=
This
is
equal to zero
of Problem 8.30,
we
when
sin
cos
At
1,
1)6
Ne +
sin
Ne +
(N +
cos
H sin Ne
so that
2 cos e
Ne
cos e
sin
(4)
G=
(N +
1,
H = cot
e.
Thus
l)e
(5)
sine
sins
or
aw/(N +1), a
l,...,N.
Thus using
find
o
2T
fl1
ma\
*
COS
N+
t.
.,
(6)
CHAP.
8.32.
8]
Solve for
From
Problem
Problem 8.30 and thus
in
find the transverse displacement
217
Yv of particle
equations (1) and (2) of Problem 8.30 we have [on using the normal frequencies
and the superscript a to indicate that the A's depend on a],
(6)
v.
of
8.31
cos^^
-Ail\ + 2AJ">
- A%\ =
(1)
together with the end conditions
K =
The equation
and we find
(1)
subject to conditions
(2)
can be solved in a manner exactly like that of Problem
(2)
A^
I
A^l, =
0,
Csin
(a)
av*
N+
Yv = B v
where Ca are arbitrary constants. In a similar manner if we had assumed

remarks at the end of Problem 8.30] we would have obtained
Thus
sin ut
[see
avir
_ D
>()
8.31,
sin
N+l
by
solutions are given
Ca
sin
N+l cos
and since sums of solutions are also
Da
and
u>t
solutions,
sin
N+l
sin ut
we have
*v
The constants Ca and
Da
sin
2i
a=l
iV
\Ca cos
oxt
+ Da
sin t)
The analogy with the continuous vibrating string
is
easily seen.
8.33.
8.34.
Find the normal frequencies of the vibrations

and masses are all different.
Two
equal masses
in
Problem
8.1,
page 197,
if
the spring constants
on a horizontal frictionless
shown in Fig. 8-26 are connected by equal

springs. The end of one spring is fixed at A
and the masses are set into motion, (a) Set up the
table as
equations of motion of the system. (6) Find the

normal frequencies of vibration, (c) Describe the
normal modes of vibration.
a. (
8.35.
8.36
Work Problem
Two
3^ JI
\m
Air
/,z
'
equal masses
Work Problem
Q'O'OQ^
*
'
QOOQ ^
* 8 -26
and masses are
different.
are attached to the ends of a spring of constant k which is on a horizontal

masses are pulled apart and then released, prove that they will vibrate
2iryfm/2tc.
8.36 if the masses are different
Ans. 2irV^/K where
Fi
If the
with respect to each other with period
8.37.
JI
41
4v
y m
8.34 if the spring constants
frictionless table.
Qm
^JL~^
M M J{M
1
+ M2
and equal
to
and
respectively.
218
8.38.
In Fig. 8-27 equal masses
and
B by means
constant tension T and length

from the equilibrium position
F2
and
and
to
of elastic strings of
If the
I.
AB
displacements
of the masses are
show that the equations
respectively,
lying on a horizontal
frictionless table are connected to each other
fixed points
[CHAP.
of
motion are given by
Y,
where
= k(Y 2 -2Y
ST I ml.
Y2 =
1 ),
k(Y 1
~2Y 2
Fig. 8-27
A
.39.
Prove that the natural frequencies of the vibration

respectively by
/3T
JL
2tt
Problem 8.38 are given
9T
and
2w \ ml
in
V ml
and describe the modes of vibration.

.40.
Find the normal frequencies and normal modes of vibration for the system of
m x and m 2 connected by springs as indicated in Fig. 8-28.
particles of masses
CHANGING MASS. ROCKETS

8.41.
Prove that the
(a)
by the rocket of Problem
total distance traveled
<t
/m
at\
In
What
is the maximum height which the rocket can

achieve this maximum height?
(b)
8.42.
8.5 in
time
is
given by
- -gt
y 2
2
reach and
how long
will
it
take to
falls in a constant gravitational field.

At the
starts to fall it ejects gas at the constant rate a in the direction of the gravitational
field and at speed v with respect to the rocket. Find its speed after any time t.
Suppose that a rocket which starts from rest
instant
Ans.
it
gt
v In
at J
8.43.
How
far does the rocket of Problem 8.42 travel in time tl
gt 2
Ans.
how Problem
at
)
In
at
8.44.
Describe
8.45.
Discuss the motion of a two-stage rocket,

rocket takes over.
8.42 can be useful in
making a
i.e.
"soft landing" on a planet or satellite?
one in which one part falls
off
and the other
8.46.
gun
which
with horizontal velocity v into a block of wood of mass
If the bullet becomes embedded in the wood, (a) determine
the subsequent velocity of the system and (b) find the loss in kinetic energy.
fires
a bullet of mass
rests on a horizontal frictionless plane.
Ans.
8.47.
8.48.
mv/(M + m)
(a)
Work Problem
ball
which
(b)
mMv 2 /2(M + m)
8.46 if the block is
is
moving away from the gun with
dropped from a height H onto a

Ans. -Jh/H
floor
velocity V.
rebounds to a height
< H. Determine
the coefficient of restitution.
8.49.
mass
If
the
m m2 (l
1
traveling with speed v on a horizontal plane hits another mass

2 which is at rest.
prove that there is a loss of kinetic energy equal to
of restitution is e
coefficient
e 2 )v 2
/2(m 1
+ m2 ).
CHAP.
8.50.
8]
billiard
ball
another billiard ball obliquely at an angle of 45
strikes
centers at the time of impact.

the first ball will "bounce off".
8.51.
If the coefficient of restitution
Ans. tan" 1
Let the masses of two colliding particles be

If the coefficient of restitution is
be v t ,v2
.
of the collision
is
(v x
=
,
8.52.
is
8.53.
momentum which
Prove that the

(1
-_,
v2
e )(v 1
- v2
is
- c2
2 (l
m
e,
is
1/2, find
219
with their line of

the angle at which
(3/5)
,m2 and
their respective velocities before impact

in kinetic energy as a result
prove that the loss
).
transferred from the
first particle of
Problem
8.51 to the second
).
ball is dropped from a height h above a horizontal plane on to an inclined plane of angle a which
resting on the horizontal plane. Prove that if the coefficient of restitution is e, then the ball will
next hit the incline at a point which is at a distance 4e(l + e)h sin below the original point
of impact.
is
FOURIER SERIES, ODD AND EVEN FUNCTIONS, FOURIER SINE AND COSINE SERIES
8.54.
Graph each of the following functions and find their corresponding Fourier series using properties
of even and odd functions wherever applicable.
= j_
8
f(x)
Ans
8.55.
= {
f{X)
(o)
W |
(h\
{b)
(1-
-
V
**
Peri d 8
4
.
cos
(")
fW ~
n^
nir)
_
nvx
r
C0S
n*
(a)
(b)
no discontinuities
Expand
Ans.
0,
f(x)
2, 4, ...
...
~T
<
<
[1-6
id)
<
a;
3
2
40
?>
4x
'
< x <
Period 10
_ s<x<0
Period 6
\ 6(cos nv
1)
nirx
COS "3
*P
>
0^x<3
(2x
= |
10
6 coanir
(6)
How
=5
(a)
0,
10, 20,
3, 9, 15,
20
what value
a Fourier series of period
8.
5 ffa;
J^
^cos
52
v,
,,
,,^
(6)
/(0)
in
< x <
cos x,
(d)
nirx\
should f(x) be defined at
f(x)
nV~ Sin -3-|
^+
<?
J E. j_
+ 1.
cos
^cos^F
+
JHcos^f
32
4
Expand
(c)
4<<8
i 6-
(a)
a
Ans.
a Fourier sine series.
in
and
a;
so that the series will converge to fix) for
7T?
8.58.
Period 4
cos n,)
(2-
8.57.
2
4
In each part of Problem 8.54, tell where the discontinuities of f(x) are located and to
the series converges at these discontinuities.
Ans.
8.56.
<
<
x
x
-A^xÔ
C-x
IX
{b)
<
<
(a)
-v
2
ttsin2/i#
4n2-1
,,
fW)
(a)
Expand in a Fourier series f(x) - cos a;,
< x < v if the period is w, and
the result of Problem 8.57, explaining the similarities and differences if any.
Ans. Answer
is
the
same as
in
Problem
8.57.
(6)
compare with
220
fx
8.59.
Expand
f{x)
< n
[8
.
32 ,
Ans.
(a)
ir
<
<
<
<
x
x
0,
4
in a series of
(6) cosines.
(a) sines,
nvx
^ Bm T sin
v%
[CHAP.
^2
16
/L ,
(6)
/ 2 cos
- cos mr
n-ir/2
l\
mrx
) cos
THE VIBRATING STRING

8.60.
Solve the boundary-value problem
(a)
d2
Yx (0,t) =
Y(r,t)
0,
0<x<,,t>0
Y(x,0)
h,
Give a physical interpretation of the problem in
(6)
Aws.
8.61.
d2
1W =
F(a,
t 2 2w
=i
*)
'
sin (w
1
- 4)
2
sin (2n
0,
(x,0)
(a).
- l)t
Y
F(0,
t)
= Y xx -
tt
Y{ir,t)
0,
<
Y(x,0)
0,
<
*,
>
px(ir-x),
(x,0)

Ans.
Y(x,
4(2/ta?
t)
flr)
/o
n =i (2w
ir
sin
,^
1)^
2w ~ !)* cos ( 2w
Y = d2 Y
4 -^j
sin 4x, Y (x, 0) =
d2
8.62.
Find a solution of the equation
(a)
Y( v
t)
0,
Y(x, 0)
0.1 sin
cally the
boundary conditions
Ans.
Y(x,
(a)
t)
0.1 sin
+ 0.01
-rp-
and the
in (a)
+ 0.01
x cos 2t
sin
F(2,
Aws.
8.64.
the
Solve
(a)
t)
0,
(a)
boundary-value
4a;
Y(x, 0)
= 0.05x(2 - x), Y
*v
v
F(ar, t) =
,
1-6
-^j
4
2
1
(
2w
(x, 0)
_ i)3 sm
<
<
ir,
3.2 2,
*
Y(x,
=t 2
t)
(2^71)4
(2w
subject
<
where
0,
(2n - l)irx
C0S
conditions
0.
(6)
F(0,
t)
Interpret physi-
to
<2,t>
- l)yg
conditions
the
0.
(6)
Y(0,
t)
0,
Interpret physically.
3(2n-lM
2
<j
>
Solve Problem 8.63 with the boundary conditions for Y(x,0) and
Y(x, 0) = 0, Y t (x, 0) = 0.05sc(2 - x), and give a physical interpretation.
Ans.
cos St
d Y
-^ = 9 -^
problem
the
satisfies
for
solution.
Q2V
8.63.
which
_ !)* ~ i^"' _ x
(x,0)
interchanged,
i.e.
B(2n-l)wt
2
8.65.
spherical raindrop falling in a constant gravitational field grows by absorption of moisture from
surroundings at a rate which is proportional to the instantaneous surface area. Assuming
Ans. ^g
that it starts with radius zero, determine its acceleration.
its
8.66.
8.67.
It fires a
rests on a horizontal plane having coefficient of friction ft.
with muzzle velocity v in a direction making angle a with the horizontal.
Determine how far back the cannon will move due to the recoil.
cannon of mass
projectile of
ball is
the plane.
is
mass
in a direction making angle a with

the coefficient of restitution, prove that the velocity of the ball after the impact
-1 (e tan a) with the horizontal.
1 - (1 e2 ) sin 2 a in a direction making angle tan
thrown with speed v onto a smooth horizontal plane

If
given by v
e is
CHAP.
8.68.
8.69.
8]
Prove that the
8.70.
8.71.
8.72.
time taken for the particle of Problem 8.67 to come to rest
total theoretical
8.27, page 213, moves from the top

moves a distance {mL cos a)/{M + m).
Prove that while the particle of Problem

incline, the incline
Prove that the loss of kinetic energy of the spheres of Problem

where fi is the reduced mass m 1 m 2 /{m, 1 + m 2 ).
Prove that the acceleration of a double incline of mass
table
is
is
If
(m 1
given by
M + my sin
sin a x cos ay
2
ay
^(î
[Fig.
8-29]
mass
- 3/t)/(3 -
e *)
on a smooth
cos ay
g sin
by
ay)
m[ +
;
m (A
m2
2
cos a 2
sin a 2 )
.
Pig. 8-30
See Fig. 8-30.
/x).
A gun of mass
The gun fires a
How
(1 ~~
inclined plane of the same mass which is on a horizontal plane with

Prove that the inclined plane moves to the right with acceleration equal
fi.
located on an incline of angle a which in turn is on a smooth horizontal plane.

Find the
horizontally away from the incline with speed v
mass
is
bullet of
Ans. (mv cos a)/M up the incline
recoil speed of the gun.

8.75.
is
2
2)
down an
in slides
8.74.
which
cos
the acceleration of the incline in Problem 8.71, prove that the accelerations of the masses
Fig. 8-29
to (1
v2
m2 sin 2 a 2
my(A
bottom of the
to the
cos 0y
8.9 is
is
sin o 2 cos a 2 )g
relative to the incline are given numerically
8.73.
221
far up the plane will the gun of Problem 8.74

(b) has coefficient of friction /*?
move before
it
comes to rest
if
the incline
is
(a) frictionless,
8.76.
is dropped from a height H above the plate AB of

which is supported by a spring of constant k. Find the
speed with which the weight rebounds.
weight
Fig. 8-31
8.77.
thrown with speed v at angle a with a horizontal plane.

rebounds successively from the horizontal plane, determine
ball is
If it
its location
is e
8.78.
after
n bounces. Assume that
and that air resistance
Work Problem
ball is
8.79.
the coefficient of restitution

Fig. 8-31
negligible.
8.77 if the horizontal plane
thrown downward,
(a)
Obtain the equation

for the
is
(b)
is
replaced by an inclined plane of angle
/?
and the
thrown upward.
page 195, for the vibrating string by considering the equations of motion
Problem 8.29, page 215, and letting N - .
(1),
particles of
8.80.
-*
Prove that as
the normal frequencies as given in Problem 8.31, page 216, approach those
for the continuous vibrating string.
8.81.
Prove that for

(a)
(6)
x(ir
x(v
x) =
x)
ir,
t2
f cos
1x
cos
i
l2
6
8 /sin x
l3
sin
3a;
33
cos
4a;
~m
"i"
22
sin
5a;
53
6a;
Tô
32
222
8.82.
Use Problem
n =i
8.83.
n2
Y =
Prove that
show that
8.81 to
[CHAP.
f(x
+ ct) +
g(x
12
- ct)
n =i (2n
32
a solution of the equation
is
d*Y
dt 2
and discuss the connection of
l) 3
d2
dx 2
with the problem of the vibrating string.
this solution
2
T C /dY\
-r
dx.
V =
x
8.84.
(a)
(b)
8.85.
(a)
(b)
(c)
8.86.
Prove that the total potential energy of a vibrating string
V = ~-
Thus show that
n%
an cos
"
~î
^n
si n
Prove that the total kinetic energy of the vibrating string
Thus show that
Can the
K.E.
..
kinetic energy be infinite?
n2
a n cos ~i
is
T-
^<r
2
)
is
E =
2T
ttir
4f
2
n=l
n2 ( a n
&!)
Find the potential energy, kinetic energy and total energy for the string of
page 210, (b) Problem 8.28, page 214.
8.88.
If
to the instantaneous transverse velocity
is
problem of the vibrating string, prove that
its
equation of motion
is
(a)
Problem
8.20,
taken into account in the

d2
-ttj-
dY
P
~qT
2
d
c z T-g"
Prove that the frequencies of vibration for the damped string of Problem 8.88 are given by
y/nW&IP - p 2 /4, n =
8.90.
b n sin
8.87.
8.89.
Explain.
Prove that the total energy of a vibrating string
K.E.
is
1, 2, 3,
and
Solve the problem of the damped vibrating string if the string is fixed at the endpoints x =
= I and the string is (a) given an initial shape f(x) and then released, (b) in the equilibrium
(c) given an initial shape f(x) and velocity
position and given an initial velocity distribution g(x),
x
distribution g{x).
8.91.
8.92.
Work
Work
(a)
Problem
8.84(a),
case where the string
8.93.
damped vibrating
the problem of the
is
(6)
Problem
replaced by
string
if
8.85(a),
gravitation
(c)
particles as in
is
taken into account.
Problem 8.86, (a*) Problem 8.88 for the

Problem 8.29, page 215.
In Fig. 8-32 the double pendulum system is free to vibrate in a vertical

Find the normal frequencies and normal modes assuming small
plane.
vibrations.
8.94.
Work Problem
8.93 if there is
a string of length
8.95.
an additional mass
m3
suspended from
m2
by
3.
Generalize the motion of

particles
8.96.
(a)
Problem
8.1,
(6)
Problem
8.34 to
equal
and springs.
In Problem 8.95 investigate the limiting

physical significance of the results.
case
as
N -
Discuss the
Y///////////
CHAP.
8.97.
8]
223
Y _
d2
F(o,t)
F(U) =
o,
fl2
F
=
r(*,o)
o,
/(),
(*,o)
and give a physical interpretation.
8.98.
Work Problem
8.99.
Work Problem
8.97 if the condition
Q dY
Pin
W+
8.101.
is
replaced by
c2
d*Y
(as,
0)
g(x).
by
8.97 if the partial differential equation is replaced
d*Y
8.100.
{x, 0)
+ asmut
.
Jx^
Set up the differential equations and initial conditions for the motion of a rocket in an inverse
square gravitational field. Do you believe these equations can be solved? Explain.
Two
bodies [such as the sun and earth or earth and moon] of masses
and
x
2 move relative
each other under their mutual inverse square attraction according to the universal law of
gravitation. If r x and r 2 are their position vectors relative to a fixed coordinate system, and
r = r t r2
prove that their equations of motion are given by
to
..
ri
This
8.102.
is
called the
0.
ri
,.
new
Thus show that

..
or,
-r
{r 2
t)
^3
G(m x + m 2 )r x
_
~
^3
..
..
on subtracting,
r2
G^ + m
such that
then
2 )r 2
G{m + m2 )r
..
'
i.e.
m2
r3
to
m2
is
exactly the same as
if
the body of
mass
m2
were
Using Problem 8.102, obtain the orbit of mass m t relative to w 2 and compare with the results of
Chapter 5. Are Kepler's first and second laws modified in any way? Explain.
If
is
the period of revolution of

2 prove that
about
about
m2
P2
Compare
and a
is
the semi-major axis of the elliptical path of
a3
4tt 2
G(m l + m 2
this result with Kepler's third law:
does this modified Kepler law have
8.105.
Gm
_
~
Thus show that the motion of m x relative

and its mass increased to m l + m 2
8.104.
r2
'
origin at the center of mass of the two bodies,

if we let r be the position vector of
relative to
x
fixed
8.103.
..
problem of two bodies.
In Problem 8.101 choose a
m r + m2 r2 =
Gm 2 (r - r2
_
~ ~
r3
much
In the case of the earth [or other planet] and sun,

effect? Explain.
Set up equations for describing the motion of 3 bodies under a mutual inverse square law of
attraction.
8.106.
Transform the equations obtained

relative to their center of mass.
8.107.
Work Problems
in
Problem 8.105 so that the positions of the bodies are described

believe these equations can be solved exactly?
Do you
8.105 and 8.106 for
bodies.
Chapter 9
PLANE
of
MO TION
RIGID BODIES
RIGID BODIES
system of particles in which the distance between any two particles does not change
regardless of the forces acting is called a rigid body. Since a rigid body is a special case
of a system of particles, all theorems developed in Chapter 7 are also valid for rigid bodies.
TRANSLATIONS AND ROTATIONS

A displacement of a rigid body is a
change from one position to another. If during

a displacement all points of the body on some line remain fixed, the displacement is called
a rotation about the line. If during a displacement all points of the rigid body move in
lines parallel to each other the displacement is called a translation.
EULER'S THEOREM. INSTANTANEOUS AXIS OF ROTATION

The following theorem,
called Euler's theorem, is
fundamental
in the
motion of rigid
bodies.
to
Theorem 9.1. A rotation of a rigid body about a fixed point of the body
a rotation about a line which passes through the point.
The
is
equivalent
line referred to is called the instantaneous axis of rotation.
Rotations can be considered as finite or infinitesimal. Finite rotations cannot be

represented by vectors since the commutative law fails. However, infinitesimal rotations
can be represented by vectors.
GENERAL MOTION OF A RIGID BODY. CHASLE'S THEOREM

In the general motion of a rigid body, no point of the body
the following theorem, called Chasle's theorem, is fundamental.
Theorem
9.2.
The general motion of a
plus a rotation about a suitable point which
rigid
is
may
be fixed. In such case
body can be considered as a translation
often taken to be the center of mass.
PLANE MOTION OF A RIGID BODY

The motion
1.
body is simplified considerably when all points move parallel

In such case two types of motion, called plane motion, are possible.
of a rigid
to a given fixed plane.
Rotation about a fixed axis. In this case the rigid body rotates about a fixed axis
perpendicular to the fixed plane. The system has only one degree of freedom [see Chapter 7, page 165] and thus only one coordinate is required for describing the motion.
224
CHAP.
2.
9]
225
General plane motion. In this case the motion can be considered as a translation
parallel to the given fixed plane plus a rotation about a suitable axis perpendicular to
the plane. This axis is often chosen so as to pass through the center of mass. The number of degrees of freedom for such motion is 3: two coordinates being used to describe
the translation and one to describe the rotation.
The axis referred to is the instantaneous axis and the point where the instantaneous
axis intersects the fixed plane is called the instantaneous center of rotation [see page 229].
We
shall consider these two types of plane motion in this chapter. The motion of a
body in three dimensional space is more complicated and will be considered in
Chapter 10.
rigid
MOMENT OF INERTIA
A
bodies
geometric quantity which
moment
called the
is
The moment
of great importance in discussing the motion of rigid
is
of inertia.
of inertia of a particle of
mass
where r
is
The moment
where
AB
is
defined as
= mr2
(-0
of inertia of a system of particles, with

is defined as
N about the line or axis
^m r
=
r%,
about a line or axis
the distance from the mass to the line.
masses mi, ra 2
/
. ,
mr
mr
mNr N
(2)
rN are their respective distances from
AB.
r2 ,
AB
The moment of inertia of a continuous distribution of

mass, such as the solid rigid body
of Fig. 9-1, is given by
where r
is
= J
r2
dm
(S)
the distance of the element of
mass
dm from AB.
Fig. 9-1
RADIUS OF GYRATION
N
Let /
^m
v=i
^m
r 2 be the
moment
of inertia of a system of particles about
be the total mass of the system. Then the quantity
2 r
2m
>
AB, and
such that
(*)
is called
the radius of gyration of the system about
For continuous mass distributions
(4) is
AB.
replaced by
Jr dm
2
(5)
dm
226
[CHAP.
THEOREMS ON MOMENTS OF INERTIA

Theorem 9.3: Parallel Axis Theorem. Let / be the moment of inertia of a system
1.
about axis AB and let Ic be the moment of inertia of the system about an axis parallel to
AB and passing through the center of mass of the system. Then if b is the distance between
the axes and
is the total mass of the system, we have
Ic
+ Mb 2
2.
Theorem 9.4: Perpendicular Axes Theorem. Consider a mass distribution in the
xy plane of an xyz coordinate system. Let h, I y and h denote the moments of inertia about
the x, y and z axes respectively. Then
h =
IX
+Iy
en
SPECIAL MOMENTS OF INERTIA

The following
practice.
In
all
table
cases
shows the moments of inertia of various rigid bodies which arise

assumed that the body has uniform [i.e. constant] density.
it is
Rigid Body
1.
Moment
Solid Circular Cylinder
of radius a and mass

about axis of cylinder.
2.
Hollow Circular Cylinder

about axis of cylinder.
Wall thickness
3.
is
Ma*
Solid Sphere
Hollow Sphere
about a diameter.
Sphere thickness is negligible.
5.
\Ma?
negligible.

about a diameter.
4.
of Inertia
Rectangular Plate
of sides a and 6 and
mass
about an axis
|Ma2
Ma2
JLM(a2
62)
perpendicular to the plate

through the center of mass.
6.
Thin Rod
of length a and mass

about an axis perpendicular
to the rod through the
center of mass.
^Ma*
COUPLES
A set of
two equal and parallel forces which act in

opposite directions but do not have the same line of action
[see Fig. 9-2] is called a couple. Such a couple has a turning
effect, and the moment or torque of the couple is given
by
-F
F.
The following theorem
is
important.
Fig. 9-2
in
CHAP.
9]
227
Theorem 9.5. Any system of forces which acts on a rigid body can be equivalently
replaced by a single force which acts at some specified point together with a suitable couple.
MOMENTUM ABOUT A FIXED
KINETIC ENERGY AND ANGULAR
AXIS
Suppose a rigid body is rotating about a fixed axis with

angular velocity
which has the direction of the axis AB
[see Fig. 9-3].
Then the kinetic energy of rotation is
given by
<>
T =
where
is
the
moment
i/o>
(8)
of inertia of the rigid body about
the axis.
Similarly the angular
momentum
O = 7o>
is
given by
(9)
Fig. 9-3
MOTION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

Two important methods for treating the motion of a rigid body about a fixed axis are
given by the following theorems.
all
Theorem 9.6: Principle of Angular Momentum. If A is the torque or the

external forces about the axis and O = I<a is the angular momentum, then
A
where a
is
dt
(/)
IS,
It
moment
of
(10)
the angular acceleration.
Theorem 9.7: Principle of Conservation of Energy. If the forces acting on the rigid
body are conservative so that the rigid body has a potential energy V, then
T + V
i/w 2
+ V = E =
constant
()
WORK AND POWER

%
Consider a rigid body

capable of rotating in a
plane about an axis O perpendicular to the plane, as
indicated in Fig. 9-4. If a is the magnitude of the torque
applied to the body under the influence of force F at
point A, the work done in rotating the body through
angle de is
dW = AdO
(12)
and the instantaneous power developed

cp
where
We
is
dW =
dt
is
A.
(13)
the angular speed.
Fig. 9-4
have the following
Theorem 9.8. The total work done in rotating a rigid body from an angle 0i where
the angular speed is Wl to angle
where the angular speed is a is the difference in the
2
kinetic energy of rotation at w and o>
In symbols,
x
2
.
Ade
/<of
/o>f
(U)
228
IMPULSE. CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR

The time
[CHAP.
MOMENTUM
integral of the torque

2
Jt
Adt
(15)
h
is
called the angular impulse
We
from time U
t2 .
have the following theorems.
Theorem
9.9.
The angular impulse
symbols
is
equal to the change in angular
momentum. In
tf
Adt
Theorem
rigid
to
body
9.10:
is zero,
O2
Oi
(16)
Conservation of Angular Momentum. If the net torque applied to a

then the angular momentum is constant, i.e. is conserved.
THE COMPOUND PENDULUM
Let
[Fig. 9-5] be a rigid body which is free to oscillate
in a vertical plane about a fixed horizontal axis through O
under the influence of gravity.
call such a rigid body a
We
compound pendulum.
Let C be the center of mass and suppose that the angle
between OC and the vertical OA is 0. Then if h is the
moment of inertia of % about the horizontal axis through O,
is the mass of the rigid body and a is the distance OC,
we have for the equation of motion,
f sm0
(17)
Jo
For small
Fig. 9-5
oscillations the period of vibration is
P =
The length
of the equivalent simple
pendulum
I
is
2ir\/Io/Mga
(18)
is
= hiMa
(19)
of interest.
Theorem 9.11. The period of vibration of a compound pendulum is a minimum when

the distance OC = a is equal to the radius of gyration of the body about the horizontal
axis through the center of mass.
GENERAL PLANE MOTION OF A RIGID BODY

The general plane motion of a rigid body can be considered as a translation parallel to
the plane plus a rotation about a suitable axis perpendicular to the plane. Two important
methods for treating general plane motion of a rigid body are given by the following
theorems.
of
Theorem 9.12: Principle of Linear Momentum. If

mass of a rigid body relative to an origin O, then
(Mr)
Mr =
r is the position vector of the center
jfi
where
the body.
is
the total mass, assumed constant, and
is
(20)
the net external force acting on
CHAP.
9]
229
Principle of Angular Momentum. If Ic is the moment of inertia of the

rigid body about the center of mass, o> is the angular velocity and A c is the torque or
total moment of the external forces about the center of mass, then
Theorem
9.13.
Tt^
>)
7 c"
(21)
Principle of Conservation of Energy. If the external forces are conservative so that the potential energy of the rigid body is V, then
Theorem
9.14.
T + V = %mr2 +
i/ c o
+V = E =
constant
(22)
2
Note that imr2 = \mv 2 is the kinetic energy of translation and i/ c *
energy of rotation of the rigid body about the center of mass.
is
the kinetic
INSTANTANEOUS CENTER.
SPACE AND BODY CENTRODES
Suppose a rigid body % moves parallel to a given
xy plane of Fig. 9-6. Consider
an x'y' plane parallel to the xy plane and rigidly
fixed plane, say the
attached to the body.
As the body moves there will be at any time t

a point of the moving x'y' plane which is instantaneously at rest relative to the fixed xy plane.
This point, which may or may not be in the body,
is called the instantaneous center. The line perpendicular to the plane and passing through the instantaneous center is called the instantaneous axis.
O
Fig. 9-6
As the body moves, the instantaneous center also moves. The locus or path of the
instantaneous center relative to the fixed plane is called the space locus or space centrode.
The locus relative to the moving plane is called the body locus or body centrode. The motion
of the rigid body can be described as a rolling of the body centrode on the space centrode.
The instantaneous center can be thought of as that point about which there is rotation
without translation. In a pure translation of a rigid body the instantaneous center is
at infinity.
STATICS OF A RIGID BODY

The statics or equilibrium of a rigid body
The following theorem is fundamental.
Theorem
is
9.15.
A necessary and
is
the special case where there
sufficient condition for
is
no motion.
a rigid body to be in equilibrium
that
F =
where F
is
0,
A =
the net external force acting on the body and
PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL
Since a rigid body
is
work and D'Alembert's
(23)
is
the net external torque.
WORK AND D'ALEMBERT'S PRINCIPLE
but a special case of a system of particles, the principle of virtual

principle [see page 171] apply to rigid bodies as well.
230
[CHAP.
PRINCIPLE OF MINIMUM POTENTIAL ENERGY. STABILITY

At a position of equilibrium the net external force
conservative and V is the potential energy,
F =
?I =
or in components,
dx
-vV
dV
U
'
so that if the forces are
(24)
dV_
dy
is zero,
'
dz
(25)
In such case V is either a minimum or it is not a minimum. If it is a

minimum the
equilibrium is said to be stable and a slight change of the configuration will restore
the
body to its original position. If it is not a minimum the body is said to be in
unstable
equilibrium and a slight change of the configuration will move the body
away from its
original position. We have the following theorem.
Theorem
equilibrium
9.16.
is
that
its
necessary and sufficient condition for a rigid body to be in stable

potential energy be a minimum.
Solved Problems
RIGID BODIES
9.1.
rigid
body
[Fig. 9-7] is
DEF,
i.e.
form of a triangle
in the
moved
the vertices A,
ABC
in a plane to position
and C are car-
Show that
the motion can be considered as a translation plus a rotation about a suitable point.
ried to D,
and
respectively.
Choose a point G on triangle ABC which corresponds to the point

on triangle DEF. Perform
the translation in the direction GH so that triangle
ABC is carried to A'B'C. Using as center of
rotation perform the rotation of triangle A'B'C

through the angle 9 as indicated so that A'B'C is
carried to DEF. Thus the motion has been accomplished by a translation plus a rotation.
9.2.
Give an example to show that
Fig. 9-7
finite rotations
cannot be represented by vectors.
Let A x represent a rotation of a body [such as the rectangular parallelepiped of Fig. 9-8(a)]
about the x axis while A y represents a rotation about the y axis. We assume that such rotations
take place in a positive or counterclockwise sense according to the right hand rule.
tf
V
r
(6)
Fig. 9-8
CHAP.
231
9]
indicated position and perform the rotation

In Fig 9-8(a) we start with the parallelepiped in the
indithe rotation about the axis
then
and
9-8(6)
Fig.
indicated
in
axis
as
x
the
A x about
9-8(o).
Fig.
A
on
A
rotation
the
of
+
result
x
y
Thus Fig. 9-8(c) is the
cated in Fig. 9-8(c).
position as in Fig. 9-8(a), but this
In Fig 9-9(a) we start with the parallelepiped in the same
as indicated in Fig. 9-9(6) and then the
time, we first perform the rotation A y about the y axis
Thus Fig. 9-9(c) is the result of the
9-9(c).
Fig.
in
rotation A x about the x axis as indicated
Ay + Ax
rotation
on Fig.
9-9(a).
not the same as that of Fig. 9-9(c),

Since the position of the parallelepiped of Fig. 9-8(c) is
A y + A x Thus the commutative
as
same
the
not
A
is
+
A
x
we conclude that the operation
y
by vectors.
law is not satisfied, so that A x and A y cannot possibly be represented
.
MOMENTS OF INERTIA
9.3.
masses m and ra 2 respectively are connected by a rigid massless

inertia of the
rod of length a and move freely in a plane. Show that the moment of
the center of
through
passing
system about an axis perpendicular to the plane and
2
mass is iacl where the reduced mass
Two
ix
particles of
m\m<2.l{m\
+ W2).
Let r x be the distance of mass mj from the

center of mass C. Then a r x is the distance
Since C is the center
of mass
2 from C.
of mass,
r1
= m 2 (a r
Thus the moment
of inertia about
m r\ + m
x
2 (a
2
x)
= m.
an axis through C
ma
m + m2 / + m
2
9.4.
mâ
mj + W2
from which
t)
Fig. 9-10
and
wâ
+ W^
rt
!!
is
m a \2
\ m + m2/
x
wii%
fllj+W^
Find the moment of inertia of a solid circular cylinder of radius

about the axis of the cylinder.
mass
a2
a,
height h and
Method
1,
using single integration.
Subdivide the cylinder, a cross section of which appears

in Fig. 9-11, into concentric rings one of which is the element shown shaded. The volume of this element is
(Area) (thickness) = (2irrdr)(h) = 2rrrh dr
dm = 2varh dr.
inertia of dm is
r2 dm 2irora h dr
and the element of mass
The moment
where a
is
of
is
the density, and thus the total
moment of
inertia is
id
2wars h dr
= ^wahaA
(1)
ndP-
Fig. 9-11
232
Then
since the
mass
= |Ma2
find /
Method
is
M
we
[CHAP.
2worh dr
aira 2 h
using double integration.
2,
Using polar coordinates

the
(r, 8), we see from Fig. 9-12 that

of inertia of the element of mass dm distant
the axis is
moment
r from
r2
since hr dr do
dm =
r2 ahrdrdo
ahr* dr do
the volume element and a is the mass per

unit volume (density). Then the total moment of inertia is
is
sa
J-2ir
ahr^drdo
\irohcfi
(1)
0=0 "r=0
The mass
of the cylinder
is
given by
Fig. 9-12
pa
s2tt
ahr dr do
aira2 h
^6=0 ^r=0
which can also be found directly by noting that the volume of the cylinder
equation (1) by (2), we find I/M = %a 2 or I = \Ma2
is
ira2 h.
Dividing
9.5.
Find the radius of gyration, K, of the cylinder of Problem
Since
9-6.
= I/M = \a
2
,
K=
a/y/2
\a^2.
Find the (a) moment of inertia and

with sides a and b about a side.
Method
(a)
1,
9.4.
radius of gyration of a rectangular plate
(b)
The element of mass shaded in Fig. 9-13 is ab dx, and its moment of
(ab dx)x 2 = abx 2 dx.
Thus the total moment of inertia is
inertia about the
y axis
is
ia
J
Since the total mass of the plate
.(b)
K2 = I/M = %a2
or
K = a/y[S =
is
abx 2 dx
M = aba,
%aba*
we have I/M =
-Ja
or
= $Ma2
%ayfz.
y
dx
dm =
a dy dx
Fig. 9-13
Method
2,
Fig. 9-14
using double integration.
Assume the plate has unit thickness. If dm = adydx is an element of mass [see Fig. 9-14],
the moment of inertia of dm about the side which is chosen to be on the y axis is x 2 dm = ax 2 dy dx.
Then the total moment of inertia is
Xa
The
total
mass of the
plate
is
M = aba.
s\h
I
ax 2
dydx
Then, as in Method
jâba?
1,
we
find
= \Ma2
and
K = $ayfs.
CHAP.
9.7.
91
231
Find the moment of inertia of a right circular cone of height h and radius a
about
its axis.
Method
1,
The moment of
inertia of the circular cylindrical
PQR
which is represented by
by Problem 9.4,
disc one quarter of
Fig. 9-15
is,
\{irr 2 o dz)(r 2 )
From
Then the
volume vr dz and radius

h
Fig. 9-15,
total
iror*dz
since this disc has
moment
in
or
r.
of inertia about the z axis
dz
is
JL^jjTra4 <rh
Also,
Fig. 9-15
Thus /
Method
2,
^Ma2
ira2 ha
using triple integration.
Subdivide
shown
dz
the
one quarter of which is

elements of mass dm as indi-
cone,
in Fig. 9-16, into
cated in the figure.

In cylindrical coordinates (r, 8, z) the element of
dm of the cylinder is dm or dr de dz where
the density.
mass
a
is
The moment of
r2
As
in
Method
Then the
total
inertia of
dm =
h
1,
dm
about the
ha
moment
z axis is
or3 dr de dz
a
\
pa
J27r
0=0
The
total
mass of the cone
Fig. 9-16
is
sn,(a
>h(a r)/a,
r)/a
dr de dz
Jr =0 ^z=0
is
Jiiarj/r
or dr de dz
*S0=O
9.8.
^Ma
^n-aPho
^r=0 *^2=0
which can be obtained directly by noting that the volume of the cone
Thus
îraAoh
is
\tra2 h.
2.
Find the radius of gyration
K2 = I/M = â2
and
of the cone of Problem 9.7.
K = ay/^ =
ây/SO.
THEOREMS ON MOMENTS OF INERTIA

9.9.
Prove the parallel axis theorem [Theorem
9.3,
page 226].
Let OQ be any axis and ACP a parallel axis through the centroid C and distant 6 from OQ.
In Fig. 9-17 below, OQ has been chosen as the z axis so that
is perpendicular to the xy plane
at P.
AP
234
[CHAP.
If b x is a unit vector in the direction OP,

then the vector OP is given by
where
b is
6bi
constant and
(1)
the distance between
is
axes.
Let
mass m
and
be the position vectors of
x'v
O and C respectively.
C relative to O
relative to
If r
then
the position vector of
is
we have
rv
The
moment
total
OQ
about axis
x'v
(jg)
of inertia of
masses
all
is
The
m^.bi)*
moment
total
Fig. 9-17
(3)
of inertia of all masses
ACP
about axis
is
Then using
(2)
we
2 m^-b^
Ic
find
N
I
2 m^.bi)
K=l
2 m^-b^ +
V=l
/c
The
^ m
r=l
b,
result
22=
V
m^.b^Cf-bj) +
m, <
2 ^(f-b^
1>=1
\
.
bx
and
62
2 m
Ic
+ Mb*
wh-rj
[Problem 7.16, page 178].
v=l
easily extended to continuous
is
fbi) 2
i'b l =
26
2 mX'bi +
V=l
since
(4)
mass systems by using integration
in
summation.
9.10.
Use the
parallel axis
theorem
to find the
moment
of inertia
of a solid circular cylinder about a line on the surface of

the cylinder and parallel to the axis of the cylinder.
Suppose the cross section of the cylinder is represented as in
Then the axis is represented by C, while the line on the
surface of the cylinder is represented by A.
Fig. 9-18.
If
is
the radius of the cylinder, then by Problem 9.4 and the
parallel axis
theorem we have
jA
9.11.
Ic
Ma?-
= Ma2 + Ma* -
f Ma*
Fig. 9-18
Prove the perpendicular axes theorem [Theorem

9.4, page 226].
Let the position vector of the particle with mass
xy plane be
in the
z axis
is
w^|r| 2
Then the
x vi
+ yj
The moment of
[see Fig. 9-19].
inertia of
m about
the
total
about the z axis
is
moment
of inertia of all particles
*
Fig. 9-19
place of
CHAP.
9]
2hr|r|
v= \
=.
2 m
v=l
where Ix and JB are the
The
9.12.
result
moments of
total
235
v= l
xl
U(^ + a
m,!^
I~
v =i
inertia about the x axis
and y axis respectively.
easily extended to continuous systems.
is
Find the moment of inertia of a rectangular plate with sides

a and b about an axis
perpendicular to the plate and passing through a vertex.
Choose the rectangular plate [see Fig. 9-20] in the
xy plane with sides on the x and y axes. Choose the
z axis perpendicular to the plate at
From Problem
we have for the moments of

and y axes,
9.6
inertia about the x
Ix
a vertex.
$Mb*,
= ^Ma2
Iy
Then by the perpendicular axes theorem the moment

Iz
Ix
is
Iy
M(&2
+ a2)
= $M(a + b 2
2
Fig. 9-20
COUPLES
9.13.
Prove that a force acting at a point of a rigid

body can be equivalents replaced
by a single force acting at some specified
point together with a suitable couple.
Let the force be F acting at point P
as in
t
Fig. 9-21. If
the effect of
forces t t and
Q
F
any
is
alone
at Q.
In particular
if
specified point, it is seen that
we
same
the
is
choose
ft
if
= F u
has the same magnitude as Fj but

direction,
we
same as the
is
i.e.
if
opposite in
alone is the
see that the effect of F

x
effect of the couple formed
- ~ F [which
force fj = F
fi
we apply two
by F t and
has moment r,XF,] together with the
Fig. 9-21
1#
9.14.
Prove Theorem
9.5
witlTsS cXr ^
By Problem 9.13 we can replace the force F

at P by the force P at
Q plus a couple of moment
r X F. Then the system
of forces P lf F2 ,
, F
N at
points P lt P 2 ,...,P
N can be combined into forces
Fj, F 2
at Q having resultant
, FN
.
"*" "*
page 227: Any system of forces which acts

on a rigid body can
a
3 Single f0Ke WhiCH
at
er
.Py
F = F + F2 +
1
+ Fn
together with couples having moments
'iXFj,
r2
XF2
..., r N
XFN
which may be added to yield a single couple.

Thus
the system of forces can be equivalent^
replaced by
the single force
acting at
together with a couple
Fig. 9-22
236
MOMENTUM

9.15.
[CHAP.
body rotates about a fixed axis with

, prove that the kinetic energy
of rotation is T = ^/w 2 where / is the moment of
If a rigid
angular velocity
inertia about the axis.

Choose the axis as AB in Fig. 9-23. A particle P of
m v will rotate about the axis with angular speed .
it will describe a circle PQRSP with linear speed
mass
Then
vv
where r v
ur v
is
its
distance
and the
energy of
total kinetic
^rn v
^rl
v=
w r 2
is
-I (
the
Thus
its
^m v v% = mv w 2 r 2
is
particles
all
=
where
from axis AB.
AB
kinetic energy of rotation about
is
wr2
)<o 2
v= l
" 2
moment
of inertia about
AB.
The result could also be proved by using integration in

place of summation.
9.16.
Prove that the angular
momentum
The angular momentum of
momentum
AB
where
The
v=l
wrf
is
2 m
the
moment
result could also be proved
is
O=
r*m.
Then the
total
/.
angular
is
AB
about axis
is
Problem 9.15
of the rigid body of
particle
of all particles about axis
Fig. 9-23
r2
,
o>
iv r
2
)
/<*
AB.
of inertia about
in place of
by using integration
summation.
MOTION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

9.17.
momentum
Prove the principle of angular

axis [Theorem 9.6, page 227].
By Problem
A=
7.12,
page 176, since a rigid body
the torque or moment of

total angular momentum about the axis.
dtl/dt
Since
9.18.
where
O=
/<>
for a rigid body rotating about a fixed
is
by Problem
9.16,
Aa _
-
all
d ir \
(Ia)
di
is a special case of a system of particles,

external forces about the axis and Q is the
'
!T
da
Tt
/i.
Prove the principle of conservation of energy for a rigid body rotating about a
fixed axis [Theorem 9.7, page 227] provided the forces acting are conservative.
The principle of conservation of energy applies to any system of particles in which the forces
acting are conservative. Hence in particular it applies to the special case of a rigid body rotating
about a fixed axis. If T and V are the total kinetic energy and the potential energy, we thus have
T+ V =
9.15, this
constant
can be written
Îu> 2
E
+ V -
E.
CHAP.
9]
237
WORK, POWER AND IMPULSE

9.19.
Prove equation
page 227, for the work done in rotating a rigid body

about a
(12),
fixed axis.
Refer to Fig.
unit vector
9-4, page 227.

Let the angular velocity of the body be
the direction of the axis of rotation.
The work done by F
dW =
F-tfr
fJr
F-f dt
where
9.20.
in the last
two steps we use
Prove equation
(18),
From Problem
9.21.
Prove Theorem
9.8,
A=
k and a
Ak,
% dt
'-*
C-
Jh
dt
dt
9 19
-
^d
V4-M
is
Q2 - O
page 229, on the conservation of angular
momentum
zero.
From Problem
9.22, if
A=
then
Q2 = Qv
(17),
page 228, for
the fact that
The angular impulse
tl
9.10,
Then from Problem
Jf\dt
is
de/dt.
A = Idu/dt
tHat
Prove Theorem 9.9, page 228:

angular momentum.
torque
page 227.
Ade
Prove Theorem
= A w dt = Ade
m dt
=a
=
dW/dt = A de/dt = Aw
ol
9.23.
o>
and the fact that de/dt
deJl dt Zlhte
9.22.
(rXF)-(lf
if
the net
THE COMPOUND PENDULUM

9.24.
Obtain the equation of motion

a compound pendulum.
Method
1.
Suppose that the vertical plane of vibration of the

pendulum is chosen as the xy plane [Fig. 9-24]
where
the z axis through origin O is the
horizontal axis of
suspension.
Let point C have the position vector a relative

to O.
Since the body is rigid, |a| = a is constant
and is the
distance from O to C.
The only external force acting on the body is its

= -Mgj acting vertically downward. Thus
weight Mg
we have
A =
=
where k
is
total external torque
about z axis
X Mg = -a X Mgj = aMg
a unit vector in the positive
sin e
is
the
moment
_
-
(1)
Fig. 9-24
z direction [out of the
Also, the instantaneous angular velocity
so that if I
page 227, for the power developed.
Id /dt
9.19
is
is
= F.(.Xr)<ft
F-vd*
= k where k
-<ok
plane of the paper toward the reader].
is
de
~^k
= -*k
238
O =
Substituting from
(1)
and
aMg
Method 2.
The force
angular
sin
(2)
into
fk
Mg = Mgj
_ vv =
is
A=
dil/dt,
or
|r(-7o*k)
V = Mgy +
or
cos o
= a
constant
Differentiating equation
(5)
with respect to
1 6
or, since
Show
P=
is
that
not identically zero,
for
small
- Mga
I e
'S
Sz
is
Î
<>
the height of
Then the
2-
C below
principle
the
of
(5)
t,
+ Mga
+ Mga
the
vibrations
cos
f = *,, =
(4)
cos e
I u 2
such that
is
is
|/o
(5)
92/
By Problem 9.15, the kinetic energy of rotation

conservation of energy gives
0,
Mga
d.
T + V
sin
sin $
as required.
pendulum
Problem
of
9.24
has
period
27T\/Mga/h.
For small vibrations we can make the approximation sin

becomes
,
%-+**, =
Show
that the length
of Problem 9.24
is
of a simple
so that the equation of motion
a)
Then, as in Problem 4.23, page 102, we find that the period
9.26.
^^ sin
IS
cos
-M k
/<><*
This could be seen directly since

1/
x axis taken as the reference level.
since
9.25.
z axis
dz
fly
from which
= a
about
conservative, so that the potential energy
E, _ *E j _
da;
momentum
[CHAP.
is
P=
pendulum equivalent
2jry/I
to the
/Mga.
compound pendulum
I of Ma.
The equation of motion corresponding to a simple pendulum of length

from O is [see Problem 4.23, equation (2), page 102]
6
Comparing
this equation
with
(1)
+ j
sin e
of Problem 9.25,
suspended vertically
we
(-0
see that
/Ma.
GENERAL PLANE MOTION OF A RIGID BODY

9.27.
Prove the principle of linear momentum, Theorem

plane motion of a rigid body.
9.12,
page 228, for the general
This follows at once from the corresponding theorem for systems of particles [Theorem 7-1,
page 167], since rigid bodies are special cases.
9.28.
Prove the principle of angular momentum, Theorem

plane motion of a rigid body.
9.13,
page 229, for general
This follows at once from the corresponding theorem for systems of particles [Theorem
page 168], since rigid bodies are special cases.
7-4,
CHAP.
9.29.
9]
239
A solid cylinder of radius a and

mass
rolls without slipping down
an inclined plane of angle a. Show
that the acceleration is constant and
equal to f g sin
a.
Suppose that
point
after
initially the cylinder
has
with the plane and that
the cylinder has rotated
in contact
time t
through angle
[see Fig. 9-25].
The forces acting on the cylinder
at
the weight Mg acting vertically downward at the center of mass C;
(ii) the reaction R of the inclined
plane act-
time
are:
(i)
ing perpendicular to the plane; (iii) the

f acting upward along the
frictional force
incline.
Fig. 9-25
Choose the plane
which motion takes place as the xy plane, where the * axis

positive down the incline and the origin is at O.
in
If r is the position of the center of
mass at time
then by the principle of linear
t,
Mr = Mg + R +
But
sin a
-g
cos a
R=
j,
Mr*
The
total external torque
Rj,
(Mg
-/i.
sin a
Hence
(1)
(R
f)\
The
total
momentum about
angular
O =
where
moment
Ic is the
Substituting
Using
yj
can be written
- Mg
cos )j
(2)
CBXf ^
(-aj)X(-/i)
is
= - a/k
is
= -7c *k
7c (-*k)
into
we
in (2),
Mx
U)
A=
we
dCl/dt,
-a/k = -7cVk or
find
Ic e
af.
obtain
= Mg
sin a
My
f,
= R - Mg
cos a
(5)
Nowjf there is no slipping, x = ae or

= x/a. Similarly, since the cylinder remains
incline, y = 0; hence from (5), R = Mg cos a.
Using e = x/a in Ic e = af, we have f = I '/a*. From
Problem 9.4, Ic = JLMa*
c
substituting / = iMx into the first equation of
(5), we obtain
x = \g sin a as required.
9.30.
Prove that
The
Problem 9.29 the
in
coefficient of friction is
From Problem
9.29
slipping will not occur, n
9.31.
(a)
Work Problem
plane
(a)
is
^ and
In equation
(b)
(5)
we have
must
\M x = Mg
f/R
Then
at least * tan.
sin a
1 tan
and
B = Mg
cos
a.
Thus
in order that
a.
if the coefficient of friction between the

cylinder and inclined
discuss the motion for different values of /*.
9.29
of Problem 9.29, substitute
in this case the center
a particle sliding
must be
on the
f/R.
/ =
be at least
***
Note that
(3)
of inertia of the cylinder about this axis.
and U)
(3)
xi
momentum,
the horizontal axis through the center of mass

/c o,
taken as
about the horizontal axis through the center of mass
A = OXMg + OXR + CBXf =
is
down an
= pR = ^Mg
f(sin
ix
cos a
and obtain
cos a)
of mass of the cylinder moves in the same manner

as
inclined plane.
However, the cylinder may slip as well as roll.
240
The acceleration due

The acceleration due
(b)
If
(sin
i.e.
/*
= ^
3/i
tan
to rolling
is
to slipping is
[CHAP.
a2f
a2/iMg cos a
Ic
\M&
ae =
g(sin a
3/*
cos
2ng cos
a.
a).
> 0, i.e. u < ^ tan a, then slipping will occur. If (sin a 3fi cos a) ^ 0,
then rolling but no slipping will occur. These results are consistent with
cos a)
a,
those of Problem 9.30.
9.32.
Prove the principle of conservation of energy [Theorem
9.14,
page 229].
This follows from the corresponding theorem for systems of particles, Theorem 7-7, page 169.
The total kinetic energy T is the sum of the kinetic energy of translation of the center of mass
plus the kinetic energy of rotation about the center of mass, i.e.,
T =
is
-imr2
|/c <o 2
If V is the potential energy, then the principle of conservation of energy states that
a constant,
T + V = -|mf2 + /c <o 2 + V =
if
9.33.
Work Problem
The
9.29
by using the principle of conservation of energy.
is composed of the potential energy due to the external forces [in this
case gravity] and the potential energy due to internal forces [which is a constant and can be
omitted]. Taking the reference level as the base of the plane and assuming that the height of
and h respectively, we have
the center of mass above this plane initially and at any time t to be
potential energy
IMf +
l/c <o 2
or,
Hh =
using
Substituting w
t, we obtain
x2
+ y2 =
\Mx2 +
^7c w2
r2
and
x sin a
\Ma 2 we
x/a and Ic
= gx
2x x
+ Mgh - MgH
x2 since y
= Mgx
x2
find
or
sin a
0,
sin a
\gx
x
sin a.
fg
Differentiating with respect to
sin a
INSTANTANEOUS CENTER. SPACE AND BODY CENTRODES

9.34.
Find the position vector of the instantaneous center for a rigid body moving
parallel to a given fixed plane.
XY
plane of Fig. 9-26 as the fixed

Choose the
plane and the xy plane as the plane attached to
and moving with the rigid body %. Let point P of
the xy plane [which may or may not be in the
rigid body] have position vectors R and r relative
to the
and xy planes respectively. If v and
v^ are the respective velocities of P and A relative
to the
system,
XY
XY
where RA
If
so
is
vA
is
+ Xr =
the position vector of
X (R RA
relative to O.
X(R-RA = -vA
()
(2)
by
o>
X and using
Fig. 9-26
(7),
5,
{(R
Then
(1)
to be the instantaneous center, then
that
page
VA
A )}
(R
R RA this
(R - RA )w 2 = X vA
since is perpendicular to
A )()
= -XvA
becomes
or
R = RA +
X vA
(3)
CHAP.
9.35.
9]
cylinder moves along a horizontal plane.

Discuss the case where slipping
centrode.
Find the
may
241
space centrode,
(a)
(o)
body
occur.
The general motion is one where both rolling

and slipping may occur. Suppose the cylinder
is moving to the right with velocity v A [the
velocity of its center of mass] and is rotating
(a)
about
with angular velocity
Since
x va =
o>
= wk
-wv A j
and vA
so that (3) of
becomes
R = RA -
we have
Problem 9.34
v A i,
( v a)j
vA#
X~ = RA
Fig. 9-27
In component form,
Xi
Yj
- XA i +
oj
(v A /)j
x>r
X = XA
Y =
v A /a
Thus the instantaneous center is located vertically above the point of contact of the cylinder
with the ground and at height a v A /u above it.
Then the space centrode is a line parallel to the horizontal and at distance a v /u
A
above it. If there is no slipping, then v A = aa and the space centrode is the
axis while
the instantaneous center is the point of contact of the cylinder with the
axis.
(b)
The body centrode is given by

= ao3 and the body centrode
9.36.
|r|
is
v /o, or a circle of radius v /u.

the circumference of the cylinder.
In case of no slipping,
Solve Problem 9.29 by using the instantaneous center.
By Problem 9.35, if there is no slipping then

the point of contact P of the cylinder with the
plane is the instantaneous center. The motion of
P is parallel to the motion of the center of mass,
so that we can use the result of Problem 7.86(c),
page 191.
The moment of
inertia of the cylinder about
P is, by the parallel axis theorem, ^Ma2 + Ma2 =

2
The torque about the horizontal axis through
2 Ma
P is Mga sin a. Thus
.
-^{lMa2
or
Since
ae,
'e)
= Mga
sine
-r^smfl
6a
the acceleration
is
fg
sin
9.
Fig. 9-28

9.37.
ladder of length I and weight Wi has one end

against a vertical wall which is frictionless and
the other end on the ground assumed horizontal.
The ladder makes an angle a with the ground.
Prove that a man of weight
m will be able to
climb the ladder without having it slip if the
coefficient of friction /* between the ladder and
the ground
is
at least
Wm + Wl
Wm+Wr
COt a.
Let the ladder be represented by AB in Fig. 9-29 and

choose an xy coordinate system as indicated.
Fig. 9-29
242
[CHAP.
The most dangerous situation in which the ladder would slip occurs when the man is at the
Hence we would require that the ladder be in equilibrium in such case.
top of the ladder.
the reaction R x = R t i of the wall;

(ii) the weight
of the ladder concentrated at C, the center of
of tn ground; (v) the friction force f = /i.
The forces acting on the ladder are:

of the man; (iii) the weight
j
W m = Wm
gravity;
(iv)
R2 = R 2 j
the reaction
(i)
= W j
For equilibrium we require that
F =
where F
A =
and A
0,
(I)
the total external force on the ladder

the total external torque taken about a
suitable axis which we shall take as the horizontal axis through A perpendicular to the xy plane.
We
is
have
Wm + W, + R
F = Rx +
if
JBj
Also,
(0)
X Bi +
(0)
= tyWi
(I
^Wi
if
Wm
(0)
cos a
cos a
Then the minimum
= R
(R 1 -f)i
Wm
W, +
R2 =
(AB) X
B2 +
($1 cos a
X (R 2 j) +
j)
a.
and
(2)
XW,+
j)
sin a
+ R2
COS a
+ (-Wm -W + R 2 )j =
-Wm -
(AC)
IR 2 cos
= (WTO +
X (-
Solving simultaneously equations

/
and
(0)
(flji)
A =
If sin
COS a
we
(3),
(AB) X
1 sin a
cos a
j)
I
x (-TFJ)
j) X ( /i)
sin a
f sin a
(3)
find
R,
and
)cot
(I
(2)
Wm + W,
necessary to prevent slipping of the ladder
wm + jW
wm + w
Ra
is
cot a
9.38.
m2 are connected by an inextensible string of negligible mass

which passes over a frictionless pulley of mass M, radius a and radius of gyration K
which can rotate about a horizontal axis through C perpendicular to the pulley.
Two masses mi and
Discuss the motion.

Choose unit vectors
as shown in Fig. 9-30.
and
in the plane of rotation
If we represent the acceleration of mass

then the acceleration of mass ra2 is Aj.
by Aj,
Choose the tensions T x and T 2 in the string as shown

By Newton's second law,
in the figure.
w-iAj
-mgAj = T2
Thus
m g = TJ + m^j
+ m2g = -T2 + m^j
= T +
mA =
x
mxQ
(2)
lt
T t = m^g-A),
or
CO
m A T2 m g
T 2 = m2 {g + A)
2
(3)
U)
The net external torque about the axis through C
A =
The
total
angular
momentum
(-oi)
about
X (-TJ)
O
CI
Since
A=
dil/dt,
we
find
from
(5)
(ai)
mg
Fig. 9-30
is
X (-r^)
a(7\
- T2)k
(5)
is
Ic
and
(6),
a{T x
-T
2)
7c cok
Ic
'o
IcOk
= MK*$
(6)
(7)
CHAP.
9]
If there is
243
no slipping about the pulley, we also have
A
Using
(8) in (7),
Using
(4) in (9),
a'e
~ T2
Tx
(8)
MK2
(9)
(wn - m2)g
m + m2 + MkVa?
A =
(10)
Thus the masses move with constant acceleration given in magnitude

the result (10) reduces to that of Problem 3.22, page 76.
9.39.
Find the moment of inertia of a
by
(10).
Note that
if
M 0,
sphere about a diameter.
solid
Let O be the center of the sphere and AOB be the

diameter about which the moment of inertia is taken
[Fig. 9-31]. Divide the sphere into discs such as QRSTQ
perpendicular to AOB and having center on AOB at P.
Take the radius of the sphere equal to a, OP = z,

r and the thickness of the disc equal to dz. Then
by Problem 9.4 the moment of inertia of the disc about
SP =
AOB
is
\(trr 2 o dz)r 2
=
From triangle OSP,
the total moment of inertia
r2
=
The mass
a2
\ira(a2
of the sphere
^var^dz
z2 .
(1)
Substituting into
(1),
is
- z2
dz
is
-f_
2=
7ra(a 2
- z2
dz
gwa 3 a
which could also be seen by noting that the volume of the sphere
From
9.40.
(2)
and
cube of edge
we have I/M =
(S)
and mass
is
\a2
ox
- %Ma
is
P=
OC
from axis
2v -^2y/s/Sg.
to the center of
2.
Since the diagonal of a square of side 8 has length

the distance
is
ova3
suspended vertically from one of
that the period for small vibrations

the equivalent simple pendulum?
(a)
($)
mass
The moment of inertia / of a cube about an edge

that of a square plate about a side.
Thus by
/ = %M(s 2 + s 2 ) = Ms 2
V2 + s2 =
is
(b)
its
What
edges,
is
(a)
Show
the length of
8^/2,
^8^/2.
the same as
Problem 9.6,
is
Then the period for small vibrations
P =
(b)
by Problem
9.25,
2wyf2y[slZg~
The length of the equivalent simple pendulum

I
9.41.
2v *sl%Ms 2/[Mg($ 8 V2)]
is,
= %MsV[M(%sV2)] = fv^s
is,
by Problem
9.26,
Fig. 9-32
Prove Theorem
The period of small vibrations of a compound

9.11, page 228:
pendulum is a minimum when the distance OC = a is equal to the radius of gyration
of the body about a horizontal axis through the center of mass.
If I c is the moment of inertia about the center of mass axis and I is the moment of inertia
about the axis of suspension, then by the parallel axis theorem we have
Then the square
where K*
Ic /
4fl-
/p
Mga
Kc
2/Kr
\Ma
with
da^
from which a -
given by
is
mass
the square of the radius of gyration about the center of
is
Setting the derivative of
the theorem
4ir 2
+ Ma 2
ic
of the period for small vibrations
p2
respect to a equal to zero,
we
axis.
find
'
a?
g \
This can be shown to give the
minimum
d 2 (P 2 )/da2
value since
<
0.
Thus
proved.
is
The theorem
9.42.
[CHAP.
244
is
also true even if the vibrations are not
assumed small.
See Problem 9.147.
rests on top of a fixed rough sphere of radius b.

sphere of radius a and mass
The first sphere is slightly displaced so that it rolls without slipping down the second
sphere. Where will the first sphere leave the second sphere?
Let the xy plane be chosen so as to pass

through the centers of the two spheres, with the
center of the fixed sphere as origin O [see Fig.
Let the position of the center of mass C of
9-33].
the first sphere be measured by angle 0, and suppose that the position vector of this center of
mass C with respect to O is r. Let r l and 9 X be
unit vectors as indicated in Fig. 9-33.
Resolving the weight

ponents in directions r t and
Problem
page
1.43,
W = mgj
into com-
we have [compare
9 lt
24]
(WT^
=
=
=
+ (W *!)#!
(-mgj-rj)^ + (-mgj 9
mg sin o r mg cos e 9
9X
t)
and frictional force f

Using Theorem 9.12,
page 228, together with the result of Problem 1.49,
page 26, we have
The reaction force

are
N = Nr lt f = f9 v
m(r
from which
Since r
[the distance of
We now
center of
b)'e 2
apply Theorem
mass C
is [since
m[(r
N mg
re*)
m(a +
r'o 2 )r + (r'e + 2ro)9

W+ N+
(N mg sin 0)^ + (/ mg
= ma =
=
=
C from
9.13,
W and
A =
1]
m(r'o
sine,
sin
m(a +
e,
cos
2re)
mg
cos e
mg
cos 6
(-ar,)
b)
-^(0 +
(-ar 1 )X(f9 1 )
d2
v^)k
all
-a/k
-(<
vOk
AP
equals arc BP, or
</>
-(0 + vOk
-{ -6
-~a $
forces about the
is
Since there is only rolling and no slipping it follows that arc

= v/2 - e and ^ = (b/a)(ir/2 o), so that
Then
(1)
become
page 229. The total external torque of

pass through C],
Also, the angular acceleration of the first sphere about
O], these equations
N mg
Fig. 9-33
^-* )*k
b$
af.
CHAP.
9]
Since the
I
is
moment
&ma2 we
A =
Using
of inertia of the first sphere about the horizontal axis of rotation through
have by Theorem
= |wa2(^-i-^ )Vk
-afk
la,
this value of / in the second equation of (1),
we
5g
= "7(^+6)
Multiplying both sides by $ and integrating,
9.13,
245
we
or
= -im(a+b)e
find
C0S6
find after using the fact that
at
or
r/2,
Using
(*) in the first of equations (J),

leaves the second sphere where
= 0,
we
find
i.e.
where
A/"
= lwflr(17 sin - 10). Then

sin-* 10/17.
the first sphere
RIGID BODIES
9.43.
9.44.
Show that the motion of region

of Fig. 9-34 can
be carried into region %' by means of a translation
plus a rotation about a suitable point.
Work Problem
9.1,
page 230, by
translation of the point
9.45.
first
of triangle
applying a
ABC.
If A X ,A ,A Z represent rotations of a rigid body about

V
the x, y and z axes respectively, is it true that the
associative law applies, i.e. is A x + (A + A ) =
z
y
(A x + A y ) + A z t Justify your answer.
Fig. 9-34
MOMENTS OF INERTIA
9.46.
Three particles of masses 3, 5 and 2 are located at the points (-1, 0,

1), (2, -1, 3) and (-2, 2, 1)
Find (a) the moment of inertia and (6) the radius of gyration about the x axis.
Ans. 71
respectively.
9.47.
Find the moment of inertia of the system of particles in Problem 9.46 about
(fe) the z axis.
Ans. (a) 81, (6) 44
9.48.
Find the moment of inertia of a uniform rod of length I about an axis perpendicular to it and
(a) the center of mass,
(b) an end,
(c) a point at distance 1/4 from an end.
Ans. (a) r&MP, (b) j^MP, (c) ^MP
(a)
the y axis,
passing through
9.49.
Find the
Ans.
9.50.
9.51.
(a)
moment
^Ma*,
(b)
of inertia and
(b)
radius of gyration of a square of side a about a diagonal.
ây/S
Find the moment of inertia of a cube of edge a about an edge.
Ans. Ma2
Find the moment of inertia of a rectangular plate of sides a and

Ans.
9.52.
(a)
Ma 2 b 2 /(a 2 +
about a diagonal.
b 2)
Find the moment of inertia of a uniform parallelogram of sides a and 6 and included angle a
it and passing through its center.
Ans. J*M(a2 + b 2 ) sin2 a
about an axis perpendicular to
246
[CHAP.
9.53.
Find the moment of inertia of a cube of side a about a diagonal.
9.54.
Find the moment of inertia of a cylinder of radius a and height h

about an axis parallel to the axis of the cylinder and distant b from
its center.
Ans. ^M(a2 + 2b 2 )
9.55.
A solid of constant density is formed from a cylinder of radius a

and height h and a hemisphere of radius a as shown in Fig. 9-35.
Find its moment of inertia about a vertical axis through their
+
Ans. M(2a3
centers.
15a2 h)/{10a
+ 15h)
9.56.
Work Problem 9.55

and height h.
9.57.
Find the moment of inertia of the uniform solid region bounded

by the paraboloid cz = x 2 + y 2 and the plane z = h about the
z axis.
Ans. ^Mch
9.58.
9.59.
if
the cylinder
Use your
definitions in
a vertex and
(6)
Problem 9.58 to
Ans.
a face.
9.61.
(a)
find the
Ma 2
moment
(a)
Fig. 9-35
a point,
(6)
a plane?
of inertia of a cube of side
Is there
a about
(b) |ilfa2
MOMENTUM
uniform rod of length 2 ft and mass 6 lb rotates with angular speed 10 radians per second
about an axis perpendicular to it and passing through its center. Find the kinetic energy of
rotation.
Ans. 100 lb ft2 /sec 2
Work Problem
Ans. 400
9.62.
replaced by a cone of radius a
is
How might you define the moment of inertia of a solid about

any physical significance to these results? Explain.
(a)
9.60.
9.60
if
the axis of rotation
is
perpendicular to the rod and passes through an end.
lb ft 2 /sec 2
hollow cylindrical disk of radius a and mass

total kinetic energy.
Ans. Mv 2
along a horizontal plane with speed
rolls
v.
Find the
9.63.
9.64.
9.65.
Work Problem
flywheel having radius of gyration 2 meters and

speed of 5 radians/sec about an axis perpendicular to
energy of rotation.
Ans. 1000 joules
Find the angular momentum of

Ans.
9.66.
5 lb ft2 /sec,
(a)
Ans.
9.62 for a solid cylindrical disk of radius a.
(b)
200 kg
Prove the result of (a) Problem

summation.
(a)
&Mv 2
mass 10 kilograms rotates at angular

through its center. Find the kinetic
it
the rod of Problem 9.60
(6)
the flywheel of Problem 9.64.
m2 /sec
9.15,
page 236,
(6)
Problem
9.16,
page 236, by using integration
in place of
9.67.
Derive a "parallel axis theorem" for

the physical significance.
(a) kinetic
energy and
MOTION OF A RIGID BODY. THE COMPOUND PENDULUM.

WORK, POWER AND IMPULSE
9.68.
A constant force of magnitude F is applied tangentially
9.69.
How
long will
from rest?
9.70.
angular
momentum and
explain
a flywheel which can rotate about a

If the flywheel has radius a, radius
and mass M, prove that the angular acceleration is given by F a/MK2
fixed axis perpendicular to
of gyration
(6)
it
and passing through
to
its center.
it
be before the flywheel of Problem 9.68 reaches an angular speed w

2 a /F a
Ans.
if it
starts
MK
Assuming that the flywheel of Problem 9.68 starts from rest, find (a) the total work done,
the total power developed and (c) the total impulse applied in getting the angular speed
Ans ( a) %MK2 <%> ( b ) *>o. (c) MK2 u
up to <o
(6)
CHAP.
9.71.
9]
Work
KAns.
9.72.
Problem
(a)
0.5 meter,
2 rad/sec 2
(a)
9.68,
(b)
Problem 9.69 and (c) Problem 9.70

and w = 20 radians/sec.
if
M = 20 kilograms
;
(b)
10 sec;
247
F =
10 newtons,
meter,
250 joules, 200 joules/sec, 100 newton sec
(c)
Find the period of small vibrations for a simple pendulum assuming that the string supporting
the bob is replaced by a uniform rod of length I and mass
while the bob has mass m.
Ans. 2v a\
2(M + 3m)Z
3(M + 2m)g
M=
m=
9.73.
Discuss the cases
9.74.
rectangular plate having edges of lengths a and b respectively hangs vertically from the edge
(a) Find the pe riod fo r small oscillations and
(6) the length of the equivalent simple
pendulum.
Ans. (a) 2wy/2b/Zg
(b) |6
(a)
and
(b)
in
Problem
9.72.
of length a.
9.75.
uniform
9.76.

is suspended vertically downward from a point
Find the period for small oscillations in a plane and (6) the length of the
equivalent simple pendulum.
Ans. (a) 2ir^la/hg, (b) 7a/5
on
its
solid
surface,
(a)
yo-yo consists of a cylinder of mass 80 gm around which a string of length 60 cm is wound.

end of the string is kept fixed and the yo-yo is allowed to fall vertically starting from rest,
find its speed when it reaches the end of the string.
Ans. 280 cm/sec
If the
9.77.
9.78.
Find the tension in the string of Problem

Ans. 19,600 dynes
9.76.
Y/////////////////////'
hollow cylindrical disk of mass

moving with constant speed v
to an incline of angle a. Prove that if there is no slipping
will rise a distance v\/{g sin a) up the incline.
comes
it
20 kg
9.79.
If the hollow disk of
high will
9.80.
it
rise
Problem 9.78
is
up the incline?
replaced by a solid disk,
Ans. Svl/(4g sin
how
a)
In Fig. 9-36 the pulley, assumed frictionless, has radius 0.2 meter
its radius of gyration is 0.1 meter. What is the acceleration of
the 5 kg mass?
Ans. 2.45 m/sec2
10
kg
|
and
kg
Fig. 9-36
INSTANTANEOUS CENTER. SPACE AND BODY CENTRODES

9.81.
ladder of length I moves so that one end is on a vertical wall and the other on a horizontal
Find (a) the space centrode and (b) the body centrode.
floor.
Ans.
(a)
(b)
9.82.
9.83.
circle
having radius
circle
with the ladder as diameter
and center at point
O where
the floor and wall meet.
AB
A long rod
moves so that it remains in contact with
the top of a post of height h while its foot B moves on a
horizontal line CD [Fig. 9-37]. Assuming the motion
to be in one plane, find the locus of instantaneous centers.
What
in
9.84.
A
A
is
the
(a)
body centrode and
(b)
space centrode
Problem 9.82?
Work Problems 9.82 and 9.83

by a fixed cylinder of radius a.
if
the post
is
replaced
Fig. 9-37

9.85.
uniform ladder of weight

and length I has its top against a smooth wall and its foot on a
having coefficient of friction p. (a) Find the smallest angle a which the ladder can make
with the horizontal and still be in equilibrium. (6) Can equilibrium occur if ft - 0? Explain.
floor
248
9.86.
9.87.
Work Problem
9.85
and
AB
is
at
the wall has coefficient of friction n v
if
a uniform bar of length

so that AC a and
so that the system will be in equilibrium?
In Fig. 9-38,
at
[CHAP.
and weight
CD
b.
W supported
at C.
Where must a weight
weights
be placed on
It carries
AC
D
Fig. 9-39
Fig. 9-38
9.88.
9.89.
uniform triangular thin plate hangs from a fixed point O by strings OA, OB and OC of
lengths a, b and c respectively. Prove that the tensions T it T% and T 3 in the strings are such that
T x /a = T 2 /b = T 3 /c.
is supported
uniform plank AB of length I and weight
C and D distant a from A and b from B respectively [Fig. 9-39]. Determine the reaction forces at C and D
at points
respectively.
9.90.
In Fig. 9-40, OA and OB are uniform rods having the same

is a right angle.
density and connected at O so that
is in a vertical
The system is supported at O so that
plane. Find the angles a and /? for which equilibrium occurs.
Ans. a = tan -1 (a/b), /? = v/2 tan -1 (a/b)
AOB
AOB
Fig. 9-40
9.91.
9.92.
A circular cylinder has radius a and height h. Prove that the moment of inertia about an axis
perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder and passing through the centroid is -J^M(h2 + 3a2 ).
Prove that the
effect of
a force on a rigid body
is
not changed by shifting the force along
its line
of action.
9.93.
rolls without slipping down an inclined plane of

cylinder of radius a and radius of gyration
angle a and length I, starting from res t at the top of the in cline. Prove that when it reaches the
bottom of the incline

9.94.
is
speed will be ^(2gla2 sin a)l(a2
+ K2
cylinder resting on top of a fixed cylinder is given a slight displacement so that

Determine where it leaves the fixed cylinder.
sin -1 4/7 where e is measured as in Fig. 9-33, page 244.
Ans.
it rolls
without
slipping.
9.95.
Work Problem
9.42 if the sphere is given
9.96.
Work Problem
9.94 if the cylinder
9.97.
A
an
9.98.
9.99.
initial
given an
initial
speed v
speed v
about a diameter rolls without slipping down

sphere of radius a and radius of gyration
2
2
2
).
incline of angle a. Prove that it descends with constant acceleration given by (ga sin a)/(a +
Work Problem
9.97 if the sphere
Ans.
a,
is
an
(a)
f g sin
(&)
(a) solid,
is
(b)
hollow and of negligible thickness.
f g sin a
hollow sphere has inner radius a and outer radius

of inertia about an axis through its center is
6.
Prove that
moment
|M
Discuss the cases
and
b.
'a4
a3 &
i2
+ a2 & 2 + a& 3 +
+ ab + &2
&
4>
if
is
its
mass, then the
CHAP.
9.100.
9]
249
Wooden
plates, all having the same rectangular

shape are stacked one above the other as indicated
in Fig. 9-41.
(a) If the length of each plate is
2a, prove that equilibrium conditions will prevail
if the (n + l)th plate extends a maximum distance
of a/n beyond the wth plate where n = 1,2,3, ...
.
What
(b)
is
the
maximum
which can be reached

are added?
9.101.
as assumed
more and more plates
9.100 if the plates are stacked on

instead of on a flat surface
in that problem.
cylinder of radius a rolls on the inner surface of a smooth cylinder of radius 2a.
is
2v \/3a/2g
Prove that
ladder of length I and negligible weight rests with one end against a wall having coefficient of
and the other end against a floor having coefficient of friction /i 2 It makes an angle a
with the floor, (a) How far up the ladder can a man climb before the ladder slips? (6) What is
the condition that the ladder not slip at all regardless of where the man is located?
friction
Ans.
9.104.
Fig. 9-41
the period of small oscillations

9.103.
distance
Work Problem
a sphere of radius
9.102.
if
horizontal
(a)
/j.
+ t&n a)/ (finx 2 +
2 l(m
Work Problem
9.103
if
the
1),
(b)
tana >
l//t 2
weight of the ladder
is
not
negligible.
9.105.
AB
[Fig. 9-42] has one end A on an

I
and the other end B on a vertical wall.
The ladder is at rest and makes an angle /? with the incline.
If the wall is smooth and the incline has coefficient of
ladder
of length
incline of angle a
friction
n,
the smallest value of n so that a
find
man
of
weight
m will be able to climb the ladder without having it
slip.
Check your answer by obtaining the result of Problem
9.37, page 241, as a special case.
9.106.
Work Problem
9.107.
9.105 if the wall has coefficient of friction
0i-
Fig. 9-42
uniform rod AB with point A fixed rotates about a vertical axis so that it makes a constant
angle a with the vertical [Fig. 9-43], If th e length of the rod is I, prove that the angular
speed needed to do this is = ^J(3g sec a)/2l
.
'//////////////////'.
Fig. 9-43
9.108.
Fig. 9-45
circular cylinder of mass

and radius a is suspended from the ceiling by a wire as shown in
Fig. 9-44. The cylinder is given an angular twist 6 and is then released. If the torque is assumed
proportional to the angle through which the cylinder is turned and the constant of proportionality
is X,
9.109.
Fig. 9-44
prove that the cylinder will undergo simple harmonic motion with period 2iray/m/2\
Find the period
in
Problem 9.108
if
the cylinder
is
replaced by a sphere of radius
a.
Ans. 2jra\/2m/5X
9.110.
9.111.
Work
(a) Problem 9.108 and

(6) Problem 9.109
angular velocity is present. Discuss physically.
AB
if
to the
instantaneous
A uniform beam
of length I and weight
[Fig. 9-45] is supported by ropes
and BD of
lengths a and 6 respectively making angles a and /? with the ceiling CD to which the ropes
are fixed. If equilibrium conditions prevail, find the tensions in the ropes.
AC
9.112.
9.114.
9.115.
Prove that the acceleration of the mass
ga2 /(a2 +
K2
Problem 9.112
in
is
).
Describe how Problem 9.112 can be used to determine the radius of

gyration of a pulley.
w////////////////.
is attached to a rope which is wound around

In Fig. 9-46 the mass
which can rotate
and radius of gyration
a fixed pulley of mass
freely about O. If the mass is released from rest, find (a) the angular
speed of the pulley after time t and (b) the tension in the rope.
9.113.
[CHAP.
250
uniform rod
AB
[Fig. 9-47] of length
and weight
having
Fig. 9-46
its
OA and floor OB respectively, slides

starting from rest when its foot B is at a distance d from O. Prove
that the other end A will eave the wall when the foot B is at a
distance from O given by ^yoT^ + 4d2
ends
on
a frictionless wall
9.116.
cylinder of mass 10 lb rotates about a fixed horizontal axis through

rope wound around it carries
center and perpendicular to it.
a mass of 20 lb. Assuming that the mass starts from rest, find its
Ans. 128 ft/sec
speed after 5 seconds.
its
be the length of a rod suspended from one end so that

Ans. 149 cm
on making small vibrations in a plane?
9.117.
What must
9.118.
it
Fig. 9-47
will be a seconds
pendulum
sphere and a hollow sphere of the same radius both start from rest at the top of an
and roll without slipping down the incline. Which one gets to the
Ans. The solid sphere
bottom first? Explain.
solid
inclined plane of angle a
9.119.
and radius of gyration K about a horizontal axis is displaced

compound pendulum of mass
vertical and is then released. Prove that if the center of
it makes an angle
O with the
mass is at distance a from the axis, then the reaction force on the axis is given by
so that
Mg
#2
9.120.
9.121.
Find the least
9.123.
y/([K2
rectangular parallelepiped of sides

Find the period of small oscillations.
incline of angle
9.122.
+ 2a 2
a, b,
cos*
and
c is
a2 cos
sin 0) 2
needed to prevent the sliding of a circular hoop down an
suspended vertically about a point %l
and r 2
pulley system consists of two solid disks of radius r x
rotating
of
capable
and
other
each
to
respectively rigidly attached
weight
freely about a fixed horizontal axis through the center O. A
shown
as
disk
smaller
the
around
wound
string
is suspended from a
If the radius of gyration of the pulley system is
in Fig. 9-48.
and its weight is w, find (a) the angular acceleration with which the
weight descends and
(a)
the tension in the string.
(b)
WgrJiWri + wK2 ),
sphere of radius
a.
(b)
WwK2/(Wr\ + wK
2
)
rolls on the inside of a smooth hollow

the period for small oscillations is
that
Prove
solid sphere of radius
given by 2vy/7(a
b)/5g
from a
thin circular solid plate of radius a is suspended vertically
If it
[see Fig. 9-49].
horizontal axis passing through a chord
makes small oscillations about this axis, prove that the frequency
is at distance a/2 from
of such oscillations is greatest when
AB
AB
the center.
a.
Ans. tan a
a.
Find the period of small vibrations of a rod of length

from one end.
Ans.
9.125.
+ (K2
suspended vertically from the side of length
9.124.
2
)
Fig. 9-49
CHAP.
9.126.
PLANE MOTION OF KIGID BODIES
9]
uniform rod of length
end
1
1_
suspended vertically from a string of length 21 which has
Prove that the normal frequencies for small oscillations in a plane are
fixed.
[^
-y
51 is
251
other
its
\\
2
^ *
and describe the normal modes.
and
5l
2ir
9.127.
9.128.
(a)
uniform rod of mass

and length I is suspended from one of its ends. What is the minimum
speed with which the other end should be hit so that it will describe a complete vertical circle?
If the
bob of a simple pendulum
is
a uniform solid sphere of radius a rather than a point
mass, prove that the period for small oscillations

(b)
9.129.
A
to
For what value of
9.131.
is
the period in (a) a
2iry/l/g
+ 2a2/5gl
minimum?

rolls along a horizontal plane with constant speed v
It comes
an incline of angle a. Assuming that it rolls without slipping, how far up the incline will it
Ans.
travel?
9.130.
is
10v/(7flr sin a)
Prove that the doughnut shaped solid or torus of Fig. 9-50 has
a moment of inertia about its axis given by |Af(3a 2 + 4b 2 ).
cylinder of mass
and radius a rolls without slipping down
a 45 inclined plane of mass
which is on a horizontal frictionless table.
Prove that while the rolling takes place the incline
will move with an acceleration given by mg/(SM + 2m).
9.132.
Work Problem
9.131 if the incline is of angle
Ans. (mg sin 2a)/(3M

9.133.
Find the
(a)
+ 2m - ra
a.
cos 2a)
tension in the rope and (6) accelerashown in Fig. 9-51 if the radius
of the pulley is 0.5
and its mass
Fig. 9-50
200 kg
tion of the system
of
is
gyration
20 kg.
9.134.
Compare the
9.135.
Prove that
9.136.
1\
.2
result of Problem 9.133 with that

obtained assuming the pulley to have negligible mass.
is
the net external torque about an axis

zero, then it is also zero about any other axis.
solid cylindrical disk of radius
a
100 kg
if
from the center of the
disk.
Fig. 9-51
a has a circular hole of radius b whose center

down an inclined plane of angle a, find
If the disk rolls
is
at distance c
its acceleration.
[See Fig. 9-52/
Fig. 9-52
9.137.
9.138.
Find the moment of inertia of the region bounded by the lemniscate r2

about the x axis.
Ans. Ma2 (3ir - 8)/48
Find the largest angle of an inclined plane down which a

if
9.139.
Fig. 9-53
the coefficient of friction
Work Problem
is
/t.
9.138 for a solid sphere.
a2 cos 2e
solid cylinder will roll
[see
Fig
9-531
without slipping
9.140.
Discuss the motion of a hollow cylinder of inner radius a and outer radius b as
inclined plane of angle
9.141.
[CHAP.
252
it
rolls
down an
a.
ABC
of side s. The legs

table top of negligible weight has the form of an equilateral triangle
is placed on
heavy weight
of the table are perpendicular to the table top at the vertices.
the table top at a point which is distant a from side BC and 6 from side AC. Find that part
of the weight supported by the legs at A, B and C respectively.
Ans.
2Wb
2Wa
Wll- 2a + 26
sV3
9.142.
Discuss the motion of the disk of Problem 9.136 down the inclined plane
friction is
9.143.
hill
if
the coefficient of
/<.
has a cross section in the form of a cycloid

x
a{e
sin
$),
a(l
cos
9)
A solid sphere of
radius b starting from rest at the top of the hill
is given a slight displacement so that it rolls
without slipping down the hill. Find the speed
of its center when it reaches the bottom of the hill.
Ans. y/l0g(2a
9.144.
- b)/l
Work Problem
Fig. 9-54
3.108,
page
85,
if
the masses and
moments
of inertia of the pulleys are taken
into account.
9.145.
Work Problem
9.146.
if friction
is
taken into account.
uniform rod of length I is placed upright on a table and then allowed to fall. Assuming that its
point of contact with the table does not move, prove that its angula r velocity at the instant when
it
9.147.
page 242,
9.38,
makes an angle
with the vertical
is
given in magnitude by y/3g{i--cose)/2l
Prove Theorem 9.11, page 228, for the case where the vibrations are not necessarily small.
Compare Problem 9.41, page 243.
9.148.
9.149.
9.150.
rigid body moves parallel to a given fixed plane. Prove that there
of the rigid body where the instantaneous acceleration is zero.
AB
solid cylinder of radius a and height h is suspended from axis

as indicated in Fig. 9-55. Find the period of small oscillations about
Prove that a
B
~e*%%$mk
solid sphere will roll
plane of angle a
9.152.
one and only one point
If it is
solid hemisphere of radius a rests with its convex surface on a horizontal table.
displaced slightly, prove that it will undergo oscillations with period equal to that of a simple
pendulum of equivalent length 4a/3.
this axis.
9.151.
is
if
without slipping down an inclined

is at least
f tan a.
the coefficient of friction
coefficient of friction for an inclined plane of angle a

order that a solid cylinder will roll down it without slipping.
Find the least

in
Ans. ^ tan a
Fig. 9-55
Chapter 10
SPACE MOTION
of RIGID BODIES
GENERAL MOTION OF RIGID BODIES IN SPACE

In Chapter 9 we specialized the motion of rigid bodies to one of translation of the
center of -mass plus rotation about an axis through the center of mass and perpendicular
to a fixed plane. In this chapter we treat the general motion of a rigid body in space.
Such general motion is composed of a translation of a fixed point of the body [usually the
center of mass] plus rotation about an axis through the fixed point which is not necessarily
restricted in direction.
DEGREES OF FREEDOM
The number
of degrees of freedom [see page 165] for the general motion of a rigid body
6 coordinates are needed to specify the motion.
usually choose 3 of
these to be the coordinates of a point in the body [usually the center of mass] and the
in space is 6,
We
i.e.
remaining 3 to be angles [for example, the Euler angles, page 257] which describe the
rotation of the rigid body about the point.
If
the
a rigid body is constrained in any way, as for example by keeping one point
of degrees of freedom is of course reduced accordingly.
fixed,
number
PURE ROTATION OF RIGID BODIES

Since the general motion of a rigid body can also be expressed in terms of translation
of a fixed point of the rigid body plus rotation of the rigid body about an axis through the
point, it is natural for us to consider first the case of pure rotation and later to add the
effects of translation. To do this we shall first assume that one point of the rigid body
is
fixed in space.
by using the
The
effects of translation are relatively
result (10),
easy to handle and can be obtained
page 167.
VELOCITY AND ANGULAR VELOCITY OF

A RIGID BODY WITH ONE POINT FIXED
Suppose that point
is fixed.
Then
of the rigid
body
% of Fig.
at a given instant of time the
10-1
body
will be rotating
with angular velocity <> about the instantaneous axis through O. A particle P of the body
having position vector r with respect to O will have
an instantaneous velocity vv given by
See Problem
rv
Xr
CO
10.2.
Fig. 10-1
253
254
[CHAP. 10
ANGULAR MOMENTUM
axis through the fixed point
where
is
particles of
given by
is
2 <
fixed about the instantaneous
body with one point
of a rigid
v {t v
Xxv
2 <v{rv X
r v )}
{2)
the mass of the vth particle and where the summation
taken over
is
all
%.
MOMENTS OF
INERTIA. PRODUCTS OF INERTIA
Let us choose a fixed xyz coordinate system having origin
a = a + a y j +
nji,
Xvi
rv
Then equation
(2)
9-y
=
=
7 *z w s
ty^x
Q z ~ hx^x
l xx
y vj
<*j.
o>
^m^ +
z*),
Ixy
lyz
lzx
Iyy
Jm^ + 4
us write
ajs.
[see
Problem
10.3].
+ 7 xy<% + Ixz"z
+ hy% + hz^z
+ hy% + hz^z
^ Wl
-2m
yj
let
z vk
can be written in component form as
Qx
where
O and
I zz
X v yv
"
V* z
Xv
lxz
W/v
Z11
(4)
^m^ +
yl)
(5)
':
(6)
quantities hx, Iyy, Lz are called the moments of inertia about the x, y and z axes respecFor continuous mass
tively. The quantities I xy hz, ... are called products of inertia.
distributions these can be computed by using integration.
The
Note that the products of inertia in (6) have been defined with an associated minus
sign. As a consequence minus signs are avoided in (4).
MOMENT OF INERTIA MATRIX OR TENSOR

The nine
quantities Ixx
xy ,
...,hz can be written in an array often called a matrix or
tensor given by
and each quantity
is called
la
lyx
Iyy
lyz
\lzx
Izy
lz
the principal or
called
Ixy
it
lxy
an element of the matrix or tensor. The diagonal consisting
of the elements hxjyyjzz is
is
lxx
lyx,
Ixz
lzx,
lyz
main diagonal.
Izy
Since
\P)
is seen that the elements have symmetry about the main diagonal.
often referred to as a symmetric matrix or tensor.
For
this reason (7)
KINETIC ENERGY OF ROTATION

The
kinetic energy of rotation
is
given by
T = Wxx-l + hy< +
i<o-0
hz-l
+ 2Ixy<x<y +
^xz^z + 2I
yz<y<z)
{9)
CHAP.
10]
255
PRINCIPAL AXES OF INERTIA
mutually perpendicular axes having origin O which are fixed in the body
it and which are such that the products of inertia about them are zero,
are called principal axes of inertia or briefly principal axes of the body.
set of 3
and rotating with
An important property of a principal axis [which can also be taken as a definition]

that if a rigid body rotates about it the direction of the angular momentum is the same
as that of the angular velocity. Thus
is
O =
where
From
/ is a scalar.
we
this
find [see
Jo,
(10)
Problem
Vx + ^-^K +
l zx<x
lzy(A y
10.6] that
=
=
- 7 )
Vzz
()
In order that (11) have solutions other than the trivial one
require that
ixx
Ixy
*xz
lyx
Iyy-I
hz
Izx
i-zy
wx
0,
ay
0,
0,
we
(12)
<>
Izz
This leads to a cubic equation in / having 3 real roots h,h,h. These are called the
principal moments of inertia. The directions of the principal axes can be found from (11),
as
shown
An
in
Problem 10.6 by finding the
symmetry
axis of
ratio
>
of a rigid body will always be a principal axis.
ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND KINETIC ENERGY ABOUT

THE PRINCIPAL AXES
If we call
v 2
momenta about the
<a
<a
(o
and Q lt Q 2 o 3 the magnitudes of the angular velocities and angular

3
principal axes respectively, then
,
The
A*
!*
n2
_7
a,
2'
n 3 - h^s
kinetic energy of rotation about the principal axes is given
t =
in vector
(13)
by
WA + *A + W)
form as [compare equation
T =
(U)
(9)]
|a>-0
(15)
THE ELLIPSOID OF INERTIA

Let n be a unit vector in the direction of
o>
where
axes.
cos
a,
cos
Then the
a>n
w(C0S a
<>.
Then
COS P
cos y are the direction cosines of or

kinetic energy of rotation is given by
/3,
T = \h
COS y k)
n with respect
(16)
to the x,
y and
(17)
256
where
+ I zz cos 2 y
+ 27 xy COS a COS /? + 27 COS /3
I xx cos 2 a
yy
cos 2 ft
'
By
COS y
27 xz COS a COS y
(18)
defining a vector
p
where
[CHAP. 10
Px i
+ PJ + P
k,
7xxrx
p2
(18)
2
7 yy"y
p
= n/yT
(19)
becomes
2
7 zz"z
p
op =1
p+ 27yzryrz
P p+ 27 zx"z"x
27xyrxry
P
In the coordinates p x ,p ,p z equation (20) represents an

y
ellipsoid of inertia or the momental ellipsoid.
ellipsoid
which
(20)
is
called
the
If the coordinate axes are rotated to coincide with the principal axes of the ellipsoid,
the equation becomes
21 )
(
*A + h?\ + 1 = 1
where
p v p 2 ,p 3
represent the coordinates of the
new
axes.
EULER'S EQUATIONS OF MOTION

It is convenient to describe the motion of a rigid body relative to a set of coordinate
axes coinciding with the principal axes which are fixed in the body and thus rotate as the
body rotates. If A lf A 2 a 3 and c^, <o 2 w 3 represent the respective components of the external
torque and angular velocity along the principal axes, the equations of motion are given by
,
-^K^ = A
h^2 + (*1 ~ -^sK^l ~ A 2
Vs + (^2 _ ^l) *^ ~ A 3
Vl +
(*s
(22)
These are often called Euler's equations.
FORCE FREE MOTION.

THE INVARIABLE LINE AND PLANE
Suppose that a rigid body is rotating about a
O and that there are no forces acting
on the body [except of course the reaction at the
fixed point
Then the total external torque is

Thus the angular momentum vector Q is
constant and so has a fixed direction in space as
indicated in Fig. 10-2. The line indicating this
fixed point].
zero.
direction
Since
Problem
is
called the invariable line.
the
kinetic
10.34],
energy
is
we have from
wo
constant
constant
[see
(15)
(23)
Fig. 10-2
This means that the projection of on O is constant, so that the terminal point of
describes a plane. This plane is called the invariable plane.
As
<*
the rigid body rotates, an observer fixed relative to the body coordinate axes would
see a rotation or precession of the angular velocity vector a> about the angular momentum
vector CI.
CHAP.
10]
257
POINSOTS CONSTRUCTION. POLHODE. HERPOLHODE.

SPACE AND BODY CONES
As noted by Poinsot, the above ideas can
be geometrically interpreted as a rolling
without slipping of the ellipsoid of inertia
corresponding to the rigid body on the
invariable plane. The curve described on the
invariable plane by the point of contact with
the ellipsoid is called the herpolhode [see
Fig. 10-3]. The corresponding curve on the
ellipsoid is called the polhode.
To an observer fixed in space it would

appear that the vector a traces out a cone
which is called the space cone. To an
observer fixed on the rigid body it would
appear that <> also traces out a cone which is
called the body cone. The motion can then
be equivalently described as a rolling without
slipping of one cone on the other.
See
Problem 10.19.
Fig. 10-3
SYMMETRIC RIGID BODIES. ROTATION OF THE EARTH

Simplifications occur in the case of a symmetric rigid body.
In such case at least

h, are equal and the ellipsoid of inertia
is an ellipsoid of revolution.
We can then show [see Problem 10.17] that the angular
velocity vector < precesses about the angular momentum vector O with frequency given by
two principal moments of
inertia, say
/
where the constant
axis of symmetry.
is
h and
h-h
2tt
in)
the component of the angular velocity in the direction of the
In the case of the earth, which can be assumed to be an ellipsoid of revolution flattened
300 days. In
practice, however, the period is found to be about 430 days. The difference is explained as
due to the fact that the earth is not perfectly rigid.
slightly at the poles, this leads to a predicted precession period of about
THE EULER ANGLES

In order to describe the rotation of a rigid
body about a point we use 3 angular coordinates

called Euler angles. These coordinates denoted
by 4>, 9, xp are indicated in Fig. 10-4. In this
figure the xyz coordinate system can be rotated
into the x'y'z' system by successive rotations
through the angles < and then 6 and then ^
[see Problem 10.20]. The line OA is sometimes
called the line of nodes.
In practice the x',y',z' axes are chosen as

the principal axes or body axes of the rigid
body while the x, y and z axes or space axes
are fixed in space.
Fig. 10-4
258
[CHAP.
10
ANGULAR VELOCITY AND KINETIC ENERGY

TERMS OF EULER ANGLES
IN
In terms of the Euler angles the components w w 2' w of the angular velocity along the
l
3
x f y' and z' axes are given by
,
<
sin
$ sin
<
The
kinetic energy of rotation
is
where h, h, h are the principal
sin ^
6
cos 8
cos
xp
6 sin
6 sin
ip
(25)
then given by
T = *(/,? + V5 +
moments of inertia.
W)
(26)
MOTION OF A SPINNING TOP

An interesting example of rigid body motion
occurs when a symmetrical rigid body having one
point on the symmetry axis fixed in space is set
spinning in a gravitational field. One such example
is that of a child's top as shown in Fig. 10-5, where
point O is assumed as the fixed point.
For a discussion of the various kinds of motion
which can occur, see Problems 10.25-10.32 and 10.36.
Fig. 10-5
GYROSCOPES
Suppose a circular disk having its axis mounted in gimbals [see Fig. 10-6] is given a
spin of angular velocity a. If the outer gimbal is turned through an angle, the spin axis
of the disk will tend to point in the same direction as previously [see Fig. 10-7]. This
assumes of course that friction at the gimbal bearings
is
negligible.
In general the direction of the spin axis remains fixed even
which is attached
mechanism, which
direction [or
some
moves freely
when the
outer gimbal,
Because of this property the

is called a gyroscope, finds many applications in cases where maintaining
following some specified course] is important, as for example in navigation
to
and guidance or control of
object,
in space.
ships, airplanes, submarines, missiles, satellites or other
moving
vehicles.
A
the
gyroscope
symmetry
is
another example of a symmetric spinning rigid body with one point on
axis [usually the center of mass] taken as fixed.
Spin
Fig. 10-6
Fig. 10-7
CHAP.
10]
259
Solved Problems

10.1.
Find the number of degrees of freedom for a rigid body which

in space, (b) has one point fixed, (c) has two points fixed.
6
[see
Problem
7.2(a),
page 172]
(6)
[see
Problem
7.2(6),
page 172]
(c)
If
(a)
10.2.
can move freely
(a)
two points are fixed, then the rigid body rotates about the axis joining the two fixed
points. Then the number of degrees of freedom is 1, such as for example the angle of rotation
of the rigid body about this axis.
rigid body undergoes a rotation of angular velocity a about a fixed point O. Prove
that the velocity v of any particle of the body having position vector r relative to O
is
given by v
= xr.
This follows at once from Problem
moving system
dr/dt\
is
M=
dr/dt\ b
page 147, on noting that the velocity relative
6.1,
to the
0.
ANGULAR MOMENTUM. KINETIC ENERGY.

MOMENTS AND PRODUCTS OF INERTIA
10.3.
page 254, for the components of angular momentum in terms

of inertia given by equations (5) and (6), page 254.
angular momentum is given by
Derive the equations

of the
(4),
moments and products
The
total
G
where we have used Problem
Now
by equation
r
2 m
v=l
XvJ
m(r
v {r v
X (w X
r)}
10.2 applied to the ?th particle.
page
(7),
2
v=l
5,
r)
we have
(r
(w x i
r)
uj
r(*
r)
+ y% + z v
+ z vk)(a x x v +
w xk)(*2
{x v i
+ z l) -
WxiVv
y v\
Uyy v
u> z z v )
- <*z x V Z V }i
+
UxXvVv ~ u zVv z v}J
+ {o> z (xl + y v u x x v z v u y y v z v }k
UyXvVv
{a y ($
z\)
Then multiplying by m, summing over

respectively,
we
Vy
and equating the
coefficients of
i, j
and k
to
Sl x , S2
and
Sl z
find as required
]2 (yl +z*)><*x
Ixx u x
"f"
'xj/
2 mXy
j/
v >
<
2 mxy
Ixy u x
*xz u x
lyy^y
OJ x
~^~
nh*v*v
lyz^y
<
2 mxz
v v
>v(xl
+ *v)
f
>vVvZv \
">x
lyz^z
ux
"j
rn^y^,
>
ay
-l
>v(tf
+ Vv)\<*z
*zz u z
For continuous mass distributions of density
*xz u z
v >
a(rX\)dr
a,
we can
obtain the
<x{r
(<
same
r)}
dr
results
by starting with
260
10.4.
If a rigid
[CHAP.
10
body with one point
momentum
CI,
fixed rotates with angular velocity w and has angular

prove that the kinetic energy is given by T = |<*> CI.
|2m,{(Xr,)-(Xr v )}
2 wir X((.Xr) =
2 w{
[r
(.
r)]}
i tt -0
N
where we have used the abbreviation
10.5.
Prove that the kinetic energy
Problem 10.4 can be written
in
10.4,
l>
W A + y + A + xM + ^
T =
From Problem
in place of
2I xz
21
IZ
2I yz
z)
we have
CI
+ 4i/ w y + 4z")
+ Uyilyx^x + ^/y w y + ^2/Z w z)
+ w z(4x w +
+ 4zz)}
i{a;(4a; w x
-fz2,3,
a:
i(^xx w x
using the fact that /.
I vx
Ixz
Izx
IZ z<*z
+ ^xy u x u y + ^xz a x u z +
2Iyz w y a z )
/..
I.
lyyUy
PRINCIPAL MOMENTS OF INERTIA AND PRINCIPAL AXES

10.6.
Derive equations
(11), page 255,

directions of the principal axes.
Using
CI
together with equations
(3)
and
(-4),
moments
for the principal
of inertia
and the
I*
(1)
page 254, we have

"xy^y
^j/y w r/
^j/ w x:
Ia y
uu
xz u x ~r *uz
yz>y
'z2 z
"*
*yx u x
~ I)<*x + ^"j/ + 4 w z =
=
lyx^x + Uj/j/ ~ I) u y
^j/z w z
(hx
"+"
4zx
The principal moments of

ux
o)
u z in
(2)
equal to zero,
inertia are
lyz^y
(I zz
~ I)<*z
found by setting the determinant of the
coefficients
of
i.e.,
T.V.
*xy
*yy
'xz
*
*yz
I,,
This
(2)
-I
a cubic equation in / leading to three values I lt / 2> I3 which are the principal moments
I = 7 X in (2) we obtain ratios for a x u
y u z which yields the direction of
or the direction of the principal axis corresponding to I v Similarly, by substituting I 2 and I 3
we find the directions of the corresponding principal axes.
is
of inertia.
By putting
CHAP.
10.7.
10]
Find the
moments
(a)
an element dx dy of the plate

the density is a is ay 2 dx dy. Then the
of inertia of the entire plate about the x axis is
The moment of
inertia of
about the x axis
moment
if
/a
pa
ay 2 dx dy
since the
mass of the plate
moment
Similarly, the
the y axis is
id
is
is
|a4
M aa
Ma
jjj
f
(1)
dx dy
2.
of inertia of the plate about
pa
ax2
J
as
and (b) products of inertia of a uniform square

y and z axes chosen as shown in Fig. 10-8.
of inertia
plate of length a about the x,

(a)
261
also evident
dxdy
i<ra4
Ma 2
(2)
Fig. 10-8
by symmetry.
The moment of
inertia of
dx dy about the
z axis is a{x 2
+ y2
dx dy, and so the moment of
inertia of the entire plate about the z axis is
hz
f"
<r(x 2
+ y2
dx dy
%Ma2 + %Ma2
\Ma2
(3)
This also follows from the perpendicular axes theorem [see page 226].
(6)
The product of inertia

and so the product of
of the element dx dy of the plate about the x

inertia of the entire plate about these axes is
/,.
is
axydxdy,
pa
pa
and y axes
2
-\Ma
4
j<t 4
axy dx dy
(4)
*'a =
x=0
The product of inertia of the element dx dy of the plate about the * and
product of adxdy by the distances to the yz and xy planes, which are x and
axes
is
the
respectively.
Thus we must have
10.8.
Find the
(a)
principal
/,
moments
hu =
and similarly
0,
and
of inertia
(5)
the directions of the principal
(b)
axes for the plate of Problem 10.7.

(a)
By Problem
10.6
and the results
Problem
(l)-(5) of
%Ma2 -
10.7,
(1)
|Ma2
[(%Ma2
I)(Ma2
obtain
-\Ma2
\Ma2 - I
-\Ma2
or
we
-- J
- (-lMa 2 )(-lMa 2 )][%Ma 2 -
I)
I]

[P
Setting the
first
- |Ma2J + -M 2 a*][%Ma 2 -
1}
factor equal to zero and using the quadratic formula to solve for
/,
we
find for the three roots of (1),
I^-^Ma2
which are the principal moments of
(6)
/2
= JLMa2,
73
= \Ma2
inertia.
find the direction of the principal axis corresponding to I lt

the equations
To
(Ma2 -I)a x - lMa2u y +

-Ma 2 x + (Ma2 -I)a y +
a>
0<a x
(2)
Wy
<o 2
<* z
(|Ma2-7)a> 2
=
=
=
we
let
Ix
= j^Ma2
in
(3)
262
The
[CHAP.
10
two equations yield u y w x while the third gives w x = 0. Thus the direction
is the same as the direction of the angular velocity vector
first
of the principal axis
<
wxi
w yj
Then the principal axis corresponding

Similarly, by letting
uy
u x
uz
we
uy
let
while u z
The
we
(3)
+ j.
find
j.
= u x u x j = a x (i j) or
2
I = I3 = %Ma
in (3) we find
a x = 0,
= z k which
is arbitrary.
This gives
is
<>
shows that the third principal axis
+ j,
in
+ j)
u x (i
to /j is in the direction
~ -^Ma2
I2
+ uj =
ux i
so that the direction of the correspond-
ing principal axis

If
u zk
to
the direction k.
is in
directions of the principal axes are indicated by
j and
Note that these are

j have the
j and i
directions of the diagonals of the square plate which are
lines of symmetry.
k in Fig. 10-9.
mutually perpendicular and that
i
The principal moments of inertia can also be determined by recognizing the lines of symmetry.
10.9.
Fig. 10-9
Find the principal moments of inertia at the center of a uniform rectangular plate
of sides a and b.
The principal axes lie along the directions of symmetry and thus must be along the x axis,
y axis and z axis [the last of which is perpendicular to the xy plane] as in Fig. 10-10.
By Problems
I2
= ^-Mb 2
I3
9.6, 9.9
and
= ^M(a 2 +
9.11 the principal
moments
of inertia are found to be
It
^Ma2
b 2 ).
dr
V* 2 +
dz dy dx
Fig. 10-10
10.10.
Fig. 10-11
Find the principal moments of inertia at the center of the
_|_
ellipsoid
^2
,2
,.2
4-
a"
One eighth of the
The moment of inertia of the volume

+ y 2 )a dr, and the total moment of
ellipsoid is indicated in Fig. 10-11.
element dr of mass a dr about the

inertia about the z axis is
axis or "3" axis
yJl- x 2 /a 2
rr
x =o
s*c\ll
(x 2
is
(r2/2
.,2,^2,
(x 2
"y=0
+ y 2 )a dz dy dx
Integration with respect to z gives
pa
8ac
To perform
x=0
s>b\/l
x 2 /a 2
(* 2
Jy=0
this integration let

integral can be written
aX,
(a 2
j
V 2)
Vl -
(aW + y
2 /b 2
bY where X and Y
X 2 + b 2 Y 2 Vl )
{X 2
are
dy dx
new
+ Y 2 dY dX
)
variables.
Then the
CHAP.
10]
XY
Introducing polar coordinates R, 6 in this
plane, this becomes
s*tt/2
263
(a 2
R2
cos 2
62
Vl - R 2 R dR dQ
sin 2 6)
*^0 = O
'R =
2iraabc{cfi
b 2)
R^VT^WdR
7roabc(a2
b 2)
R=
where we use the substitution
R2 =
Since the volume of the ellipsoid
By symmetry we
10.11.
find
Suppose that the

while
(7 3
From Problem
73
LM(a2
ft
).
c/a.
(a
10.10, if
then
+c
a2
and
2a
-I
(/ 3
)/I
c2
a2
2a2
.
c)(a + c)
a2
c2
-|-
But
c2
if
c differs
Thus, approximately,
- c)(2a)/2a 2 =
(a
10.11 for the case of the earth
Work Problem
and hence
).
Problem 10.10 is an oblate spheroid such that a = b

from a or b. Prove that to a high degree of approximation,
only slightly from a then
10.12.
M = ^Traabc
is
ellipsoid of
c differs slightly
- 7i)//i =
mass
the
= iM(o2 + c 2
J2
),
evaluating the last integral.
in
is ^-n-abc,
= iM(6 2 + c 2
/j
t/ 2
c/a
assumed
to be
an oblate spheroid.
Since the polar diameter or distance between north and south poles is very nearly 7900 miles
"3" axis
while the equatorial diameter is very nearly 7926 miles, then taking the polar axis as the
we have 2c = 7900, 2a = 7926 or c = 3950, a = 3963.
Thus by Problem
(Z 3
10.11,
- h)/I =
~ 3950/3963 =
.00328.
ELLIPSOID OF INERTIA
10.13.
Suppose that the moments and products of inertia of a rigid body % with respect
to an xyz coordinate system intersecting at origin O are I xx hv, Izz> I*y> Ixz, hz respectively. Prove that the moment of inertia of % about an axis making angles a, p, y
with the x, y and z axes respectively is given by
,
Ixx
+
A
n
if
m has
about the axis
rXn
cos a
21 xy COS a COS P
cos
position vector
OA
is
Tv
r, its
cos Y
yv
zv
cos a
cos p
cos y
(z v
Izz
COS 2 y
21 xz COS a COS y
21 yz COS p COS y
given
is
moment
v
(y v cos y
n| 2
m T)1 where D -
of inertia
|r
n|.
But
z v cos /3)i
cos a
+
\
)3
xv
and
I yy COS 2
unit vector in the direction of the axis
by
Then
COS 2 a
x v cos
(x v cos
(y v cos y
(vl
+ 4)
/3
y)j
z v cos
cos 2 a
Fig. 10-12
y v cos a)k
(3)
(x
(z v
+ 4)
2x v y v cos a cos
(3
cos a
cos 2
x v cos
2
(x v
y)
+ yl)
2xz cos a cos y
(* cos
fi
y v cos
cos 2 y
2y v z v cos
/?
cos y
a) 2
264
Thus the
moment
total
J2
of inertia of all masses ra
+ 4)
v(vl
Ixx cos 2 a
+
10.14.
2/j.j,
2^-2 m y
v
lyy cos 2
cos a cos
Find an equation for the

Problem 10.7.
We
have from Problem

Ixx
= \Ma\
+ /^
/?
/?
cos a cos
vzv >
cos
10
is
2 mâjj! + 4) \
- 2 myX v V v
-j
+
=
co S 2 a
[CHAP.
/?
cos2
/?
2 m^
VA
-j
2
.
+ yl)
cos 2 y
cos cos y
cos y
cos 2 y
2/X2 cos a cos y
ellipsoid of inertia
2Iyz cos
/?
cos y
corresponding to the square plate of
10.7,
m = Ma2
Then the equation of the
Izz
*Ma*, Ixy
= -i-Ma2
by equation
ellipsoid of inertia is
?\
P%
2 Pl
h xPy
0,
/,
page 256,
(20),
\MaVx + iMaVy + \Mtfpl - \Ma? 9xPy =

or
Ixz
= 3/Ma*

10.15.
Find a relationship between the time rate of change of angular momentum of a rigid
body relative to axes fixed in space and in the body respectively.
body axes are chosen as principal axes having directions of the unit vectors
and e 3 respectively, then the angular momentum becomes
If the rigid
e lt e 2
= Û)^ +
CI
Now
by Problem
6.1,
page 147,
and
if
/2 2e 2
refer
^3"3C3
to
space
(fixed)
and body (moving)
axes
respectively, then
at
dt
Is
\b
hu^! +
10.16.
{ Jl"l
72 2 e 2
+
+
the principle of angular
~ ^2) w d 3} e + {-^2"2 +
+ (12 ~ ^l) w 2 w l}e 3
2'
(22),
is
+ I2 ^2^2 + h w aPs)
(^ 1 ~~ ^3)"l3}e2
page 256.
momentum, we have
A
where
(/l"iei
{h^3
Derive Euler's equations of motion
By
+ "2^2 + "3^3) X
W 11
(^3
+ h^3 e 3
the total external torque.
Tt\.
Writing
A = A^ +
A 2e 2 + A 3 e 3
(2)
where A 1? A 2 A 3 are the components of the external torque along the principal axes and making
use of (1) and Problem 10.15, we find
,
/jwj
72 w 2
73w 3
+
+
+
/2 )u 2 w 3 = A
(h ~ h)^3 u A 2
(/ 2 /i)wi<o 2 = A 3
(I 3
(3)
CHAP.
101
265
FORCE FREE MOTION OF A RIGID BODY. ROTATION OF THE EARTH

10.17. A rigid body which is symmetric about an axis has one point fixed on this
axis.
Discuss the rotational morion of the body, assuming that there are no forces acting
other than the reaction force at the fixed point.
Choose the axis of symmetry coincident with one of the principal axes, say the one having
Then I t = 7 2 and Euler's equations become
direction e 3
+
+
A"i
/i<o 2
=
=
(^3 "~ 7i)o> 2 o> 3
I 3 )w 3 ui
(Ii
/3 3
From
(3),
o>
constant
-A
(5)
with respect to
Aw,
h
~^~
we
(U),
73-/^2
o> 2
U)
(5)
find
A 2w 2
(6)
k2 <2
(7)
73-^
h
where
Solving
we
(7),
we choose
Then from
find
=
w2
we have
(5)
=
=
o>
the time scale so that
Thus the angular
From
)Aw 2
h~h
If
/j \
and using
(2)
become after dividing by I lt
(2)
/ 7S
0) 2
Differentiating
and
so that (1)
(1)
wjej
velocity
cos xt
+ C
when
0,
then
= C
sin Kt
(9)
ut
= C
cos Kt
(10)
is
+ 10363
+ C sin Kt
e2
+ Ae s
(11)
is
constant in magnitude equal to w = || = VC2 +

and precesses around the "3" axis with frequency
A2
\h
w 2e2
cos Kt e x
follows
it
sin Kt
w2
that the angular velocity
this
(8)
2,7
-7/
Â
(12)
2tt7!
Note that the vector <> describes a cone about the

However, this motion is relative to the
body principal axes which are in turn rotating in
space with angular velocity u.
"3" axis.
10.18. Calculate the
about
Fig. 10-13
precession frequency of Problem 10.17 in the case of the earth rotating
its axis.
Since the earth rotates about its axis once in a day, we have
the precessional frequency is from Problems 10.12 and 10.17,
~(\
cir
7
l
The period of precession

and is explained as due
is
=
77-(l--M
Ci/
&tt
\
thus
P=
1//
305 days.
<o 3
IT- (.00328)(2*-)
=A =
=
2w radians/day.
Then
.00328 radians/day
Zir
The actual observed period
to the non-rigidity of the earth.
is
about 430 days
266
[CHAP.
10
THE INVARIABLE LINE AND PLANE.

POLHODE, HERPOLHODE, SPACE AND BODY CONES
10.19.
Describe the rotation of the earth about
From Problem
10.17 the angular velocity
o)
w1e1
CI
71 1e 1
Let a be the angle between

3
w 2e 2
+
o>
w 3e3
7 1 w 2 e2
-0
~^~
w 3e 3
axis in terms of the space and body cones.
its
and angular momentum
o>
C(cos Kt ej
= hC
^3 w 3 e 3
= Ae 3
and
/?
be the angle between 3 and

3
a>
|* 3
and
From
(1)
and
we
(2)
cos
72
cos a
7 3A2
(1)
A2
/?
Ay/C2 + A 2
cos
A2
/3
V^ + A2
see that
7X C
sin/8
VC 2 +
V/fC2 + 7fA 2
Thus
tan
IS
tan
Now
for the earth or any oblate spheroid
that
A2
Q
=
ft
<*)
tan a
tan /3
<
7 3Ae 3
Then
m.
cos/3
|<a|
V/fC2 +
Similarly, let
e 2)
Then
CI.
73
and
are given respectively by
CI
+ Ae 3
+ sm Kt
cos Kt e i
A V/f C2 + ZfA 2
| 3 ||0|cosa
sin Kt e 2 )
(5)
h
at the poles]
[flattened
we have
7X
<
73
It
follows
(3.
The situation can be described geometrically by Fig. 10-14. The cone with axis in the direction
fixed in space and is called the space cone. The cone with axis <* 3 = u 3 e 3 is considered as
fixed in the earth and is called the body cone. The body cone rolls on the space cone so that the
CI
is
element in
common
is
the angular velocity vector

ei
<l)
e2
e3
I t C sin Kt
A
I3A
<!>
I^C cos
Kt
<>.
Now
=
A7 C
X
sin Kt e 1
+ A7 C
X
cos Kt e 2
Thus
CI
(o> 3
(I^C cos Kt ej
It
lie
follows
in
( A7 t C
from Problem
1.21(6),
Kt e 2 + 7 3 Ae 3
+ AI C cos/ct e 2
7jC sin
sin Kt ex
page
16,
that
CI,
o> 3
and
o>
one plane.
An observer fixed in space would see the vector <o

tracing out the space cone [see Fig. 10-14]. An observer
fixed in the body would see the vector tracing out the body
Cone
cone.
In the case of the earth the space cone is inside the

For the case of a
to the fact that l x < 7 3
prolate spheroid the reverse situation is true, i.e. 7 t > 7 3 and
the space cone is outside the body cone [see Problem 10.121].
body cone due
Fig. 10-14
CHAP.
10]
267
THE EULER ANGLES

10.20.
three separate figures how the xyz coordinate system of Fig. 10-4,
x'y'z' coordinate system by successive rotations through
Show by using
page 257, is rotated into the

the Euler angles
6 and ^.
<j>,
z or
Figures 10-15, 10-16 and 10-17.

Fig.
10-15 indicates a rotation through angle
of the x and y
axes into an X and Y axis respectively while keeping
Refer
to
<f>
the
same
z or
axis.
In Fig. 10-16 a rotation about the

axis through
angle e is indicated so that the Y and Z axes of
Fig. 10-15 are carried into the Y' and Z' axes of
Fig. 10-16 respectively.
In Fig. 10-17 a rotation about the Z' or z' axis

is indicated so that the X' and Y' axes
are carried into the x' and y' axes respectively.
through angle ^
In the figures
axes; X, Y,
x, y, z
axes by i,j,k;
I,
we have
J,
axes;
K;
I', J',
indicated unit vectors on the

X' , Y' Z' axes and x', y', z'
,
K' and
i',
j',k'
respectively.
Z' or
Fig. 10-15
z'
XorX'
Fig. 10-16
10.21.
Fig. 10-17
Find the relationships between the unit vectors (a) i,j, k and I, J, K of Fig. 10-15,
(b) I, J, K and F, J', K' of Fig. 10-16,
(c) I', J', K' and i', j', k' of Fig. 10-17.
(a)
From
(i-I)I
=
=
(k-I)I
(6)
From
=
=
K =
(c)
Fig. 10-15,
(j
1)1
+
+
+
(I-I')I'
(J'I')r
F
J'
K'
=
=
=
(j-J)J
(k-J)J
+ (i-K)K
+ (j-K)K
+ (k-K)K
cos
sin
sin
cos
<f>
<f>
J
J
Fig. 10-16,
From
(i-J)J
(K'I')I'
+
+
+
(I-J')J'
(J-J')J'
(K'J')J'
+
+
+
(I'K')K'
I'
(J-K')K'
cos e J'
sin e K'
(KK')K'
sin e J'
cos e K'
(I'-k')k'
cos
\p
sin
(J'-k')k'
sin
i'
cos ^
(K'-k')k'
k'
Fig. 10-17,
(I'-i')i'
(J'-i')i'
(K'i')i'
+
+
+
(I'-j')J'
(J'j')j'
(K'j')j'
+
+
+
\p j
j'
10.22.
Express the unit vectors

From Problem
cos
cos
cos
sin
cos
sin
Derive equations
(25),
o>
cos
JK'
co^k
sin
Wfl I'
(0 sin
u x \'
w a 'j'
co
cos
3'
sin
k =
3,
K'
cos
i'
<p
cos
J'
sin
cos
j'
K'
cos0j',
k'
sin
K'
sin
sin
k'
sin
k'
<p
I'
cos 0)j'
sin
cos
cos
3'
cos
sin
cos
cos
3'
cos
sin * k'
sin
k'
K'
j'
cos
sin 0)i'
sin
cos 0)3'
cos
cos
sin
i'
cos
cos
sin
3'
cos
k'
i'
(0 sin
0k
cos
sin
sin
(9
i'
cos
c^K'
sin
Si'
3'
3'
0K'
cos
k'
0k'
cos 0)i'
cos
sin 0)3'
(0 cos
0)k'
2 'k',
'
<V
<o
sin
(9
+
=
sin

sin
sin
cos
cos
i'
sin
cos
K sin
sin
sin
sin
cos
( sin
J'
(9
sin 0)i'
sin
cos
cos
since
j'
i'
cos
sin
i'
<f>
sin
sin
cos
cos
cos
(sin
Then
sin
cos
sin
s in
k\
K',
sin
( cos
e 3'
cos
cos
(cos
+
j
i', j',
J'
i'
sin
3,
<p
sin0j',
sin
cos
sin
cos
cos0i'
V,
I'
Then
j,k in terms of
i,
10
10.21,
i
10.23.
[CHAP.
268
'
wt
sin
sin
cos
"2
sm *
cos
~~
sin
<o 3
cos
Write the kinetic energy of rotation of a rigid body with respect to the principal
axes in terms of the Euler angles, (b) What does the result in (a) become if h = hi
10.24. (a)
(a)
Using Problem
10.23, the required kinetic
(/ lW ?
^/j(0 sin
+
(6)
If
/j
72
12
energy
is
seen to be
4 + 1 A)
sin
-1-/2(0
+
sin
cos 0) 2
cos
sin 0) 2
i/ 3 (0 cos
0)
the result can be written
i/ x (02 sin 2
02)
1/3(0 cos
0)
MOTION OF SPINNING TOPS AND GYROSCOPES

10.25. Set
up equations for the motion of a spinning top having
fixed point
[see Fig. 10-18].
CHAP.
10]
269
Let xyz represent an inertial or fixed set

of axes having origin O. Let x'y'z' represent
principal axes of the top having the same
origin.
Choose the orientation of the x'y'
plane so that Oz, Oz' and Oy' are coplanar.
Then the x' axis is in the xy plane. The
line
in the x'y' plane making an angle ^
with the x' axis is assumed to be attached
to the top.
ON
The angular velocity corresponding to

the rotation of the x'y'z' axes with respect to
the xyz axes is
wie^
w 2e2
~^~
w3e3
(1)
In obtaining the angular momentum we must

use the fact that in addition to the com-
ponent w 3 due to rotation of the
x'y'z'
there
the component
also
is
since the top
is
spinning about the
Then the angular momentum
system
= ê 3
se 3
Fig. 10-18
O
Now
if
we
/xwje!
6.1,
<ZO
dt
(1)
and
+ h^z + s
in (3),
(2)
~~fo
total torque about
we
(3)
~ h)^2^3 + h u 2 s )î
+ ih^2 + (^1 ^3) w u 3 ~
ihî
(h
(k
sin
e 1 )e 1
e2
(k
dCl
with
dt
e 2 )e 2
wl
^12
(k
x (-mgk)
(le s )
e 3 )e 3
mgl(e 3 X
cos
I2
we
mgl
k)
find
from
+
+
A) W 2W 3 +
^3)wi"3
(^1
(^3
^3"2S
(ir/2
fl)e 2 +
(5)
cos 6 e 3
(4)
sin e e x
and
(6)
(6),
(7)
= m 9l sm *
=
+ s) =
^3<0lS
73 (<u 3
Express equations
-^l)"l"2} e 3
If
-^l
10.26.
(h
U)
e3
cos
It
X (mg)
(fc g )
A =
A =
+ *) +
{-^("3
^3 w l s ) e 2
is
is
Then using
we have
find
A =
the torque
(*)
\b
Since
e3
dt
The
page 147,
dCl
Using
7 2 <o 2 e 2
subscripts / and b denote the fixed system and body system respectively,
let
by Problem
axis.
z'
is
(7)
of Problem 10.25 in terms of the Euler angles 6
and
of
<
Fig. 10-18.
The components
We
o>
v 2 w 3 can be obtained from Problem 10.23 by formally letting

,
0.
find
Ul
Then equations
(7)
0,
u2
of Problem 10.25 become
sm
9,
a5 3
COS 6
(1)
270
[CHAP.
+ (^3 h)$ 2 sm e cos e + h$ s sm 6 = m ^

+ $e cose) + (7j I 3 )e^>cose I 3 es =0
73
cos o $e sin e + s)
''
hC<P sin<9
10
sin e
V
(2)
velocity of precession,
The quantities <, and s are often known as the magnitudes of the angular
and of spin respectively.
of nutation
10.27.
Prove that the equations

(a)
he -
(b)
h{'4 sin
where
Z"
cose)
2j>6
+ 3 A</>sin0
- hA8 =
cos
sin
mgl
sin e
a constant.
is
From
2
7i<J)
Problem 10.26 can be written as
of
(2)
the third equation in
w3
Then substitution
of
(I)
= A
or
= A
and second of equations
into the first
Using the results
of Problem 10.25,
(7)
7 1 w 2 w3
73 2
/ 1 6j 2
7 1 <o 1 3
/3W1A
Problem
we
10.26,
(1)
yields
(7)
A m 9l
7i"i
W
W
sin e
=
and
find that equations (2)
(3)
reduce to the required
equations.
10.28. (a)
(b)
Find the condition for steady precession of a
Show
Since
top.
that two precessional frequencies are possible.

is
constant so that
(Irf
=
2
we have from Problem
0,
cos e
Irf 2 cos
or
from which
73
<t>
7 3 A<
I3
10.27(a),
mgl) sin
A$ + mgl =
A V7fA 2 - Amglh
cos e
g^-^
>
Thus there are two frequencies provided that

/fA 2
If
A 2 = 4mgll
If A is very
73
> Amglli
only one frequency
cos
is
possible.
large, e.g. if the spin of the top
very great, then there are two frequencies,
is
one large and one small, given by
mgl/I 3A
I 3A/(I lC ose),
10.29.
(2)
cos e
Prove that
(a)
%h(e 2
(b)
2
h4> sin d
<J
sin 2
8)
+ hA
|/ 3 A
cos e
Multiply equations
(7)
of Problem
/ifttji!
*>22)
result.
10.25 by Wl
7 3("3
constant
constant
and give a physical interpretation of each

(a)
+ mgl cos e
co 2
and
+ *)(S +)
+s
<* 3
respectively,
m^
and add
to
obtain
Sin ' *
f {#M + 4) +
t
Integrating and using
<*
+s = A
llê*
<
a*
+s
2
>
>
f (~ m9lcose)
as well as the results
2 sin 2 0)
|7 3A
+ mgl
Wl
cos e
and
= E
<o
sine,
we
find
CO
CHAP.
10]
where
The
constant.
is
result
271
equivalent to the principle of conservation of energy,
is
since the kinetic energy is
T =
while the potential energy
T+V
and
(6)
is
AJ^fl 2
^ 2 sin2
V = mgl
is
e)
%I3A*
(2)
cos e
(8)
the total energy.
Multiplying the result of Problem 10.27(6) by sin
I^sirfo +
e,
11 x <t>6 sin e cos e
I3Ae sine
Irf sin 2
Integrating,
I3
I 3A costf)
2
jt(/i0 sin
cos 6
=
= K
constant
(-4)
this result physically, we note that the vertical component of the angular
Irf sin 2 e + I3A cos e [see Problem 10.123], and this must be constant since the
torque due to the weight of the top has zero component in the vertical direction.
To interpret
momentum
10.30.
Let u
cos
is
Prove
6.
that:
u2 = {a-/3u)(l-u2 )- {y-Su) 2 =
(a)
where
= 2(E - ihA 2 )/h, p =
(a)
From Problem

/ lSin2,
cos 0)2
+ *A + mgU se = E
and
8 h
27.(1-^)
2
K I 3A
2/ lS in2 g
y.r^ +
Thus
I3
cos 6
(I),
i' 1 '
= hA/h;
constant
+ mgl
I3A*
Irf sin2 6
Letting
7m
10.29,
i/ 1 (ff 2
From
= K/I u
du
(6)
2mgl/h, y
f(u)
(^p)
2rog
sin2 9
u2
+ "*"" =
'^-"
2)
this
becomes
-*7^
&â v _ 1 / A,
1
w2 =
where
(2tf
- IÂ
(a
2
Note that with this notation
- fiu)(l - u*) -
)/^,
{3)
2mgl/I 1
(y
- 8u) 2 =
/()
= K/I
lt
(4)
= /aA/^
(5)
can be written
.
_
~
8u"
T^
(<?)
[CHAP.
272
(b)
From
the result of
(a)
we
u >
have, since
10
0,
<&*
or
Integrating,
The integral can be evaluated
10.31. (a)
Prove that
(a)
elliptic
(7)
functions which are periodic.
which
at those values of m for
= (-/8M)(l-M 2 )-(y-8M) 2 -
Prove that the equation in (a) has three real roots u u u 2 ,u 3 but that in general
not all the angles corresponding to these are real.
From Problem
Since
-sin
e 0,
it
u2
10.30(a),
/( M )
Equation
/?
>
- m)(1 ~ 2 -
(a
where
- fiu)(l - m 2 )
(y
(y
- 8u) 2
or
S)2
/()
(1)
0.
Thus
at the
(2)
can be written as
(1)
f(u)
Since
f(u)
follows that
roots of the equation
(b)
terms of
in
f(u)
(b)
0,
it
/3tt
(S 2
+ a)u 2 +
(2yS
- /3)u +
follows that
= -(y-S) 2
/(I)
/(-l)
Thus there is a change of sign from

to + as u goes from 1 to , and
consequently there must be a root, say
u 3 between 1 and as indicated in
,
Fig. 10-19.
Now we know that in order for

the motion of the top to take place we
must have
^
It
f(u)
= u2 s
o.
we must have
ir/2,
since
Also,
tt
1.
thus follows that there must be two
roots
m x and u 2 between
and
1,
as
indicated in the figure.

It
follows that in general there are
e x and e 2 such
that cos 0i
cos 2 u 2- ^ n special
cases it could happen that u x
U<l = Ug = 1.
two corresponding angles
10.32.
Fig. 10-19
Give a physical interpretation of the results found in Problem 10.31.
and u 2 corresponding to 6 X and 2 respectively, shows

The fact that there are two roots
that the motion of the top is such that its axis always makes an angle e with the vertical which
This motion, which is a bobbing up and down of the axis between the
lies between e y and e 2
nutation and takes place at the same time as the precessional motion
limits <?! and
is
called
2
of the axis of the top about the vertical and the spinning of the top about its axis. Because
the motion can be expressed in terms of elliptic functions [see Problem 10.104], we can show
.
that
it
is
periodic.
In general the tip of the axis of the top will describe one of various types of curves such as
indicated in Figs. 10-20, 10-21 and 10-22. The type of curve will depend on the root of the
equation [see equation (6) of Problem 10.30]
<t>
_
=
Su
u2
(1)
CHAP.
10]
If this root
given by y/8
the curve of Fig. 10-20 occurs. If it is the same as

between u x and u 2 the curve of Fig. 10-22 occurs. Other
the same as u x or is less than u x [see Problems 10.124].
greater than u 2
is
u 2 the curve of
Fig. 10-21 obtains.
cases can arise
if
y/8
the root
273
is
If it is
> u2
y/8
u2
Aside from the general motion which is made up of nutation

various special cases which can arise. One of these is the case of
nutation [see Problem 10.28]. In this case u x = u 2 so that e x ~ e 2
case is the "sleeping top" which occurs where u 2 = u 3 = 1 and the axis
[see
Problem
y/8
< u2
Fig. 10-22
Fig. 10-21
Fig. 10-20
remains vertical
<
u-l
and precession, there are

steady precession with no
or e = constant. Another
of the spinning top always
10.36].
T
the total kinetic energy of rotation of a rigid body with one point fixed,
prove that dT/dt - <o A where all quantities refer to the body principal axes.
10.33. If
is
Multiplying both sides of the Euler equations
of
(3)
Problem 10.16 by w 1 ,w 2
<o 3
respectively
and adding, we obtain

^l w l w l
But
iiCOjWj
0)^ +
and
Thus
^
+
0) 2
~^~
^2 (0 2
^3 W 3 W 3
"l-^l
~^~
c0 2-^2
~^~
w 3-^3
(7)
2 \ dT
_l^/r2j_r2.r
2
3< 3
+lt'3 W 3 W 3 o di lWl
~dt
2<
=
=
"3-^3
("l^l
6>
2 e 2
<">3
e 3)
* (
(2)
'
A lel
+ A 2e2 + A 3e3
(3)
dT/dt
becomes
(1)
~f~
i 2 O) 2 0) 2
A2
w2
at
Prove that if there are no forces acting on a rigid body with one point fixed,
then the total kinetic energy of rotation is constant, (b) Thus prove that O =
10.34. (a)
IT
constant.
(a)
Since there are no forces,
(6)
Since
O=
/joêj
0.
+ I2 u 2e 2 + 730)363
*
10.35.
A=
O =
Then by Problem
and
/ x o)f
7 2 w|
oê^
o> 2
/ 3 o>3
The
momentum
dT/dt
or
T =
constant.
+ 0)363,
in
constant
terms of the kinetic energy and
of the rigid body.
kinetic energy is
T =
so that
e2
= 2T
Find the precession frequency of Problem 10.17

angular
10.33,
i(/,o)
72 o)|
I8 |)
/jC2
4(/ lW?
73A2
h4 + 73W
= 2T
|)
= h2 +
J sA2 )
(1)
274
O =
=
=
so that
|Q|
(i)
and
/2 w 2 e 2
7 1 C(cos Kt e l
= V/fC2 + /|A2
we
sin id e 2 )
^l w l e l
C2 +
^3 w 3 e 3
^3-Ae 3
10.17, equation
1%A 2
fi2
S22
(2)
_ 277,
h(h-h)
fi 2
A2 -
hda-It)'
the precession frequency
(12),
\(n*-2Ti 1 )(i3
-i
(3)
is
l )\
04)
2^/i
10.36.
^l"2e 2
find
2773
(72
Then from Problem
^3 w 3 e 3
or
simultaneously,
(2)
10
is
Il03 1 e 1
Solving
[CHAP.
Find the condition for a "sleeping top".

and
For a "sleeping top" we must have e =
and no nutation can take place. Then from Problem
hA
K,
from Problem 10.30 we have a

and y = 8, and so
Also,
/(h)
It follows
(a
- j8u)(l - h2) -
that
/(h)
(y
I3
2mgl/I l
- 8h)2 =
(1
will "sleep" if this root is greater
must remain
since the axis
0,
vertical
10.29,
A 2 - 2(E-mgl)
=
2mgl/I v y
- u)(l - it*) -
has a double root at

v2
Then the top
1,
2
y (l
l3All x
- u)2 =
(1
- h)2 [(1 + u) -
while the third root
J|A
2mgll 1
I 3 A/I V
is
Thus a
($
y2]
given by
than or at most equal to
1,
so that
A2 ^ Amglljll
Of course, even though this condition may apply at the beginning, energy will in practice
2
be diminished due to friction at the support so that after some time we will have A < Amglljl^.
In such case precession combined with nutation will be introduced. Further loss of energy will
ultimately cause the top to fall down.
10.37.
Find the torque needed to rotate a rectangular plate of sides a and

about a diagonal with constant angular velocity .
By Problem
10.9 the principal
plate at the center

lx
We
= ^M<fi
have
a>
moments
b [see Fig. 10-23]
of inertia of the
are given by
I2
= ^Mb*,
(wi)i
4-
Iz
= -^M(a2 + b*)
(1)
(*j)j
(2)
Va2 + 6 2
Va2 + 6 2
Thus
Substituting
w2
'
Va2 +
(1)
and
Fig. 10-23
62
osb
'
V2 + 6 2
into Euler's equations

/jWi
I2 a 2
/3
<J)
(7 3
72) W 2 W 3 = A
+ (/ 73)<3 W = A 2
+ (J 2 Ji)"i"2 = A 3
x
w3
CHAP.
10]
we
find
Aj
0,
A2 =
A3 =
0,
M(b 2 az)abu 2
U(
the rectangular plate
if
re(l uired
torque about
^
O
is
- cfi)ab<J-
M(&2
12(a2
a square,
is
Thus the
b*)
A ~
Note that
,,
275
i.e.
(4)
62)
if
b,
then
A=
0.
10.38.
Find the number of degrees of freedom of (a) a sphere free to roll on a plane,
free to rotate about a fixed point, (c) an airplane moving in space.
Ans.
10.39.
(a)
(b)
3,
an
ellipsoid
(c)
3,
(b)
In Fig. 10-24 a displacement of a tetrahedron in

space is indicated. Show directly that the displacement can be accomplished by a translation
plus a rotation about a suitable axis, thus
illustrating Chasle's theorem [page 224] for
space.
10.40.
Give an illustration similar to that of Problem

10.39 involving a rigid body whose surfaces are
not plane surfaces.
10.41.
Derive the result of Problem 10.2, page 259,

without using Problem 6.1, page 147.
Fig. 10-24
ANGULAR MOMENTUM. KINETIC ENERGY. MOMENTS AND PRODUCTS OF INERTIA

10.42.
A rigid body consists of 3 particles of masses 2,1,4 located at (1,-1,1), (2,0,2), (1,1,0)
Find the angular momentum of the body
velocity = 3i - 2j + 4k.
Arts. -6j + 42k
tively.
10.43.
10.45.
(a)
What
is
Find the
I xx
(a)
(a)
(&)
AB =
16,
16;
(6) I xy
of inertia and
and
AD
6, I yz
2,
= iM62, Iyy = l M a?, Igz = M(a? +

hy = ~lMab, lyz = 0, Ixz =
AB
and
AD
the products of inertia
1 = -6
Ans. 180
(6) products of inertia of a uniform rectangular plate

taken about axes AB, AD and the line perpendicular to
Ixx
calling axes through
62)
the x and y axes respectively.
(a) moments of inertia and (6) products of inertia of a cube of side a taken about x,y, z
axes coinciding with three intersecting edges of the cube.
Find the
Ans.
10.47.
moments
of sides
the plate at B.
Ans.
12, I yy
(b)
the kinetic energy of rotation for the system of Problem 10.42?
ABCD
10.46.
respecrotated about the origin with angular
Determine the (a) moments of inertia about the x, y and z axes and
for the rigid body of Problem 10.42.
Ans.
10.44.
if it is
(a)
Ixx
Iyw
Izz
%Ma2,
(b)
Ixy
Iyz
Ixz
- -\Ma*
Find the (a) angular momentum and (6) kinetic energy of rotation of the cube of Problem 10.46
about the point of intersection O of the three edges if the cube has an angular velocity
Ans. (a) ^MaHlOi + 43j - 45k), (6) 185MaV12
a, = 2i + 5j - 3k about
O.
276
10.48.
Find the
x2 + y2 + z2
Ans.
moments of
(a)
(a)
PRINCIPAL MOMENTS OF INERTIA.

10.49.
10.50.
and
inertia
= a2 in the first octant,

Ixx = Im = Izz = Ma 2
(b)
products of inertia
(b)
i.e.
in the region
Ixy
Iyz
*g0,
2/
[CHAP.
the
of
0, z
uniform
10
sphere
solid
0.
= -2MaV5ir
Ixz
PRINCIPAL AXES.
ELLIPSOID OF INERTIA
Prove that the principal moments of inertia for a system consisting of two particles of masses
m l and m2 connected by a massless rigid rod of length I are I t = J2 m l m 2 ^/{m l + m 2 ), Iz = 0.
Find the
principal
(a)
moments
of inertia and
(b)
directions of the principal axes for the system
of Problem 10.42.
Ans.
Ix
(a)
(b)
10.51.
= 13 - t/T3 I 3 = 13 + \/73
+
V73)i-J + k, j(i_-/73)i_j + k>
(/
18, I 2
+ k,
Determine
the
(a)
principal moments of inertia
directions of the principal axes for right triangle
of Fig. 10-25 about point C.
(b)
10.52.
and
ABC
Find the principal moments of inertia at the center of a

b and acute angle a.
parallelogram of sides a and

10.53.
Find the
principal
(a)
moments
of inertia and
tions of the principal axes for the cube of
Ans.
Zj
(a)
72
(6)
Problem
direc-
10.46.
= Ma2
flilfa2 , I 3
Axis associated with Is is in the direction of the diagonal from the origin. Axes
associated with J x and I2 have any mutually perpendicular directions in a plane perpen-
(6)
dicular to this diagonal.
10.54.
Find the principal moments of inertia of a uniform cylinder of radius a and height
Ans. J a
I2
= jLM(3a 2 + h2
h.
= \Ma2
I3
),
10.55.
Obtain the principal moments of inertia and directions of principal axes for a rectangle of
sides a and b by using Problem 10.45 and equations (11), page 255. Compare with Problem 10.9,
page 262.
10.56.
Find the lengths of the axes of the
Problem
10.57.
4^3/Ma
Ans.
10.55.
2
,
4V3/llMa
Prove that the
10.59.
If I V I 2 ,I 3 are the principal

I,
10.62.
2v
ellipsoid
Ay/Z/Mb 2
of
inertia
4^S/M(a +
2
b2
corresponding to
ellipsoid of inertia corresponding to the cube of
6/Ma
Under what conditions do any
I2
Suppose that a rigid body
at point O, then
is
is
Problem
h,
inertia,
and determine
10.46.
its
radius.
prove that
^ h + h.
h ^ h+h
or all of the equality signs hold in Problem 10.59?
Prove that if a rigid body is a solid of revolution about a line L, then

corresponding to any part of L.
to
of
moments of
rectangle
the
ellipsoid of inertia for a regular tetrahedron is a sphere
10.58.
10.61.
Find the lengths of the axes of the

Ans. 4\/3/llMa
10.60.
symmetrical about a plane P. Prove that if

a principal axis corresponding to point O.
is
is
a principal axis
a line perpendicular

10.63.
rigid
body having one point O fixed and no external torque about O, has two equal principal
Prove that it must rotate with constant angular velocity.
axes of inertia.
CHAP.
10.64.
10]
277
Write Euler's equations for the case of plane motion of a rigid body and discuss their physical
significance.
10.65.
Solve the problem of a
10.66.
Describe
compound pendulum by using Euler's equations.
Euler's equations can be used to discuss the motion of a solid cylinder rolling
how
down
an inclined plane.
10.67.
in case the axes are not principal axes.
Write Euler's equations
FORCE FREE MOTION. INVARIABLE LINE AND PLANE.

POLHODE, HERPOLHODE, SPACE AND BODY CONES
10.68.
If
two principal moments of inertia corresponding
rotates are equal, prove that (a) Poinsot's ellipsoid

is a circle and
(c) the herpolhode is a circle.
which a rigid body

an ellipsoid of revolution, (6) the polhode
to the fixed point about

is
10.69.
Discuss the (a) invariable line and plane, (6) polhode and herpolhode and (c) space and body
cones for the case of a rigid body which moves parallel to a given plane, i.e. plane motion of a
rigid body.
10.70.
(a)
How
(6)
What
would you define the instantaneous axis of rotation for space motion of a rigid body?
is the relationship between the instantaneous axis of rotation and the space and body
cones?
10.71.
Prove that relative to its center of mass the axis about which the earth spins in a
rotate about an axis inclined at 23.5 with respect to it in 25,780 years.
day
will
THE EULER ANGLES

10.72.
Using the notation of Problem 10.20, page 267, find:

terms of I,J,K; (c) i',j',k' in terms of I',J',K'.
J = sin $ i + cos
I = cos
i + sin
Ans.
(a)
j,
<f>
10.73.
(6)
I'
(c)
i'
=
=
Prove the results
<f>
=
F+
J'
I,
cos ^
ux
ay
ug
10.74.
If
Ix
axes
=
is
I2
I3,
cos e J
sin ^ J',
=
=
=
9 cos
<f>
sin
<f>
yp
sin e K,
J'
cos
K'
sin f
^ sin
e sin
^ sin
I'
(a) I,
<f>
cos $
J',
terms of
in
K =
j,
sin
J,K
(6)
I\J',K' in
cos e
k'
i,j,k;
K'
<j>
cos
prove that the kinetic energy of rotation of a rigid body referred to principal
T = \I X (4? +
o2
j<
+ 2w
cos
e).
MOTION OF SPINNING TOPS AND GYROSCOPES

10.75.
10.76.
top having radius of gyration about its axis equal to 6 cm is spun about its axis. The spinning
point is fixed and the center of gravity is on the axis at a distance 3 cm from this fixed point.
If it is observed that the top precesses about the vertical at 20 revolutions per minute, find the
Ans. 3.10 rev/sec or 19.5 rad/sec
angular speed of the top about its axis.
uniform solid right circular cone of radius a and height h is spun so that its vertex is fixed
and its axis is inclined at a constant angle a with the vertical. If the axis precesses about the
vertical with period P, determine the angular speed of the cone about its axis.
10.77.
Work Problem
same
10.78.
10.76 if the cone
is
surmounted by a uniform
solid
hemisphere of radius a and the
density.
Explain physically why the spin axis of the gyroscope of Figures 10-6 and 10-7, page 258,
should maintain its direction.
278
10.79.
[CHAP.
10
Explain how a gyroscope can be used to enable a ship, airplane, submarine or missile to follow
some
specified course of motion.
10.80.
uniform
solid
cube of side a and mass
has
its
of a coordinate system with vertex at the origin O.
angular velocity
10.81.
the angular
momentum.
Find the moment of inertia of a uniform

the base,
(a)
10.82.
w, find
the vertex.
(b)
Arts,
(a)
edges lying on the positive x, y and z axes

about the z axis with constant
If it rotates
Arts,
J^Ma 2 <o(3i + 3j 8k)
cone of radius
solid
^Ma2
(b)
height h and mass
about
Find the principal moments of inertia at the center of a uniform elliptical plate having semi-major
Ans. I t = %Mb 2 I 2 = \Ma2 I 3 = \M{a 2 + b 2 )
axis a and semi-minor axis b.
,
10.83.
a,
-^M{2h2 + a2 )
top has the form of a solid circular disk of radius o and mass
and length I attached to its center
with a thin rod of mass
Find the angular velocity with which the top
[see Fig. 10-26].
should be spun so as to "sleep". Assume that the base point O
is fixed.
10.84.
Work Problem
10.85.
Work Problem
10.86.
10.83 for a cone of radius a, height h and
10.83 for a cone of radius a, height h and mass

surmounted by a hemisphere of radius a and mass m.
coin
of
radius a
angular velocity
if
10.87.
mass M.
to
>
o>
is
set
M
Fig. 10-26
spinning about a vertical axis with

Prove that the motion is stable
[see Fig. 10-27].
Agla.
Suppose that the coin of Problem 10.86 is spun with angular speed
s about a diameter which is inclined at an angle a with the vertical
and which is fixed at point O. Assuming there is no nutation,
find the angular speed with which the coin precesses about the
vertical.
10.88.
10.89.
Discuss how gyroscopes can be used to control the motions of a ship

on a stormy sea.
Fig. 10-27
is fixed at point
of a uniform solid cone of radius a, height h and mass
horizontal plane. Prove that if the cone rolls on the plane with angular velocity <o about
The vertex
.....
perpendicular to the plane through O, then the kinetic energy of rotation
10.90.
Explain how the principal axes of a rigid body can be found

is known.
principal axes
10.91.
uniform
its altitude.
has the radius of its base equal to twice

Prove that the ellipsoid of inertia corresponding
solid cone
to its vertex is
10.92.
a sphere.
Explain how a gyroscope can be used as a compass, often

called a gyrocompass.
10.93.
dumbbell consists of two equal masses
attached to a
of length I and negligible mass [see Fig. 10-28].
with constant
The system rotates about a vertical axis
angular velocity * such that the rod makes a constant
angle 8 with the vertical. Prove that the angular momentum
Q of the system describes a cone of angle irl2 e about u
rod
ABC
DCE
and has magnitude \Ml2 u
sin e
if
is
of a
an axis
3Mh2 (a? + 6fc 2)co 2

40(a2 + h2
'
the direction of one of the
CHAP.
10.94.
10]
Prove that the magnitude of the torque needed to keep the system of Problem 10.93
(a)
is
279
\Ml
10.95.
Work
10.96.
2 v> 2 sin2<?
(a)
(&)
What
is
Problem 10.93 and
in
motion
the direction of the torque?
Problem 10.94
(6)
if
the rod
ACB
has mass m.
thin solid uniform circular plate of radius a has its center

attached to the top of a thin fixed vertical rod OA [see
Fig. 10-29]. It is spun with constant angular speed w about
an axis which is inclined at angle a with the normal OB to
the plate,
(a) Prove that the angular velocity vector *
precesses about the normal OB with period 2tt/(u cos a).
(b) Prove that the axis OB describes a space cone with period
2tt/(<o
\/1
+3
cos 2 a)
10.97.
In Problem 10.96 find the angle through which the plate

turns during the time it takes OB to describe the space cone.
10.98.
Find the principal moments of inertia of a uniform solid cone

taken about the (a) vertex,
of radius a, height h and mass
(6)
center of mass.
Ans.
(a)
(b)
10.99.
= h = ^M(a2 + Ah2
h=h= i>M(h* + 4a2
Ix
73
= ^Ma2
= J^Ma2
oscillates
I3
),
),
compound pendulum of mass
with respect to the principal axes of
Fig. 10-29
about a horizontal axis which makes angles
a, /?, y
of inertia are 7 1 ,72 3
to the axis of rotation is I, prove that for
If the principal
inertia.
from the center of mass

the period is 2v^Mgl/I where I = Ml2
respectively and the distance
small oscillations
10.100.
+ 1^
moments
cos2 a
+ I2
cos 2
(3
+ /3
cos2 y.
Find the period of small oscillations of a uniform solid

cone which rotates about a horizontal axis attached to
the vertex of the cone.
10.101.
An
elliptical plate [see Fig. 10-30] having semi-major

and semi-minor axes of lengths a and 6 respectively is
rotated with constant angular speed about an axis
making a constant angle a with the major axis. Find
the torque required to produce this motion.

10.102.
Work Problem
by an
10.103.
if
the elliptical plate
is
replaced
Fig. 10-30
Given Euler's equations of motion for a rigid body having zero external torque about a fixed
point O,
i.e.,
I^X
10.104.
10.101
ellipsoid.
(/ 3
jT
2 )u 2 <o 3
prove that
î w i
and
/?i
Prove
dy/dx
from
V(l
Problem
722
0,
Cl
~"
-^3)
W 3W 1
Z 3 3
0,
~^~
^2 W 2
~t"
^3 U 3
constant
2T
/|u|
73<o|
constant
(/ 2
^l)l"2 =
H2
that a lt 2 and 3 satisfy a differential equation of the form

and thus show that the angular velocity can be expressed in terms
10.103
# 2)(1 ~ k 2 x 2
),
of elliptic functions.
10.105.
Find the moment of inertia of a uniform solid cone of radius a, height h and mass
line which lies in its surface.
Ans. ^Ma2 (a 2 + 6h2 )/(a2 + h2 )
10.106.
The moments and products of
inertia of a rigid
^=
4/3, Iyz
8/3, Ixy
4/3, I
10/3, Izz
(6) the directions of the principal axes.
Iyy
Ans.
(a)
Ix
(6)
ei
= 3, J2 = 2, 73 = 4
= i - 2j - 2k, e2 = -2i + j - 2k,
e3
0.
about a
body about the x, y and z axes are Ixx = 3,

Find (a) the principal moments of inertia and
-2i
- 2j + k
10.107.
[CHAP.
280
10
cone having semi-vertical angle o rolls with constant angular speed w on a horizontal plane with
vertex fixed at a point O. Prove that the axis of the cone rotates about the vertical axis
through O with angular speed w tan a.
its
10.108.
uniform
horizontal plane rotates about a vertical axis with constant angular velocity <.
a is placed on this plane. Prove that the center describes a circle with
angular velocity given in magnitude by |-w.
solid sphere of radius
10.109.
Work Problem 10.108 if the

Ans. aK2 /(K2 + a 2 where K
)
10.110.
sphere
is
not necessarily of constant density.
is
the radius of gyration about a diameter
Show how to find the relative maximum and minimum

* = Ax2 + By2 + Cz 2 + Dxy + Eyz + Fxz - 1.
distances from the origin to the ellipsoid
Maximize or minimize the function * = x 2 + y 2 + z z subject to the condition * = 1.

method of Lagrange multipliers, i.e. consider the function G = * + X* where
the (constant) Lagrange multiplier and set dG/dx, dG/dy, dG/dz equal to zero.]
[Hint.
To do
X
10.111.
is
this use the
Explain the relationship of Problem 10.110
moments
10.112. (a)
(b)
10.113.
to
the method of page
Find the relative maximum and

9x 2 + 10y 2 + Sz 2 + Axy - 4scz = 3.
minimum
Discuss the connection of the results of
(a)
from
distances
the
origin
(2,
1, 3)
in
the direction 3i
to
the
line
through the
2j + 4k.
10.114.
Prove that the motion of the "sleeping top" of Problem 10.36
10.115.
Find the moment of inertia of the lemniscate
10.116
r2
a 2 cos 2e
is
stable if
A2 ^
Amglljl^
about the z axis
Ans. jfMa2
plane rigid body (lamina) has an xy and x'y' coordinate system with common origin
that the angle between the x and x' axes is a [see Fig. 10-31]. Prove that
(a)
Ix x
>
>
Ixx cos 2 a
I rT sin 2 a
Use Problem 10.116
ellipsoid
with those of Problem 10.106.
Find the moment of inertia of the system of particles of Problem 10.42 about a
point
10.117.
255 for obtaining principal
of inertia and directions of principal axes.
+
+
2Ixy sin a cos a

21rv sin a cos a
such
Iyy sin 2 a
2
/ sin a
to prove that
and give a physical interpretation.

10.118.
10.119.
Referring to Problem 10.116, find an expression for Ix
in
terms of Jxx ,Ixy ,Iyy and
Use the results of Problems 10.116 and 10.118 to prove that for a plane region having moments
system,
and products of inertia defined by Ixx Ixy> Iyy corresponding to a particular xy coordinate
angle a given by
the principal axes are obtained by a rotation of these axes through an
,
tan 2a
10.120.
a.
Ixy /(Iyy
Ixx
).
Prove that the lengths of the principal axes
in
Problem 10.116 are given by
CHAP.
10.121.
10.122.
10]
Discuss Problem 10.19, page 266,
if
lx
>
/3
281
Find the moment of inertia of a uniform semicircular wire of mass

Ans. 2M(ir 2)a2/v
center.
10.123.
Prove that the expression on the left side of equation

component of the angular momentum.
10.124.
Discuss Problem 10.32
10.125.
if
the root of equation
(1)
(a)
is
(4)
in
and radius a about
Problem 10.29
equal to u lf
(b) less
its
the vertical
is
than u v
body consists of 3 particles of masses m u ra2 and ra3 The distance between m l and
2
m s and m l are l 12 hz an d Z3 i respectively. Prove that the moment of inertia of the
system about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the particles through their center of mass is
given by
,2
.2
,2
m2
rigid
and
ra 3 ;
m m + m^m^
mi + m2 + m
+
Wi2*i2
3 l2 3
10.126.
Derive a "parallel axis theorem" for products of inertia and illustrate by means of an example.
10.127.
Prove that the principal moments of inertia of a triangle of sides a,b,c and mass
center of mass are given by
It
10.128.
I2
= ^(2 +
coin of radius 1.5
cm
fe2
rolls
C2
2 Va4 +
64
+ C4 -
tt
2&2
fc2 c 2
_ C2 a2
/3
ff
( 2
&2
about the
C2)
without slipping on a horizontal table such that the plane of the

coin moves at a speed of 3 m/sec,
Ans. 2.5
makes an angle of 60 with the table. If the center of the

prove that the coin moves in a circular path and find its radius.
coin
),
Chapter 11
LAGRANGE'S
EQUATIONS
GENERAL METHODS OF MECHANICS

Up to now we have dealt primarily with the formulation of problems in mechanics by
Newton's laws of motion. It is possible to give treatments of mechanics from rather
general viewpoints, in particular those due to Lagrange and Hamilton.
Although such treatments reduce to Newton's laws, they are characterized not only
by the relative ease with which many problems can be formulated and solved but by their
relationship in both theory and application to such advanced fields as quantum mechanics,
statistical mechanics, celestial mechanics and electrodynamics.
GENERALIZED COORDINATES
particles moves subject to possible constraints,

Suppose that a particle or a system of
as for example a particle moving along a circular wire or a rigid body moving along an
inclined plane. Then there will be a minimum number of independent coordinates needed
to specify the motion.
These coordinates denoted by

q\,
<?2,
.,q n
(1)
are called generalized coordinates and can be distances, angles or quantities relating to
them. The number n of generalized coordinates is the number of degrees of freedom
[see
page
165].
Many
sets
of generalized coordinates
may
be possible in a given problem, but a
strategic choice can simplify the analysis considerably.
NOTATION
In the following the subscript a will range from 1 to n, the number of degrees of
freedom, while the subscript v will range from 1 to N, the number of particles in the
system.
TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS
Let
x vi
+ Vvj + z v k
be the position vector of the vth particle with respect to an

1
xyz coordinate system. The relationships of the generalized coordinates

coordinates are given by the transformation equations
Xv
ijv
zv
where
denotes the time.
X v (qi,
#2,
Qn, t)
Vv{qi, q%,
qn, t) [
z v (qi, q 2 ,
.,
In vector form,
rv
The functions
=
=
=
in (2) or (3) are
(2)
(1)
to the position
(2)
qn, t)
can be written
r v {qi, q%,
qn
t)
(#)
supposed to be continuous and to have continuous derivatives.
282
CHAP.
283
Ill
CLASSIFICATION OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

rheonomic,
Mechanical systems can be classified according as they are scleronomic or
below.
defined
as
non-conservative
or
conservative
and
holonomic or non-holonomic,
SCLERONOMIC AND RHEONOMIC SYSTEMS

explicitly in the
In many mechanical systems of importance the time t does not enter
others, as for
equations (2) or (3). Such systems are sometimes called scleronomic. In
example those involving moving constraints, the time t does enter explicitly. Such systems
are called rheonomic.
HOLONOMIC AND NON-HOLONOMIC SYSTEMS

let t
Let q it q 2 ...,q n denote the generalized coordinates describing a system and
having
equations
denote the time. If all the constraints of the system can be expressed as
or their equivalent, then the system is said to be holonomic;
the form <j>{qi, q 2
q n t) =
otherwise the system is said to be non-holonomic. Compare page 170.
,
CONSERVATIVE AND NON-CONSERVATIVE SYSTEMS

on a system of particles are derivable from a potential function
non-conpotential energy] V, then the system is called conservative, otherwise it is
If all forces acting

[or
servative.
KINETIC ENERGY. GENERALIZED VELOCITIES

The
total kinetic
energy of the system
is
= I 5>r2
6 v=l
(*)
kinetic energy can be written as a quadratic form in the generalized velocities q a

quadratic form
If the system is scleronomic [i.e. independent of time * explicitly], then the
are
also present.
in
terms
linear
a
rheonomic,
is
If
it
q
only terms of the form a^haq&.
The
has
GENERALIZED FORCES
If
is
the total
work done on a system
of particles
particle, then
dW =
*i$adq a
N
where
2= Fv
called
Problem
the
generalized
associated
force
(5)
=l
<x
is
by forces F acting on the vth
dr v
*
T^~
dq a
with
the
generalized
coordinate
qa
See
11.6.
The generalized force can be
Problem 11.10]
related to the kinetic energy
(9T) -iT
dt\dq a J
dq a
*8
by the equations
[see
(7)
284
[CHAP.
11
If the system is conservative so that the forces are derivable from a potential or potential
energy V, we can write (7) as
d(BL\ _
BL
dt\dqa J
dq a
L = T-V
where
is
called the
(9)
Lagrangian function of the system, or simply the Lagrangian.
The equations
systems which
If
or (8) are called Lagrange's equations and are valid for holonomic
be scleronomic or rheonomic.
(7)
may
some of the forces
system are conservative so as to be derivable from a potential

etc., are non-conservative, we can write Lagrange's
in a
V while other forces such as friction,

equations as
*(*) - *k =
dt\dq a J
where
L-T-V
and
$>L
*;
(10)
dq a
are the generalized forces associated with the non-conservative
forces in the system.
GENERALIZED MOMENTA
We define
at
dq a
momentum
to be the generalized
pa
call
the
momentum
associated with the generalized coordinate q a

conjugate to q a or the conjugate momentum.
We
often
system is conservative with potential energy depending only on the generalized

coordinates, then (11) can be written in terms of the Lagrangian L = T - V as
If the
BL
Pa
(12)
Bq a
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS FOR NON-HOLONOMIC SYSTEMS

Suppose that there are
equations of constraint having the form
VAadqa + Adt =
^Badq a + Bdt =
0,
or equivalents
Â
+ A =
qa
^B
0,
We
must
m<n
of course have
...
0,
(13)
where n
is
the
qa
+ B =
number
0,
(U)
...
of coordinates q a
may not be integrable so as to obtain a relationship

the constraints are non-holonomic or nonintegrable
involving the q a 's. If they are not
integrable; otherwise they are holonomic or integrable.
The equations
(13) or
(U) may or
In either case Lagrange's equations can be replaced by

d_
(dT\ _ aT
dt\dq a J
where the
If
L=
parameters
Ai,
A 2 ... are called

,
the forces are conservative,

_ x
as
,
,
T-V
dq a
(15)
XiAa
XzBa
...
Lagrange multipliers
[see
(i 5)
Problem
11.18].
can be written in terms of the Lagrangian
r
9L\ _dL_
dt\dq a J
dq a
XiAa
X2Ba
...
(16)
CHAP.
Ill
285
It should be emphasized that the above results are applicable to holonomic (as well as
non-holonomic) systems since a constraint condition of the form
...,Qn,t)
<l>{Ql,Q2,
(17)
can by differentiation be written as
^p-d Qa
which has the
form
&dt =
(18)
(13).
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS WITH IMPULSIVE FORCES

Suppose that the forces F acting on a system are such that
dt
Then we
call
C F
lim
where
represents a time interval.
Sv
(19)
F impulsive forces and
are called
impulses.
If we let the subscripts 1 and 2 denote respectively quantities before and after application of the impulsive forces, Lagrange's equations become [see Problem 11.23]
- (2L)
'H.)
where
If
fa
we
call
fa
is
2*
*Jv
fa
(20)
(21)
dq a
the generalized impulse, (20) can be written
Generalized impulse
which
\dq a /i
^dq a /2
a generalization of
Theorem
change in generalized
2.6,
momentum
(22)
page 36.
Solved Problems
GENERALIZED COORDINATES AND TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS

11.1.
Give a set of generalized coordinates needed to completely specify the motion of

each of the following: (a) a particle constrained to move on an ellipse, (b) a circular
cylinder rolling down an inclined plane, (c) the two masses in a double pendulum
[Fig. 11-3] constrained to move in a plane.
(a)
moving on the
Let the ellipse be chosen in the xy plane of Fig. 11-1. The particle of mass
ellipse has coordinates (x,y). However, since we have the transformation equations x = a cos 6,
y = 6 sin e, we can specify the motion completely by use of the generalized coordinate 0.
Fig. 11-1
Fig. 11-2
286
(b)
11.2.
11
The position of the cylinder [Fig. 11-2 above] on the inclined plane can be completely specified
by giving the distance x traveled by the center of mass and the angle e of rotation turned
through by the cylinder about its axis.
is
(c)
[CHAP.
If there is no slipping, x is related to e so that only one generalized coordinate [either x or

needed. If there is slipping, two generalized coordinates x and e are needed.
Two
coordinates &i and 6 2 completely specify the positions of masses

above] and can be considered as the required generalized coordinates.
Write the transformation equations for the system in Problem
and
w2
e]
[see Fig. 11-3
11.1(c).
Choose an xy coordinate system as shown in Fig. 11-3. Let {x x ,y^) and {x^y^t be the rectangular
coordinates of
and ra 2 respectively. Then from Fig. 11-3 we see that
1
=
=
xx
x2
l-i
cos $i
cos e i
cos
2/i
V2
l\
sin $i
h sm
*l
+ h
sin
which are the required transformation equations.
11.3.
Prove that
We
have
^.
dq a
=
|t
dq<x
=
r v (q u q 2
..., q n >
Then
t).
Thus
We
11.4.
dqa
()
dqa
can look upon this result as a "cancellation of the dots".
Prove that
We
()
dt\dqj
have from
(1)
= !r3 #
of Problem 11.3,
d2 rv
drv
oq a
A (Oil)
N W
dt\dqj
dq a
d 2 r
d<li
.
'
dtfl^
dqa dt
dr
"
*
"
d(
v\ ln
d (
dqn \d qoi J dt
- JL { ?IL) -! 4~ d qi \dqa J dt + '"

d*r v
fl2r v
d <la d <ln
d 2r v
a~ dq<*
z~
dq
n
d ( ?>*v
-dt\dqa
d2r
+ IT^T
dtdq a
Since r is assumed to have continuous second order partial derivatives, the order of differThus from (2) and (3) the required result follows.
entiation does not matter.
The
result can be interpreted as
an interchange of order of the operators,
A(jL\ =
i.e.,
{A\

11.5.
Classify each of the following according as they are (i) scleronomic or rheonomic,
(iii) conservative or non-conservative.
(ii) holonomic or non-holonomic and
(a)
sphere rolling
down from the
top of a fixed sphere.
CHAP.
Ill
cylinder rolling without slipping
(c)
A
A
(d)
particle
(b)
287
a rough inclined plane of angle
down
the inner surface, with coefficient of friction

paraboloid of revolution having its axis vertical and vertex downward.
particle sliding
down
^,
of a
which rotates with constant
frictionless wire
moving on a very long
a.
angular speed about a horizontal axis.

(a)
(b)
scleronomic
[equations do not involve time
non-holonomic
[since rolling sphere leaves the fixed sphere at
conservative
[gravitational force acting
is
explicitly]
some
point]
derivable from a potential]
scleronomic
[equation of constraint
holonomic
that of a line or plane]
is
conservative
(c)
scleronomic
holonomic
non-conservative
(d)
[since force
due to friction
[constraint involves time
rheonomic
holonomic
[equation of constraint
not derivable from a potential]
is
explicitly]
that of a line which involves
is
t explicitly]
conservative
WORK, KINETIC ENERGY AND GENERALIZED FORCES

11.6.
Derive equations
(5)
and
(6),
page 283, for the work done on a system of
Suppose that a system undergoes increments dq lt dq 2

rth particle undergoes a displacement
particles.
dq n of the generalized coordinates.
Then the
"
Thus the
total
work done
dW =
dr v
dq a
2t9
dr v
a=l
is
Fdrv
v=l
F,
[a=l
v=l
*a
where
We
11.7.
call
* a the generalized
Prove that
We
have

= dW/dq a
W?
oqa
11.8.
a =X
* a dq a
dr
2t
v=i
t
oq
a
force associated with the generalized coordinate qa
dW = ^j^-dq a
Also,
by Problem
dW =
11.6,
5 (.-)*. =
Thus
since the dq a are independent, all coefficients of dq a
2*<*g a
Then
must be
zero, so that
*a
Let F be the net external force acting on the vth particle of a system.
f^
By Newton's
dr~|
7u \Z, mvrv
dt
\v
dq a )
_
^
>m
second law applied to the yth particle,
mr
dr
=
t
5<
v
"V
2/
v
= dW/dq a
Prove that
dTv
F " ^r
oQct
i?
we have
(1)
288
drv
=
mv rv >-
dq
Then
Now
by Problem
3r\
dq a J
d /.
11.4,
-rr
dt\
(
r
v
dr
dr
- v
..
"
..
Hence from
we
(2)
have, since ra
d (
-r:
dt\
Summing
'
(a)
d (
dt\
is
rav r
"
dT
^
v
dr\
dq a J
to v \
dq a /
m v rv
over
9rv
The
...
dq a
kinetic energy is
Bq a
dq a
dT
r2%rj
dT
v?
^
2,m
'
Thus
K-
9rv
rv
'
dqa
page
11.3,
d *v
"
Prove that
dtv
m K
have by the "cancellation of the dots" [Problem
dT
drv
? ^'^
dq a
3ga
dr
- v
dq a
_F
= -2
-
we have
9rv
dQa
dqa
We
&v
3r
-
all particles,
(b)
dqa
m
^'^q-J-^ ^-Iq-a
dic v
<*
be the kinetic energy of a system of particles.
Bqa
constant,
both sides with respect to
d f
d-t\^
Let
9tv
dqa
d 'v
dqa
_,,
d / r
dt\dq
^+
11
(2)
rv
dqa
_ v
[CHAP.
dq a
tt
11.9.
286],
3r"
dqa
dqa
11.10.
^ (|)
Prove that
From Problem
11.9(a)
and
3r
(2)
and
*l
1,
(3) in (1),
we
The quantity
where
*=|F
^
drv
the generalized
<?
it
ar"
.
U)
Pa
momentum
{S)
find
d(8T_)_f_ =
nate qa
.,n
a *"
'3Ta
dt\dqa J
is called
11.9(6),
Then substituting
*,
11.8,
d f
From Problems
J^ =
or conjugate
dqa
W
(5)
J^~
momentum
associated with the generalized coordi
CHAP.
11.11.
11]
289
Suppose that the forces acting on a system of particles are derivable from a potential
is
function V, i.e. suppose that the system is conservative. Prove that if
the Lagrangian function, then
L-T-V
dt\Bqa )
If the forces are derivable
dq a
from a potential V, then

*
Since the potential, or potential energy
is
_ dW =
dV
3qa
Bqa
a function of only the
L = 4-<r-v) =
(b)
(a)
[and possibly the time
t],
3qa
3V_
d /3L\
dt\9qj
11.10,
dt
11.12. (a)
q's
11.7],
^?-
dqa
Bqa
Then from Problem
Problem
[see
/BL\ _
_ _
BT_
dqa
9qa
\9qa )
dL
Set up the Lagrangian for a simple pendulum and

obtain an equation describing its motion.
Choose as generalized coordinate the angle e made by string
OB of the pendulum and the vertical OA [see Fig. 11-4].
If I is the length of OB, then the kinetic energy is
T = mv 2 =
where
the
mass of the
(1)
bob.
[taking as reference
mass
a horizontal plane through the lowest point A] is given
The
level
is
= mP 2
%m{le)2
potential energy of
by
V = mg(OA - OC) =
=
Thus the Lagrangian
Lagrange's equation
From
e)
cos
e)
()
V = ^ml2 e 2 dL
dL
(3),
mgl
Be
(4),
ml
is
cos
dt\Bi)
2 e
11.13.
mgl(l
is
Substituting these in
which
is
L
(b)
mg(l
we
mgl(l
cos e)
(4)
Be
3L
sin 9 ,
= ml2 e
(5)
Be
find
+ mgl
sin e
-jrsin*
the required equation of motion [compare Problem 4.23, page 102].
mass Af2 hangs at one end of a string which passes over a fixed frictionless nonAt the other end of this string there is a
rotating pulley [see Fig. 11-5 below].
non-rotating pulley of mass Mi over which there is a string carrying masses mi and m%.
(b) Find the acceleration of mass Af.
(a) Set up the Lagrangian of the system,
Let
pulley.
X2 be the distances of masses x and 2 respectively below the center of the fixed
t and
Let x x and x 2 be the distances of masses
2 respectively below the center of the
x and
movable pulley
Mv
Since the strings are fixed in length,
X + X2 =
t
constant
a,
xx
x2
constant
290
Then by
differentiating with respect to time
or
X2 = X
or
x2
and
xx
x2
= X2 = -X
11
t,
X + X2 =
x
[CHAP.
= x x
Thus we have
M
Velocity of M
Velocity of
Velocity of
-j-
Velocity of
m2 =
(X
Then the
(X x
X +
xx
+ x2 = X +
x2
+x
x)
energy of the system
total kinetic
= Xx
Flg 11_5
*
is
= M X2 + \M2\ + m
(X x
The total potential energy of the system measured

of the fixed pulley as reference is
Then the Lagrangian
)*
(1)
- m 2 g{X + x 2
+ x - m2 g(X + b - x
)
1)
(2)
x)
+ \M2 k\ + %m (X + x )2 + \m2 {X - xtf

+ M gX + M2 g{a-X + m g(X + x + m 2g(X + b - x
X.\
x)
Lagrange's equations corresponding to
From
(3)
jg-
Mg
dL
r-
MX
mg - m
dL
= mi(X + x
1)
(3)
x)
and x x are
_d
Xj
dL
+ Lm 2 (k -x
is
= %M
dX x
)2
from a horizontal plane through the center
x)
T - V
+x
M gX - m g(X + x
M fif(a-Z]) - m g(X
V = -M gX = -M gX 1
xx
fdL_\ _dL_
dt\dx x J
3*1
U)
dx x
we have
x
#
Mg
MX
+ m
+ m
2fl
{m x
+x
(X x
x)
+ m 2 (X x
x
x)
(M x +
m 2 {X x
(4)
x)
m 2 )X +
(m x
(m x
Then the downward
+ m + m 2 )X +
x
(m x
+ m2 )x
become
(M x + M2 + m x + m 2 )X x + (m x m 2 ) x x
dXi
Thus equations
-m )g
x)
(M x - M2 + m x + m 2 )g
mg
we
m2)X +
(m x
(M x M2 + m x + m 2 )g
+ m^) x x =
(m x
m 2)g
find
X,
(M x M 2 )(m x + m2 ) + 4m m 2
(M x + M2 )(m x + m2 ) + 4m 1 m2
xx
(M x + M 2 )(m x + m 2 ) + 4m x m 2
acceleration of
2M2 (m m2
x
mass
X2 X
2 is
constant and equal to
(M2 M x )(m x + m 2 ) 4m x m 2
(M x + Af2)(m 1 + m2) + 4m 1ra2
(m x
m 2 )x
CHAP.
11.14.
291
Ill
Use Lagrange's equations

of Problem 8.1, page 197.
to set
differential equation of the vibrating
up the
The
Refer to Figs. 8-7 and 8-8 of page 197.
masses
kinetic energy of the system is
T = \mx\ + \mx\
CO
Fig. 8-8 are numerically equal to x lf x 2

Since the stretches of springs AP,PQ and QB of
is
system
the
of
energy
potential
x 2 respectively, the
V =
Thus the Lagrangian
%kx 21
-x
%k(x 2
2
1)
+ &x 22
and
(*)
is
L = t - V = \mx\ + \mx\ -
\kx\
\k[x 2
- xj* - &x\
(3)
Lagrange's equations are
SL
d /BL\
dt{axj
dL
Then
since
-kx,
'
- *i) =
k(x 2
/dL\
dL
dt
\dxJ
dx 9
"(a?2
- 2x i)>
dx 2
equations
(4)
-k{x 2
m'x\
become
x)
k(x 2
agreeing with those obtained in Problem
kx 2
(!
2x 2),
mx 2 -
-2xJ,
8.1,
(-4)
dL
- mx
T*~
dx l
dx-,
dL
11.15.
dx i
dL
mx 2
dX 2
k(x 1
-2x 2
(5)
page 197.
pendulum
Use Lagrange's equations to find the differential equation for a compound
axis.
horizontal
fixed
about
a
plane
vertical
which oscillates in a
Let the plane of oscillation be represented by the xy plane
where O is its intersection with the axis of rotation and C is the center of mass.
of Fig. 11-6,
Suppose that the mass of the pendulum is

of inertia about the axis of rotation is I =
of gyration], and distance OC = h.
M,
MK
moment
its
[K
radius
OC
makes with^the
If e is the instantaneous angle which
2
vertical axis through O, then the kinetic energy is T = %I 6 =
plane
2 2
horizontal
a
relative
to
energy
The potential
MK
through
is
Since dL/do
equation is
V = Mgh cos 6. Then the Lagrangian

L = T -V = \MK2 e 2 + Mgh cos e
- -Mgh
sin e
and
dLIdd
dL
dL
dt[do
de
d_ /
MK
2 e,
is
Lagrange's
i.e.,
MK
2 6
+ Mgh
Compare Problem
11.16.
particle of
function,
page
1.147,
(a)
(b)
The
sin
9.24,
or
V +
sin
Fig. 11-6
page 237.
moves in a conservative force field. Find (a) the Lagrangian

of motion in cylindrical coordinates ( P 4>, z) [see Problem
equations
the
mass
32].
total kinetic
energy T
the Lagrangian function
- %m[p 2 + p 2 $ 2 + z 2
The
potential energy
is
L =
T-V
lm[p2
+ p 2^2 + |2] -V( p ,0,s)
V =
V(p,<p,z).
Then
292
11
Lagrange's equations are
(b)
d /8L\
dL
d /8L\
dL
dL
fdL\
11.17.
[CHAP.
Work Problem
d.
&
dV\
\,dV
dV
xy plane and
in the
dV
..
moves
11.16 if the particle
d..,av
..
if
the potential
depends only on the distance from the origin.

In this case
11.16
depends only on P and z
Then Lagrange's equations
0.
in
part
(6)
of Problem
become
rnG-p'^)
These are the equations for motion
A( P 20) =
-^,
a central force
in
field
obtained in Problem
5.3,
page 122.

11.18.
Derive Lagrange's equations (15), page 284, for non-holonomic constraints.

Assume that there are m constraint conditions of the form
2a A a dqa +
where
As
m<
n,
number
the
Problem
in
11.10,
Adt =
2a B a dqa
0,
of coordinates q a
+ B dt =
...
0,
(1)
page 288, we have
dT
8T
..
drv
If Sr are virtual displacements which satisfy the instantaneous constraints [obtained by considering that time t is a constant], then
Now
the virtual
work done
SW
Now
since the virtual
**
(4-)
work can be written
subtraction of
(3)
dr
=
- S?a
2 2a m r oq
8rv
in
SW
we have by
is
2v
^ dr
2^-5g
a
Sr
and
2 Ya 8qa
a
terms of the generalized forces
2*
a
a
<t>
a as
S 9a
(5)
(6)
(5),
2(â-*a)Sg a
a
Since the 8qa are not all independent, we cannot conclude that
Lagrange's equations as obtained in Problem 11.10.
Prom
(1),
since
t is
constant for instantaneous con train ts,
J,A a 8qa
a
Multiplying these by the
(4)
0,
lB
a
Lagrange multipliers
2 (M a + X2B a +
a Sqa
X lt X 2 , ...
8qa
Ya = $ a
we have
0,
the
which would lead
to
equations
...
(7)
and adding, we have
(8)
CHAP.
293
11]
Subtraction of
and
(6)
(8) yields
2 (Y a -
X 2B a
8q a
(9)
of the quantities 8q a [say 5^,

Now because of equations (7) we can solve for
.,
Thus in (9) we can consider 8 ffl>
., 8q n ].
of the remaining 8q a [say 8g m + 1
and Sg m + i,
., 8q n as independent.
.,8q m ] in terms
m as dependent
S<?
equal to zero,
Let us arbitrarily set the coefficients of the dependent variables
*a
X lâ
X2
Ba
1,2,
o,
...,m
Equations
and
(2), (10)
11.19.
* a+Xl A a +
These equations together with
Derive equations
From Problem
ar-
()
.,
thus lead to
(11)
d/3T\_|T =
as required.
m+1,
0,
(10)
and since these are
will be left in the sum (9) only the independent quantities 8q a

bitrary it follows that their coefficients will be zero. Thus
Then there
i.e.,
lead to n
(i)
X a Fa
+m
l,2,...,n
equations in n
+m
unknowns.
page 284, for conservative non-holonomic systems.
(16),
11.18,
/dT
dT
<f>
d <la
dt \dq a
J
Then if the forces are derivable from a

qa Thus (1) can be written
potential,
X xA a
<t>
X 2B
= -dV/dq a
(1)
where
does not depend on
11.20.
dt\dq a J
L = T V.
where
d <la
moves under the influence

particle of mass
of gravity on the inner surface of the paraboloid
x 2 + y 2 = az which is assumed
of revolution
frictionless [see Fig. 11-7]. Obtain the equations
of motion.
By Problem
ordinates
is
11.16, the
L =
Since x 2
+ y2 =
m('p 2
2
,
2p 8p
we
call
in cylindrical co-
Qi
the equations
+ P2
+ I 2 - mgz
q% = <t>, <lz z and compare (2) with

of Problem 11.18, we see that
p,
(7)
since only one constraint is given.
<tt\dp)
(1),
az =
(2)
Using
is p
a 8z
A =
1,e "
{D
the constraint condition
so that
If
Lagrangian
given by
these become
3p
A2 =
0,
A 3 = -a
Lagrange's equations
/1L\
2X lP
2p,
Fig. 11-7
-*k
<ft^4
[see
xA
d^
o,
(3)
Problem
11.19]
can thus be written
1,2,
dt\
XjO.
dz
dz
294
[CHAP.
11
m('p-p$ 2 ) = 2X lP
= mg
m'z
We
also
have the constraint condition
2pp
The four equations &),
11.21. (a)
(5), (6)
and
(4)
\ta
(6)
az
(7)
enable us to find the four unknowns
(7)
p, $, z,
\v
Prove that the particle of Problem 11.20 will describe a horizontal circle in the
plane z = h provided that it is given an angular velocity whose magnitude is
(o
y/2g/a
(b)
Prove that if the particle is displaced slightly from this circular path
undergo oscillations about the path with frequency given by (lh)^2g/a
(c)
Discuss the stability of the particle in the circular path.
(a)
The radius of the

p
az
circle obtained as the intersection of the
is
Po
Letting z
in equation (6) of
Problem
(1)
2{mg/a)p Q
or
and
w2
(*) in
2g/a
equation
(1)
find
and
we
find
Assuming that the
{2)
\j
and
(7) in
equation
(4)
constant
circle,
p
is
small compared with p
(p
But
= A
(5)
we
find
1-1
A =
aha so that
(6)
h,
we
by
find
letting
= mg/a
a2 h2 a 2 /p 3
Now if the path departs slightly from the

are led to make the transformation
where u
m(- Po
ahu/p 2
Then
-2p/a
+ u) 6
(8)
+u
(8)
find
then p will depart slightly from p

po
(7)
we
of Problem 11.20,
P
in (8),
find
/,=>/?
Since the vibration takes place very nearly in the plane

in equation (6) of Problem 11.20 that
(6)
= w, we
u2 )
(3)
particle starts with angular speed w,
Using
h with the paraboloid
= V2g/a
2,^
of Problem 11.20,
(5)
we
of Problem 11.20 and calling
(4)
particle in this circular path are given respectively by
P1 =
equation
from which
The period and frequency of the
From
plane
= mg/a
<o
(b)
Va>h
11.20,
Xi
Then using
will
it
Thus we
(9)
becomes
to a high degree of approximation,
(p
+ tt) 3
p3(l+w/p
_ i/ 1+ iiV 3 =
)3
p3\
po
l/i_ 3w
p3\
by the binomial theorem, where we have neglected terms involving

values of p and a given by (1) and (5) respectively, (10) becomes
p
2
u u
Using the
CHAP.
295
11]
u
whose solution
is
it
et
Po
cos V8r/o
(Sg/a)u
4-
+ u = Vah +
VSg/a
sin
e2
ej
cos
It follows that if the particle is displaced slightly

it
will
undergo
oscillations
t>
e2
sin y/Sg/a
from the circular path of radius
Po
Vah,
\~L
(7)
"\2g
oscillation in the circular
It is interesting that the period of
the period of oscillation about the circular path given by
11.22.
about the path with frequency
or period
(c)
Thus
t.
VSgJa
5)
Since the particle tends to return to the circular path

the motion is one of stability.
path given by
(4)
is
twice
(7).
when
displaced slightly
it is
Discuss the physical significance of the Lagrange multipliers
Xi,
A2
in
from
it,
Problem
11.18.
Problem 11.10,
In case there are no constraints the equations of motion are by
/dT\ _
9T_
dt
d Qa
\dq a )
In case there are constraints the equations are by Problem 11.18,
dt \dq
aJ
It follows
that the terms
\x
Aa +
d<*
\ 2B a
correspond to the generalized forces associated with
constraints.
acting on the
Physically, the Lagrange multipliers are associated with the constraint forces
account
system. Thus when we determine the Lagrange multipliers we are essentially taking into
explicitly.
forces
these
finding
actually
without
forces
constraint
the
of
the effect

11.23.
Derive the equations
(20),
page 285.
For the case where forces are
finite
we have by Problem
dt{ dq
*
where
dqa
2 F t
Jo
so that
7-
(1)
dt
with respect to
\*Qa)
Jo
Integrating both sides of
11.10,
from
to
r,
a<*
\dqa /t=T
Taking the limit as
r -* 0,
we have
-lim f*Ldt
auSL-(SL>-rs*
lim
g)
*ia
=
-
(Aim C *,*)>
2
n*s;'-*)'Z
(5)
296
11.24.
a
tfa
dt
since -
JA^
f) -(f)
and
is finite,
[CHAP.
9o
lim
t-0
11
T.
Fv dt =
tf.
A square ABCD formed by four rods of length
and mass
hinged at their ends, rests on a
horizontal frictionless table. An impulse of
magnitude 3 is applied to the vertex A in the
direction AD. Find the equations of motion.
21
After the square

eral be a
rhombus
struck, its shape will in gen-
is
[Fig. 11-8].
Suppose that at any time t the angles made by

AD (or BC) and AB (or CD) with the x axis
are e t and 6 2 respectively, while the coordinates of
sides
the center
are (x,
eralized coordinates.
Thus x,y,0 x ,6 2 are the gen-
y).
From Fig. 11-8 we see that the position vectors

of the centers E,F,G,H of the rods are given respectively by
rG
=
=
=
rH
rE
rF
The
(x
(x
(x
{x
velocities of
(y
(y +
(y +
+
+ cos 6 2 )\ +
+ cos 0i)i +
cos e 2 )i +
I
cos 0{)i
(y
E, F,
and
=
vF =
vg =
vH =
vE
at
sin e t )j
sin e 2 )j
sin e^j
sin 6 2)j
any time are given by
=
=
rE
rF
*g
rH
Fig. 11-8
{x
(x
(x
(x
sin
sin e 2 $ 2 )i
sin $! #i)i
sin
(y
+
+
+
+
eji
2 #2)*
(y
(y
(if
+
+
cos $i
cos o 2 e 2 )j
cos e x b i)j
co s *2 *2)j
x )j
The kinetic energy of a rod such as AZ? is the same as the kinetic energy of a particle of
mass m located at its center of mass E plus the kinetic energy of rotation about an axis through
E perpendicular to the xy plane. Since the angular velocity has magnitude e 2 aR d the moment of
inertia of a rod of length 21 about its center of mass is IAB = $ml2 the total energy of rod AB is
,
Similarly, the total kinetic energies of rods
TBC =
Thus the
%mrj.
total kinetic
is
CD
AD
and
are
TAD = %miH2 + %IAD o\
TCD = %mr% + $ICDl,
lIBC el,
energy
BC,
[using the fact that I
IAB
IBC
Icd
T TAB + T BC + TCD + TAD

= |m(r| + rF + r% + rH2 + I(e\ + f
= im(4^2 + 4y 2 + 2Z2 *2 + 2J2*2 + mZ2(^ +
= m 2
*
.)
= 2m(x 2 + y 2 + %ml2 {e\ +

)
2
2)
Let us assume that initially the rhombus is a square at rest with

coordinate axes and its center located at the origin. Then we have
x
If
we
use the notation
0,
0,
H and
<?!
)2
v/2, e 2
0,
0,
to denote quantities before
have
0,
^=
(4i)i
"
\ d V/i
0, e 2
sides parallel to the
and after the impulse
'2Z\
Bx/x
its
(4my)i
is
applied,
we
CHAP.
11]
dT
(Amx) 2
3*/ 2
Am'x
ST
V%/ 2
(Amy) 2
= 4m
raZ2 2
/dT
\de 2 /2
\l/2
(5).-.
'
or
4m* = fx
ftf
or
Amy - fy
or
JmPff!
= y
6i
Te*
or
fmPffg
(i?),"(i
{'df2 ) 2
~\dfj
fx f y f $i f h we
,
We
are the impulsive forces.
04)
2j-
(5)
thus have
Fig. 11-8
we
dr
A
Sa-+
T.
3rB
drc
drD
A, -
dr R
3r c
3rD
3rA
3rB
9rc
drD
A,B,C,D
(x
cos 9 1
cos
2 )i
(2/
rB
(x
cos
cos
2 )i
(2/
rc
(x
cos
cos e 2 )i
td
(x
cos e x
cos e 2 )i
dr n
3rA
rA
tf
is initially in
(T)
given by
sin
sin
sin e 1
sin
(y
sin 8 X
sin $ 2 )j
(y
+ sm$i +
sin
2 )j
fl
2 )j
2 )J
the direction of the positive y axis,
we have
= Si
do)
(6)-(9) yield
fx
Then equations
drr
A-^ + A-^+
ca
Thus equations
drB
find the position vectors of
Since the impulsive force at
7^
0,
y 9l = - J*
J,
cos e x ,
Te2
= SI
cos 6 2
(11)
become
(1)-(U)
4m* =
11.25.
fe2
drA
Now from
(S)
note that
T*
where
(2)
where for simplicity we have now removed the subscript

find
\mV-h
(fe) 2 "(fe)i
To
297
Amy = J,
0,
fm/2 ^
= SI
cos
|mZ2
tf^
ff
= 1
cos
(-Z2)
Prove that the kinetic energy developed immediately after application of the impulsive
forces in Problem 11.24 is T = S2 /2m.
From
equations (12) of Problem 11.24,
'
= s
4m>
we have
%s
* = ~8mT C0S ^'
'*
%s
= 8m7 cos '*
298
[CHAP.
Substituting these values in the kinetic energy obtained in Problem 11.24,

3
<72
we
11
find
(12
But immediately after application of the impulsive

Thus (1) becomes T = J 2 /2m.
forces,
ex
and
tt/2
62
approximately.
11.26. In Fig. 11-9, AB is a straight frictionless wire
fixed at point A on a vertical axis OA such that
AB rotates about OA with constant angular
A bead of mass m is constrained to
velocity
<>.
Set up the Lagrangian.

Write Lagrange's equations, (c) Determine
move on
(b)
the wire,
(a)
the motion at any time.

(a)
Let r be the distance of the bead from point A of

The rectangular coordinates
the wire at time *.
of the bead are then given by
x
y
z
=
=
r sin a cos at
r sin a sin at
r cos a
the wire
t
it is assumed that at
the xz plane and that the distance from O to A
where
The
is in
Fig. 11-9
is h.
kinetic energy of the bead is
T = m(x 2 + y 2 +
m{(r
z2 )
sin a cos at
+
= ^m(r2 +
co
ar sin a sin
(r sin a sin at
2r2
at) 2
ar sin a cos
at) 2
( r cos
a) 2 }
sin 2 a)
The potential energy, taking the xy plane as reference level, is V = mgz

Then the Lagrangian is
L = T V \m(r2 + a 2 r2 sin2 a) - mg(h r cos a)
(b)
We
have
flL
= m 2 r
sin 2 a
+ mg
L_
cos
a,
is
dL
(
mr
(c)
The general
sin 2 a
+ w#
(w 2 sin 2 a)r
c e (a sin a)t -f
(1)
is
r cos
a).
= mr
or
fif
(co
CO
cos a
hand
C2 e-
cos a)
solution of equation (1) with the right
Since the right hand side of

general solution of (1) is
dr
(ma 2 r
i.e.,
mgr(/i
dr
dr
and Lagrange's equation
side replaced
C2 e-Ca, sin
is
sin a)t
a constant, a particular solution
^CasinaOt
by zero
aK
is
-^-^-.
z
z
__cos a
fif
to
sin z a
functions as
This result can also be written in terms of hyperbolic
g cos a
2 sin 2 a
r = c 3 cosh ( sin a)i + 4 sinh ( sin a)t
to
<o
Inus tne
sin a
(2)
(3)
CHAP.
11.27.
11]
299
Suppose that in Problem 11.26 the bead starts from rest at A. How long
to reach the end B of the wire assuming that the length of the wire is It
Since the bead starts from rest at
tion (2) of
Problem
+
,
c 1x
Co
we have
0,
0,
cx
c2
at
it
take
Then from equa-
0.
11.26,
Ci1
Thus
will
= -^2t-tt2
sm
2w
and
g cos a
o
o
w 2 sin 2 a
c2
and
of Problem 11.26 becomes
(2)
v '
_JL2!L_ / e (<a
2 2 sin2 a
& C0S a
sin a)t J- e -(u sin a)t\
/*\
a
4COS
r-^ {cosh (w sm a) 1}
,
flr
which can also be obtained from equation
Z 2
= 14-
" 2si
11.28.
....
When
sin2
Z,
yields
(2)
9 cos a
is
= -4-coshVl-f
w sm a
=
of Problem 11.26.
(3)
cosh ( sin a)*

so that the required time
Sir a
w-4
flr
cos 2 a /
dn^ ln {( 1+ ^ÛA/fl
V
g COS a /
2
^^)
gr
-1
cos 2 a
double pendulum [see Problem 11.1(c) and Fig. 11-3, page 285] vibrates in a
(a) Write the Lagrangian of the system,
(b) Obtain equations for
the motion.
vertical plane,
(a)
The transformation equations given
yield
The
xx
lx
cos 9 X
x2
cos
= ~h 9
-l x e x
sin
sin
in
4- Z2
Problem
cos 6 2
^
tf
Z2
page 286,
11.2,
2 sin e 2
yx
V2
lx
sin $ x
sin *i 4- l2 sin e 2
y2
= Z^
lx e
cos
cos e x
4-
2e 2
cos e 2
kinetic energy of the system is
T =
$m
+ y 2 + ^m&l + fy
x {x\
x)
= %m x l\e\
4-
\m2 \$o\ 4-
Zâ
2Z 1 Z2 * 1 * 2 cos
The potential energy of the system [taking as reference

below the point of suspension of Fig. 11-3] is
V =
m g[l
x
Then the Lagrangian
4- Z2
lx
cos e x ]
+ m 2g[l
4- Z
2
(Z x
(^
level
- *2
)]
a plane at distance
cos 0!
Z2
cos
lt
2 )]
is
L = T - V
= \>xA<>\ +
l2
+ |*| + 2Z 1 2 2 cos (e - e 2
-l x cos $ - m2g[l + 2 - (l
%>2{l j\
-m g[l +
(b)
The Lagrange equations associated with
x]
ex
and
are
(i)
))
x
cos e x
4- Z
2
cos 6 2 )]
300
From
we
(1)
[CHAP.
11
find
dL/de 2
m2 2 e x e 2 sm e ~ e z) ~ m idh sin e ~ m 20h

= ml\e + m 2 l\e + m 2 2 e 2 c s o 2
= m 2 2 e e 2 sin (*i 2) ~ m*zQh sin 2
dL/de 2
= m 2 l\e 2 + m 2
dL/de x
l l
x
dL/de x
Thus equations
(<?i
+ m 2 l\ e\ + m 2l x
e\
and
sin e x
cos
29 x
e2
{e x
become
{2)
x x
-m 2
2 ?2 * 2
l x l2
l
'e
i cos
l2
e2 m
)
(<?!
sin
xe2
~ #2) ~
cos (*i
sin (e x
l l 6 x62
x 2
+ m2
= m2
(<?!
rn 2 l x l 2 e 2 (e x
m 2 gl
gl x sin e x
e 2 - m2
2 e\(e - e 2
9 2 m 2 gl 2 sin 2
lxl
e2
sin (e x
2)
sin e x
sin {e x
- o2
<9
which reduce respectively to
+ m 2)l\ e\ +
(m x
m2
and
11.29.
*0
m2
2 e2
cos
(<?!
- e 2 + m2
'e\
cos
(0 x
-6 2 - m 2
m = m2
y
lx
21 e\
I 'e x
=
+
in equations
sin (e x
- e2
-{m x + m 2 )gl
x l 2 o\
sm(o x
-e 2
-m
- e2 +
+ 2 -
e 2 cos (e x
cos (e x
- e2
and
(3)
I 'e
m =m
2
sin e x
sine 2
(3)
(4)
and h = h = I
Problem 11.28 and simplifying, they
of
(4)
2 gl2
lei sin {e x
- e2
= -2g
le\ sin {e x
- e2
-g
sin e x
{1)
sin e 2
(2)
are assumed
Obtain the equations of Problem 11.29 for the case where the oscillations
to be small.
Using the approximations sin e = 6, cos
tions (1) and (2) of Problem 11.29 become
11.31.
2 e\
Write the equations of Problem 11.28 for the case

Letting
can be written
11.30.
m2
Find the
(a)
Let
ex
l'e 2
l'e\
l'o 2
= go 2
normal frequencies and

of the double pendulum.
=A
cos*t,
*2
= A2
and neglecting terms involving
2l'e x
(b)
(a)
oscillations
A e^, A 2 e^]
[or
cos<ot
-lo> 2
In order for A x and

equal to zero, i.e.,
A +
x
A 2 to be different from
-
2{g
2 co 4
- 4tow 2 + 2g 2 =
we
Solving,
0.
,.&
4lg
A 2 = 0|
= Oj
CO
zero,
we must have
the determinant of the coefficients
-Zco 2
Zo) )
to 2
find
y/l6l2 g 2
- M29 2
(2V^)9
2l2
{2
A =
(g-l<* 2 )A
-hfl
or
1<*
+ y/2)g
1
W2
'
to the small
the equations of Problem 11.30.
in
2(g-lo> 2 )A x
the equa-
-2ge x
normal modes corresponding
Then they can be written
6 2 e,
_
-
y[2)g
I
CHAP.
Ill
301
Thus the normal frequencies are given by
(b)
Substituting
Wl
a2
a*
l(2
+ V2)g
and
= 2^\
2^
(2
_
~
ft
+ -y/2)g/l
Part
in equations (1) of
A 2 = -V2A
i J (2-V2)g
&\
_
~
tt2
tor
yields
(a)
U)
This corresponds to the normal mode in which the bobs are moving in opposite directions.
u2
Substituting
w2
(2
\/2 )gll
in equations
of Part (a)
(1)
yields
A 2 = V2A!
(5)
This corresponds to the normal mode in which the bobs are moving in the same directions.
Set up the Lagrangian for the motion of a symmetrical top [see Problem 10.25,
page 268] and (b) obtain the equations of motion.
11.32. (a)
(a)
The
T = \{h\ + 12 4 + h4) =
The
Problem
kinetic energy in terms of the Euler angles [see
potential energy
%h& sin2 e
V = mgl
is
(6)
T - V
= -J/^ 2
3L/d0
= i^ 2
dL/dd
3L/30
= J^
=
dL/d$
3L/d^
dL/dj,
sin2 e
sin 8 cos
Irf sin 2 8
7 3 (0 cos 8
2)
cos e
is
+ fo
(i)
(2)
and the height of the center of
|/3 (0 cos
/ 3 (< cos 8
Is ($ cos
y^
g2)
page 268]
cos 8
as seen from Fig. 10-18, page 269, since distance OC

Thus
mass C above the xy plane is therefore I cos 8.
10.24,
J)2
^){<t> sin 8)
mflr ; C os
mflfZ
(5)
sin *
cos
4>)
^)
Then Lagrange's equations are
/9L\_9L I\0
or
h4>
cos
sin
A/^.\_^
[7 t
sin2 6
Use the results of Problem 11.32

(a) Problem 10.29(&), page 270, and
(a)
From
equations
(5)
and
of
(6)
Itf
sin 2 8
(6)
(2) in (1),
Using
(2) in
we
find
equation
(4)
ij o
Problem
obtain
to
Problem
(b)
I3 ($ cos 8
I-Jj>
of
^)]
sin
$) cos
0]
mflrZ
-Ok =
sin
(4)
(5)
(6)
agreement with the equation of

10.27(a), page 270.
Problem 11.32 we obtain on integrating,
<
Using
<L/i>LL\
\p)$
J 3 (0 cos 8
j^[/3 (^cos0
11.33.
/3 (^ cos
cos *
^) cos 8
sin 2
11.32,
we
2
Ji< sin 8 cos
constant
= A
73
cos
(1)
(2)
find
/ 3A< sin 8
mgrZ sin 8
302
11.34.
[CHAP.
11
Derive Euler's equations of motion for a rigid body by use of Lagrange's equations.
kinetic energy in terms of the Euler angles
The
T = (J lW ? + I 2 4 + 7 8 i)
- -J/^ sin sin + 6
- I Q> sin
dT/dxp
<?
Then
ar/af
Then by Problem
/1 w 1 w2
i 3 ($ cos
11.10,
\J-)
sin ^
cos
,/<
/2 (< sin
(9
cos
I 2 (< si n * cos
J2 (w 2 )( a^)
/>)
-?3
e sin
6 sin
^)( < sin
(^1
-^2)
ized force corresponding to a rotation ^ about an axis

A 3 of the torque about this axis [see Problem 11.102].
The remaining equations
/T
/<)
./>)
sin
>/<
cos ^)
is
- it2
J2 2
(h
- ^3)"3l = A 2
w 2w 3
(*)
,\
(I 3
The quantity *^ represents the generaland physically represents the component
to
*</;
7 lWl
w l w2
î) w i"2
page 256.
Euler's third equation of (22),
%h(4> cos
9T
(h ~
^3"3
page 268]
2
6 sin ^)
page 288, Lagrange's equation corresponding
or
is
10.24,
w3
d_/dT\
This
e cos
sin e cos^p
</<)(0
\p
Problem
is [see
= A
.
2)
can be obtained from symmetry considerations by permutation of the indices. They are not directly
and < but can indirectly be deduced
obtained by using the Lagrange equations corresponding to
Problem
11.79].
[see
from them
11.35.
A bead slides without friction on a f rictionless

wire in the shape of a cycloid [Fig. 11-10]
with equations
x
where
function,
(a)
a(0
sin
9),
a(l
cos
9)
the Lagrangian
motion.
the equation of
(b)
Find
2tt.
Kinetic energy
= T =
Potential energy
(a)
+ y2
-|m(x 2
Fig. 11-10
= lma 2 {[(l -
cos e)d] 2
ma 2 (l
e)e 2
cos
= V - mgy
mga{l
[-sin
cos
e]
2
}
0)
Then
Lagrangian
...
d fdL\
= L = T
dL
-V
d
= ma2 (l [2ma2 (l
cos 0)0 2
cos 0)0]
mga(l
[ma 2
cos
sin 6 e 2
0)
+ mga
sin
e]
dt
[(1
11.36. (a)
Show
written
(1
cos 9)e]
cos 6) e
- \
+ %
sin 6
sin 6 e 2
sin 6
g- sin
that the equation of motion obtained in part
(b)
of
a2u
dt 2
SL W
4a
where w = cos
(5/2)
Problem 11.35 can be
CHAP.
11]
and thus
If
(a)
show that the bead
(b)
with period 2 7r\/ 4a/g
oscillates
cos (0/2), then
~r = -
Thus
303
-v-g-
+ j-u =
the
is
^=
sin (0/2)0,
-A
sin (0/2)0*
-A cos (0/2)02
same as
- i4~~v,-/=
cos (0/2)02 + &- cos (0/2)
4a
sin (0/2) V
\
2 --'-'-
Since
it
follows that equation
The
(b)
sin (0/2)
'
cot (0/2)
(i)
sin
1
cos
the same as that obtained in Problem 11.35(&).
(1) is
solution of the equation
is
|L
2 sin (0/2) cos (0/2)

2 sin2 (0/2)
= ôs (<?/2) =
cot (0/2)
cot (0/2)0*2
cos (0/2)
cos V4a/flr
Cj
c 2 sin y/ba/g t
from which we
see that cos (0/2) returns to its original value after a time 2iry/a/g which
is the required period.
Note that this period is the same as that of a simple pendulum with
length I 4a.
An
11.37.
application of this
is
the cycloidal pendulum.
See Problem 4.86, page 112.
Obtain equations for the rolling sphere of Problem 9.42, page 244 by use of Lagrange's
equations.
Refer to Fig. 9-33 in which
and ^ represent generalized coordinates. Since the sphere of
CP = a rolls without slipping on the sphere of radius OP = b, we have
<t>
radius
6 d<p/dt
which shows that
if

and $ [and therefore
The
and d> or
d
kinetic energy of the rolling sphere
using the fact that I = %ma?through its center of mass.
The
is
af
then
0,
b<j>
Thus
b$
or
d\f//dt
a\p
and
(i)
3^] are not independent.
is
= im(a +
6)2^2
6)2^2
+ ^(|ma2 )( ; + ^2
m(a +
the
moment
_ij w 2
of inertia of the sphere about a horizontal axis
potential energy of the rolling sphere [taking the horizontal plane through
as reference
level] is
V = mg(a +
Thus the Lagrangian
We
T - V
cos
= {m(o + 6) 202 + ma2
<f>
(4>
+ J)2 - mg(a + b)
use Lagrange's equations (16), page 284, for non-holonomic systems.

b
so that if
we
b)
is
we
call
gx
and
q2
8<f>
a S^
f and compare with equation
find
A =
t
Thus equations
(16),
b,
A 2 = a
page 284, become

dL /dL\
_d
/BL\
dL
dL
_
_
cos
From
(2)
<f>
(1)
we have
(#\
(7)
of Problem 11.18, page 292 '

(4)
304
Substitution of
(2)
and
intd (5)
(6)
m(a+b) $ + fma2 (0 + ) - mg(a +
fraa 2 (0
[from
(b/a)</>
m(a +
.
(1)]
b) 2 5?
into (7)
and
fma 2 (l +
(10)
and using
this in (9) it
we have
'vfr)
<f>
\xb
(7)
(8)
find
wfir(o
6/a)0
b) sin
-X x a
we
(8),
+ 6/a) -
raa2 (l
Now from
6) sin
<p
\xb
(9)
-XjO
(10)
= %m(a + b)$
Xi
becomes after simplifying and solving for
*<p,
5flf
~ 7(^+6) 8m *
This is the same equation as that of (2) in Problem 9.42, page 244, with
required angle at which the sphere falls off, see Problem 11.104.
<f>
w/2
- e. To
Solve the equations of motion obtained in Problem 11.24, page 296, and
pret physically.
11.38. (a)
(a)
From
at
0.
0.
Similarly,
since
From
at
In cot
or on integrating,
we
Thus
have
since
$i
From
n-/2
at
<
- ~g^J +
c2
In cot
tan
i.e.,
0,
e%
ten/E-M
all
time
we must
so that c4
(7
1.
-8^8i
similarly,
- z^jdt
3Jt
-^f
e2 \
(i"^)
we have
='
c3
W~ ZSmml
Then
or
,2
|-
2 tan-i( e
-3 ^/8w
and (2) show that the center moves along the y axis with constant speed J/4m.
rotate until
and BC are always parallel to the y axis while rods AB and CD slowly
axis.
on
the
be
rods
will
all
four
that
y
so
[*-"] the rhombus collapses,
Equations
The rods
finally
eW*ml
This means that for
0.
the fourth of equations (12) in Problem 11.24
or on integrating,
Now when
c2
ci
n72.
sec 9 2 de 2
(6)
on separating the variables,
find
we have
0,
(12)
we have
= is'
tan(|-^) =
i.e.
(0
from the second of equations
the third of equations (12)
(b) inter-
constant
find the
we have
the first of equations (12) in Problem 11.24

<c
since
11
yields
Substituting
[CHAP.
(1)
AD
CHAP.
11]
305
GENERALIZED COORDINATES AND TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS
11.39.
Give a set of generalized coordinates needed to completely specify the motion of each of the following: (a) a bead constrained to move on a circular wire; (6) a particle constrained to move on a
sphere; (c) a compound pendulum [see page 228]; (d) an Atwood's machine [see Problem 3.22,
page 76]; (e) a circular disk rolling on a horizontal plane; (/) a cone rolling on a horizontal plane.
11.40.
Write transformation equations for the motion of a
triple
pendulum
in
terms
'of
a suitable set of
generalized coordinates.
11.41.
particle
is
x2
moves on the upper surface of a frictionless paraboloid of revolution whose equation

cz.
Write transformation equations for the motion of the particle in terms of a suit-
+ y2 =
able set of generalized coordinates.

11.42.
Write transformation equations for the motion of a particle constrained to move on a sphere.

11.43.
Classify each of the following according as they are (i) scleronomic or rheonomic,
or non-holonomic, and (iii) conservative or non-conservative:
(ii)
holonomic
(a)
a horizontal cylinder of radius a rolling inside a perfectly rough hollow horizontal cylinder of
(6)
a cylinder rolling [and possibly sliding]
(c)
a sphere rolling
plane;
(d)
a particle constrained to move along a line under the influence of a force which is inversely
proportional to the square of its distance from a fixed point and a damping force proportional
to the square of the instantaneous speed.
radius b
Ans.
>
a;
down an inclined plane of angle a;

down another sphere which is rolling with uniform speed along a
horizontal
scleronomic, holonomic, conservative

scleronomic, non-holonomic, conservative
(a)
(b)
rheonomic, non-holonomic, conservative

scleronomic, holonomic, non-conservative
(c)
(d)
WORK, KINETIC ENERGY AND GENERALIZED FORCES

11.44.
Prove that
the time
if
the transformation equations are given by

rv = r v (q v q 2
then the kinetic energy can be written as
n
n
.,
qn ),
i.e.
do not involve
explicitly,
T
where aa/3 are functions of the qa
2 2
aa a la 9b
11.45.
Discuss Problem 11.44 in case the transformation equations depend explicitly on the time
11.46.
If F(Xx, Xy, Xz)
of order n.
in
X n F(x, y, z)
Determine which
is
each case:
(a)
(6)
(c)
(d)
x 2 + 2 + z 2 + xy + yz +
3x-2y + 4z
xyz + 2xy + 2xz + 2yz
(x + y + z)/x
2/
Ans.
(a)
xz
homogeneous of order
geneous of order zero,

order 1.
11.47.
(if
If F{x,y,z) is
(e)
(e)
x s tan -1 (y/x)
(/)
4 sin
(g)
(x
homogeneous of order n
[see
a
+
dx
This
is
called Euler's
xy
+ y + z)/(x 2 + y 2 + z 2
2,
(c) non-homogeneous,
(6) homogeneous of order 1,
(d) homohomogeneous or order 3, (/) non-homogeneous, (g) homogeneous of
dF
Problem
dF
y-z
"
by
11.46],
prove that
dF
= nF
2tdz
theorem on homogeneous functions.
Differentiate both sides of the identity

then place X = 1.]
[Hint.
11.48.
t.
a parameter, then F is said to be a homogeneous function

any) of the following functions are homogeneous, giving the order
where
Generalize the result of Problem 11.47.
F(\x,\y,\z)
X nF(x,y,z) with respect to
X and
306
11.49.
[CHAP.
Prove that if the transformation equations do not depend explicitly on time

energy, then
t,
and T
11
the kinetic
is
SJ
Can- you prove this directly without the use of Euler's theorem on homogeneous functions [Problem
11.47]?
11.50.
Set up the Lagrangian for a one dimensional harmonic oscillator
(a)
Ans.
equations.
11.51.
(a)
and
11.52.
11.53.
(a)
L = mx 2 ^kx 2
(b)
and
(6)
write Lagrange's
mx + KX =
Set up the Lagrangian for a particle of mass

(b) write Lagrange's equations.
falling freely in a uniform gravitational field
Work Problem
11.51 in case the gravitational force field varies inversely as the square of the distance from a fixed point O assuming that the particle moves in a straight line through 0.
down a
to describe the
motion of a particle of mass
to describe the
motion of a projectile launched with speed v
frictionless in-
clined plane of angle a.

11.54.
at angle
a with the horizontal.

11.55.
to
solve the
problem of the
(a)
two-dimensional
and
(6)
three-
dimensional harmonic oscillator.

11.56.
mass m is connected to a fixed point P on a horizontal plane by a string of length

The plane rotates with constant angular speed w about a vertical axis through a point O of the
plane, where OP = a.
(a) Set up the Lagrangian of the system.
(6) Write the equations of motion
particle of
I.
of the particle.
11.57.
(as, y, z) defining the position of a particle of mass tn moving in a force

are given in terms of spherical coordinates (r, 6, <f>) by the transformation
The rectangular coordinates

field
having potential
equations

Ans.
m[ r
~
r$ 2
-tz (r 2 0)
m- .. (r2 e
,
r sin
r 2 e 2 sin
</>)
it
<f>
cos
e,
r sin
<
sin e ,
<f>
cos
r sin e
ay
r Be
d
1
.
<t>
move
Work Problem
11.56
if
11.59.
Work Problem
4.23,
page 102, by use of Lagrange's equations.
the particle does not necessarily

(a) Work Problem 11.20, page 293, if the paraboloid is
11.60.
(b) What modification must be made to Problem 11.21, page
11.62.
r cos
11.58.
11.61.
up the equations of motion.
to set
re 2 cos 2 0]
sin2
in
a straight line through O.
replaced by the cone

294, in this case?
Use the method of Lagrange's equations for non-holonomic systems to

particle of mass m sliding down a frictionless inclined plane of angle a.
Work Problem
3.74,
x2
+ y2 =
c2z 2
solve the problem of a
page 82 by using the method of Lagrange's equations for non-holonomic
systems.

11.63.
An impulse of
is at rest on a horizontal frictionless table.
uniform rod of length I and mass
(a) the
Prove that
magnitude $ is applied to one end A of the rod and perpendicular to it.
(c) the rod
and
is J/M
mass
of
center
the
of
velocity
(b)
the
velocity given to end A is 4J/M,
rotates about the center of mass with angular velocity of magnitude 6J/MI.
CHAP.
11.64.
Ill
In Fig. 11-11, AB and BC represent two uniform rods

smoothly hinged
having the same length I and mass
at B and at rest on a horizontal frictionless plane.
An impulse is applied at C normal to BC in the direction indicated in Fig. 11-11 so that the initial
Find (a) the initial velvelocity of point C is v
ocities of points A and B and (6) the magnitudes of
the initial angular velocities of AB and BC about
their centers of mass.
307
Ans.
11.65.
/7,
Prove that the
2v
/7;
(6)
3v
/ll,
Fig. 11-11
9v /7l
energy developed by the system of Problem 11.64 after the impulse
total kinetic
\Mv%
is
11.66.
(a)
square of side a and mass M, formed from 4 uniform rods which are smoothly hinged at their
An impulse is applied at a vertex in a direction
edges, rests on a horizontal frictionless plane.
Prove
of the diagonal through the vertex so that the vertex is given a velocity of magnitude v
.
move about
that the rods

11.67.
If
(a)
their centers of
mass with angular speed 3v
/4a.
the magnitude of the impulse applied to the vertex in Problem 11.66, prove that the
by the rods is given by 5<5 2 /4ilf. (b) What is this kinetic energy in terms of
Explain.
Does the direction of the impulse make any difference?
is
kinetic energy developed

i>
11.68.
(c)
In Problem 11.24, page 296, suppose that the impulse is applied at the center of one of the rods in
Prove that the kinetic energy developed is <jj2 /8m.
is perpendicular to the rod.
a direction which
11.69.
11.70.
moves on the inside of a smooth hollow hemisphere of radius a having its

particle of mass
With what horizontal speed must it be projected so that it will
vertex on a horizontal plane.
remain in a horizontal circle at height h above the vertex?
is constrained to move inside a
particle of mass
thin hollow frictionless tube [see Fig. 11-12] which is
rotating with constant angular velocity a in a hor-
xy plane about a fixed vertical axis through

Using Lagrange's equations, describe the motion.
izontal
O.
11.71.
Work Problem
11.72.
particle of
11.70 if the
xy plane
in
mass
moves
is vertical.
a central force
field
the distance from

Using spherical coordinates, (a)
the force center.
set up the Lagrangian and (6) determine the equations of motion.
Can you deduce from these equations that the motion takes place in a plane [compare
Problem 5.1, page 121]?
having potential V(r) where r
11.73.
is
Fig. 11-12
moves on a frictionless horizontal wire of radius a, acted upon by a resisting force which
proportional to the instantaneous speed.
If the particle is given an initial speed v
find the
position of the particle at any time t.
particle
is
Ans.
(?nv Ac)(l
e~ Kt/ma) where
radius such that

11.74.
Work Problem
no,
11.75.
11.76.
Work Problem
at
e is
0,
11.73 if the resisting force
is
proportional to the square of the instantaneous speed.
spherical pendulum is fixed at point

equations for its motion.
9.29,
the angle which a radius drawn to

makes with a fixed
k is the constant of proportionality.
and
but
is
otherwise free to move in any direction.
Write
308
11.77.
11.78.
11.79.
11.80.
Work Problem 11.20

az = bx 2 + cy 2 where
the paraboloid of revolution

if
is
[CHAP.
replaced
by the
elliptic
11
paraboloid
a, b, c
Prove that the generalized force corresponding to the angle of rotation about an axis physically
represents the component of the torque about this axis.
(a) Obtain Lagrange's equations corresponding to B and <p in Problem 11.34, page 302, and show
(6) Show how to obtain
that these are not the same as equations (2) and (3) of that problem.
equations (2) and (3) of Problem 11.34 from the Lagrange equations of (a).
m m
K K
Two circular disks, of radius of gyrations V 2 and masses u 2

respectively, are suspended vertically on a wire of negligible mass [see
They are set into motion by twisting one or both of the
Fig. 11-13].
Let
disks in their planes and then releasing.
made with some
m K\el)
2
is
v = iMf + T^-*!) 2
where
tx
be the angles
is
^(m.Kl'e 2
Prove that the potential energy
(b)
e2
specified direction.
Prove that the kinetic energy
(a)
and
V//////////////////A
and
t 2 are torsion constants,
i.e.
the torques required to
rotate the disks through one radian.
11.81.
Fig. 11-13
Set up Lagrange's equations for the motion.
(c)
Solve the vibrating system of Problem 11.80, finding
(a)
the normal frequencies
and
(6)
the normal
modes of vibration.
11.82.
Generalize the results of Problem 11.80 and 11.81 to 3 or more disks.
11.83.
(a)
Prove that
if
>
m2
and
lx
l2
in the double
frequencies for small oscillations are given
(m t
by
pendulum of Problem
where
+ m 2 )(h + h) V(h + w 2
2l 1 l 2
[!(!
- y 2 + m 2 (*i +
11.84.
Examine the
11.85.
11.86.
special case
h -
2,
m,
in
normal
Problem
l2 )
Discuss the normal modes corresponding to the frequencies in
(b)
11.28, then the
w/2tt
(a).
11.83.
surface
to describe the motion of a sphere of radius a rolling on the inner
of a smooth hollow hemisphere of radius b > a.
particle on the inside surface of a frictionless paraboloid of revolution

Find the value of v
above the vertex is given a horizontal velocity v
.
oscillate
between the planes z
11.87.
Find the period of the
11.88.
oscillation in
and
Problem
H2
Ans. v Q
az
x2
+ y2
at a height
in order that the particle
= y2gH2
11.86.
angle a in a
sphere of radius a is given an initial velocity v up a frictionless inclined plane of
which is not along the line of greatest slope. Prove that its center describes a parabola.
direction
11.89.
wire of radius a
bead of mass m is constrained to move on a frictionless horizontal circular
through a point
which is rotating at constant angular speed a about a fixed vertical axis passing
pendulum.
simple
like
a
oscillates
the
bead
wire
the
to
Prove that relative
on the wire.
CHAP.
11.90.
Ill
If a particle of
mass
and charge
B, the force acting on
field
it is
moves with velocity v
in
* and a vector
e(E
11.92.
11.93.
Suppose that the potential
B = VXA
dA/dt,
|m;2
e(A
v)
is
e*
10.86,
has its ends constrained to move on the circumference of a

uniform rod of length I and mass
smooth vertical circular wire of radius a > 1/2 which rotates about a vertical diameter with conObtain equations for the motion of the rod.
stant angular speed u.
depends on q v as well as q v
T + V
is
Prove that the quantity
dV
dq v
a constant.
11.94.

[see for example page 121.]
11.95.
Find the acceleration of the 5

Ans. 71^/622
Fig. 11-14.
11.96.
to set
up and
gm mass
two body problem as discussed
solve the
in the pulley
circular cylinder of radius a having radius of gyration K

with respect to its center, moves down an inclined plane of
angle a.
If the coefficient of friction is n, use Lagrange's
equations to prove that the cylinder will roll without slipping
ii
<
K2
a2
+ K2
tan
r~\
gm
Discuss the cases where n does not
a.
15
10
to solve
Problem
8.27,
gm
page 213.
2gm
11.99.
Describe the motion of the rods of Problem 11.64 at any time

t after the impulse has been applied.
In Fig. 11-15, AB represents a frictionless horizontal plane
having a small opening at O.
A string of length I which
passes through O has at its ends a particle P of mass m and
a particle Q of equal mass which hangs freely. The particle
P is given an initial velocity of magnitude v at right angles
to string OP when the length OP = a.
Let r be the instantaneous distance OP while e is the angle between OP and
some fixed line through O.
(a)
gm
Fig. 11-14
A_
O IF
Q
Fig. 11-15
Set up the Lagrangian of the system.
(6)
Write a
(c)
Find the speed of
Ans.
(a)
(6)
(c)
11.100.
Chapter 5
system of
satisfy this inequality.
11.98.
in
if
11.97.
E and magnetic
the fields can be expressed by the relations
Prove that the Lagrangian defining the motion of such a particle
Work Problem
electric field
v X B)
potential
E = -V* -
11.91.
an
given by
F =
In terms of a scalar potential
309
differential equation for the
motion of
in
terms of
r.
at any position.
L = %m[2r2 + r2 e 2 + mg(l - r)
r = a i%/r2 g
r = y/2av? + 2g(a - r) - 2a2 i%/r
Work Problem
2/
11.99 if the masses of particles
and
are ra x and
m2
respectively.
3gm
310
11.101.
11.102.
[CHAP.
11
Prove that if v = yfag the particle P of Problem 11.99 remains in stable equilibrium in the circle
r = a and that if it is slightly displaced from this e quilibrium position it oscillates about this
position with simple harmonic motion of period 2irv2ct/3flr.
Prove that the quantity fy in Problem 11.34, page 302, physically represents the component A 3
of the torque.
11.103.
Describe the motion of the system of

the impulse has been applied.
11.104.
Show how
11.105. (a)
(6)
11.106.
to find the angle at
(a)
Problem 11.63 and
which the sphere of Problem
(6)
Problem 11.66 at any time
11.37,
page 303,
after
falls off.
Set up the Lagrangian for the triple pendulum of Fig. 11-16.
Find the equations of motion.
Obtain the normal frequencies and normal modes for the triple pendulum of Problem 11.105 assuming
small oscillations.
11.107.
Work Problems
11.105 and 11.106 for the case where the masses and lengths are unequal.
m
Fig. 11-16
11.108.
Fig. 11-17
is placed on the spring and

If a mass
vertical spring [Fig. 11-17] has constant k and mass M.
with simple harmonic
set into motion, use Lagrange's equations to prove that the system will move
motion of period
2v^(M +
3w)/3<c.
Chapter 12
HAMILTON IAN
THEORY
HAMILTONIAN METHODS
In Chapter 11 we investigated a formulation of mechanics due to Lagrange. In this
we investigate a formulation due to Hamilton known collectively as Hamiltonian
methods or Hamiltonian theory. Although such theory can be used to solve specific problems in mechanics, it develops that it is more useful in supplying fundamental postulates
in such fields as quantum mechanics, statistical mechanics and celestial mechanics.
chapter
THE HAMILTONIAN
Just as the Lagrangian function, or briefly the Lagrangian, is fundamental to Chapter
Hamiltonian function, or briefly the Hamiltonian, is fundamental to this chapter.
11, so the
The Hamiltonian, symbolized by H,
is
defined in terms of the Lagrangian
as
2 Vaq
- L
(1)
a=l
and must be expressed as a function of the generalized coordinates q a and generalized

To accomplish this the generalized velocities q a must be eliminated from (1)
by using Lagrange's equations [see Problem 12.3, for example]. In such case the function
momenta p a
H can be written
H(pi,
or briefly H(p a q a
,
t),
and
is
.,p n
..
also called the
qi, ...,
qn
t)
(2)
Hamiltonian of the system.
HAMILTON'S EQUATIONS
In terms of the Hamiltonian, the equations of motion of the system can be written in
the symmetrical form
dH
qa
(3)
dp*
dH
These are called Hamilton's canonical equations, or briefly Hamilton's equations. The
equations serve to indicate that the p a and q a play similar roles in a general formulation
of mechanical principles.
THE HAMILTONIAN FOR CONSERVATIVE SYSTEMS

If a
(kinetic
can be interpreted as the total energy
= T+ V
(4)
system is conservative, the Hamiltonian

and potential) of the system, i.e.,
H
Often this provides an easy
way
for setting up the Hamiltonian of a system.
311
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
312
IGNORABLE OR CYCLIC COORDINATES

A coordinate q a which does not appear explicitly
*
pa
is
Lagrangian
is called
12
an ignorable
In such case
or cyclic coordinate.
so that
in the
[CHAP.
<
5>
a constant, often called a constant of the motion.
In such case
we
also
have dH/dq a
0.
PHASE SPACE
The Hamiltonian formulation provides an obvious symmetry between the p a and q a
which we call momentum and position coordinates respectively. It is often useful to imagine
a space of In dimensions in which a representative point is indicated by the In coordinates
(Pu
Such a space
is called
.,Pn,
<7i,
q n)
(6)
a 2n dimensional phase space or a pq phase space.
the state of a mechanical system at time t, i.e. we know all position

this corresponds to a particular point in phase space.
Conversely, a point in phase space specifies the state of the mechanical system. While the
mechanical system moves in the physical 3 dimensional space, the representative point
Whenever we know
and momentum coordinates, then
describes
some path
LIOUVILLE'S
in the
phase space in accordance with equations
(3).
THEOREM
Let us consider a very large collection of conservative mechanical systems having the
In such case the Hamiltonian is the total energy and is constant, i.e.,
same Hamiltonian.
H(pi, ...,Pn,qi,...,Qn)
which can be represented by a surface
in
constant
= E
{7)
phase space.
Let us suppose that the total energies of all

Then the
these systems lie between Ei and E 2
paths of all these systems in phase space will lie
E2
= Ei and
between the two surfaces
as indicated schematically in Fig. 12-1.
.
Since the systems have different initial condithey will move along different paths in the
phase space. Let us imagine that the initial points
are contained in region %i of Fig. 12-1 and that
For
after time t these points occupy region
2
example, the representative point corresponding to
one particular system moves from point A to
point B. From the choice of %i and
2 it is clear
that the number of representative points in them
are the same. What is not so obvious is the following theorem called Liouville's theorem.
tions,
Theorem
same, or
is
if
constant.
12.1: Liouville's
we
define the
Theorem.
number
Fig. 12-1
The 2n dimensional volumes
of points per unit
of
%i and ^2 are the
volume as the density then the density
CHAP.
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
12]
as particles of an incompressible fluid which
We can think of the points of %i

to
%2 in time
313
move from %i
t.
THE CALCULUS OF VARIATIONS

A problem which often arises in mathematics is that of finding a curve
the points where x
a and x =
Y(x) joining
such that the integral

>b
f F(x,y,y')dx
*J
(8)
where y' - dy/dx, is a maximum or minimum,

The curve itself is often called an extremal.
necessary condition for (8) to have an extremum
an extremum or extreme value.

[see Problem 12.6] that a
also called
can be shown
It
is
d_/dF\_ dF =
dx\dy'J
(g)
v
by
'
which is often called Euler's equation. This and similar problems are considered
branch of mathematics called the calculus of variations.
in a
HAMILTON'S PRINCIPLE
The obvious
similarity of
to Lagrange's equations leads one to consider the
(9)
problem
of determining the extremals of

2
Jt L{Qu
Qn, Ql,
.,
t)dt
On,
(10)
J-t
Ldt
where L = T
We
is
the Lagrangian of a system.
can show that a necessary condition for an extremal
dt\dq a J
which are precisely Lagrange's equations.
variational principle
t2
known
is
dq a
The
result led
Hamilton to formulate a general
as
Hamilton's Principle.
in such a way that
A conservative mechanical system moves from time U to time

C*Ldt
(12)
sometimes called the action integral, has an extreme value.

Because the extreme value of
(12) is often a
minimum, the
principle
is
sometimes referred
to as Hamilton's principle of least action.
The
fact that the integral (12) is
where
S is
the variation symbol.
an extremum
Vhdt =
is
often symbolized by stating that
(13)
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
314
[CHAP.
12
CANONICAL OR CONTACT TRANSFORMATIONS

The ease in solution of many problems in mechanics often hinges on the particular
generalized coordinates used.
Consequently it is desirable to examine transformations
from one set of position and momentum coordinates to another. For example if we call
q a and p a the old position and momentum coordinates while Q a and P a are the new position
and momentum coordinates, the transformation
Pa = Pa
(Pi,
.,Vn,
tf 1,
is
t),
Qa
Qa(Vu
<?a, t),
Qa
Qa(Pa, Qa,
<7n,
Pn, 01,
qn
t)
(14)
denoted briefly by
Pa = Pa
We
(Pa,
t)
(15)
restrict ourselves to transformations called canonical or contact transformations for
which there
exists a function Jl called the
P
we
In such case
Qa
--Wa>
Q a and P a
often refer to
Hamiltonian
in the
new
coordinates such that
{W)
~^Pa
as canonical coordinates.
The Lagrangians in the old and new coordinates are L(p a ,q a ,t) and oC(Pa ,Qa,t) respectively.
They are related to the Hamiltonians H(p a ,q a ,t) and Jl(Pa ,Q a ,t) by the
equations
2 Paka
where the summations extend from
~
=
L,
Ji
2 PaQa
~ *
(17)
1 to n.
CONDITION THAT A TRANSFORMATION BE CANONICAL

Theorem
12.2.
is
of interest.
The transformation
Qa = Qa(Pa,q a ,t)
Pa = Pa(Pa,qa,t),
is
canonical
is
an exact
^p
if
^PadQa
dq a
(18)
(I 9 )
differential.
GENERATING FUNCTIONS
By
Hamilton's principle the canonical transformation (14) or (15) must satisfy the con*
ditions that
f L dt and f
8
These
'
-C
C* Ldt
will be satisfied if there is
dt are both extrema,
and
sf'^f
simultaneously have
(20)
L -
JZ
()
a generating function.
position cothat Q is a function, which we shall denote by d", of the old

t, i.e.,
time
the
well
as
P
as
coordinates
a
momentum
and the new
By assuming
ordinates q a
We call Q
we must
a function Q such that
=
4?
dt
See Problem 12.11.
i.e.
CHAP.
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
12]
Q =
we can prove
t)
(22)
that [see Problem 12.13]
where
P.
Similar results hold
Problem
effaa Pa,
315
-M
the generating function
if
q. =
is
(w)
a function of other coordinates [see
12.12].
THE HAMILTON-JACOBI EQUATION

we can
= 0, then we see from (24) that

be ignorable coordinates]. Thus by means of
the transformation we are able to find p a and q a and thereby determine the motion of the
system. The procedure hinges on finding the right generating function. From the third
equation of (23) we see by putting Jl =
that this generating function must satisfy the
partial differential equation
If
find a canonical transformation leading to Jl
Pa and Q a will be constants
[i.e.,
Pa
and Q a
|^-
will
+ H(p a
qa
f + *(f.
This
is called
t)
-.)
(25)
<>
the Hamilton-Jacobi equation.
SOLUTION OF THE HAMILTON-JACOBI EQUATION

To accomplish our aims we need
to find a suitable solution of the Hamilton-Jacobi

since this equation contains a total of n + 1 independent variables, i.e.
t, one such solution called the complete solution,
, q n and
will involve n + 1 conOmitting an arbitrary additive constant and denoting the remaining n constants by
p n [none of which is additive] this solution can be written
Now
equation.
Qu
qz,
stants.
Pu (32,
of
When
this solution is obtained
offai,
tf2,
we can
...
qn,
pu
fa, ..., ,
then determine the old
(27)
*)
momentum
coordinates by
def
Also, if
we
identify the
new momentum
O
where
ya
1,
Using these
the system.
n are
we can
coordinates
Pa
M_
with the constants p a then

,
doJ*
dfia
constants.
then find q a as functions of p y and

a
a
CASE WHERE HAMILTONIAN
IS
t,
which gives the motion of
INDEPENDENT OF TIME
In obtaining the complete solution of the Hamilton-Jacobi equation,

assume a solution of the form
it is
often useful to
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
316
of
Si(qi)
-S 2 (g 2 )
[CHAP. 12
Sn{q n )
F(t)
(30)
where each function on the right depends on only one variable [see Problems 12.15 and
12.16]. This method, often called the method of separation of variables, is especially useful
when the Hamiltonian does not depend explicitly on time. We then find that F(t) = Et,
and if the time independent part of of is denoted by
5 =
Si(qi)
S2M +
+ Sn {q n
(31)
the Hamilton-Jacobi equation (26) reduces to
*()
where
is
(S2)
a constant representing the total energy of the system.
(32) can also be obtained directly by assuming a generating function

independent of time. In such case equations (23) and (24) are replaced by
The equation
which
is
Pa
= |S
Qa =
dq a
H = E
(33)
OJTa
Pa = ~tq~>
where
JH
j-,
Q<*
Tp~
(**)
PHASE INTEGRALS. ACTION AND ANGLE VARIABLES

Hamiltonian methods are useful in the investigation of mechanical systems which are
periodic. In such case the projections of the motion of the representative point in phase
space on any p a q a plane will be closed curves C. The line integral
Ja
is
Jc a
<f>
Padq a
35 )
called a phase integral or action variable.
We
can show
[see
Problems 12.17 and 12.18] that
S =
where
S(qi,
p.
...,qn,Ju ...,Jn)
(*6)
Jg,
customary to denote the new coordinates

pIacedby
as
It is
Thus Hamilton's equations become
[see
Q a by w a
in this case
equations (33) and
where / and
(m
(34)]
dJa
depends only on the constants J a
tion in (39),
}
V
so that equations (37) are re-
bs
dW a
where Jl =
|J
Then from the second equa-
nn
(*)
s
Wa = fat +
ca
are constants.
We
call
wa
angle variables. The frequencies / are given by
dJa
See Problems 12.19 and 12.20.
Ca
CHAP.
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
12]
317
Solved Problems
THE HAMILTONIAN AND HAMILTON'S EQUATIONS

12.1.
where the summation extends from

Vqa - L,
coordinates
of
the
function
q a and momenta p a , prove
a = 1 to n, is expressed as a
Hamilton's equations,
vrr
d jj
^
^
H = 2
Hamiltonian
If the
= 'Wee'
V"
regardless of whether
(a)
does not contain
Taking the
does not or
(a)
2Pa
=
2?#a
<*<7
and p a
dL/dq a
dH
H is
does contain the variable time
(b)
H - 2 Va Qa L
differential of
Then using the fact that pa
since
W*
^^dqa
dL/dq a
dp a
*2,q a
and
(3)
we
- 2p a dq a
contain
we have
(1), (2)
_
-
2?>a<4*
dH
2qa dpa -
(5)
and
(6),
is
(a)
(b)
Hamiltonian
BH
Pa
>
dq a
of part (a) are replaced
(3)
2g<*P
dqa
*2>pa
2f^<*<7
2 f|-^ +
by the equations
- 2^-<*<L - ~^dt
dt
ff
equation
(2)
Thus
is
U)
(5)
,*
_
~
dH_
dp a
Pa
'
_ _d#
~
dq
8H _ _3L
'
tt
H is independent of
explicitly,
dt
dt
prove that
it is
(a)
a constant and
equal to the total energy of the system.
From
By
dp
of Problem 12.1
-jfe
(6)
dH_
dp a
we have
If the
and
dH
12.2.
(3)
explicitly.
In this case equations
Then comparing
{2)
have, as required,
.
H does
(1)
2jr-dp
a + 1^-dqa
dp
dq
q <*
(b)
- 1jr-dia
this reduces to
(2)
explicitly.
we have
>
expressed as a function of p a and q a
dH
Comparing
explicitly.
dH =
But
*"
we have
2 ka Pa ~ 2 Pa Qa
a constant, say E.
Euler's theorem on homogeneous functions [see Problem 11.47, page 305],
dq a
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
318
where T
is
Then
the kinetic energy.
since
2pa
we have
does not depend on q a ],
pa
<Za
dL/dq a
dT/dq a
12
[assuming the potential
Thus as required,
2T.
H = 2,PaQa~L = 2T-(T-V) =
12.3.
[CHAP.
= E
T + V
xy plane under the influence of a central force depending only

distance from the origin, (a) Set up the Hamiltonian for the system. (6) Write
A particle moves in the
on its
Hamilton's equations of motion.
(a)
Assume that
the particle
the central force
Lagrangian
is
V(r).
is
located by its polar coordinates (r, e) and that the potential due to
2 2
2
Since the kinetic energy of the particle is T = -m(r + r * ), the
is
We
have
so that
Then the Hamiltonian
Note that
(6)
p a q
mr,
S +"
2m
2mr2
dL/de
(1)
mr2 6
(2)
= p e /wr2
(3)
P rr
PeO
{$m(r*
P!.
4* m2 +
Pe
+ r&) -
.^LV
mW
r2
V(r)>
V(r)'
(4)
'
energy expressed in terms of coordinates and momenta.
Hamilton's equations are
qa
;
Thus
dH/dp a
= dH/dp r =
= -dH/dr = ppmr* -
Note that the equations
pg
p r/m,
- L =
Pr
this is the total
pr
given by
is
H =
dL/dr
Pr
2
= im(r.,,-,,
+ rW) - V(r)
T - V
(5)
pa
= -dH/dq a
p rlm,
V(r),
pe
dH/dpe
p Q/mr*
(5)
= -dH/de =
are equivalent to the corresponding equations
(6)
(3).
PHASE SPACE AND LIOUVILLE'S THEOREM

12.4.
freedom.
Prove Liouville's theorem for the case of one degree of
can think of the mechanical system as
in terms of the motion of repdescribed
being
resentative points through an element of volume in phase space. In the case of a mechanical
system with one degree of freedom, we have a
two dimensional (p, q) phase space and the vol-
We
ume element
reduces to an area element
B(q, p
+ dp)
Let p = p(p, q, t) be the density of representative points, i.e. the number of representative points per unit area as obtained by
an appropriate limiting procedure. Since the
speed with which representative points enter
is q, the number of representative
through
per unit time is
points which enter through
..
Mq,v)
AB
AB
pq dp
of representative points
+ dq, P + dp)
dpdq
[Fig. 12-2].
The number
C(q
Fig. 12-2
(1)
which leave through

Pq
j-
(pq)
dq
CD
dp
is
D(q
+ dq,
p)
CHAP.
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
12]
Thus the number which remain
element
in the
minus
is (i)
319
or
(2),
^(pq)dpdq
Similarly the
respectively
points which enter through
number of representative
Thus the number which remain
in the
element
AD
BC
and leave through
are
-.
<pp +
and
pp dq
The increase
(3)
(pp)
dp
>
dq
is
(pp)dpdq
(-4)
and
in representative points is thus [adding (3)
(4)]
{*#+^V**
Since this
is
we must have
equal to -^dpdq,
dp
dt
dp
Hamilton's equations
dq
dt
Thus
But
since
dp/dp
this
we suppose that
dp
dp
dp
P-^-
-r-p
dp
(5)
v
so that
dm
dq
dq
dpdq'
op
= dH/dp
dm
this in (5), it
dq dp
dp/dt
in
follows
it
becomes
can be written
which shows that the density
12.5.
dp
-f-q
dq *
d(pfr )
the Hamiltonian has continuous second order derivatives,
Using
dq/dq.
dq
dH/dq, q
dp
dp
that
Kpq)
+ PF"+
dq
tt
Now by
phase space
(7)
constant and thus proves Liouville's theorem.
is
Prove Liouville's theorem in the general case.

In the general case the element of volume in phase space
dV =
manner
In exactly the same
dq y
dq n dp t
is
dp n
as in Problem 12.4 the increase of representative points in
to be
(-+
<(3(pi)
,
{ dq t
and since
this is equal to
d(pqn
a(pp t )
)
1-
dqn
d(pP n)\ _.
1-
3p!
>
dpn
dV
-dV, we must have

dt
dp
-
-f-
d( pqi )
\.
. .
_|_
dq x
dt
d(pq n
d(
)
-J-
dqn
dp
dt
a <Pg)
a =l
dqa
_^pPl )
dp t
_|_
d(ppn
dpn
d
-j.
^)
dpa
=i

dp
(dp
dp
fdqa ,dpa \
dV
is
found
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
320
Now
by Hamilton's equations
Hence dpa /dp a
= -dqa /dqa
= dH/dq a
pa
dpa
^K
~~
and
d2
qa
'
at
dPa
(- +
\â
a=l
d2
d 
>
Pn>
then
*)
,dp_- \
fdp_.
dp
CALCULUS OF VARIATIONS AND HAMILTON'S PRINCIPLE

F(a,
mum
or
minimum]
dL (dF_\_dF
dy
dx \ by' )
is
Then
where
is
independent of
via)
The value of
an extremum [maxi
given by
is
CO
= Y +
V (x)
a neighboring curve through
x, is
to be
a^x^b
Y(x),
Y(x)
dx
Suppose that the curve which makes I an extremum
y, y')
<*)
eV
a and x
if
we
v(b)
7 for this neighboring curve is
Y + ev
F(x,
Y'
e V ')
U)
dx
jr
that -^
an extremum for e = 0. A necessary condition that this be so is
e=o
we find
differentiation under the integral sign, assuming this is valid,
This
choose
is
0.
de
J a \dy
=o
dy'
which can be written on integrating by parts as
where we have used
(3).
Since
dF
~dy
which
is
v is
'{-=(5)}*
arbitrary,
_d_/dF\ _
~
dx\dy'J
n
u
to the Euler's or
{L\-.W
nr
The
dy
dx\dy'J
result is easily extended to the integral
i/i, If J, 2/2 1/2.
and leads
we must have
called tf wtor** or Lagrange's equation.
Xb F{X,
Vn n)
d*
But by
CHAP.
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
12]
By using a Taylor
/( e )
The
coefficient of
j(o)
we
find
that
(4)
higher order terms in
and
in (5) is often called the variation of the integral
f.
F(x, y,
dx
y')
is
F(x, y,
an extremum
is
3
e2 , e ,
etc.
(5)
denoted by
dx
y')
thus indicated by
is
12.7.
from
+ T)')dx +
f j- v
1,2, ...,n
dya
series expansion
dx\by'a J
321
F(x, y, y') dx
Discuss the relationship of Hamilton's principle with Problem 12.6.

By identifying the function F{x,y,y') with the Lagrangian L(t,q,q) where x,y and
placed by t, q, q respectively, we see that a necessary condition for the action integral
r
to be
an extremum [maximum or minimum]
is
y'
are re-
Ldt
(1)
given by
l(f)-f
<2)
seen that (2) describes the motion of a particle, it follows that such motion
requiring that (1) be an extremum, which is Hamilton's principle.
by
achieved
be
can also
Since
we have already
For systems involving n degrees of freedom we consider the integral
L =
L(t, q v q lt q 2 q 2
,
(1)
where
q n , qn )
which lead to the Lagrange equations
dt\dqa J
12.8.
dqa
1,2,
.,
from rest at one point on a

wire in a vertical plane to another
point under the influence of gravity. Find the
total time taken.
particle slides
f rictionless
Let the shape of the wire be indicated by curve

and suppose that the starting and finishing points are taken to be the origin and the point
in Fig. 12-3
A{xQ,yo) respectively.
Let P(x, y) denote any position of the particle

which we assume has mass m. From the principle
A(
of conservation of energy, if we choose the horizontal

line through A as reference level, we have
Potential energy at
O +
kinetic energy at
mgy
or
where ds/dt
is
mg(y
If
we measure
is positive,
The
Fig. 12-3
potential energy
y) +
at P +
kinetic energy at
t.
Then
= Vzgy
the arc length s from the origin, then s increases as the particle moves.
so that
ds/dt
y/2gy
total time taken to go
or
from y
dt
ds/y/2gy.
to
is
%m(ds/dt) 2
the instantaneous speed of the particle at time

ds/dt
Vo)
(-0
Thus ds/dt
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
322
dt
^0
But
(cte) 2
(do;) 2
+ (dy) 2
or
= ^1 +
cte
y>
^=0
Vi +
rv
If the particle of
show
sible time,
the wire
A
is
is
y'
dx
(2)
vv
Problem 12.8 is to travel from point O to point A in the least posthat the differential equation of the curve C denning the shape of
+ y' 2 + lyy" =
0.
necessary condition for the time r given by equation
that
(d_F_\_8F =
dx\dy'J
F =
where
Now
is
j=-
V2gJ y=0
12.9.
'2gy
Thus the required time
dx.
[CHAP. 12
BFlby'
(l
+ y'
)-
(1
y'y-^ 2
1/2
1 '2
)
K1)
V V2
(2)
2
1(1 + y' )^ y
dF/dy
minimum
dy
+ y'
of Problem 12.8 to be a
(2)
-s/2
Substituting these in (1), performing the indicated differentiation with respect to x and simplifying,
obtain the required differential equation.
we
The problem of finding the shape of the wire
often called the brachistochrone problem.
is
Solve the differential equation in Problem 12.9 and thus

curve is a cycloid.
12.10. (a)
(a)
Since x
missing in the differential equation,
is
Then the
u*
dw dy_
dy dx
=u
du
dy
show that the required
so that
du
dy
becomes
differential equation
du
dx
y'
let
(b)
2yu
^=0
dy
-^
+^ =
+
or
uz
Integration yields
In (1
where
6 is a constant.
+ u2 +
)
Letting y
must be
b sin 2 e,
26
26 sin
sin 2 6 de
Thus the parametric equations
Since the curve
J
\
+ u2 )y =
this can be written
f J b sin2 9
J V 6 cos2 e
= * =
(1
Separating the variables and integrating, we find
positive.
or
In 6
Thus
since the slope
In
6(2*
ecosede +
(1
|6(1
cos 2e) de
6(2*
sin 2e)
of the required curve are
sin 2d)
c,
must pass through the point x
2(9,
sin
<f>),
b sin 2 e
= 0,
= 0, we
have
= |6
cos 2e)
c
0.
Then
letting
CO
the required parametric equations are
a(<p
a(l
cos
<p)
(2)
CHAP.
(b)
323
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
121
cycloid [see Fig. 12-4]. The constant a must

(2) are parametric equations of a
A. The cycloid is the path taken by a
point
through
passes
curve
the
that
so
determined
be
Problem 12.89].
[see
line
given
a
fixed point on a circle as it rolls along
The equations
7<
/ \
CANONICAL TRANSFORMATIONS AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS

12.11.
Prove that a transformation

dq/dt = L-Ji.
The
integrals
tions are zero,
Ldt and
canonical
is
must simultaneously be extrema
dt
there exists a function
if
that
q such
so that their varia-
i.e.,
Ldt -
and
SJ
-C
dt
t.
Thus by subtraction,
This can be accomplished
if
-C
-r-dt
12.12.
) dt
there exists a function
L-
The function Q
(L
Q such that
d/ctt
S{( 2 )
(*i)}
called a generating function.
is
Suppose that the generating function is a function

ordinates q a and Q a respectively as well as the time
Va
Pa =
||-,
By Problem
-*[1,
dQ a
'
Qa
t),
(1)
and
(2),
we have
Pa
The equations
dQa
'
dPa
Si
H
(Si~H)dt
(1)
then
2^dQ
a
2*Ia+
3Q
39o
dT
Comparing
H - V2Pa Q a -
2pa dqa - 2Pa dQ a +
dT
T{q a
2, Pa q a
Spg ~ 2PQ a + Si -
T=
and new position coQ a t). Prove that
T(q a
P =
where
tf
T=
dt
L-j =
dt
if
^+
of the old
t, i.e.
12.11,
dT =
But
+ dt
dt
as required
dT
dqa
P
*
3t
'
*c#
= - aQ
_ djj
Qa ~ 8P
-
'
follow from the fact that Si is the Hamiltonian in the coordinates

tions hold as in Problem 12.1.
Pa Q a
,
so that Hamilton's equa-
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
324
12.13.
Let
efbea generating
Va
~W'
Qa
From Problem
function dependent only on q a
lt
^T + ^PaQa)
Or
since gf is a function of qa
Pa
The
(2)
and
(4),
W~a
(1)
(2)
^Pa Qa
T +
(3)
Pa =
fl
Prove that the transformation
Q a = 75-
-777-,
the Hamiltonian.
is
P=
i(p
tan -1 (q/p)
+ q 2 ), Q =
canonical.
is
1.
and P, Q be respectively H(p, q) and J#(P, Q)

Since p, q are canonical coordinates,
Let the Hamiltonians

that H(p, q) Jfl(P, Q).
dH
= ~rdq
^ 9J(dP
dq
dP dq
djdQ
_
~ V
dP
dq
'
__
dH
(*)
*>
=
dp
we
dp
__
dP
"
+ <
?MdP
3JtdQ
dP dp
dQ dp
'
-q
__
p2
dp
dQ _
q
'
()
p
p2
dq
Also, differentiating the transformation equations with respect to
we have
dQ
/^x
- 7
dp
dQ dq'
the given transformation equations
dp
3jF/
i^H4,
dH
5P
so
in the coordinates p, q
From
Qa =
2^^+ SJ^p. + J^
results
Method
-Wa'
t,
follow as in Problem 12.12, since J#
12.14.
Pa =
2Paâ + 2 Q <*P + (Jl~H)dt
gf
Comparing
where
Prove that
^,Pa dQ a + (J(-H)dt
where
But
t.
= 2pdga + 2QdP a + (J(-H)dt
def
i.e.,
Pa
12
we have
^pa dqa -
+H
J(
eK'
12.12, equation (1),
dT
[CHAP.
and Q respectively, we
(>&-<&)A +
find
*>
find
dq.
P
p2
'
dP
~ p2 +
9.
'
*L - - aq
dQ
'
M. = Vv
dQ
U)
CHAP.
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
12]
Then equations
and
(1)
become
(2)
sh _
dq
Thus from equations
djj
dP
and
(1), (5)
p2
Solving these simultaneously
we
Method
dQ
'
p
*
ajl
dQ
dj(
p2
q2
dQ
find
_ 3_M
* ~ dP
.
'
(7)
are canonical and that the transformation
is
therefore canonical.
2.
By Theorem
page 314, the transformation
12.2,
1pa dq a is
Bjj
p2
dP
p2
9Jl
A
+r **
pQ =
~
JL
2*P
sji
8P
and
dp
_ej(
F _
"
dQ
BJj
en
'
qQ
2*
q
dQ
we have
(6)
djj
P +
2
which show that
325
an exact
differential.
In this case
(8)
pdq - PdQ
is
canonical
J,P a dQ a
(8)
becomes
= pdq -
(p 2
+ q2
Pdq-qdp
)
=
an exact
%(P dq
Thus the transformation
differential.
if
q dp)
d{pq)
canonical.
is

Write the Hamiltonian for the one dimensional harmonic oscillator of mass m.
(b) Write the corresponding Hamilton-Jacobi equation, (c) Use the Hamilton-Jacobi
method to obtain the motion of the oscillator.
12.15. (a)
(a)
Method
1.
Let q be the position coordinate of the harmonic oscillator, so that q is its velocity. Since
the kinetic energy is T = ^mq2 and the potential energy is V = ^*cg2 the Lagrangian is
,
L = T - V = \mq - \
2
The momentum
is
so that
Then the Hamiltonian
(1)
= mq
(2)
= p/m
(3)
is
*2,pa q a
- L =
= p2/m +
Method
dL/dq
K q2
pq
- (%mq 2 - % K q 2
K q2
U)
2.
By Problem
12.2, since the
Hamiltonian
is
the
same as the
total
energy for conservative
systems,
= mq2 +
\nq 2
\m{plm) 2 +
<7
= \p 2lm +
ieq 2
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
326
(b)
(c)
Using p
tion (26),
page 315]
Assume a
and the Hamiltonian of part
dof/dq
2^W7
Setting each side equal to the constant
whose
SM + S
/dS x \ 2
becomes
(5)
the Hamilton-Jacobi equation
is
[see
equa-
form
solution to (5) of the
ef
Then
(a),
[CHAP. 12
/?,
we
(6)
2 (t)
dS 2
~~dt
(7)
find
solutions, omitting constants of integration, are
Si
so that (6)
becomes
Let us identify
/?
f V2m( 8 - l/cg 2 )
with the new
V2m(/3
momentum
s 2 = -pt
- ^/cg 2
dq
coordinate P.
(8)
pt
(9)
Then we have for the new
position
coordinate,
B<
_
~
__ \
dp
dp
y/2m(p
- ^/cg 2
dq
r
V2m C
J
2
But since the new coordinate
is
a constant
ViJm
/"
VW*
Then solving for

which
is
g,
the required solution.
0*
-v/rt
y,
dq
s
or on integrating,
y/p - %Kq*
dq
2
y/p - &Q
sin" 1 (qy/ic/2p
y/2plic sin
yJTJm
(t
+ y)
(-*
The constants p and y can be found from the
initial conditions.
the
quantity p is physically equal to the total energy E of
316.
page
on
(SI)
equation
=
illustrates
E
The result (9) with p
It is of interest to note that the
system
12.16.
[see
Problem
12.92(a)].
Use Hamilton-Jacobi methods

square central force
The Hamiltonian
Then
since
pr
problem for a particle in an inverse
field.
H =
is
d^/dr, p e
It
Let
to solve Kepler's
p?
~^
~
J
~r
d^/de, the Hamilton-Jacobi equation
+ 2m
*
\V Br J
J =
is
r2 V Be J J
S 1 (r) + S 2 (e) + S 3 (t)
CHAP.
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
12]
Then
f/dSA
^ ^r
becomes
(2)
+
,
Setting both sides equal to the constant
dS
A\
^{^fj
we
/? 3 ,
(4) yields,
(5)
by 2mr2 and write
it
r2
-/? 3 *
form
in the
2m ^ + -r-{-dir
dS
S
Thus
Qr
and
and
/? 3 ,
we
and
<? fl
/? 3
gT
V2m/? 3
\/2m/?3
Qe
Wz
=
W~2
2mtf/r
Pr
with the new momenta
Qr
0/r*
2raK/r
and
(7)
af~ J*
Pe
dr
(8)
/3 2 e
(3 3 t
/r2 dr
% /r2 dr
/?
On performing
(9)
we have
respectively,
^ 2m/?3 + 2mX/r ~
are constants, say y 1 and y 2
/3^/r 2
0*/r2 dr
S ^ 2m^3 + 2mK/r -
Yi
72
the differentiations with respect to
find
Pidr
2 \/2m^3
7"'
V2m/? 3
The integral
(0)
Then
on taking the positive square root.
/? 2
follows that each
\ dr
= V2m/3 3 + 2mK/r -
-j-
ui
S2 = P 2
or
p2
Identifying
r, it
Thus
dS 2 /de
/3 2
(4)
since one side depends only on e while the other side depends only on
side is a constant.
since
-/? 3
apart from a constant of integration,
-dv)
Then
"^
S3 =
Multiply both sides of
dS s
_
~
^(f )} - f
^{(^)
Integration of
K
" ~
find
dS z ldt
2
327
in (10)
+ 2mX/r -
+ 2mK/r -
7i
(JO)
72
(**)
jSf/r
2
/3
/r2
can be evaluated by using the substitution r
II u,
and after integrating we
find as the equation of the orbit,
- Vl + ZPzpymK* cos
(*
+ B-/2 - y
()
x)
The constant /? 3 can be identified with the energy E [see Problem 12.92(b)], thus illustrating equation
it is a parabola; and if
If E = /3 3 < 0, the orbit is an ellipse; if E =
{31), page 316.
3 = 0,
/3 3
>
0,
it is
The equation
a hyperbola. This agrees with the results of Chapter

(11)
when
5.
integrated yields the position as a function of time.
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
328
[CHAP.
12
PHASE INTEGRALS AND ANGLE VARIABLES

12.17.
Let gT be a complete solution of the Hamilton-Jacobi equation containing the n constants

(3i,
We
Ja =
Let
/?.
have
where the constant p 1
p a dq a
1
E,
(q l ,
lt
Using
.,
pn
(4)
we can
(3 n )
pxt
(1)
3<2f
dSa
dqa
dqa
~dq
{S )
remaining are the con-
solve for
pu
>
Pn)
..,p n in terms of J u
l,...,n
(4)
.,Jn and express
..
(1) in
terms of the Ja
Suppose that the new position and momentum coordinates are taken to be
Prove that if Ji is the new Hamiltonian,
wa
and
respectively.
Deduce from
where f a and
(a)
Wa =
ca
By Hamilton's
fa =
are constants and
dJl/dJa
ca
Q a ,P,
Qa = dJ{/dP a
-dJ(/dQa,
momentum
fat
equations for the canonical coordinates
Ja
^[
wa
and
constant
Then since the new position and

these equations become
Since
dJl/dJa
that
Pa
(b)
only.
Thus we have the n equations
Ja
(a)
fi lt
/? a
Now
Ja = -dM/dWa,
(b)
in this integration q a is integrated out, so that the only quantities
Ja = Ja (fiv
Ja
+ S n (q n
Padq
Ja
stants Pi,
12.18. (a)
n)
.,
the total energy.
Thus
But
Prove that the Ja are functions of the
coordinates are taken as
Wa =
-dJl/dWa,
(1)
Q a w a and P a = Ja
dJl/dJa
E, the new Hamiltonian depends only on the Ja and not on the
>
(2)
wa
Thus from
(2)
we have
Ja
where f a
djK/dJa
From
(3)
we
Ja
The quantities J a are
wa =
0,
find,
constant
= fa
as required,
wa
constant,
fa t
ca
Padq a
Ja
(5)
where the integration is performed over a complete cycle of the coordinate q a

phase integrals. The quantities w a are called angle variables.
Let
Aw a
denote the change in

Prove that
lar coordinate q r
(-4)
called action variables while the corresponding integrals
12.19. (a)
(3)
wa
are called
corresponding to a complete cycle in the particu-
Aw a
if
if
a ^r
CHAP.
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
12]
Give a physical interpretation to the result in
(b)
329
(a).
Aw a
(a)
M-a
'-
dS
dJr
yw
dqr
5Ja
fl
if
if
#r
where we have used the fact that w a = aS/d7a [see Problems 12.17 and
sumed that the order of differentiation and integration is immaterial.
as-
(a) it follows that w

a changes by one when qa goes through a complete cycle but that
there is no change when any other q goes through a complete cycle. It follows that
qa is a
periodic function of w a of period one. Physically this means that the f
a in equation (4) of
Problem 12.18 are frequencies.
Determine the frequency of the harmonic
comple te cycle of the
from q
-y/2(3/ K
to
pdq
c oordin ate q [see
+V2/3//C
equation
and back
J -V2/3/K
oscillator of
to
Problem
12.15.
12.15] consists in the
-y/2ph. Then the action variable
- \ K q*)
y/2m(/3
(10),
Problem
dq
y/2m(p
- % K q*)
motion
is
dq
27T/?VW/C
Thus
12.21.
and have
From
(6)
12.20.
12.18]
'
= * =
>
= .*
Determine the frequency of the Kepler problem
' =
[see
Problem
i{i
12.16].
^ A
complete cycle of the coordinate r consists in the motion from r = r

min to rmax and back to
r ~ rmin> where r min and r max are the minimum and maximum values of r
given by the zeros
of the quadratic equation [see equation (10), Problem 12.16]
2m/? 3
We
then have from equations
J6
Jr
Ve de
(2)
and
(3)
we have on
^-ds
p 3 = E,
(4)
^de
rds<
J-j-dr =
f* fi%d,
u Pt
r rmax
Jrmin V2m/? 3 + 2mK/r
(f)
&/r* dr
2tt/3 2
elimination of p 2
Je
Since
(1)
of Problem 12.16,
= y-^rdr =
Pr dr
= 2wmK/y/-2m/3 3 From
(7)
r d<of
r
J>
and
(6)
+ 2mK/r - ppr2 =
+ Jr =
2TrimKly] 2m/3 3
yields
2^2
mg2
-othat
^-"OVfT^
jr
m
-__
2^2
/f2
Then the frequencies are

J6
dJ9
(./,
Since these two frequencies are the same,

is degenerate.
system
fr
)3'
i.e.
there
dJr
is
(Je
+7r)3
only one frequency,
we say that
the
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
330
12.22. A particle of mass m moves in
and
(b)
The
(a)
a force
of potential V. Write
field
Hamilton's equations in spherical coordinates
(r, 9,
the Hamiltonian
(a)
</>).
kinetic energy in spherical coordinates is
T = \m(r2 +
Then the Lagrangian
r2 e 2
r 2 sin 2 9
r2 e 2
r2 s i n 2
(1)
is
-V
L = T
We
[CHAP. 12
= \m(r2 +
tf
2)
y( r
^^
have
pr
= mf
dL/dr
and
The Hamiltonian
= mr2 8,
dL/do
Pr
pe
mr
Pe
mr
-,
p^,
mr2
3L/30
sin 2
(5)
P<*>
(4)
v
'
sin 2
given by
is
H =
^tP a q a
p rr
n
Pr_
p ee
^m(r2
2
P<&
Pe
2m
pqQ
2mr2
r 2 sin2 e
V(r,
e,
0)
v &>'>*)
+ v
,
2mr 2
r2 e 2
sin 2
where we have used the results of equations
5)
<?
(4).
We can also obtain (5) directly by using the fact that for conservative systems the
= T + V.
Hamiltonian is the total energy, i.e.
Hamilton's equations are
(b)
dH_
qa
Pr
dp r
dp a
_Po_
Pe
dp e
mr2
mass
particle of
is
V (K cos 0)/r
By Problem
m
2
.
pr
AqJ"
pe
1
M-l.
+ 2m
3*
12.24. (a)
sin 2
p*
_ Z
= -EL3 +
dr
mr
mr3 sin 2 e
dV
do
-^R - __
=
~~
30
30
in a force field whose potential in spherical coordinates

Write the Hamilton- Jacobi equation describing its motion.
12.22 the Hamiltonian
-r
P4
mr2
dp$
moves
1
N n
~ 2m
Writing
(a),
dH _
_ dH_
.
'
_ _dH_ _ P% cos
~
~ mr2 sin 3 e
do
'
Then from part
dH_ _
_ dH
P*
12.23.
dqa
_^
dr
= t
pa
3<of
-r
p^
is
( a*
r
V
9(of

Kc0Sff
r2 sin 2 0/
r2
(1)'
K
r2
the required Hamilton- Jacobi equation is
iYMY. r^^Vi
U
/
V 3* /
3r-
P*
I
1
r-
2 sin 2
/^Y)
\ 30
gcosg
Find a complete solution of the Hamilton- Jacobi equation of Problem 12.23 and
how the motion of the particle can be determined.
(b)
indicate
(a)
Letting
= S
(r)
+ S 2 (&) + 3(0) ~ Et
in
equation
(2)
of Problem 12.23,
it
can be written
CHAP.
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
12]
fds t y
2m\dr
/ds2
i
2mr2 \ do J
(1)
331
/ds3
Kcos9
2rar2 sin2 e\d<f>)
r2
by 2mr2 and rearranging terms,
/dS2 \ 2
/rfSiV
/dSo\2
Since the left side depends only on r while the right side depends on e and
each side must be a constant which we shall call /?j. Thus
2mEr2 =
\d7) ~
/dS2 \ 2
and
sin 2 *
by
(5)
/dS 3 y
\~d&)
/dSo\2
-a^^j
-(^j
(1)
<f>,
it
follows that
Pl
(2)
+fcOr. =
fc
and rearranging terms,
= 2mKain20cos9 -
/^sin 2
/dSa \*
sin 2 *
(4)
Since the left side depends only on <p while the right side depends only on e each side must be a
constant which we can call /3 2 However, since
.
^
we can
write
ordinate.
/3 2
Then
(4)
p^. This
becomes
2mK
By
solving equations
- J y/2mE + pjr2
<
a consequence of the fact that
is
sin 2 e cos 6
(2), (6)
= 1? = ~dj
and
(5),
px
we
obtain
S2 =
dr,
sin 2 e
yJImK
sin 2 e (
- p2
cos
a cyclic or ignorable co-
is
p|
esc 2 *
(6)
/?i ete,
S3 =
p^
where we have chosen the positive square roots and omitted arbitrary additive constants.
complete solution
of
(6)
of motion are found
30J
2m K'
J
t,
cos *
2
p$ esc e
Yl
'
~dE
l2
dp^
'
r, 0,0
y (**L!*L
\dp*dq
a
Prove that
dF/dpr,
(d)
\F,G\
(a) [F,G] = -[G,F],

[F,p r ] = -dF/dq r
/3 1
de
+ p^ - #<
Y3
as functions of time using initial condi-
the functions F and G depend on the position coordinates q a

the Poisson bracket of F and G is denned as
\f G]
(a)
by writing
and then solving these to obtain the coordinates

tions to evaluate the arbitrary constants.
12.25. If
(6)
[Fi
- dF dG
momenta p a and time
dq a dpaj
+ F2 ,G] =
[F U G]
[F*,G],
(c)
[F,q r]
The
is
= J V2mE~+JJr^dr +
J
The required equations
5>
^(**L*G-*LdG\
a
\3p 3ga
9ga ap^/
_^(dG_dL_dGdF_\ _ _ {rp]
a
\dpa 3ga
dq a dpa J
This shows that the Poisson bracket does not obey the commutative law of algebra.
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
332
]F+F
+F
[F 1
(h)
(b)
y
i|P>(*
_
-
G]
2 ,G]
+ * 2) 8G
dpa
[î,G]
+ FJ dG \
dp
dga
dga
d
_ M\
V ( ll*<L
a{F l
[CHAP. 12
- /^2 ^G _
8G_\
Mj, _3G
[F 2 ,G]
This shows that the Poisson bracket obeys the distributive law of algebra.
{C)
[,<lrl
^ f dF
%\d Pa
since dq r/dqa = 1 for a = r and

bitrary, the required result follows.
(d)
for
,Pr]
dF dq r
dqa
dq a dpa J
a = r,
a\dp a
while
for all a, while dp r/dp a

dp r/dqa =
bitrary, the required result follows.
qF_
d Pr
dq r/dp a
for
for all
a.
Since r
is
ar-
Since r
is
ar-
dq r
dq a dp a J
dqa
since
12.26. If
dq r
and
for
a >
r.
H is the Hamiltonian, prove that if / is any function depending on position, momenta
and time, then
-,,
or
dt
But by Hamilton's equations,
at
qa
+
Pa
dpa
\dqa q
dH
T~r
dp
Pa
>
Then
(2)
dH
_
~TZ~
dq
(*\
K
'
can be written
L
dt
U.
dt
2
H
f-^-
^L--&- ) = &-+
dt
dqj
[H,
dp a
\dq a dp a
f]
THE HAMILTONIAN AND HAMILTON'S EQUATIONS
12.27.
Ans.
(a)
Write the Hamiltonian and
(6)
Ham-
(b)
12.28.
moves in a force field of potential V.

mass
equations in rectangular coordinates (x,y,z).
= (p| + p\ + p|)/2m + V(x, y, z)
(a)
particle of
ilton's
= pjm,
Use Hamilton's equations

plane of angle
p y /m,
p z /m, p x
to obtain the
-dV/dx, p y
-dV/dy, p z
motion of a particle of mass
= -dV/dz
down a
frictionless inclined
a.
Hamilton's equations.
the problem of small oscillations of a simple pendulum by using
12.29.
Work
12.30.
Use Hamilton's equations

with the horizontal.
to obtain the
motion of a projectile launched with speed v
at angle a
CHAP.
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
12]
333
12.31.
Using Hamilton's equations, work the problem of the harmonic

(b) two dimensions, (c) three dimensions.
12.32.
Work Problem
3.27,
oscillator in
(a)
one dimension,
page 78 by uging Hamilton's equation.
PHASE SPACE AND LIOUVILLE'S THEOREM

12.33.
Explain
why
the path of a phase point in phase space which represents the motion of a system of
particles can never cross itself.
12.34.
Carry out the
details in the proof of Liouville's
theorem for the case of two degrees of freedom.
CALCULUS OF VARIATIONS AND HAMILTON'S PRINCIPLE

12.35.
Use the methods of the calculus of variations

plane which has the shortest length.
12.36.
Prove that
is
if
the function
an extremum
if
in the integral
F y'Fy
>
12.37.
Use the
12.38.
It is desired to revolve the
where
Ja
c is
result of Problem 12.36 to solve
(a)
to find that
F(x,
y, y')
curve connecting two fixed points in a
dx
is
independent of
x,
then the integral
a constant.
Problem
12.9,
page 322,
(6)
Problem
12.35.
curve of Fig. 12-5 having endpoints fixed at P(x v y x ) and Q(x 2 y 2 ) about
the x axis so that the area / of the surface of
revolution is a minimum.
Q(x2 y2 )
,
/**
+ y' % dx.
Obtain the differential equation of the curve.

Prove that the required curve is a catenary.
(b)
(c)
Ans.
12.39.
yy/l
(6)
yy"
= 1 + (y')2
Two
identical circular wires in contact are placed

a soap solution and then separated so as to
form a soap film.
Explain why the shape of the
soap film surface is related to the result of Problem 12.38.
in
12.40.
Use Hamilton's principle
12.41.
Work
12.42.
Use Hamilton's
angle
to find the
the problem of a projectile
Fig. 12-5
motion of a simple pendulum.
by using Hamilton's
principle.
principle to find the motion of a solid cylinder rolling
down an
inclined plane of
a.
CANONICAL TRANSFORMATIONS AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS

12.43.
Prove that the transformation Q = p, P = q is canonical.
Q =
P =
12.44.
12.45.
(a)
Prove that the Hamiltonian for a harmonic oscillator can be written in the form
(b)
q tan p,
In sin
is
canonical.
H = 4p /ra +
= \P/y/^sinQ, p - -\j mPyf^ cos Q is canonical.

(a) in terms of P and Q and show that Q is cyclic.
(c)
Express the Hamiltonian of part
(d)
Obtain the solution of the harmonic oscillator by using the above results.
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
334
12.46.
Prove that the generating function giving

is
[CHAP.
rise to the canonical
transformation in Problem 12.45(6)
^yficq cotQ.
12.47.
Prove that the result of two or more successive canonical transformations
12.48.
Let
12.49.
Let
L>
be a generating function dependent only on
Prove that the generating function
Problem 12.12 by
12.51.
Q a ,p a ,t. Prove
be a generating function dependent only on the old and

t.
Prove that
and the time
12.50.
12
V = T -
of Problem 12.48
is
also canonical.
that
new momenta p a and P a
respectively
w
T
of
related to the generating function
related to the generating function
is
2p<7a-
Prove that the generating function "V of Problem 12.49

Problem 12.12 by "V = T +
a qa
a Qa -
^P
^p
is

12.52.
Use the Hamilton-Jacobi method

gravitational
to
determine the motion of a particle falling vertically in a uniform
field.
down a frictionless
Set up the Hamilton-Jacobi equation for the motion of a particle sliding
thus determine the
and
(a)
in
equation
Hamilton-Jacobi
inclined plane of angle a. (b) Solve the
motion of the particle.
12.53.
(a)
12.54.
Work
the horizontal by using

the problem of a projectile launched with speed v Q at angle a with
Hamilton-Jacobi methods.
12.55.

lator in
12.56.
2 dimensions,
(a)
motion and find the frequencies of a harmonic
to describe the
(b) 3
oscil-
dimensions.
to arrive at the
generating function of Problem 12.46.
PHASE INTEGRALS AND ANGLE VARIABLES

12.57.
Use the method

of length
12.58.
I,
of a simple
of phase integrals and angle variables to find the frequency
assuming that
Find the frequencies of
An$.
oscillations are small.
(a)
pendulum
^^j
a 2 dimensional harmonic oscillator,
(b)
a 3 dimensional harmonic
oscillator.
12.59.
pendulum by using phase integrals.

Obtain the frequency of small oscillations of a compound
12.60.
Two
connected by equal
equal masses
springs to fixed walls at A and B are free
AB
plane ad
frictionless piane
to slide in a line on a irictioniess
V
A
y,
12.61.
Discuss Problem 12.57
if oscillations
1
'W ^
p|
ft
| nS^^-C\-^W^-C\Â
\^# vvv \l#
^
[see Fig. 12-6]. Using phase integrals determine the frequencies

freauencies of the normal modes.
are not
t<Ig-
assumed small.
12 62
particle of
coordinates.
Ans.
mass
Give
cylindrical
moves in a force field having potential V( P ,*,z) where P ,*,z are
particle.
the
for
equations
Hamilton's
(b)
(a) the Hamiltonian and
+ p%h 2 + P2z )/2m + V( P

= Pp/m, I = Po/mr*. z = Vz /m,
(a)
H =
(b)
(p 2p
<p,
z)
pp
= p%lm P * -
dV/d P
P<t>
-dV/d<f>,
pz
= ~dV/dz
CHAP.
12.63.
12.64.
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
121
particle of mass
which moves in a plane relative to a fixed set of axes has a Hamiltonian
given by the total energy. Find the Hamiltonian relative to a set of axes which rotates
at constant
angular velocity * relative to the fixed axes.
Set up the Hamiltonian for a double pendulum. Use Hamilton-Jacobi methods to

determine the
normal frequencies for the case of small vibrations.
12.65.
F{t,x,x'x)dt
X*2
BF
d /BF
Bx
Can you generalize

12.66.
12.67.
Work Problem
particle of
* 2 tan 2
a.
(6)
Use the
z
(a)
(a)
Arts.
12.68.
335
>
dt
\dx J
dV\dx)
an extremum
is
that
this result?
3.22,
page
76,
by Hamiltonian methods
m moves on the inside of a frictionless vertical cone having equation x 2 + y^ =

Write the Hamiltonian and (b) Hamilton's equations using cylindrical
coordinates.
mass
-^- +
2m
ir
+ mgp
2mP 2s
P " Sin2a
P<ft
rap3
cot a
mg
cot a
Problem 12.67 to prove that there will

find the frequency in this orbit.
results of
0,
to be
and
be a stable orbit in any horizontal plane
12.69.
Prove that the product of a position coordinate and its canonically

conjugate momentum must
have the dimension of action or energy multiplied by time, i.e. AfL 2 T-i.
12.70.
Perform the integration of equation

Kepler problem in Chapter 5.
12.71.
Verify the integration result
12.72.
Prove that Euler's equation
(3)
(9),
(10) of
of Problem 12.21.
page 313, can be written as
.nÊ.,+
V dy'2
'
12.73.
Problem 12.16 and compare with the solution of the
&F
y dy'dy
+
'
dW
dF
dy' dx
by
A man
can travel by boat with speed v 1 and can walk

with speed v2 Referring to Fig. 12-7, prove that in
order to travel from point A on one side of a river
bank to a point B on the other side in the least time
he must land his boat at point P where angles 9 and
t
2 are such that
.
sm
0j
sin e 2
Vj
v2
Discuss the relationship of this result to the refraction of light in the theory of optics.
12.74.
Prove that
a particle moves under no external

a free particle, then the principle of
least action becomes one of least time. Discuss
the
relationship of this result to Problem 12.73.
forces,
12.75.
i.e.
if
it is
Fig. 12-7
Derive the condition for reflection of light in optical theory

by using the principle of least time.
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
336
12.76.
[CHAP. 12
shape of a curve lying in a plane and having fixed endpoints such that its
of inertia about an axis perpendicular to the plane and passing through a fixed origin is a
It is desired to find the
moment
minimum.
(a) Using polar coordinates
(r, e),
show that the problem

r2 V 1
is
equivalent to minimizing the integral
r2 (de/dr) 2 dr
where the fixed endpoints of the wire are (r v e^, (r2 2).
Write Euler's equation, thus obtaining the differential equation of the curve.
Solve the differential equation obtained in (b) and thus find the equation of the curve.
,
(b)
(c)
(c) r3 = c t sec (30

the fixed points.
Ans.
where
c2)
12.77.
Use the Hamilton-Jacobi method
12.78.
12.79.
If [F,G] is the Poisson bracket [see

(a)
[F.F^G]
<>
f [F,G)
= F
dF
_dt
(c)
12.80.
12.81.
A [F,G]
dt
Prove that
(a)
where
t afl
Evaluate [H,
+ F2
,G
F,
fl
if
tf
where
is
(6)
[p a ,
fi ]
(c)
0,
[p a , q p ]
called the
Kronecker
the Hamiltonian and
Illustrate Liouville's
12.84.
(a)
Is the
(6)
Discuss the uniqueness of the generalized
t is
the time.
Are
and
canonically conjugate
[F3,[F lf F 2]]
=
oscillator.
Explain.
momenta and Hamiltonian
of a system.
particles [see Problem 8.29, page 215]

Set up the Hamiltonian for a string consisting of
Use Hamilton-Jacobi methods to find the normal modes and frequencies.
Prove that the Poisson bracket
12.87.
Prove that Liouville's theorem
12.88.
(a)
Let
a
Qa =
1, 2,
where A
and A ajLt
12.89.
S a(3
delta.
Lagrangian of a dynamical system unique?
12.86.
(6)
theorem by using the one dimensional harmonic
12.83.
(6)
prove that
fi
Prove JacobVs identity for Poisson brackets

{F lt [F2 ,F 8 ]-] + \F 2 [Fa ,F^
(a)
page 294.
dG
12.85.
12.26],
11.21,
dt
is
t]
page 293, and
11.20,
[F lt G\
w dG
0,
up the equations of motion of a spherical pendulum.
Problems 12.25 and
are determined so that the curve passes through
c2
Problems
,G
[q a , q fi ]
and
Explain.
variables?
12.82.
dF_
dt
to set
to solve
[F2 ,G]
ct
is
is
<*>anQ,
is
is
invariant under a canonical transformation.

equivalent to the result
p* =
Prove that the

n.
the determinant.
*W?V
where
transformation
is
dp/dt
<W
a 12
a21
a 22
a 2n
a n\
a n2
[p,H],
and
canonical
11
6 <*m
if
are
iven constants and
and only
if
b ail
A a(l/A
*ln
the cof actor of the element a aix in this determinant.
Prove that the conditions in
(a)
are equivalent to the condition
Prove that the path taken by a fixed point on a
circle as it rolls
2 Pa Qa
2 Pa 9a-
along a given line
is
a cycloid.
CHAP.
12.90.
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
121
337
Express as an integral the total potential energy of a uniform chain whose ends are suspended
from two fixed points. (6) Using the fact that for equilibrium the total potential energy is a minimum, use the calculus of variations to show that the equation of the curve in which the chain
hangs is a catenary as in Problem 7.32, page 186. [Hint. Find the minimum of the integral subject
(a)
to the constraint condition that the total length of the chain is
12.91.
Use the methods
a given constant.]
of the calculus of variations to find the closed plane curve
which encloses the
largest area.
12.92.
12.93.
Prove that the constants

the total energy.
(a)
/?
in
Problem 12.15 and
(b)
fo in Problem 12.16 can be identified with
If the theory of relativity is taken into account in the motion of a particle of

field of potential
V, the Hamiltonian
H
where
in a force
= vVc 2 + m2 c4 + V
Obtain the equations of motion for this particle.
speed of light.
c is the
mass
given by
is
problem of a particle moving
12.94.
Use Hamiltonian methods
to solve the
12.95.
Use spherical coordinates
to solve Kepler's problem.
12.96.
Suppose that
m of the n coordinates q
lt
q2
in
an inverse cube force
q n are cyclic [say the first
ra, i.e.
q x q2 ,
,
field.
q m]'
Let
TO
%
Prove that for a
m + 1,
a=l
ca h a
.,n
-77
~ L
where
tj-
dt \ dqa J
t
dq
ca
dL/dq a
By using it a problem involving n

is called Routh's function or the Routhian.
The function
degrees of freedom.
degrees of freedom is reduced to one involving n
12.97.
SL
Using the properties
rlT
8y
rlT
^-7 8y',
(8y)'
8y'
of the variational symbol 8 [see Problem 12.6] and assuming that the operator 8 can be brought
under the integral sign, show how Lagrange's equations can be derived from Hamilton's principle.
12.98.
P = Pip,
are given by
Let
q),
Q=
Q(p,
H - H(p, q)
q).
and
Suppose that the Hamiltonian expressed

J[ = J((P, Q) respectively. Prove that
q
Q =
then
8H/dp,
dJl/dP,
in
terms of
p, q
and P,
if
= -dH/dq
P = -dJ{/dQ
provided that the Jacobian determinant [or briefly Jacobian]

d(P, Q)
Hp,q)
_
~
dP/dp
dP/dq
dQ/dp
dQ/dq
Discuss the connection of the results with Hamiltonian theory.
12.99.
(a)
(b)
(c)
12.100.
Set up the Hamiltonian for a solid cylinder rolling down an inclined plane of angle a.
Write Hamilton's equations and deduce the motion of the cylinder from them.
Use Hamilton-Jacobi methods to obtain the motion of the cylinder and compare with part
Work Problem
7.22,
page 180, by Hamilton-Jacobi methods.
(6).
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
338
12.101.
Write (a) the Hamiltonian and (6) Hamilton's equations for a particle of charge
moving in an electromagnetic field [see Problem 11.90, page 309].
Ans.
(a)
H - ^-(p- eA) +
(6)
(p-eA),
[CHAP.
12
and mass
e<*>
= -eV* + eV(Av)
Obtain the Hamilton-Jacobi equation for the motion of the particle in Problem 12.101. (6)
the result to write equations for the motion of a charged particle in an electromagnetic field.
12.102. (a)
Write the Hamiltonian for a symmetrical top and thus obtain the equations of motion.
pare the results obtained in (a) with those of Chapter 10.
12.103. (a)
12.104.
Prove Theorem
12.105.
An atom
12.2,
(6)
Use
Com-
page 314.
consists of an electron of charge
e moving
charge Ze such that
in a central force field
F about a
nucleus of
F =
r3
r is the position vector of the electron relative to the nucleus and Z is the atomic number.
In Bohr's quantum theory of the atom the phase integrals are integer multiples of Planck's con~
stant h, i.e.,
= n^h.
d) p e de n 2 h
<j) p r dr
where
Using these equations, prove that there
will be only a discrete set of energies given
where n
= n + n2 =
x
1, 2, 3, 4,
is called
mZ2 e4
2?r2
the orbital
quantum number.
by
Appendix
Units
and Dimensions
UNITS
Standardized lengths, times and masses in terms of which other lengths, times and
masses are measured are called units. For example, a distance can be measured in terms of
a standard foot or meter. A time interval can be measured in terms of seconds; hours or
days. A mass can be measured in terms of pounds or grams. Many different types of units
are possible. However, there are four main types in use at the present time.
The
1.
The CGS
2.
The
3.
4.
first
or
centimeter-gram-second system.
or
meter-kilogram-second system.
The FPS
or
foot-pound-second system.
The FSS
or
foot-slug-second system, also called the

English gravitational or engineering system.
MKS
two are sometimes called metric systems, while the last two are sometimes
There is an increasing tendency to use metric systems.
called
English systems.
The following
with the equation
indicates four consistent sets of units in these systems
F=
CGS
System:
MKS
System:
FPS
FSS
which can be used
ma:
System:
System:
F (dynes)
F (newtons)
F (poundals)
F (pounds weight)
m (grams)
= m (kilograms)
= m (pounds)
= m (slugs)
=
x a (cm/sec 2 )
x a (m/sec2
x a
x a
(ft/sec
(ft/sec
In the third through sixth columns of the table on page 340, units of various quantities in
these systems are given.
In the table on page 341, conversion factors
among
units of the various systems are
given.
DIMENSIONS
The dimensions of all mechanical quantities may be expressed in terms of the fundamental dimensions of length L, mass M, and time T. In the second column of the table on
page 340, the dimensions of various physical quantities are listed.
339
340
UNITS
[APPENDIX A
AND DIMENSIONS
MKS
FPS System
FSS System
ft
ft
gm
kg
lb
slug
sec
sec
sec
sec
Velocity
LT-i
cm/sec
m/sec
ft/sec
ft/sec
Acceleration
LT-*
cm/ sec 2
m/sec 2
ft/sec2
ft/ sec 2
MLT-*
gm cm/sec 2
= dyne
kg m/sec 2
= newton
lb ft/sec 2
Force
gm cm/sec
= dyne sec
lb ft/sec
MLT-i
kg m/sec
Momentum, Impulse
ml* r-2
gm cm2 / sec2
= dyne cm
= erg
Dimension
CGS System
Length
cm
Mass
Time
Physical Quantity
Energy,
Work
ML 2 r-a
Power
gm cm 2 /sec 3
= dyne cm/sec
= erg/sec
System
nt sec
m2 /sec2
nt m
kg
=
=
kg
joule
m 2 /sec 3
=
=
joule/sec
watt
slug ft/sec2
poundal
slug ft/ sec
pdl sec
ft pdl
ft
lbwt
slug f t2 /sec 3
= ft lbwt/sec
lb f 2 /sec 3
lbwt sec
slug ft2 /sec 2
lb f 2 /sec 2
lbwt
ft pdl/sec
Volume
L3
cm 3
m3
ft3
ft 3
Density
ML-3
gm/cm 3
kg/m 3
lb/ft 3
slug/ft3
radian (rad)
rad
rad
rad
T -i
rad/sec
rad/sec
rad/sec
rad/sec
ji-2
rad/sec 2
rad/sec 2
rad/sec 2
rad/sec 2
kg
slug ft2 /sec 2
Torque
gm cm2 /sec 2
= dyne cm
lb ft2 /sec 2
ML 2 T-2
Angular momentum
ML
gm cm 2 /sec
kg
Angle
Angular
velocity
Angular acceleration
Moment
of inertia
Pressure
T~i
Ml?
gm cm 2
ML-i T-2
gm/(cm sec 2 )
= dyne/cm2
m2/sec 2
= nt m
ft pdl
ft lbwt
m 2 /sec
lb f Wsec
slug ft2 /sec
m2
lb ft 2
slug ft2
pdl/ft2
lbwt/ft2
kg
kg/(m sec 2 )
= nt/m 2
"
APPENDIX
A]
341
CONVERSION FACTORS
Length
kilometer (km)
1000 meters
1 inch (in.)
2.540
cm
meter (m)
100 centimeters
1 foot (ft)
30.48
cm
m
m
10" 6 m
10-9 m
10- 10 m
1 centimeter (cm)
1
Area
Volume
millimeter (mm)
micron
millimicron (m/t)
angstrom (A)
square meter (m2 )
square foot
1 liter
(/t)
(I)
(ft2 )
meter (m
1 cubic
Mass
U.S. gallon (gal)
kilogram (kg)
1 slug
Speed
Density
mi/hr
gm/cm 3 =
0.01602
centimeter
0.3937
meter
39.37 in.
kilometer
0.6214 mile
square mile (mi2 )
acre
pound
kilogram weight (kgwt)
(nt)
weight (lbwt)
U.S. short ton
m =
1 joule
nt
lbwt
watt
horsepower (hp)
kilowatt (kw)
nt/m 2
1 joule/sec
m3
1.602
6895 nt/m 2
=
=
57.296;
453.6
1.201 U.S. gallon
gm =
277.4 in3
0.03108 slug
ft/sec
0.2248 lbwt
kgwt =
2240 lbwt;
10
Btu
3413 Btu
joule
=
=
0.2389 cal/sec
33,000 ft lbwt/min
cm mercury =
nt/m
cm mercury =
745.7 watts
0.9483 Btu/sec
5.171
860.0 kcal
X lO" 6 atmosphere =
9.481
X 10~ 3 Btu
3.968
9.869
0.2389 cal
2205 lbwt
0.293 watt hr
737.6 ft lbwt/sec
10 5
metric ton
1.285 X 10" 3 Btu
10 6 joules
19
32.17 poundals
9.807 nt
3.087 ft lbwt
X 10~
1.013
76
0.4536
0.7376 ft lbwt
550 ft lbwt/sec
=
=
radian (rad)
10 7 ergs/sec
10 dynes/cm 2
43,560 ft2
0.03532 ft3
28.32
1 lb
kgwt
long ton
3.60
hp
atmosphere (atm)
0.3239 cal
1.341
0.1020
1055 joules
640 acres
= 1.940 slug/ft3
= 0.5154 gm/cm 3
2.205 lbwt
kilowatt hour (kw hr)
1 lbwt/in 2
4.186 joules
778 ft lbwt
10 7 ergs
Btu
=
=
in.
km/hr = 0.4470 m/sec
4.448 nt
2000 lbwt;
1.356 joules
61.02 in3
1 British gallon
I;
1 slug/ft3
10 5 dynes
0.02832
62.43 lb/ft3
gm/cm
in.
0.06852 slug;
1.609
kg/m3 =
10 3
1 electron volt (ev)
Angle
km
10- 3
kg
14.59
newton
3.785
1.609
ft3
35.32
2.2046 lb
1.467 ft/sec
1 calorie (cal)
Pressure
in 3
231
1.057 quart (qt)
1000
1 ft
Power
cm 2
929
7.481 U.S. gal
32.174 lb
Energy
10.76 ft2
mile (mi)
km/hr = 0.2778 m/sec = 0.6214 mi/hr = 0.9113
1 lb/ft3
Force
lmil
=
=
1 cubic foot (ft3 )
10" 3
cm 3 =
1000
3
10-2
27.68
2.089
in.
X 10~ 2 lbwt/ft2
water
= 1.013 X 10 6 dynes/cm2
406.8 in. water
0.017453 rad
14.70 lbwt/in 2
Appendix
Astronomical Data
THE SUN
X 10 30
X 10 30 kg
or
2.0
or
6.96
89.2 lb/ft3
or
1.42
gm/cm3
896 ft/sec 2
or
273 m/sec2
385 mi/sec
or
620 km/sec
25.38 days
or
2.187
X 10 6
or
6.673
X 10 ~ 8 cm 3 /gm-sec 2
or
3.84
X 10 5 km
X
Mass
4.4
Radius
4.32
Mean
density-
Mean
surface gravitational
lb
X 10 5 mi
10 5
km
acceleration
Escape velocity
at surface
Period of rotation
about axis
Universal gravitational
constant G
X 10~ 9
1.068
ft 3 /lb-sec 2
MOON
THE
Mean
distance from earth
239
sec
10 3
mi
Period of rotation
about earth
27.3 days
or
2.36
Equatorial radius
1080 mi
or
1738
Mass
1.63
or
7.38
208 lb/ft3
or
3.34
gm/cm3
5.30 ft/sec 2
or
1.62 m/sec 2
Escape velocity
1.48 mi/sec
or
2.38
km/sec
Period of rotation
about axis
27.3 days
or
2.36
X 10 6
Orbital speed
.64 mi/sec
or
1.02
km/sec
Orbital eccentricity
.055
Mean
density
Mean
surface gravitational
X 10 23
lb
10 6 sec
km
10 22
kg
acceleration
342
sec
APPENDIX
ASTRONOMICAL DATA
Bl
bfl
>>
c
-a
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co
t-
o
eo
10
a
a
44
co
4)
44
00
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*
00
*
CO
co
2 iH
oo
OS
CO
t#
x x
50
CO
co
<o
Co"
bo
T3
09
CO
eo
SI
CO
co
i-l
^B
us
00
CO
co
S
4*i
us
CO
11
X X
OS
h-
if
tH
^.
a)
a
44
tP
Tjt
us
4*
IM
CO
00
<v
os
t*
Cv,
i-(
CO
00
(M
"<
02
43
bo
O 2
iH
(4
t"J
00
a
44
X X
2!
00
trH
os
44
T3
*h
<u
1-1
si
X x
\a
o
a
a
o
iH
rH
343
x x
x x
too
to
CO
?o
Is
B
o
t-
jo
eo
co
a)
teo
00
CO
T^
?o
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<v
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i-l
CO
10
43
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eo
<*
CO
US
bo
â
o
tH
a
a
eo
co
,3.
i-<
X X
31
00
t-
co
00
X X
43
x
1-1
5;
tH
bo
iH
rH
14
.58
>
x
tco
CO
44
TH
CO
Tj<
CO
Tf
f)
55
c3
il
OS
eo
JO
to
X x
3
3
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00
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73
10
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x X
co
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P
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tH
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eo
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'-J
OS
3 &
T3
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Appendix
Solutions of Special
Differential Equations
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
An equation which has derivatives-
or differentials of an unknown function is called a

The order of the differential equation is the order of the highest
differential equation.
derivative or differential which is present. A solution of a differential equation is any
relationship between the variables which reduces the differential equation to an identity.
Example
1.
The equation j*-=2y

y
is
ce 2x
where
c is
is
a differential equation of
any constant,
the identity
2ce 2x
Example 2.
is a
The equation x 2 dx + y3 dy =
where c is any constant, since taking the
d(x s /S
Example
or order
1.
solution of this equation
2ce 2x
differential equation of first order.

differential of the solution we have
y*/4)
2y
we have
x 2 dx
or
y z dy
solution is
x*/3
+ y*l =
3.
^| - 3^ +
The equation
CLOG
first order,
since on substituting this into the given differential equation
= dex +
c 2 e 2x
&dx2
S *!L
dx
2x
4x
is
a differential equation of second order.
+ c 2 e 2x + 2x + 3)
solution
is
0/QCr
2y
since
( Cl
ex
+ 4c 2 e 2x )
3( Cl e x
+ 2c2 e 2x + 2) +
2(c t e x
4*
as independent variable and y as dependent

symbols could just as well have been used.
other
variable. However, it is clear that any
Example 3 could be
of
equation
Thus, for instance, the differential
we have used x
In the above examples
H - 3^ +
dt 2
with independent variable
and dependent variable * and solution x
The above equations are often

from
2x
dt
cie*
c 2 e 2t
2t
called ordinary differential equations to distinguish
partial differential equations such as
a2V
-^ =
r)
c2 -^" involving
S.
them
two or more independent
variables.
ARBITRARY CONSTANTS. GENERAL AND PARTICULAR SOLUTIONS

values and are called
In the above examples the constants c, d, c 2 can take on any
will have a solution
arbitrary constants. In practice an nth order differential equation
is called the general
involving exactly n independent arbitrary constants. Such a solution
giving the constants special
solution. All special cases of the general solution obtained by
Example 3 above if we let
values are then called particular solutions. For instance in
2*
+ c 2 e + 2x + 3, we obtain the particular
= -3 in the general solution y =
=
ci
6,
solution
w*
c2
y =
5e
- 3e 2x + 2x + 3.
344
APPENDIX
C]
345
Particular solutions are often found from certain conditions imposed on the problem
called boundary or initial conditions. In Example 3 for instance, if we wish
to satisfy the conditions y = 5 when x =
and if = dy/dx = 1 when x = 0, we obtain
ex = 5, c 2 = 3.
and sometimes
in which we are required to solve a differential equation subject to given

often called a boundary-value problem.
problem
conditions
is
SOLUTIONS TO SOME SPECIAL FIRST ORDER EQUATIONS

The following list shows some important methods for finding general solutions of
order differential equations.
1.
first
Separation of Variables
If
first
order equation can be written as
F(x)dx + G(y)dy
(1)
then the variables are said to be separable and the general solution obtained by direct
integration is
J
2.
+ C
F(x) dx
G(y) dy
(2)
Linear Equations
A first order equation
called linear if
is
has the form
it
g + P(x)y
Multiplying both sides by e J
Then
integrating, the general solution
y e)
or
y
C
The factor
Q(x)
(S)
this can be written
-^{yJ
3.
pdx
Pdx
}
Qe
Spdx
is
e~f Pdx
Qe^
Pdx
dx +
Pdx
C Qef dx + ceS Pdx
(4)
p dx
is
often called an integrating factor.
Exact Equation
The equation
Mdx + Ndy =
where
and
(5)
are functions of x and y is called an exact differential equation if

can be expressed as an exact differential dU of a function U(x,y). In such
case the solution is given by U(x, y) = c.
Mdx + Ndy
necessary and sufficient condition that
M =
By
(5)
be exact
is
dN
dx
'
In some cases an equation is not exact but can be made exact by first multiplying
through by a suitably chosen function called an integrating factor as in the case of the
linear equation.
[APPENDIX C
346
Homogeneous Equation
4.
an equation has the form
If
f(V-)
\x/
Pdx
(7)
homogeneous equation and can be solved by the transformation y

(7) becomes
dv
dx =
dv = r,/
F{v)
or
v + x
1
~x~
Tx
called a
it is
Using
this,
Then the general
which the variables have been separated.
fdx = C
J
J x
dv
F(v)
solution is
where v = /x
vx.
s
{)
fW ^
in
{9)
Occasionally other transformations, which may or may not be evident from the form
of a given differential equation, serve to obtain the general solution.
SOLUTIONS OF HIGHER ORDER EQUATIONS

The following
list
shows certain equations of order higher than one which can often
be solved.
-^n
1.
dx
F(x).
v
'
In this case the equation can be integrated n times to obtain
= f
SlL
dx 2
we
(x !^L)
dx J
\
F(x) dx n
in this case y
find that the equation
ci
missing and
is
dv
'
we make
en x n
~l
the substitution dy/dx
F(x
v)
'
order equation. If this can be solved we replace v by dy/dx, obtaining another

order equation which then needs to be solved.
first
first
if
czx
becomes
Tx
a
c2x
^y = p(va ^}L\
'dxJ
dx
2
Here x
is
missing and
we make
if
the substitution
dy/dx
v,
noting also that
TO
d2y
dx 2
_
~
cLv_
dx
the given equation can be written as a
which then needs
first
dv&n
dydx
_
~
dv
dy'
order equation
to be solved.
LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF ORDER HIGHER THAN ONE

We shall consider solutions of linear second order differential equations. The
results
can easily be extended to linear higher order equations.
linear second order equation has the
^+P
(x)
form
fx +
Q( X )y
IHx)
(10)
APPENDIX
If
yc
is
C]
347
the general solution of the equation
[obtained
by replacing the right hand
side of (10)
of (10), then the general solution of (10)
The equation
called the
zero]
and
if
yp
is
any particular solution
+ yp
yc
(12)
complementary equation and
(11) is often called the
complementary
by
is
its
general solution
is
solution.
LINEAR EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS

solution is easily obtained when P(x) and Q(x) are constants
In such case equation (11) can be written
The complementary
respectively.
+
If
we assume
as solution y
e ax
4f
where
the equation
a2
+ *"
+ Aa + B
and
a is constant in (11),
we
find that a
must
satisfy
This equation has two roots, and the following cases arise.
1.
Roots are real and
distinct,
say a x
a2
In this case solutions are e

and e *. It also follows that c x ea & and c2 e a * x are solua
tions and that the sum c x e & + c 2 e a * x is the general solution.
aiX
2.
Roots are real and equal, say 1

In this case
c x ea ^x
3.
c2 xe aiX
we
012
find that solutions are e aiX
and xe aiX and the general solution
is
Roots are complex.

If
and
B are real, these complex roots are conjugate, i.e.
case solutions are e
The general
ia+hi)x
ax
bix
solution can be written
ax
ax
(cos
(c
bx
cos bx
sin bx)
and
+ bi and
e
(a ~ bi)x
(cos
bx
bi.
In such
i sin bx).
c2 sin bx).
PARTICULAR SOLUTIONS
To
find the general solution of
we must
find a particular solution of this equation and add it to the general solution of (13)
already obtained above. Two important methods serve to accomplish this.
1.
Method
Undetermined Coefficients.
This method can only be used for special functions R(x) such as polynomials and the
exponential or trigonometric functions having the form e px cos px, sin px where p
See Problems C.17
is a constant, together with sums and products of such functions.
and C.18.
of
2.
Method
of Variation of Parameters.
In this method we first write the complementary solution in terms of the constants
We then replace c x and c 2 by functions f t (x) and f2 (x) so chosen as to satisfy
c x and c 2
.
the given equation.
The method
is
illustrated in
Problem C.19.
[APPENDIX C
348
Solved Problems
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS. ARBITRARY CONSTANTS.

GENERAL AND PARTICULAR SOLUTIONS
Cl.
(a)
Prove that y
x-1
ce~ x
the general solution of the differential equation
is
x+v
%~
(b)
Find the particular solution such that y
(a)
If
ce~ x
dy/dx
when x -
= ee~ x + 1 and so
- (-ce' x + 1) - x +
dy/dx
then
1,
(ce~ x
+ a; 1 is a solution; and since it has a

(namely one) equal to the order of the differential equation, it
Thus
(6)
C.2.
(a)
2/
Since y
y = 4e~ x
Prove that x
we have from
0,
= c^ +
c 2 e~ st
sin
dt 2
number
(a)
From
^+
Then
c 2 e~ 3t
=
2
dt2
+ x-1,
ce~ x
sin
Cl e*
= c-1
or
4.
Thus
x-1,
dx/dt
4 sin*
= -3
at
0.
we have
= 2cos* -
3*
at
Find the particular solution such that

Cje*
of arbitrary constants
the general solution.
is
is
(b)
1)
the required particular solution.
^ + 2^ a
+x-
ce- x
= 3 when
+ x 1 is
0.
3e 2 e- 8t
3a;
(c ie t
dt
cost,
+
-
2 cos
9c 2 e-3t
3(cje*
"^Jf
4 sin
sin
9c 2 e- 3t
+ 2( Cl e* + sin t)
t)
c 2 e-3t
c i et
3c 2 e"
sin
cos
t)
the
sin t is a solution; and since it has two arbitrary constants while
c 2 e~ 3t
c^*
Thus a;
differential equation is of order two, it is the general solution.
(6)
From
part
(a),
letting
=
2
-3
Solving,
we
find
cx
in the expressions for x
=
=
1/2, c 2
ct
Cl
and dx/dt, we have

fci
c2
3c 2
3/2.
or
i
L ci
+
_
c2
Then the required particular
ê*
3t
f e~
sin
= 2
= _4
.
3c 2
solution
is
SEPARATION OF VARIABLES
C.3.
+ xy 2 dx + (y + 22/) dy =
= 1.
such that y = 2 when
(a)
Find the general solution of
(b)
Find the particular solution
(a)
Write the equation as

separate the variables,
x(l
we
+ y2
(x
dx
y(l
+ x2
dy
Dividing by
0.
(1
+ x 2 )(l + y 2
>
to
find
xdx
1
Then we have on
0.
a;
a;2
ydy
1
^)
y2
integrating,
xdx
x2
1 In
(1
a;
f ydy
J
)
^y*
+y
In (1
2
?/
Cl
*i
APPENDIX
C]
This can be written ^ In {(1
+ x 2 )(l + y 2 )} +
(1
which
(6)
is
Since y
solution
is
^ = RH
Solve
+ yl) =
when x =
we have on
1,
R=
if
at
substitution in
+ x 2 )(l + y 2 =
10
when
Separating the variables, we have
(j
g)
1,
R=
we
find
dR
-^ -
t2
y2
10;
thus the required particular
x 2y2
Integrating both sides,
dt.
t3
4
3
+C
Thus
-4/3.
t3
x2
c2
1.
(2),
or
~R =
Substituting
C2
the required general solution.
(1
C.4.
or
cx
X 2 ){1
349
or
it
t3
LINEAR EQUATION
C.5.
dv
This
factor
+ 2xy =
-5
Solve
if
2/
when x =
a linear equation of the form
is
I
eJ
is
x3
2.x dix
x2
0.
page 345, with
(S),
P=
2x,
Q =
Multiplying the given equation by this factor,
e x2
^- + 2xye x2 =
+ x. An
integrating
find
+ x)e x2
(x 3
ax
Xs
we
Integrating,
or,
making the
substitution
x2
Thus
Check:
If
when x =
= \x 2 +
Solve
we
0,
2e~ x2
^-+
C.6.
e*
find
~=SU
+ lifU =
dt
Writing the equation
2.
then dy/dx
2xy
in the
(x 3
(# 3
x)ex2
+ x)e x2 dx +
in the integral,
Since y
e x2 )
t~{v
ax
-1x20*2
= x 2 +
ce~x2
Thus
= \x 2 + 2e~ x2
- 4xe~ x2
4xe~ x2
when
Thus
2x(\x2
2e~* 2 )
x3
0.
form
dU
dt~* U =
350
~ 3dt
we
see that
it is
linear with integrating factor
e-*
e~ st
[APPENDIX C
Multiplying
by e" 8 ',
(1)
can be
it
written as
4i(Ue-M)
e -*t
at
Integrating,
Since
Ue~ 3t = ê~ 3t +
we have
U=
when
we
0,
Thus
= _ e -3t +
Ue-zt
The equation can
Another method.
we have
obtain c
(e 3t
-l)
(2)
by the method of separation of variables. Thus
also be solved
,r.
dU
Integrating,
U=
u =
or
|.
3U +
Since
when
0,
we
find
(sin
In (3t7
dt
1)
so that
In
(BU +
1)
Thus
t.
*7
(e 3t -l).
EXACT EQUATIONS
C.7.
(Sx 2
Solve
y cos x) dx
Method
cos x
M = Sx2 + y cos x, N = sin g -
with
dx + N dy = 0, we have
dN/dx and so the equation is exact.
Two
4s/
3
.
Then
methods of solution are available.
1.
Since the equation
grouping terms, we
d(x s )
i.e.,
must be an exact differential of a function U.

can be written
exact, the left side
is
find that the equation
3a 2 dx
d(y sin *)
x dx
(y cos
sin
x dy)
d(-y)
Xs
y sin x
y sin x
y4
By
Ay3 dy
d( 3
or
Integration then gives the required solution,
Method
0.
Comparing
3Af/3i/
- 4y 3 dy =
y4)
c.
2.
The given equation can be written as

(3a; 2
y cos
x)
dx
(sin
4j/
dy
dU = -^dx +
dy
Then we must have
^
ATT
(1)
v
'
Integrating
(1)
3a;2
dx
with respect to
x,
this into (2),
sin
where F'(y)
dF/dy.
a;
(2)
a;
keeping y constant,
U =
Then substituting
we
Xs
y sin x
F'(y)
sin x
4?/
F'(y)
or
y sin x
Xs
y sin x
y*
can be written
dU =
xz
4j/
F(y)
= -4^
Integrating, omitting the constant of integration,
so the solution is
sin
find
U =
and
oy
we have
that
Then the given
STJ
cos
2/
y4
d(x*
c.
y sin x
y4)
we have
F(y)
= -y*
so
APPENDIX
C]
351
HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS
C.8.
p- =
Solve
dx
Let y
+ %-.
/x
Then the equation can be written
vx.
dv
%-7-
= e~
Separating the variables,

lnsc + e~ y,x c.
dx
v dv.
ev
dv
%~j~
or
= e~ v + c. Thus
Ins
Integrating,
Ax
the general solution
is

C.9.
Solve
cos
U=
where
dU/dt
2,
3 at
0.
Integrating once,
dU/dt
Then
dU/dt
since
at
we
0,
et
find
U =
Now
U=
since
at
we
0,
c2
find
3.
a#" + 2y' = x 2 where
Since y
dy/da;
*g+2*
(i)
cos
*2
a5
2v
x*/4
+c
Cll. Solve yy"

Since x
+
is
{y'f
a^/12
c x lx + c2
where
missing, let y'
+*
(f)
(2/x) dx
2 ln *
=
=
ln * 2
*2
Multiplying
= x
(x 2 v)
dy/dx, y"
_
~
dy/dx
x*/4
cjx*
y'
dy/dx
V
or
v
Integrating again, y
3t
or
A
dx
integration,
solution is
d?y/dx 2
is
Then by
c2
Then the equation can be written
v.
St
The required
dy/dx, y"
cx
sin*
a linear equation in i> with integrating factor

by 05 2 it can be written as
This
(2)
y'
is missi'ig, let
y'
cos
U = \& -
CIO. Solve
sin*
Thus
t
^t2
3.
dU/dt
Integrating again,
v.
dv
dx
d2 y/dx 2
Then
dv^djt
dy dx
__
dv^
dy
and the given equation can be written
yv
so that
From
(1)
(1),
that vy
^+
y'=0
c3 and
or
2/
^.
v2
(
/
From
or
or
(2),
+ -^
% + v)
dv
y-^ +
(2)
0,
i.e.
lnv
+ lny =
c2
or
ln (vy)
c2
so
352
y 2 /2
Integrating,
dy/dx
c 3x
Thus solutions are y = c t and y 2 Ax + B. Since the

required general solution can be written y 2 = Ax + B.
c3
dx
= Ax + B
y2
or
c4
y dy
or
c 3/y
[APPENDIX C
first is
a special case of the second, the
LINEAR EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS

C.12.
Solve
4^-4^-52/
dx
dx
Letting y
e ax
0.
we
in the equation,
obtain
- 4a h)e ax =
and a = 5,-1. Then
(a 2
Thus (a 5)(a + 1) =
y = c e*x + c 2 e~ x
Solve
solutions are
0+10^ +
252/
Letting
C.15.
= c^" 2 +
*
Letting
we
~ 2t
2/
g+
e ax ,
+ 4x
e at ,
c 2 te~ 2t
Solve
e -x e 2ix
4^
dt
+
^
at
e 5x
and e~ x and the general solution
we
+ 5)(a + 5) =
Then the general
0,
solution
or
is
(i
+ c2 t).
5v
find
a2
4a
or
-2, -2.
Solve
and
e -i6U!
c x e~^ x
-5, -5.
Since
c2 xe~ 5x .
solution
is
2a
5 =
or a = -1 2t. Then solutions are
(-1 - 2i)a; = e -a: e- 2te = e-z(cos2ar i sin2a;).
e (_1
2i)x
The general
d 2y/dx 2
Letting y
0.
Then the general
and e
t sin2a;)
e -x( cos 2a;
e~ x (c x cos 2x
c 2 sin2x).
solution is y
C.16.
is
0.
a2
find
(a
i.e.
0,
Solve
4a
0.
Letting y = e ax , we find a 2 + 10a + 25 =

the root is repeated, solutions are e~ 5x and xe~ 5x
C.14.
C.13.
a2
or
cos
e ax ,
<*x
we
find
2
<*
0.
sin ax.
or a = ia. Then solutions are e to* = cos wo;

w2 =
The general solution is thus y = c t cos ax + c 2 sin v>x.
a2
sin
METHOD OF UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS

C.17.
Solve
0-4||-5i/
By Problem
x2
+ 2e*
C.12 the complementary solution,
i.e.
the general solution, of
&--*
yc
is
c t e&
c 2 e~ x
(1)
Since the right side of the given equation contains a polynomial of the second degree
and an exponential (2e 3x), we are led to the trial particular solution
yp
where A, B, C, D are constants

Substituting
(2)
= Ax 2 + Bx + C +
De* x
(2A
we
find
- 4B - BO + (-8A - 5B)x - SAs 2 - 8De 3 * =
Since this must be an identity,
we must have
x2)
(*)
to be determined.
for y in the given equation and simplifying,
(i.e.
a2
2e^ x
APPENDIX
C]
2A-4B-5C =
Solving,
we
B=,C = -{%, Z> =
A = -,
find
-8A - 55 =
0,
2/p
-5A =
0,
25
125
-8D =
1,
-j. Then from
353
(2),
solution of the given equation is
Thus the required general
which can be checked by direct substitution.
C.18.
0+lO^|
Solve
The complementary
252/
20 cos 2x.
Problem C.13]
solution [by
yc
we
Since the right side has the term cos 2x,
Cl
c 2 xe- 5x
CO
are led to the trial solution
= A
yp
is
e- 5x
+ B
cos 2x
sin 2x
(2)
Substitution into the given equation yields, after simplifying,
(21A
+ 205)
cos 2x
A = 84i> B =
84i
so that the
P articular solution
y'Pv
Vc
VP
n
2*
420
cos
I_t
841
cie
2x
sin
20 cos 2x
215 - 20/1 =
20,
0.
Solving,
we
find
is
and the general solution of the given equation

V
- 20A)
(215
we have 21A + 205 =
coefficients of like terms,
Equating
400
+
i
-57T
sin 2a
is
~ Sx
+ We~s* +
o
cos 2x
420 ___
fff
+
,
400
841
sin 2x
METHOD OF VARIATION OF PARAMETERS

C.19.
d 2y/dx 2
Solve
+y =
The complementary
tana:.
yc
We
Problem C.16 with u
solution is as in
cos x
c_
c 2 sin
1:
CO
now assume that the solution to the given equation has the form
where
/_
and /2 are suitable functions of
with respect to
From
a;.
cos x
fi
(*)
/2 sin x
we
(2)
have, using primes to denote differentiation
x,
dy/dx
-fi sin *
f2 cos x
/_ cos
/2 sin
(5)
Before finding d2 y/dx 2 let us observe that since there are two functions / t and /2 to be determined
and only one relation to be satisfied [namely that the given differential equation must be satisfied]
we are free to impose one relation between f x and /2 We choose the relation
.
/i cos
so as to simplify (8)
Another differentiation then leads

d2 y/dx 2
(2)
and
(0)
we
(5)
we
find
-fi cos *
/{
and
/1
sin x
f2
cos a
(5)
/ 2 sin
f[ sin
/ 2 cos
as
(0)
see that the given differential equation can be written
Thus
(.4)
(4)
to
dty/dx*
From
/2 sin x
which then becomes

dy/dx
From
fi
sin x
-fi sin x
= - sin 2 x/cos x,
+ f2 cos x =
/2 cos x
/2
sin x.
tan x
Thus
tan x
(7)
(5)
354
1 - cos2 x
sin 2 x
C
= f
I
ax
ax
I
cos x
J
J cos*
In (sec x + tan
+ sin + c
,
f.
J1
a;)
f2
Substituting in
sin x
(2)
we
(sec
cos x) ax
cos * +
dx
a?
[APPENDIX C
c2
find the required general solution,
= d
cos x
c 2 sin
a;
cos
In (sec x
a;
tan x)
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS. ARBITRARY CONSTANTS.
GENERAL AND PARTICULAR SOLUTIONS
C.20.
C.21.
Check whether each
has the indicated general solution.
(a)
- 2^ +
^f
at'at
(*>)
+ V = &;
*4r
at
(a)
Show that
(6)
Determine the particular solution such that z
Ans.
(6)
t?-StU =
e _t (Ci sin t
e -t (3 sin
2 cos
(c t
c 2 t)e*
+t+
c 2 cost)
is
a general solution of
= 2
Solve
dz
dt
ty/T^z*
Vi -
and dz/dt
An*. #
C.25.
Solve
(a;
C.26.
Solve
^
dx
C.27.
Solve
(ye x
C.28.
Solve
(x
l)(y
C.29.
that the differential equation {Ay - a; 2 ) dx + xdy

pends on only one variable and thus solve the equation.
if
(2a;
- hy) dy =
y(l)
e~v) dx +
(xe~y
(xy
+ ex
+ y)dy =
Arts,
5.
if
Ans. \nx
âxz
+ xy) dx +
dy
(x/y)
0.
1/
6a; 2
when
Ans.
(x
Show
Solve
J^
^=
a;
2.
Ans. y
a;
0.
4e- a:2
at
= -^x + c
x*
Ans.
2.
xe~ y -
Ans. ye x
0.

Solve d?U/dtz = t + e~* if U = 3, dU/dt =
C.30.
C.31.
-x
x^--2y =
at
*2
Solve
= -+
^^^_^r-
C.24.
+ 2y) dx +
t)
SOLUTIONS TO SPECIAL FIRST ORDER EQUATIONS

Solve dy/dx = -2xy if y = 4 when x = 0.
C.22.
C.23.
0.
c2
1)
a;
+ 4y - 5y2 -
ce* + y
has an integrating factor which deAns. xty ^x 6 = c
Ans.
U=
t?
e~*
+ 3t + 2
APPENDIX
C]
355
^ff+ 2 (^)
C.32.
Solve
C.33.
Solve
Ans. US
'
Cl t
c2
^-<*-^ +<*-*>*
H*)"]' -()'
LINEAR HIGHER ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

C.34.
Solve
|^-2^-82/ =
C.35.
Solve
^?
dt
C.36.
Solve
+ 4^J+
^|
at
acz
C.37.
Solve
4^| +
C.38.
Solve0-4|-2/
C.39.
Solve
20y'
C.40.
Solve
3^ +
2y
C.41.
Solve
^r~
at
2U =
C.42.
4y"
^
at2
U =
Ans.
25y
2/(0)
-*.
6t
10, y'(0)
Ans.
0.
St
sin 2t
e 2x ( Cl
e^ x +
Cl e~*
(6)
y"
As.
(6)
(c)
C.46.
x sin
y
C.47.
C.48.
(6)
a;
cos
a;
4j/'
4y
e" 2*.
cos
sin
dx/dt + y =
c 2 sin t + ê* +
+ c 2 cos + e*
(e t
dy/dt
Aw*, y
e*,
\e~* x
2/
2/
(6)
1W ~
if
2/(0)
Ans.
2, y'(0)
-1.
2 cos
Is the
sin t
(iv)
62/
+ \xH~^
= 36a;,
(6)
=
+ C2 e2x + c 3 e3x - 6* - 11
= d cos * + c 2 sin x + x{c 3 cos x +
6y"
(a)
18e"*
t.
to solve linear equations of order higher
Ans.
c 2 e~^
t,
Show how
y"'
c 2 a;)e~ 2a;
plicable?
(a)
= ct
= d
2/"
sulfa)
In sec x
4 cos
Explain.
Solve
Problem C.41 by variation of parameters.
Solve simultaneously:
Ans. x
e~^ x
10(cos05
(c) y" + 4y = esc 2*

+ 6y = 50 sin 4a;
- 3y = xe~ x
(d) 1/" + 82/' + 25y = 25x + 33 +
= c e 2x + c 2 e Sx + 2 cos 4* sin 4a?
= Cl e x + c 2 e~ Sx \xe~ x
= c cos 2x + c 2 sin 2a; - %x cos 2x \ sin 2a; In (esc 2a:)
= e -4x( Cl cos 3* + c 2 sin 3a;) + x + 1 + e _x
y"
Solve
c2
(^ y
C.45.
c 2 sin*)
2y'
(a)
+ 2t)e- 2
by use of the method of variation of parameters.
c 2 cos
Problem C.40 and
5y'
(l
cos 2t
Solve each of the following equations by any method.
U =
5.
C.44.
y"
Ans.
Ans. y
25.
Solve
(a)
= 0.
C.43.
(a)
+ c 2 x)e 5x/2
(c t
10 cos 2*
at
Ans. y
+|
+ c^- 2*
e~ 2t (ci cos
Ans. y
0.
c 2 e*
Ans.
0.
c x e* x
U = l,dU/dt =
if
if
sec
c x sin
5z
25y
c x e- 2t
y"
Solve
Ans. y
W
4^+
at
Arts,
0.
2/
coefficients ap-
than two by finding the general solutions of
W+
c 4 sin
method of undetermined
2t sin
a;)
y
a;
x*.
Appendix
D
Index of Special Symbols
and Notations
The following list shows special symbols and notations used in this book together with
number of the page on which they first appear. All bold faced letters denote vectors.
Cases where a symbol has more than one meaning will be clear from the context.
the
Symbols
a
length of semi-major axis of ellipse or hyperbola, 38, 118, 119
an
Fourier cosine
acceleration, 7
coefficients,
acceleration of particle
a P ip
A
A
A
cA
cA max
6
bn
B
B
vector potential of electromagnetic
length of semi-minor axis of ellipse or hyperbola, 38, 118, 119
Fourier sine
magnetic
coefficients,
unit binormal, 7
time derivative operator in fixed and moving systems, 144

unit vectors, 72
total energy, 36
electric intensity, 84
F 12
F av
FD
Fv
F(a) , F(c)
fa
fv
196
intensity, 83
e lt e 2 e 3
fa
F
309
amplitude of steady state oscillation, 90
curve, 6
f vX
field,
amplitude of steady state oscillation, 90
maximum
areal velocity, 122
Pv
relative to particle
area, 122
speed of light, 54
D F ,D M
P2
196
force due to friction, 65

internal force on particle
due to particle
X,
173
frequency, 89
frequencies, 316
force, 33
force of particle 1 on particle
2,
33
average force, 60
damping
force, 87
impulsive forces, 285

actual and constraint forces acting on particle
v,
170
generalized impulse, 285

force (external and internal) acting on particle
356
of a system of particles, 168
APPENDIX
D]
acceleration due to gravity, 62
gravitational constant, 120
generating function, 314
Planck's constant, 338
Hamiltonian, 311
Hamiltonian under a canonical transformation, 314
Jl
unit vector in direction of positive x axis, 3
I xx , I yy , I zz
moment of inertia, 225

moment of inertia about axis through center
moments of inertia about x, y, z axes, 254
Ixy Iyz Ixz
products of inertia, 254
/
Ic
357
principal
I U I2 ,I3
J) v
moments
of mass, 226
of inertia, 255
impulses, 285
angular impulse, 228

unit vector in direction of positive y axis, 3
Ja
k
K
I
m
m
M
n
phase integral or action variable, 316

unit vector in direction of positive z axis, 3
radius of gyration, 225

length, 90
Lagrangian, 284
Lagrangian under a canonical transformation, 314

mass, 33
rest mass, 54
mass of a system of particles, 166

number of degrees of freedom, 282
orbital quantum number, 338
total
N
N
normal component of reaction force, 65
unit normal, 7
pa
p
P
Pa
<?
number
of particles in a system, 166
generalized or conjugate momenta, 284
momentum, 33
period, 89
new
generalized
momenta under a canonical transformation, 314
power, 34
electrical charge, 84
qa
generalized coordinates, 282
Qa
new
generalized coordinates under a canonical transformation, 314
spherical coordinate, 32
position vector or radius vector, 4
position vector of center of mass, 166
rx
unit vector in radial direction, 25
r{,
position vector of particle
R
R
range, 75
R max
maximum
R
R
%
%
range, 75
resisting force, 64
resultant of forces, 47
rigid body, 228
Routh's function or Routhian, 337

arc length, 7
spin angular velocity, 269
relative to center of mass, 169
radius of curvature, 8
gj"
generating function, 316

generating function depending on old position coordinates and
new momenta, 314
358
T
T
T
tension, 74
unit tangent vector, 7
generating function depending on old and new position coordinates, 323
generating function depending on
v raax) v min
Vp
time, 6
kinetic energy, 35
T
v lim
maximum and minimum
coordinates and old momenta, 334
orbital speeds, 143
velocity, 7
velocity of center of mass, 167
/P i
2
velocity of particle
P2
\'
velocity of particle
new
limiting speed, 70
v i2> v i2
relative to particle
lt
relative to center of mass, 169
relative velocities of particles along
common normal
before and after impact, 194
potential or potential energy, 35
"U
generating function depending on old and new momenta, 334
wa
angle variables, 316
W
W
weight, 62
yc
complementary
yp
particular solution, 347
V
z
[APPENDIX D
work, 34
solution, 347
transverse displacement of vibrating string, 195

cylindrical coordinate, 32
atomic number, 338
Greek Symbols
index of summation, 282
angular acceleration, 29
/?
angle
ratio of speed of particle to speed of light,
angle
made by
logarithmic decrement, 89
variation symbol, 313
Kronecker
delta, 336
coefficient of restitution, 195
eccentricity, 118
Euler angle, 257
polar coordinate, 25
unit vector perpendicular to radial direction, 25
curvature, 8
spring constant, 86
colatitude, 152
A v A 2 A3
,
A
Ac
vie, 54
determinant, 336
9t
i.e.
vector with positive z direction, 24
^2> ^3>
positive y direction, 24
^v
made by vector with

damping constant, 88
f3
S ap
vector with positive x direction, 24
angle
/?
made by
Lagrange multipliers,
280, 284
components of torque along principal axes, 256

torque or moment, 36
torque or
moment about
center of mass, 229
APPENDIX
D]
H
fi
359
coefficient of friction, 65
reduced mass, 182
index of summation, 166
density in phase space, 318
density, 114
torsion, 31
radius of torsion, 31
time, 81
volume, 166
Euler angle, 257
<f>
phase angle or epoch, 88

lt <o 2 ,
generalized force, 283
angular speed, 8
components of angular velocity along principal axes, 256
angular velocity, 144
ax
fi,,,
components of angular momentum along
az
components of angular momentum
a lt 2 n 3
x, y, z axes,
254
along principal axes, 255
angular momentum, 37
Notations
|A|
AB
A B
AXB
A
AX
C)
scalar triple product, 5
C)
vector triple product, 5
scalar function of u, 6
scalar function of x, y,
du
A(m) du
and B, 5
vector function of x,y,z, 8
0(w)
A(tt)
to B, 11
and B, 4
vector function of u, 6
<p(x, y, z)
cross or vector product of
A,
time derivatives of A,
z,
i.e.
dA/dt, d2 A/dt 2 8
indefinite integral of A(m), 6
definite integral of A(w), 6
integral along curve C, 9
<s>
V
= grad
V A = div A
V X A = curl A
V<
dot or scalar product of
(B
A(x,y,z)
magnitude of distance from
(B
A(w)
magnitude of A, 4
<f>
f(r)
[F, G]
integral around a closed path, 9

del operator, 8
gradient of
<p,
divergence of A, 8
curl of A, 9
magnitude of central
Poisson bracket of
force, 116
and G, 331
INDEX
Arc length,
Absolute motion, 34, 60

Acceleration,
along a space curve,

angular, 8, 145, 148
apparent, 149
centrifugal, 145
8,
20
of triangle, 31
Areas, law of, 116, 123

Associative law, 3, 10
for rotations, 245
Astronomical data, 342, 343
centripetal, 8, 20, 21, 150

Coriolis, 145, 150
due to gravity, 62
Astronomy, definitions
Asymptotes, 119
in cylindrical coordinates, 32
in
moving coordinate systems,
in, 119,
120
Attraction, 120, 121, 129-133, 136
145, 146, 148, 149

in polar coordinates,
Areal velocity, 122, 123

Area, of parallelogram, 15
17-20
1, 7,
Atwood's machine,
Axioms, 1
26
76,
305
in spherical coordinates, 32
instantaneous, 7
Binomial theorem, 106

Binormal, 7, 8
Bob, of simple pendulum, 90
Body axes, 257
linear, 145
normal,
7, 8, 19,
20
relative, 7, 18, 19
tangential,
7, 8, 19,
Body centrode or locus, 229, 240, 241

Body cone, 257, 266
Bohr's quantum theory, 338
Boundary value problems, 195, 345
Bound vectors, 9, 10
20
true, 149
uniform, 62, 65, 66

Action and reaction, 33
Action integral, 313
Action variables, 316, 328
Actual force, 170
Air resistance, 63, 69-72
Amplitude, 86, 87
modulation, 102
of damped oscillatory motion, 88
of steady-state oscillation, 90
Angle variables, 316, 328, 329
Angular acceleration, 8, 145, 148
Angular impulse, 170, 228, 237
Angular momentum, 37, 45-47
about principal axes, 255
conservation of, 37, 45-47, 168, 228, 237
of a rigid body, 227, 236, 254, 259, 260
of a system of particles, 168, 169, 176, 179
of the earth about its axis, 150
principle of, 227, 229, 236, 238
Brachistochrone problem, 322

Calculus of variations, 313, 320-333
connection with Hamilton's principle, 321
Canonical coordinates, 314
Canonical equations, Hamilton's, 311
Canonical transformations, 314, 323-325
condition for, 314
Celestial mechanics, 311
Center, of ellipse, 118
of force, 116
of gravity, 167
of hyperbola, 119
Center of mass, 166, 172-175, 183-186
motion of, 167
motion of system relative to, 169, 178, 179
Central field, 116 (see also Central force)
equations of motion for particle in,
116, 122, 123
relationship to torque, 37, 46,

168, 169, 176
Angular speed, 8
Angular velocity,
(see also
Angular
potential energy of particle in,
velocity)
144, 148
117, 123-125
Central force, 116, 121, 122, 168, 318
(see also Central field)
determination of, from orbit, 118, 125-127
Centrifugal acceleration, 145
force, 146
Centripetal acceleration, 8, 20, 21, 150
force, 146, 150
Centrode, space and body, 229, 240, 241
terms of Euler angles, 258

of rigid body, 253
Anharmonic oscillator, 115
Aphelion, 120
Apogee, 120
Approximations, method of successive, 154, 159
Apsides, 143
Arbitrary constants, 344, 348
in
361
INDEX
362
Curvature, 8, 20
radius of, 8, 20
Cycle, 87
Centroid {see Center of mass)

Cgs system, 33, 62, 339, 340
Chain, hanging, 186, 187
sliding, 83
Characteristic determinant, 198
frequencies, 198
Chasle's theorem, 224, 275
Circular motion, 8, 20, 21, 95, 96
Cyclic coordinates, 312

Cycloid, 84, 85, 106, 107, 302, 322, 323
Cycloidal pendulum, 112, 303

Cyclones, 163
Cylinder, vibrations of, 104, 105
Cylindrical coordinates, 32
acceleration in, 32
gradient in, 61
Lagrange's equations in, 291, 292
velocity and acceleration in, 32
Clock, 2
Coefficient of friction, 65
Colatitude, 152
Collinear vectors, 23
Collisions of particles, 194, 195, 200-202
Comet, 121
Commutative law, for dot and cross
products, 3, 5, 10, 13, 14
D'Alembert's principle, 171, 182, 229
for Poisson brackets, 331

for rotations, 230, 231
Complementary equation and
solution, 347
Components, of a vector, 4
Compound pendulum, 228, 237, 238, 279, 291
Compression time, 194
Conical pendulum, 157
Conjugate momentum, 284, 288
Conservation, of angular momentum,
37, 45-47, 168, 228, 237
37, 167,
notation for time, 8

of vectors, 6, 16, 17
Constraint force, 170

Constraints, 170, 180
holonomic and non-holonomic, 170, 180,
283, 284, 286, 287
reaction due to, 64, 65
Contact transformations (see Canonical
transformations)
Continuous functions, piecewise, 197
Continuous systems of particles, 165, 195
of,
341
of gradient,
9,
29
Dimensions, 2, 339, 340

Direct collision, 194
Discontinuities, 197, 204, 207
Discrete system of particles, 165

Displacement, 2, 224
true, 170
virtual, 170
Dissipative forces, 64
Distance, 2
between two points, 11
Distributive law, 3
for Poisson brackets, 332
88, 96, 98, 99
failure of commutative law for,
22
partial, 195, 344

Differential, exact, 51, 52
Directrix, 118
Dirichlet conditions, 197, 206, 207
Cross products, 5, 13-15

determinant expression for, 14, 15
distributive law, 5, 14
8, 9, 21,
Difference of vectors, 3
and derivative operators,
Differential equations, 344-355
Differential
cosines, 24
moving, 144-164
non-inertial, 144
Coplanar vectors, condition for, 16
Coriolis acceleration, 145, 150
force, 146
Cosines, direction, 24
law of, 27
Couples, 226, 227, 235
Curl,
Determinant, characteristic, 198

Jacobian, 337
secular, 198, 215
Dextral system, 4
Diagonal, main or principal, 254
Difference equation, 216
Direction, 2
inertial, 34, 39
damped motion,
moving coordinate systems,
144, 145, 147, 148
condition for, 35, 50, 51

Constant of the motion, 312
Constrained motion, 64, 65, 72, 73
Critically
Definitions, 1
Derivatives, in
173
fields, 35, 43-45, 283,
Conversion factors, table

Coordinate systems, 3, 4
Definite integrals, 6
Density, 165
in phase space, 312
169, 227, 229, 236, 240
momentum,
Deceleration, 29
Decrement, logarithmic, 89, 97, 98
Del, 8
of energy, 36, 43-45, 124,
of
96-99
Deformable bodies, 165

Degrees of freedom, 165, 172, 224, 225, 253, 282
of a rigid body, 172, 253, 259
Conic section, 118, 127, 128
Conservative force
286, 287
Damped harmonic oscillator, 87, 88,

Damped oscillatory motion, 88, 98
Damping coefficient, 88
Damping forces, 64, 87
5, 13,
14
Divergence, 8, 21, 22
of curl, 9, 29
Dot products, 4, 5, 12, 13
8, 144,
148
INDEX
Dot products (cont.)
commutative law for, 5
distributive law for, 5, 12
Double pendulum, 285, 286, 299-301
Drumhead, vibrating, 195
Dumbbell, 278
Dynamics, 1
Dyne, 33
Earth, flat, 63
motion of particle relative to, 145
rotation of, 150, 257, 265
Eccentricity, 118
Einstein's laws of relativity, 34, 61
Elastic bodies, 165
Elastic collisions, perfectly, 195, 201
Elastic constant, 86
Elasticity, 194
modulus of, 86
Elastic string, vibrations of
(see Vibrating string)
Electrical charge, 83, 84
Electromagnetic field, 84, 309

Hamiltonian for particle in, 338
Lagrangian for particle in, 309
Ellipse, 38, 104, 118, 119, 121, 127, 128
Ellipsoid of inertia, 255, 256, 263, 264

Elliptic functions, 106, 272, 279
integrals, 106, 108
Energy, conservation
227, 229, 236, 240
of, 36, 43-45, 124, 169,
kinetic, (see Kinetic energy)
of simple harmonic oscillator, 87, 99

potential (see Potential energy)
total, 36
English systems, 63, 339
Epoch, 87, 88, 93
Equality of vectors, 2
Equilibrant, 47
Equilibrium, 37, 171
in a uniform gravitational field, 65, 66, 74, 75
of a particle, 37, 38, 47, 48
of a system of particles, 170, 180, 181
position, 86
stable, 38, 48, 49, 60, 141, 171, 230
Escape speed or velocity, 134
Euclidean geometry, 1, 2
Euler angles, 253, 257, 267, 268, 301
angular velocity in terms of, 258
Euler's equations of motion, 256, 264
from Lagrange's equations, 302
Euler's or Lagrange's equations, 313, 320
Euler's theorem, 224
on homogeneous functions, 305, 306, 317
Even extension of a function, 208
Even functions, 196
Event, 2
E volute, 112
Exact differential, 51, 52
Exact differential equation, 345, 350
Extremal, 313
Extremum or extreme value, 313
363
Field, scalar or vector, 8

Flat earth, 63 (see also Earth)
Focus, 118
Force, 33
axiomatic definition of, 33, 49
centrifugal and centripetal, 145, 146, 150
constraint, 170
damping, 64, 87
generalized, 283
units of, 33, 339, 340
Forced vibrations, 89, 99-102

resonance and, 90, 100, 101
Force fields, conservative (see Conservative
force fields)
non-conservative, 37, 47
uniform, 62, 65, 66
Foucault pendulum, 146, 154-156

Fourier coefficients, 196, 206
Fourier series, 195-197, 203-208
convergence of, 197
half range, 197, 207, 208
Fourier coefficients for, 196, 206

solution of vibrating string by
(see
Vibrating string)
Fps system, 33, 62, 339, 340

Frames of reference, Newtonian,
33, 34
Freely falling bodies, 63, 67
Free vectors, 9, 10
Frenet-Serret formulas, 31
Frequencies, characteristic, 198
Frequency, fundamental, 211
natural, 89, 98
obtained by Hamiltonian methods, 316, 329
of precession, 257, 265, 270, 273, 274
of resonance, 90
of simple harmonic motion, 86, 87
Friction, 65
coefficient of, 65
motion involving, 73
Fss system, 63, 339, 340
Function, scalar and vector, 8
Fundamental frequency, 211

Generalized coordinates, 282, 285, 286
forces, 283
impulse, 285
momenta, 284, 288
velocities, 283
General solution of differential equation,
344, 348
Generating functions, 314, 315, 323-325
Geometry, Euclidean, 1, 2
Gimbal, of a gyroscope, 258
Gradient,
8, 21,
curl of, 9, 29
in cylindrical
22
and spherical coordinates, 61
Gram, 33
Gravitation, universal law of (see Universal
law of gravitation)
Gravitational constant, universal, 120
Gravitational potential, 120, 121, 133, 143
Gravitational system of units, 63, 339
INDEX
364
Gravity, 62
center of, 167
vibrating string under, 214, 215
Gyration, radius
of,
Invariant, 34
Isolation, of a system, 64
Iteration,
method
of, 154,
159
225
Jacobian determinant, 337
Gyrocompass, 278
Gyroscopes, 258, 268-273
Half range Fourier sine and cosine series

197, 207, 208
Hamiltonian, 311, 317, 318, 330
for conservative systems, 311
for particle in electromagnetic field, 338
Hamilton-Jacobi equation, 315, 325-327, 330, 331
for Kepler's problem, 326, 327
for one dimensional harmonic oscillator,
325, 326
solution of, 315, 316
oscillator,
damped,
87, 88, 96-99
simple, 86-90, 92-102

two and three dimensional, 91, 103, 104
Herpolhode, 257, 266

Holonomic, 170, 180, 283, 284, 286, 287
Homogeneous equation, 346, 351
Homogeneous functions, 305
Euler's theorem on, 305, 306, 317
Hooke's law, 86
Hyperbola, 104, 119, 121, 127, 128
Hyperbolic functions, 54
Ignorable coordinates, 312, 315
Impact, 194
Impulse, 36, 45-47, 169, 170, 180
angular, 170, 228, 237
generalized, 285
relation to momentum, 36
Impulsive forces, 285, 295-298
Inclined plane, 64, 65, 72
motion of particle down, 72, 73
motion of sphere down, 239, 240
projectile motion on, 75, 76, 81
Incompressible
fluid,
Kilogram, 33
weight, 63
Kinematics, 1
Kinetic energy, 34, 35, 41-43
about principal axes, 255
terms of Euler angles, 258, 268

terms of generalized velocities, 283, 287, 288
of a rigid body, 227, 236, 259, 260
of rotation, 229
of translation, 229
relationship to work, 35, 41, 169
in
in
Hamilton's equations, 311, 317, 318

Hamilton's principle, 313, 320-323
Harmonic
Kepler's laws, 120, 128, 129, 223

deduction of from Newton's universal
law of gravitation, 125, 126, 129
313
Indefinite integrals of vectors, 6

Independence of path, 9
condition for, 50, 51

Inelastic collisions, perfectly, 195, 201
Inertial frames of reference, 33, 34, 39
classical principle of relativity for, 39
Inertial system, 34, 39
Initial point, of a vector, 2
Instability, 38
Instantaneous, acceleration, 7
axis of rotation, 224, 225, 229
center of rotation, 225, 229, 240, 241
power, 34 (see also Power)
velocity, 7
Integral equations, 154
Integrals of vectors, 6, 16, 17
Line integrals)
Integrating factor, 345, 351
Internal forces, 177, 178
line (see
Invariable line and plane, 256, 257, 266
relativistic, 55
Kronecker
delta, 336
Lagrange multipliers,
280, 284, 292, 295
Lagrange's equations, 282-310, 320
and calculus of variations
(see Calculus
of variations)
for conservative systems, 284, 288-292

for non-conservative systems, 284
for non-holonomic systems, 284, 285,
292-295, 303
with impulsive forces, 285, 295-298
Lagrangian function, 284, 311
for particle in electromagnetic field, 309
Latitude, 152
Laws,
Lemniscate, 138
Length, 2
Light, speed of, 34, 54
Limiting speed or velocity, 70, 72
Line, 1
of action of a vector, 10
Linear equations, 345-347, 349, 350, 352
Linear harmonic oscillator, 86 (see also
Harmonic
oscillator)
Linear impulse (see Impulse)

Linear momentum (see Momentum)
Line integrals, 9, 22, 23
evaluation of, 22, 23
independence of path of, 9, 23
Liouville's theorem, 312
proof of, 318-320
Lissajous curves or figures, 91
Logarithmic decrement, 89, 97, 98
Lorentz force, 84
Magnetic
field,
83
Main diagonal,
of
moment
matrix, 254
Major
axis, of ellipse,
of hyperbola, 139
118
of inertia
INDEX
Mass, 2, 33
axiomatic definition of, 49
center of (see Center of mass)
changing, 194
Normal
(cont.)
to a surface, 24
Null vector, 3
Nutation, 270, 272
of the earth, 129
reduced, 182, 231

rest, 54, 61
units of, 33
Mathematical models, 1
Matrix, moment of inertia, 254
Matter, 1, 2
Mechanics,
Oblique collisions, 194

Odd extension, of a function, 207
Odd functions, 196
Operators, derivative, 144
Optics, 335
Orbit, 116, 120
determination of from central force,
117, 118, 125-127
weightlessness in, 135, 136
Order of a differential equation, 344
relativistic, 34
Membrane, vibrating, 195

Meteorite, 121
Metric system, 339
Minor
Oscillations, forced, 89 (see also
axis, of ellipse, 119
Forced vibrations)
anharmonic, 115
harmonic (see Harmonic oscillator)
of hyperbola, 139
Oscillator,
Mks system, 33, 62, 339, 340

Mode of vibration, normal, 194
Overdamped motion,
Models, mathematical, 1
Modulation, amplitude, 102
Modulus of elasticity, 86
Moment, of couple, 226
of force, 36
of momentum, 37 (see also Angular
Momental ellipsoid, 256
Moments
momentum)
of inertia, 225, 231-233, 254, 259,
260, 263, 264
matrix, 254
principal (see Principal
moments
of inertia)
226
theorems on, 225, 233-235
Momentum, 33, 167
angular (see Angular momentum)
conjugate, 284, 288
special,
conservation
of, 37, 167,
173
generalized, 284, 288
moment
of,
37 (see also Angular momentum)

principle of, 238
Momentum
Moon,
88, 98, 99
Overtones, 211
coordinates, 312
119, 342
Pappus, theorems of, 193

Parabola, 63, 104, 119, 121, 127, 128
as curve of motion of projectile, 68
Paraboloid of revolution, 107, 108
Parachutist, motion of, 69, 70
Parallel axis theorem, 226, 233, 234
Parallelepiped, volume of, 5, 15, 16
Parallelogram, area of,

Parallelogram law, 2
5,
Partial differential equation, 195, 344

of vibrating string (see Vibrating string)
Particles, 2
equilibrium of, 37, 38

systems of, 165-193
vibrations of, 194, 197-199
Particular solutions, 344, 345, 347, 348
Path, independence of, 9, 50, 51
Pendulum, bob, 90
compound, 228, 237, 238, 279, 291
conical, 157
cycloidal, 112, 303
Multiply-periodic vibrations, 194
double, 285, 286, 299-301
Musical note, 211
Foucault, 146, 154-156

seconds, 110
Natural frequency and period, 89, 98

Newton, 33
Newtonian frames of reference, 34
Newton's collision rule, 194, 202
laws of motion, 33-41
universal law of gravitation (see
Universal law of gravitation)
Nodes, line of, 257
Non-holonomic, 170, 180, 283, 284, 286, 287
Non-inertial systems, 144, 145
Normal
frequencies, 194, 198
for a double pendulum, 300, 301, 308

for a vibrating string, 210, 211
for a vibrating system of particles, 215, 216
Normal modes of vibration, 194, 198, 199
for a vibrating string, 210, 211
Normal, principal, 7, 8, 20
15
simple (see Simple pendulum)

Perigee, 120
Perihelion, 120
Period, 53
natural, 89
of damped motion, 89
of harmonic oscillator, 87
of motion in a magnetic field, 83
of simple harmonic motion, 86, 87
of simple pendulum, 91, 105, 106

orbital, 135, 136
sidereal, 120
Perpendicular axes theorem, 226, 234, 235

Phase, angle, 87, 88, 93
integrals, 316, 328, 329
out
of,
93
space, 312, 318-320
INDEX
366
Piano string, vibrations of, 195
(see also Vibrating string)
Piecewise continuous functions, 197
Planck's constant, 338
Planets, 119, 343
Poinsot's construction, 257
Point, 1, 2
Poisson bracket, 331, 332
Polar coordinates, 25, 26
54
velocity and acceleration
Polhode, 257, 266
gradient
Reaction
(cont.)
due to constraints, 64, 65

Rectangular coordinate systems,
right handed, 4
Reduced mass, 182, 231
Reference level, 64
Relative acceleration,
7, 18,
3,
19
velocity, 7
Relativistic mechanics, 34
Relativity, classical principle of, 34, 39
in,
in,
26
Position, 2
coordinates, 312
vector, 4
Potential, 35 (see also Potential energy)
relation to stability, 38
scalar, 35, 309
vector, 309
Potential energy, 35, 36, 43-45

(see also Potential)
in a central force field, 117, 123-125
in a uniform force field, 64, 69
of a system of particles, 169, 176-178
principle of minimum, 230
relation of to work, 35, 44
Pound, 33
weight, 63
Poundal, 33
34, 41-43, 227, 237
relation to work, 42
Power,
Precession, 156, 256, 270, 272

frequency of, 257, 265, 270, 273, 274
Principal axes of inertia, 255, 260-263

Principal diagonal, 254
Principal moments of inertia, 255, 260-263
method of Lagrange multipliers for, 280
Principal normal, unit, 7, 8, 20
Products of inertia, 254, 259, 260
Products of vectors, by a scalar, 3
cross (see Cross products)
Einstein's laws of, 34, 61

theory of 54, 55, 61, 143, 337
Representative point, 312
Resistance, air, 63, 69-72
Resisting forces, 64
Resisting medium, motion in, 64, 69-72
Resonance, 90, 100, 101
Restitution, coefficient of, 195
Restitution time, 194
Rest mass, 54, 61
Restoring force, 86
Resultant of vectors, 2
Rheonomic, 283, 286, 287
Right handed system, 4
Rigid bodies, 165, 170, 224, 230, 231, 236
equilibrium of, 229, 241, 242
force free motion of, 256, 257, 265
general motion of, 224, 253, 259
motion of, about a fixed axis, 236
plane motion of, 224-252
symmetric, 257
Rockets, 173, 194, 199, 200
motion of, 199, 200
Rotating coordinate systems, 144, 147, 148
Rotation, 224, 253
associative and commutative laws for, 230,
231, 245
finite, 230, 231
of the earth, 150, 257, 265
pure, 253
Routh's function or Routhian, 337
dot (see Dot products)

Satellites, 119
Projectiles, 62, 63
maximum
height
68
motion of, 68, 69, 71, 72
on an inclined plane, 75, 76, 81
range of (see Range of projectile)
time of flight, 68
of,
Scalars, 2
Pulley, 76, 289, 290
Quantum mechanics, 311

Quantum number, orbital, 338
Quantum theory, 338
Radius, of curvature,
of gyration, 225
of torsion, 31
Radius vector, 4
8,
20
Range of projectile, 68
maximum, 69
on inclined plane, 75, 76
on rotating earth, 164
Reaction, 33
Scalar function, 8
Scalar potential, 35
for electromagnetic field, 309
Scalar product (see Dot product)
Scalar triple product, 5
Scleronomic, 283, 286, 287
Seconds pendulum, 110
Secular determinant, 198, 215
Semi-major and minor axes, 118, 119, 129

Separation of variables, 210, 316, 345, 347, 348
Sidereal period, 120
Simple closed curve, 9
Simple harmonic motion, 86
(see also Simple harmonic oscillator)
amplitude, period and frequency of, 86, 87
Simple harmonic oscillator, 86-90, 92-102
amplitude, period and frequency of, 86, 87
damped, 87, 88
energy of, 87, 99
INDEX
Simple harmonic oscillator
Top
(cont.)
forced vibrations of, 89, 99-102

resonance and, 90, 100, 101
Sliding vector, 9, 10
Slug, 63
Solar system, 119
Solution of differential equation, 344
Space, 1, 2
Space axes, 257
Space centrode or locus, 229, 240, 241

Space cone, 257, 266
Special relativity (see Relativity)
Speed, 7 (see also Velocity)
scalar, 5
angular, 8
escape, 134
of light, 34
vector, 5
Two and
orbital, 135, 136

Sphere, particle sliding down, 76, 77, 82
sphere rolling down, 244, 303, 304
Spherical coordinates, 32
gradient in, 61
in,
and acceleration
Undetermined
Uniform
force
306
32
Units,
37, 38,
acceleration, 62, 65, 66
field, 62, 65,
66
rectangular,
47
field, 65, 66, 74,
75
Statistical mechanics, 311

Steady-state solution, 89
Stiffness factor, 86
of vectors, 2
obtained graphically and analytically, 12, 48

Sun, 119, 342
Superposition principle, 199

Surface, normal to, 24
Symmetric matrix or tensor, 254

Systems of particles, 165-193
62, 65,
66
339-341
2,
3,
Universal law of gravitation, 120, 128, 129

deduction from Kepler's laws, 128, 129
Unstable equilibrium, 171, 230
of a particle, 37, 38, 47, 48

of a system of particles, 170, 180, 181
Sum
of, 347,
Unit vectors, 3
171, 230
1,
method
Uniformly accelerated motion,
in,
uniform gravitational
88, 98
coefficients,
352, 353
Stable point, 38
Star, 119
in a
three body problems, 121, 223
Underdamped motion,
Spin, 270, 272

Spring constant, 86
Spring, vibrations of, 86, 93-95
Stability of equilibrium, 38, 48, 49, 60, 141,
Statics,
(cont.)
steady precession of, 270

Torque, 36, 45-47, 168, 176
of a couple, 226
relation to angular momentum, 37, 46, 168,
169, 176
Torsion, 31
constant of, 308
radius of, 31
Transformation equations, 282, 285, 286
canonical, 314, 323-325
Transient solution, 89
Translation, 224, 253
Transverse vibration of a string
(see Vibrating string)
Triple products, 5, 15, 16
Lagrange's equations for, 306

Simple pendulum, 86, 87, 90, 91, 102, 103
length of equivalent, 228
Sines, law of, 27
velocity
367
Variation of an integral, 321

Variation of parameters, method of, 347, 353, 354
Variation symbol, 313, 337
Variations, calculus of
(see Calculus of variations)
Vector algebra, laws of, 3, 10-12
Vector field, 8
Vector function, 8
Vector potential, 309
Vector product (see Cross product)
Vector triple product, 5
Vectors, 1, 2
algebra of, 2, 3
bound, 9, 10
components
of,
definition of, 2
Tangent vector, unit, 7, 8, 19

Tautochrone problem, 113
free, 9, 10
magnitude
Velocity,
1, 6, 7,
angular
Terminal point, of a vector, 2

Theorems, 1
Time. 1, 2
principle of least, 335
Top, 258, 268-273, 274
Lagrange's equations for motion
motion of, 258, 268-273
sleeping, 274
of, 11, 13
sliding, 9, 10
Tension, 74, 76
Tensor, moment of inertia, 254
(see
17-19
Angular
velocity)
apparent, 148
areal, 122, 123
escape, 134
generalized, 283
in cylindrical coordinates, 32
of, 301,
302
in
moving cordinate systems,
in polar coordinates,
26
in spherical coordinates, 32
145, 148, 149
368
Velocity (cont.)
instantaneous, 7
limiting, 70, 72
INDEX
Virtual work, principle
of, 170,
Weight, 62
relative, 7
apparent, 162
Weightlessness, 135, 136
true, 148
Work,
of a rigid body, 253, 259
Vertices, of ellipse, 118

of hyperbola, 119
Vibrating string, 195, 202, 203, 209-212
considered as a system of particles, 215-217
under gravity, 214, 215
Vibrating systems of particles, 194, 197-199
Vibrations, of a cylinder, 104, 105
forced (see Forced vibrations)
Violin string, vibrations of, 195
(see also Vibrating string)
Virtual displacements, 170
Virtual work, Lagrange's equations and, 292
229
34, 41-43, 168, 169, 176-178,
237
generalized forces and, 283, 287, 288

in rotation of a rigid body, 227
relationship of to kinetic energy, 168, 169,
176, 177
relationship of to potential energy, 44
virtual (see Virtual work)
x direction, 4
y direction, 4
z direction, 4
Zero vector, 2

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<A

THEORY AND PROBLEMS

and Hamiltonian Theory

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

SCHAUM'S OUTLINE SERIES

York, St. Louis, San Francisco, Toronto, Sydney

1967 by McGraw-Hill, Inc.

United States of America.

All rights reserved.

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,

written permission of the publisher.

purpose of this book to present an account of Newtonian mechanics and its

Schaum Publishing Company

VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION. WORK, ENERGY

FIELD. FALLING BODIES

Uniformly accelerated motion. Weight and acceleration

THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR AND

The simple harmonic oscillator. Amplitude, period and frequency of simple

CENTRAL FORCES AND PLANETARY MOTION

MOVING COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Non-inertial coordinate systems. Rotating coordinate systems. Derivative

Stability of equilibrium. D'Alembert's principle.

APPLICATIONS TO VIBRATING SYSTEMS,

PLANE MOTION OF RIGID BODIES

Conservation of angular momentum. The comInstantaneous center.

pound pendulum. General plane motion of a rigid body.

SPACE MOTION OF RIGID BODIES

tonian for conservative systems. Ignorable or cyclic coordinates.

Generating functions. The Hamilton-Jacobi equation. Solution

UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

SOLUTIONS OF SPECIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

INDEX OF SPECIAL SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS

MECHANICS, KINEMATICS, DYNAMICS AND STATICS

a branch of physics concerned with motion or change in position of

concerned with the geometry of the motion,

concerned with conditions under which no motion

AXIOMATIC FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS

This is clearly necessary since ultimately any

Unproved assertions. These are fundamental statements, usually in mathematical

These definitions are given by using the undefined

Defined terms or concepts.

Proved assertions. These are often

An example of the "axiomatic way of thinking"

theorems and are proved from the

provided by Euclidean geometry in

of physical phenomena is often simplified by replacing

SPACE, TIME AND MATTER

all have some idea as to the meaning of each of the

VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

closely related to the concepts of point, position, direction and

Physical objects are composed of "small bits of matter" such as atoms

SCALARS AND VECTORS

tion a single real

Other quantities of physics, such as displacement, require for their specification a

direction opposite to that of vector

but with the same length

B [see Fig. l-4(b) below]. We write C = A + B.

A to the terminal point

is that vector C which

of a vector A by a scalar p is a vector pA or Ap with magnitude

LAWS OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

p and q are scalars, then