Time management is the act or process of planning and

exercising conscious control over the amount of time spent on

specific activities, especially to increase effectiveness,
efficiency or productivity.
It is a meta-activity with the goal to maximize the overall benefit
of a set of other activities within the boundary condition of a
limited amount of time.
Time management may be aided by a range of skills, tools, and
techniques used to manage time when accomplishing specific
tasks, projects, and goals complying with a due date. Initially,
time management referred to just business or work activities,
but eventually the term broadened to include personal activities
as well. A time management system is a designed combination
of processes, tools, techniques, and methods. Time
management is usually a necessity in any project
development as it determines the project completion time and
scope.
The major themes arising from the literature on time
management include the following:

Creating an environment conducive to effectiveness

Setting of priorities

Carrying out activity around those priorities

The related process of reduction of time spent on nonpriorities

Incentives to modify behavior to ensure compliance with

time-related deadlines.

Time management has been considered to be a subset of

different concepts such as:

Project management: Time Management can be

considered to be a project management subset and is more
commonly
known
as project
planning and
project
scheduling. Time Management has also been identified as
one of the core functions identified in project management.[1]

Attention management: Attention Management relates to

the management of cognitive resources, and in particular
the time that humans allocate their mind (and organize the
minds of their employees) to conduct some activities.

Creating an effective environment[edit]

Some[which?] time-management literature stresses tasks related
to the creation of an environment conducive to "real"
effectiveness. These strategies include principles such as:

"get organized" - the triage of paperwork and of tasks

"protecting one's time" by insulation, isolation and

delegation

"achievement through goal-management and through

goal-focus" - motivational emphasis

"recovering from bad time-habits" - recovery from

underlying psychological problems, e.g. procrastination

Writers[who?] on creating an environment for effectiveness refer

to such matters as having a tidy office or home for unleashing
creativity, and the need to protect "prime time".
Literature[which?] also
focuses
on
overcoming
chronic
psychological issues such as procrastination.
Excessive and chronic inability to manage time effectively may
result
from Attention
Deficit
Hyperactivity
Disorder
(ADHD) or Attention
Deficit
Disorder
(ADD).[citation

needed]

Diagnostic criteria include a sense of underachievement,

difficulty getting organized, trouble getting started, many
projects going simultaneously and trouble with follow-through.[2]
[page needed]
Some authors[which?] focus on the prefrontal cortex which
is the most recently evolved part of the brain. It controls the
functions of attention-span, impulse-control, organization,
learning from experience and self-monitoring, among others.
Some authors[quantify] argue that changing the way the prefrontal
cortex works is possible and offer a solution.[3]
Setting priorities and goals[edit]
"Task list" redirects here. For application in Windows XP,
see Windows Task Manager.
Time management strategies are often associated with the
recommendation to set personal goals. The literature stresses
themes such as

"Work in Priority Order" - set goals and prioritize

"Set gravitational
automatically

goals"

that

attract

actions

These goals are recorded and may be broken down into

a project, an action plan, or a simple task list. For individual
tasks or for goals, an importance rating may be established,
deadlines may be set, and priorities assigned. This process
results in a plan with a task list or a schedule or calendar of
activities. Authors may recommend a daily, weekly, monthly or
other planning periods associated with different scope of
planning or review. This is done in various ways, as follows.
ABC analysis[edit]
A technique that has been used in business management for a
long time is the categorization of large data into groups. These

groups are often marked A, B, and Chence the name.

Activities are ranked by these general criteria:

A Tasks that are perceived as being urgent and

important,

B Tasks that are important but not urgent,

C Tasks that are unimportant. (whether urgent or not)

Each group is then rank-ordered by priority. To further refine the

prioritization, some individuals choose to then force-rank all "B"
items as either "A" or "C". ABC analysis can incorporate more
than three groups.[4]
ABC analysis is frequently combined with Pareto analysis.[citation
needed]

Pareto analysis[edit]
This is the idea 80% of tasks can be completed in 20% of the
disposable time. The remaining 20% of tasks will take up 80%
of the time. This principle is used to sort tasks into two parts.
According to this form of Pareto analysis it is recommended
that tasks that fall into the first category be assigned a higher
priority.
The 80-20-rule can also be applied to increase productivity: it is
assumed that 80% of the productivity can be achieved by doing
20% of the tasks. Similarly, 80% of results can be attributed to
20% of activity.[5] If productivity is the aim of time management,
then these tasks should be prioritized higher.[6]
It depends on the method adopted to complete the task. There
is always a simpler and easier way to complete the task. If one
uses a complex way, it will be time consuming. So, one should
always try to find out alternative ways to complete each task.

The Eisenhower Method[edit]

A basic "Eisenhower box" to help evaluate urgency and

importance. Items may be placed at more precise points within
each quadrant.
The "Eisenhower Method" stems from a quote attributed
to Dwight D. Eisenhower: "I have two kinds of problems, the
urgent and the important. The urgent are not important, and the
important are never urgent."[7][8]
Using the Eisenhower Decision Principle, tasks are evaluated
using the criteria important/unimportant and urgent/not urgent, [9]
[10]
and then placed in according quadrants in an Eisenhower
Matrix (also known as an "Eisenhower Box" or "Eisenhower
Decision Matrix"[11]). Tasks are then handled as follows:
Tasks in
1. Important/Urgent quadrant are done immediately and
personally[12] e.g. crises, deadlines, problems.[11]
2. Important/Not Urgent quadrant get an end date and are
done
personally[12] e.g.
relationships,
planning,
[11]
recreation.

3. Unimportant/Urgent quadrant are

interruptions, meetings, activities.[11]

delegated[12] e.g.

4. Unimportant/Not Urgent quadrant are dropped[12] e.g.

time wasters, pleasant activities, trivia.[11]
This method is said to have
President Dwight D. Eisenhower.[12]

been

used

by

U.S.

Domino Reaction method[edit]

This is the idea that there are actions that you invest in once
and which produce over time in different channels. Writing a
book is such an action, because it requires a one-time effort,
and once you finish it, it continues serving you.[13]
POSEC method[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please
help improve this section by adding citations to
reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (March 2014)
POSEC is an acronym for Prioritize by Organizing,
Streamlining, Economizing and Contributing. The method
dictates a template which emphasizes an average individual's
immediate sense of emotional and monetary security. It
suggests that by attending to one's personal responsibilities
first, an individual is better positioned to shoulder collective
responsibilities.
Inherent in the acronym is a hierarchy of self-realization, which
mirrors Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs:
1. Prioritize - Your time and define your life by goals.
2. Organize - Things you have to accomplish regularly to be
successful (family and finances).

3. Streamline - Things you may not like to do, but must do

(work and chores).
4. Economize - Things you should do or may even like to
do, but they're not pressingly urgent (pastimes and
socializing).
5. Contribute - By paying attention to the few remaining
things that make a difference (social obligations).
Implementation of goals[edit]

A to-do form tattooed into a person's arm, with some items

already written out with a black pen.
There are also time management approaches that emphasise
the need for more focused and simple implementation,
including the approach of "Going with the Flow" - natural
rhythms, Eastern philosophy. More unconventional time usage
techniques, such as those discussed inWhere Did Time
Fly, include concepts that can be paraphrased as "Less is
More", which de-emphasizes the importance of squeezing
every minute of one's time, as suggested in traditional time
management schemes.[14]
A task list (also to-do list or things-to-do) is a list of tasks to be
completed, such as chores or steps toward completing a
project. It is aninventory tool which serves as an alternative or
supplement to memory.

Task lists are used in self-management, grocery lists, business

management, project management, and software development.
It may involve more than one list.
When one of the items on a task list is accomplished, the task
is checked or crossed off. The traditional method is to write
these on a piece of paper with a pen or pencil, usually on a
note pad or clip-board. Task lists can also have the form of
paper or software checklists.
Writer Julie Morgenstern suggests "do's and don'ts" of time
management that include:

Map out everything that is important, by making a task list

Create "an oasis of time" for one to control

Say "No"

Set priorities

Don't drop everything

Don't think a critical task will get done in one's spare

time.[15]

Numerous
digital
equivalents
are
now
available,
including Personal information management (PIM) applications
and most PDAs. There are also several web-based task list
applications, many of which are free.
Task list organization[edit]
Task lists are often tiered. The simplest tiered system includes
a general to-do list (or task-holding file) to record all the tasks
the person needs to accomplish, and a daily to-do list which is
created each day by transferring tasks from the general to-do
list.[15]

Task lists are often prioritized:

A daily list of things to do, numbered in the order of their

importance, and done in that order one at a time until daily
time allows, is attributed to consultant Ivy Lee (1877-1934)
as the most profitable advice received by Charles M.
Schwab (1862-1939),
president
of
the Bethlehem
[16][17][18]
Steel Corporation.

An early advocate of "ABC" prioritization was Alan

Lakein, in 1973. In his system "A" items were the most
important ("A-1" the most important within that group), "B"
next most important, "C" least important.[4]

A
particular
method
of
applying
the ABC
method[19] assigns "A" to tasks to be done within a day, "B"
a week, and "C" a month.

To prioritize a daily task list, one either records the tasks

in the order of highest priority, or assigns them
a number after they are listed ("1" for highest priority, "2" for
second highest priority, etc.) which indicates in which order
to execute the tasks. The latter method is generally faster,
allowing the tasks to be recorded more quickly.[15]

Another way of prioritizing compulsory tasks (group A) is

to put the most unpleasant one first. When its done, the rest
of the list feels easier. Groups B and C can benefit from the
same idea, but instead of doing the first task (which is the
most unpleasant) right away, it gives motivation to do other
tasks from the list to avoid the first one.

A
completely
different
approach
which
argues against prioritising altogether was put forward by
British author Mark Forster in his book "Do It Tomorrow and
Other Secrets of Time Management". This is based on the
idea of operating "closed" to-do lists, instead of the

traditional "open" to-do list. He argues that the traditional

never-ending to-do lists virtually guarantees that some of
your work will be left undone. This approach advocates
getting all your work done, every day, and if you are unable
to achieve it helps you diagnose where you are going wrong
and what needs to change.[20]
Various writers have stressed potential difficulties with to-do
lists such as the following:

Management of the list can take over from implementing

it. This could be caused by procrastination by prolonging the
planning activity. This is akin to analysis paralysis. As with
any activity, there's a point of diminishing returns.

Some level of detail must be taken for granted for a task

system to work. Rather than put "clean the kitchen", "clean
the bedroom", and "clean the bathroom", it is more efficient
to put "housekeeping" and save time spent writing and
reduce the system's administrative load (each task entered
into the system generates a cost in time and effort to
manage it, aside from the execution of the task). The risk of
consolidating tasks, however, is that "housekeeping" in this
example may prove overwhelming or nebulously defined,
which will either increase the risk of procrastination, or a
mismanaged project.[citation needed]

Listing routine tasks wastes time. If you are in the habit of

brushing your teeth every day, then there is no reason to put
it down on the task list. The same goes for getting out of
bed, fixing meals, etc. If you need to track routine tasks,
then a standard list or chart may be useful, to avoid the
procedure of manually listing these items over and over.
[citation needed]

To remain flexible, a task system must allow for disaster.

A company must be ready for a disaster. Even if it is a small

disaster, if no one made time for this situation, it

canmetastasize, potentially causing damage to the
company .[21]

To avoid getting stuck in a wasteful pattern, the task

system should also include regular (monthly, semi-annual,
and annual) planning and system-evaluation sessions, to
weed out inefficiencies and ensure the user is headed in the
direction he or she truly desires.[22]

If some time is not regularly spent on achieving longrange goals, the individual may get stuck in a perpetual
holding pattern on short-term plans, like staying at a
particular job much longer than originally planned.[citation needed]

The Big Rocks of Time

Stephen Covey (1996) tells a great story about the real

things that we should devote our time to:
One day an expert in time management was speaking to a
group of business students. As he stood in front of the
group of high-powered overachievers he said, Okay, time
for a quiz. He then pulled out a one-gallon, wide-mouthed
Mason jar and set it on the table. He produced about a
dozen fist-sized rocks and carefully placed them one at a
time into the jar. When the jar was filled to the top and no
more rocks would fit inside, he asked, Is this jar full?
Everyone in the class said, Yes. Then he said, Really?
He reached under the table and pulled out a bucket of
gravel. Then he dumped some gravel in and shook the jar
causing it to work down into the space between the big
rocks. Then he asked the group once more, Is the jar
full? By this time, the class was on to him. Probably not,
one of them answered. Good! he replied.

He reached under the table, brought out a bucket of sand,

and started dumping the sand in the jar until it filled the
spaces left between the rocks and the gravel. Once more
he asked the question, Is this jar full? No! the class
shouted. Once again, he said, Good.
Then he grabbed a pitcher of water and began to pour it in
until the jar was filled to the brim. Then he looked at the
class and asked, What is the point of this illustration?
One eager beaver raised his hand and said, The point is,
no matter how full your schedule is, if you try really hard
you can always fit some more things in it! No, the
speaker replied, that's not the point.
The truth this illustration teaches us is that if you don't
put the big rocks in first, you'll never get them in at all.
What are the 'big rocks' in your life? Your children, your
loved ones, your education, your dreams, a worthy cause,
teaching others, doing things that you love, your health;
your mate. Remember to put these BIG ROCKS in first or
you'll never get them in at all. If you sweat about the little
stuff then you'll fill your life with little things and you'll
never have the real quality time you need to spend on the
big, important stuff.
So, tonight, or in the morning, when you are reflecting on
this short story, ask yourself this question: What are the
'big rocks' in my life? Then, put those in your jar first.

Effective Communication
Improving Communication
Personal Relationships

Skills

in

Your

Work

and

It sounds so simple: say what you mean. But all too often, what
we try to communicate gets lost in translation despite our best
intentions. We say one thing, the other person hears something
else, and misunderstandings, frustration, and conflicts ensue.
Fortunately, you can learn how to communicate more clearly
and effectively. Whether youre trying to improve
communication with your spouse, kids, boss, or coworkers, you
can improve the communication skills that enable you to
effectively connect with others, build trust and respect, and feel
heard and understood.
What is effective communication?
Communication is about more than just exchanging
information. It's about understanding the emotion and
intentions behind the information. Effective communication is
also a two-way street. Its not only how you convey a message
so that it is received and understood by someone in exactly the

way you intended, its also how you listen to gain the full
meaning of whats being said and to make the other person feel
heard and understood.
More than just the words you use, effective communication
combines a set of skills including nonverbal communication,
engaged listening, managing stress in the moment, the ability
to communicate assertively, and the capacity to recognize and
understand your own emotions and those of the person youre
communicating with.
Effective communication is the glue that helps you deepen your
connections to others and improve teamwork, decision making,
and problem solving. It enables you to communicate even
negative or difficult messages without creating conflict or
destroying trust.
While effective communication is a learned skill, it is more
effective when its spontaneous rather than formulaic. A speech
that is read, for example, rarely has the same impact as a
speech thats delivered (or appears to be delivered)
spontaneously. Of course, it takes time and effort to develop
these skills and become an effective communicator. The more
effort and practice you put in, the more instinctive and
spontaneous your communication skills will become.
Barriers to effective interpersonal communication
Stress and out-of-control emotion. When youre
stressed or emotionally overwhelmed, youre more likely
to misread other people, send confusing or off-putting
nonverbal signals, and lapse into unhealthy knee-jerk
patterns of behavior. Take a moment to calm down before
continuing a conversation.
Lack of focus. You cant communicate effectively when
youre multitasking. If youre planning what youre going
to say next, daydreaming, checking text messages, or
thinking about something else, youre almost certain to

miss nonverbal cues in the conversation. You need to

stay focused on the moment-to-moment experience.
Inconsistent body language. Nonverbal communication
should reinforce what is being said, not contradict it. If
you say one thing, but your body language says
something else, your listener will likely feel youre being
dishonest. For example, you cant say yes while
shaking your head no.
Negative body language. If you disagree with or dislike
whats being said, you may use negative body
language to rebuff the other persons message, such as
crossing your arms, avoiding eye contact, or tapping your
feet. You dont have to agree, or even like whats being
said, but to communicate effectively without making the
other person defensive, its important to avoid sending
negative signals.
Improving communication skills #1: Become an engaged
listener
People often focus on what they should say, but effective
communication is less about talking and more about listening.
Listening well means not just understanding the words or the
information being communicated, but also understanding the
emotions the speaker is trying to communicate.
Theres a big difference between engaged listening and simply
hearing. When you really listenwhen youre engaged with
whats being saidyoull hear the subtle intonations in
someones voice that tell you how that person is feeling and the
emotions theyre trying to communicate. When youre an
engaged listener, not only will you better understand the other
person, youll also make that person feel heard and
understood, which can help build a stronger, deeper connection
between you.

By communicating in this way, youll also experience a process

that lowers stress and supports physical and emotional wellbeing. If the person youre talking to is calm, for example,
listening in an engaged way will help to calm you, too. Similarly,
if the person is agitated, you can help calm them by listening in
an attentive way and making the person feel understood.
How do you become an engaged listener?
If your goal is to fully understand and connect with the other
person, listening in an engaged way will often come naturally. If
it doesnt, try the following tips. The more you practice them,
the more satisfying and rewarding your interactions with others
will become.
Focus fully on the speaker, his or her body language,
tone of voice, and other nonverbal cues. Tone of voice
conveys emotion, so if youre thinking about other things,
checking text messages or doodling, youre almost
certain to miss the nonverbal cues and the emotional
content behind the words being spoken. And if the person
talking is similarly distracted, youll be able to quickly pick
up on it. If you find it hard to concentrate on some
speakers, try repeating their words over in your head
itll reinforce their message and help you stay focused.
Favor your right ear. The left side of the brain contains
the primary processing centers for both speech
comprehension and emotions. Since the left side of the
brain is connected to the right side of the body, favoring
your right ear can help you better detect the emotional
nuances of what someone is saying. Try keeping your
posture straight, your chin down, and tilting your right ear
towards the speakerthis will make it easier to pick up
on the higher frequencies of human speech that contain
the emotional content of whats being said.
Avoid interrupting or trying to redirect the
conversation to your concerns, by saying something

like, If you think thats bad, let me tell you what

happened to me. Listening is not the same as waiting for
your turn to talk. You cant concentrate on what
someones saying if youre forming what youre going to
say next. Often, the speaker can read your facial
expressions and know that your minds elsewhere.
Show your interest in whats being said. Nod
occasionally, smile at the person, and make sure your
posture is open and inviting. Encourage the speaker to
continue with small verbal comments like yes or uh
huh.
Try to set aside judgment. In order to communicate
effectively with someone, you dont have to like them or
agree with their ideas, values, or opinions. However, you
do need to set aside your judgment and withhold blame
and criticism in order to fully understand a person. The
most difficult communication, when successfully
executed, can lead to the most unlikely and profound
connection with someone.
Provide feedback. If there seems to be a disconnect,
reflect what has been said by paraphrasing. "What I'm
hearing is," or "Sounds like you are saying," are great
ways to reflect back. Dont simply repeat what the
speaker has said verbatim, thoughyoull sound
insincere or unintelligent. Instead, express what the
speakers words mean to you. Ask questions to clarify
certain points: "What do you mean when you say..." or "Is
this what you mean?"
Hear the emotion behind the words by exercising your
middle ear muscles
By increasing the muscle tone of the tiny middle ear muscles
(the smallest in the body), youll be able to detect the higher
frequencies of human speech that impart emotion and be better
able to understand what others are really saying. As well as by
focusing fully on what someone is saying, you can exercise

these tiny muscles by singing, playing a wind instrument, and

listening to certain types of music (high-frequency Mozart violin
concertos and symphonies, for example, rather than lowfrequency rock or rap music).
Improving communication skills #2: Pay attention to nonverbal
signals
When we communicate things that we care about, we do so
mainly using nonverbal signals. Nonverbal communication, or
body language, includes facial expressions, body movement
and gestures, eye contact, posture, the tone of your voice, and
even your muscle tension and breathing. The way you look,
listen, move, and react to another person tells them more about
how youre feeling than words alone ever can.
Developing the ability to understand and use nonverbal
communication can help you connect with others, express what
you really mean, navigate challenging situations, and build
better relationships at home and work.
You can enhance effective communication by using open
body languagearms uncrossed, standing with an open
stance or sitting on the edge of your seat, and
maintaining eye contact with the person youre talking to.
You can also use body language to emphasize or
enhance your verbal messagepatting a friend on the
back while complimenting him on his success, for
example, or pounding your fists to underline your
message.
Tips
for
improving
communication

how

you

read

nonverbal

Be aware of individual differences. People from

different countries and cultures tend to use different
nonverbal communication gestures, so its important to
take age, culture, religion, gender, and emotional state

into account when reading body language signals. An

American teen, a grieving widow, and an Asian
businessman, for example, are likely to use nonverbal
signals differently.
Look at nonverbal communication signals as a
group. Dont read too much into a single gesture or
nonverbal cue. Consider all of the nonverbal signals you
receive, from eye contact to tone of voice to body
language. Anyone can slip up occasionally and let eye
contact slip, for example, or briefly cross their arms
without meaning to. Consider the signals as a whole to
get a better read on a person.
Tips for improving
communication

how

you

deliver

nonverbal

Use nonverbal signals that match up with your

words. Nonverbal communication should reinforce what
is being said, not contradict it. If you say one thing, but
your body language says something else, your listener
will likely feel youre being dishonest. For example, you
cant say yes while shaking your head no.
Adjust your nonverbal signals according to the
context. The tone of your voice, for example, should be
different when youre addressing a child than when
youre addressing a group of adults. Similarly, take into
account the emotional state and cultural background of
the person youre interacting with.
Use body language to convey positive feelings even
when you're not actually experiencing them. If youre
nervous about a situationa job interview, important
presentation, or first date, for exampleyou can use
positive body language to signal confidence, even though
youre not feeling it. Instead of tentatively entering a room
with your head down, eyes averted, and sliding into a
chair, try standing tall with your shoulders back, smiling

and maintaining eye contact, and delivering a firm

handshake. It will make you feel more self-confident and
help to put the other person at ease.
Improving communication skills #3: Keep stress in check
To communicate effectively, you need to be aware of and in
control of your emotions. And that means learning how to
manage stress. When youre stressed, youre more likely to
misread other people, send confusing or off-putting nonverbal
signals, and lapse into unhealthy knee-jerk patterns of
behavior.
How many times have you felt stressed during a disagreement
with your spouse, kids, boss, friends, or coworkers and then
said or done something you later regretted? If you can quickly
relieve stress and return to a calm state, youll not only avoid
such regrets, but in many cases youll also help to calm the
other person as well. Its only when youre in a calm, relaxed
state that you'll be able to know whether the situation requires
a response, or whether the other persons signals indicate it
would be better to remain silent.
Staying calm under pressure
In situations such as a job interview, business presentation,
high-pressure meeting, or introduction to a loved ones family,
for example, its important to manage your emotions, think on
your feet, and effectively communicate under pressure. These
tips can help:
Use stalling tactics to give yourself time to think. Have a
question repeated, or ask for clarification of a statement
before responding.
Pause to collect your thoughts. Silence isnt
necessarily a bad thingpausing can make you seem
more in control than rushing your response.

 Make one point and provide an example or supporting

piece of information. If your response is too long or you
waffle about a number of points, you risk losing the
listeners interest. Follow one point with an example and
then gauge the listeners reaction to tell if you should
make a second point.
Deliver your words clearly. In many cases, how you
say something can be as important as what you say.
Speak clearly, maintain an even tone, and make eye
contact. Keep your body language relaxed and open.
Wrap up with a summary and then stop. Summarize
your response and then stop talking, even if it leaves a
silence in the room. You dont have to fill the silence by
continuing to talk.
Quick stress relief for effective communication
When things start to get heated in the middle of a conversation,
you need something quick and immediate to bring down the
emotional intensity. By learning to quickly reduce stress in the
moment, though, you can safely face any strong emotions
youre experiencing, regulate your feelings, and behave
appropriately. When you know how to maintain a relaxed,
energized state of awarenesseven when something upsetting
happensyou can remain emotionally available and engaged.
To deal with stress during communication:
Recognize when youre becoming stressed. Your
body will let you know if youre stressed as you
communicate. Are your muscles or your stomach tight
and/or sore? Are your hands clenched? Is your breath
shallow? Are you "forgetting" to breathe?
Take a moment to calm down before deciding to
continue a conversation or postpone it.

 Bring your senses to the rescue and quickly manage

stress by taking a few deep breaths, clenching and
relaxing muscles, or recalling a soothing, sensory-rich
image, for example. The best way to rapidly and reliably
relieve stress is through the senses: sight, sound, touch,
taste, and smell. But each person responds differently to
sensory input, so you need to find things that are
soothing to you.
Look for humor in the situation. When used
appropriately, humor is a great way to relieve stress
when communicating. When you or those around you
start taking things too seriously, find a way to lighten the
mood by sharing a joke or amusing story.
Be willing to compromise. Sometimes, if you can both
bend a little, youll be able to find a happy middle ground
that reduces the stress levels for everyone concerned. If
you realize that the other person cares much more about
something than you do, compromise may be easier for
you and a good investment in the future of the
relationship.
Agree to disagree, if necessary, and take time away
from the situation so everyone can calm down. Take a
quick break and move away from the situation. Go for a
stroll outside if possible, or spend a few minutes
meditating. Physical movement or finding a quiet place to
regain your balance can quickly reduce stress.
Improving communication skills #4: Assert yourself
Direct, assertive expression makes for clear communication
and can help boost self-esteem and decision-making. Being
assertive means expressing your thoughts, feelings, and needs
in an open and honest way, while standing up for yourself and
respecting others. It does NOT mean being hostile, aggressive,
or demanding. Effective communication is always about

understanding the other person, not about winning an

argument or forcing your opinions on others.
To improve assertiveness:
Value yourself and your opinions. They are as
important as anyone elses.
Know your needs and wants. Learn to express them
without infringing on the rights of others.
Express negative thoughts in a positive way. Its OK to
be angry, but you must be respectful as well.
Receive feedback positively. Accept compliments
graciously, learn from your mistakes, ask for help when
needed.
Learn to say no. Know your limits and dont let others
take advantage of you. Look for alternatives so everyone
feels good about the outcome.
Developing assertive communication techniques
Empathetic assertion conveys sensitivity to the other
person. First, recognize the other person's situation or
feelings, then state your needs or opinion. "I know you've
been very busy at work, but I want you to make time for
us as well."
Escalating assertion can be used when your first
attempts are not successful. You become increasingly
firm as time progresses, which may include outlining
consequences if your needs are not met. For example, "If
you don't abide by the contract, I'll be forced to pursue
legal action."
Practice assertiveness in lower risk situations to start
with to help build up your confidence. Or ask friends or

family if you can practice assertiveness techniques on

them first.

Team building
Team building is a collective term for various types of activities
used to enhance social relations and define roles within teams,
often involving collaborative tasks. It is distinct from team
training, which is designed to improve the efficiency, rather than
interpersonal relations.
Many team building exercises are intended to expose and
address interpersonal problems within the group.[1]
Over time, these activities are intended to improve performance
in a team-based environment.[2] Team building is one of the
foundations of organizational development that can be applied
to groups such as sports teams, school classes, military units
or flight crews. The formal definition of team-building includes:

Aligning around goals

Building effective working relationships

Reducing team members role ambiguity

Finding solutions to team problems

Team building is one of the most widely used group

development activities in organizations.[3]
Of all organizational activities, one study found teamdevelopment to have the strongest effect (versus financial
measures) for improving organizational performance. [4] Recent
meta-analyses show that team development activities,
including team building and team training, improve both a
teams objective performance and that team's subjective
supervisory ratings.[1]

Four approaches[edit]

Salas and his team describe four approaches to team building:

[5][6]

Goal setting[edit]
This emphasizes the importance of clear objectives and
individual and team goals. Team members become involved
in action planning to identify ways to define success and failure
and achieve goals. This is intended to strengthen motivation
and foster a sense of ownership. By identifying specific
outcomes and tests of incremental success, teams can
measure their progress. Many organizations negotiate a team
charter with the team and (union leaders).
Role clarification[edit]
This emphasizes improving team members' understanding of
their own and others' respective roles and duties. This is
intended to reduce ambiguity and foster understanding of the
importance of structure by activities aimed at defining and
adjusting roles. It emphasizes the members' interdependence
and the value of having each member focus on their own role in
the team's success.
Problem solving[edit]
This emphasizes identifying major problems within the team
and working together to find solutions. This can have the added
benefit of enhancing critical-thinking.[15]
Interpersonal-relations[edit]
This emphasizes increasing teamwork skills such as giving and
receiving support, communication and sharing. Teams with
fewer interpersonal conflicts generally function more effectively
than others. A facilitator guides the conversations to develop
mutual trust and open communication between team members.

Effectiveness[edit]
The effectiveness of team building differs substantially from
one organization to another.[7] The most effective efforts occur
when team members are interdependent, knowledgeable and
experienced and when organizational leadership actively
establishes and supports the team.
Effective team building incorporates an awareness of team
objectives. Teams must work to develop goals, roles and
procedures.
Effect on performance[edit]
Team building has been scientifically proven to positively affect
team effectiveness.[8] Goal setting and role clarification were
shown
to
have
impact
on cognitive, affective, process and performance outcomes.
They had the most powerful impact on affective and process
outcomes, which implies that team building can help benefit
teams experiencing issues with negative affect, such as lack of
cohesion or trust. It could also improve teams suffering from
process issues, such as lack of clarification in roles.[3]
Goal setting and role clarification have the greatest impact
because they enhance motivation, reduce conflict[9] and help to
set individual purposes, goals and motivation.
Teams with 10 or more members appear to benefit the most
from team building. This is attributed to larger teams having
generally speaking a greater reservoir of cognitive resources
and capabilities than smaller teams.[10]
Challenges to team building[edit]
The term 'team building' is often used as a dodge when
organizations are looking for a 'quick fix' to poor communication
systems or unclear leadership directives, leading to

unproductive teams with no clear vision of how to be

successful. Team work is the best work.
Teams are then assembled to address specific problems, while
the underlying causes are not ignored.
Dyer highlighted three challenges for future team builders:[11]

Lack of teamwork skills: One of the challenges facing

leaders is to find team-oriented employees. Most
organizations rely on educational institutions to have
inculcated these skills into students. Dyer believed however,
that students are encouraged to work individually and
succeed without having to collaborate. This works against
the kinds of behavior needed for teamwork. Another study
found that team training improved cognitive, affective,
process and performance outcomes.[1]

Virtual workplaces and across organizational

boundaries: according to Dyer, organizations individuals
who are not in the same physical space increasingly work
together. Members are typically unable to build concrete
relationships with other team members. Another study found
that face-to-face communication is very important in building
an effective team environment.[12] Face-to-face contact was
key to developing trust. Formal team building sessions with
a facilitator led the members to agree to the relationship
and define how the teams were work. Informal contact was
also mentioned.

Globalization and virtualisation: Teams increasingly

include members who have dissimilar languages, cultures,
values and problem-solving approaches problems. One to
one meetings has been successful in some organizations.[12]