Professional Documents
Culture Documents
INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR
TOURISM MANAGEMENT
IN HERITAGE CITIES
Organised by:
UNESCO VENICE OFFICE
ERASMUS UNIVERSITY ROTTERDAM
UNIVERSITY OF VENICE CA FOSCARI
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
PREFACE
(V. Kouzminov)
VII
WORDS OF WELCOME
CH. Barr4
IX
OF THIS REPORT
1. INTRODUCTORY
TOPICS AND OBJECTIVES
OF THE MEETING
1.1 Tourism Management in European Heritage Cities:
Networking Practices and Sharing Experiences
1.2 ~e~~~~~%
fl?B%~~
XIII
3
23
35
41
63
69
81
87
CONTENTS
VI
97
111
117
137
161
167
175
APPENDIX
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
187
VII
Preface
Vladimir Kouzminov
IX
Words of Welcome
Herd Barr6
Prof. Costa,
Mr Chairman,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
Colleagues,
It is a pleasure for me to be here to discuss this very promising
project on Tourism
Management
in Heritage Cities and I
wish to thank Prof. Paolo Costa, the University of Venice my
colleagues, Mr. Vladimir Kouzminov,
Deputy Director of the
UNESCO Venice Office, and Mr. Jan Van der Borg for taking
this initiative. I would also like to thank the academics of the
Erasmus University of Rotterdam, the Italian National Research
Council and to all the participants for being here to share views
on how this project should address the most relevant issues and
define a proper agenda of activities with the aim of improving
the management of tourism in heritage cities.
We should remember that this project comes after the Art
Cities and Visitors Flow project supported by UNESCO and
which was a seminar of experience sharing, research and publications. These results will be useful for our project.
The Ca Foscari University has now a leading position in the
field of tourism development in a sensitive urban environment.
This new step should consolidate and further expand this position, in co-operation with the European Centre for Comparative
Urban Research of the Erasmus University of Rotterdam, and it is hoped -with other universities.
The project submitted
to us is timely
H. BARRY
CONTENTS
XI
XIII
From various studies undertaken by the University Ca Foscari of Venice regarding the impact of tourism in art cities, it
has emerged that many of them presently suffer from an excessive volume of visitors. In fact, not only are the inhabitants, economic activities and heritage threatened by mass tourism, but
even tourism itself is eventually hurt by the congestion and pollution generated by visitors.
Only recently, rigorous methods have been developed to
properly utilise the opportunities that tourism offers to heritage
cities, guaranteeing
at the same time the sustainability
of
tourism development.
Soft instruments
- such as marketing
techniques and booking systems, the creation of alternative
routes in and among cities of art, information
systems - have
been suggested to overcome these problems.
Already in 1991, UNESCO Venice Office and the University
Ca Foscari of Venice, in the context of the Art Cities and Visitors Flow project, established an open, non-exclusive network
of - mostly West European - heritage cities. This network has
served on several occasions as a vehicle for the exchange of experiences and know-how concerning the specific problems of
tourism management
in sensitive urban environments
with
which such cities are confronted. That project made the UNESCO Venice Office and the University Ca Foscari of Venice assume a leading position in the field of tourism management in
sensitive urban environments.
The new project Tourism Management in Heritage Cities
intends to consolidate and further expand this position, extending and strengthening
the existing network in collaboration
XIV
JANVANDERBORG,ANTONIOPAOLORUSSO
FOREWORDAND STRUCTURE
OF THIS REPORT
xv
The sustainability
JANVANDERBORC,ANTONIOPAOLORUSSO
review
of methodologies
Yzewyn
and De Brabander
TOURISMMANAGEMENT IN EUROPEANHERITAGECITIES
Management
models
and significant
experiences:
the
TOURISMMANAGEMENT IN EUROPEANHERITAGECITIES
tourist management
strategy which increases the value of
tourism business so much that the urban economy gets transformed into a tourism mono-culture. The characteristics of such
a management model are the following: a) to promote tourism
through a sectoral strategy; b) to maximise the profits of the sector; c) to guarantee its continuity; d) to defend its position with
respect to the other sectors; e) to compete with other tourist destinations.
An alternative model of tourism development is one that establishes and manages synergetic two-way relationships with
the other sectors of the urban economy; its objective is to maximise the performance of the urban economy as a whole and
promote the growth of the strategic sectors. Some characteristics of what we may call the synergetic
model of tourism
management are the following:
l
it strives to maximise the impact of tourism on the other sectors of the urban economy;
l
it fosters the development of supplier service sector;
l
it derives its input from a productive and lively cultural sector;
l
it aims at optimising quality rather than maximising quantities;
l
its approach is integral and of long-period.
In the long term, this strategy is sustainable, because it
avoids the risk of a mono-culture,
while at the same time providing a sound opportunity
for the growth of other industries,
especially in the information
and cultural industries that possess a high strategic importance.
The impulse to the cultural sector may therefore be considered a strategic option available to cities that want to keep their
tourism industry inside the tracks of sustainable development.
Yet the endowment with an important cultural and architectural heritage is neither a sufficient condition for an innovative
TOURISMMANAGEMENT IN EUROPEANHERITAGECITIES
The designation as Cultural Capitals of Europe by the European Council meant for some of these cities the accomplishment of a well defined path towards the reorganisation of the
role and function of their cultural heritage, and the starting
point of a strategy aiming at maximising the impact of their cultural production and environmental
diversity on the local society and economy.
These cities were able to substantially improve their image
and propose themselves as new and atypical regional centres
with a creative environment, fully projected on the large networks of an integrating
European economy with their own
speciality and a well-defined role.
The events and festivals connected to that designation enabled those cities to increase the revenues and the jobs in the
visitor-related
industry, reabsorbing the harshest effects of deindustrialisation
and inter-regional competition. The fact of being under the international
spotlight for a whole year made
those cities reach a critical mass to permanently up-grade their
attraction capacity respect to cultural visitors - but also to new
citizens and businesses.
On the opposite front stands the experience of some European queens of cultural
tourism.
In most of those cities,
tourism has already reached the maximum threshold of the carrying capacity, and it seems that the risks of entering the declining stage of the life cycle are very high.
In those cases, such as big attractions like Venice, Salzburg,
Toledo, Prague, Bruges - among others - the cultural character
of the visits is still very strong, but two elements are slowly
coming to evidence:
1) the cultural sector and the single institutions have lost a lot
10
of their attracting power, or the city authorities feel dissatisfied with the performance of those attractions in the overall
weight of the tourism sector;
the
cultural production
in the town is poor, getting more
2)
and more banal, and the research institutions which should
keep alive the cultural tradition of the town are increasingly
faced with funding shortages and identity problems.
Only recently, methods have been developed to properly
utilise the chances tourism offers to heritage cities, but guaranteeing sustainability of tourism development at the same time.
Soft instruments, such as marketing and electronic information
systems, have been suggested to overcome these problems.
The distinction we did between cities facing different situations with respect to their capacity of managing tourism growth
leads us to the following considerations.
Cities of art or heritage cities are the focal points of European
history and culture. Their preservation is of the utmost importance to mankind. Indeed, it seems that the attitude towards heritage conservation has been gradually changing. In fact, with the
budgetary difficulties that governmental institutions find themselves nowadays, a shift has taken place from a passive to an
active philosophy of conserving heritage. This active way of
conserving heritage means that at least a part of the costs of conserving it ought to be derived from its use.
Tourism, of course, is an important way of using heritage. It
is beyond question that such use must be intelligent,
that is
compatible with the physical condition of the heritage itself, but
also compatible with the environment,
in the broad sense physical, economic, social, cultural - in which the heritage is
placed.
In the next section, we argue that strategic networking provides an opportunity
to help the cities to make tourism development more sustainable.
TOURISMMANAGEMENT IN EUROPEANHERITAGECITIES
11
12
TOURISMMANAGEMENT IN EUROPEANHERITAGECITIES
13
14
JANVAN DERBORG,ANTONIOPAOLO;:USSO
15
urgently needed to enhance awareness of issues of sustainability, of best management practice and of available technologies to
monitor and manage visitors and traffic flows, the UNESCO
Venice Office proposes to extend the existing network in two
directions:
. first, by involving a greater variety of actors concerned with
or interested in tourism in the art cities;
l
secondly, by involving heritage cities in countries in which
tourism development is still in its infancy.
The cities that already have experienced or are about to experience a sudden, explosive tourism development, find themselves in a situation that is worse than many of their western
counterparts.
It is beyond doubt that the regions of central and eastern Europe and of the Mediterranean Basin are hosting a huge stock of
heritage, most of which is not yet utilised for tourism purposes.
The understandable
hunger for the income and jobs that
tourism can generate may easily turn the intensification
of the
use of urban heritage into a cultural disaster without precedents. It is therefore of the utmost importance that these heritage cities plan their tourism development
in a sustainable
manner right from the start, allowing them to avoid many of
the errors that have been made by many western urban destinations.
The importance of networking
practices and sharing experiences stems from the difficulty
of indicating
a universal
model of visitor management that might be valid for any situation and any type of heritage. The extreme heterogeneity of the
cities involved, though experiencing similar outcomes in terms
of unsustainable
phenomena, demands to be treated with a
wide and differentiated range of instruments.
It is therefore important for the cities to dispose of a database of related issues, policy outcomes, expertise and human re-
16
JANVANDERBORG,ANTONIOPAOLORUSSO
sources, quantitative
data and project-design
methodology.
They can identify, adapt or improve best practices in the field
of heritage management and tourism regulation, They can consult the best people who have already worked in the field, or
train their own experts on the bases of those examples. They
can use the successful cases as benchmarks to evaluate their
performance.
They can invent new forms of management by
learning from the shortfalls of the previous experience. They
can involve all the relevant actors in the decision-making
process, by closely examining what actors are playing an important role in determining
the successful outcome of the
tourism strategies undertaken in other cities.
It is also very important for cities involved in this project to
be concerned with the quality of their cultural heritage, and of
the environment in which it is conserved. Cities have to be able
to exert an active surveillance against the trend to the decline in
the quality of the tourism product, that easily translates - as it
has been argued before - in a damage (physical or just aesthetic) to the cultural values, symbols and social importance of the
heritage. Therefore, an active involvement
in the network can
be a signal of a responsible attitude with respect to quality
preservation. It is then desirable to create a logo that binds (although in a non-compulsory
way) the participating cities to apply the conservation policies that will be worked out and refined within the context of the network activities.
The exchange of information
and experiences between the
cities involved will take place through international
seminars
and conferences - the former more scientifically
oriented and
restricted in the participation, the latter directed to a wider public and with a political
orientation
-, together with some
newsletters and the demonstrative pilot projects, serving also as
input for the seminars and conferences.
The seminars and the conferences are not only the occasions
of presentation and discussion, but also provide important op-
TOURISMMANAGEMENT IN EUROPEANHERITAGECITIES
17
18
JANVANDERBORG,ANTONIOPAOLORUSSO
tourism development,
to promote management solutions, to
give notice of relevant actions that are already or might be taken and to establish the information and research facilities.
One concrete goal is to evaluate the effectiveness of soft
methods of visitor and transport management. These soft methods are assumed to change the behaviour of visitors in such a
way as to make it more compatible with the structure of the local society and economy, but without limiting their actions. In
practice, the study aims at identifying manners that (1) stimulate
excursionists to become overnight visitors, (2) make overnight
visitors stay longer and (3) change the external and internal mobility of visitors with respect to the cities in question.
Marketing,
and thus new and innovative
technologies of
communication
with the visitors, are central parts of the solutions that will be studied for the cities chosen as a pilot case.
two modules:
TOURISMMANAGEMENT IN EUROPEANHERITAGECITIES
19
the possibility
to implement
a number of soft measures that
may reduce the negative impacts of tourism in the sensitive urban environments of the selected cities will be analysed.
The following measures might be studied:
l
The first measure may be considered as a follow-up of the
Alternative
Routes in Cities of Art project, and builds on
the experience that ICARE of the University of Venice and
the City of Venice have obtained with an alternative route
that connected Venetian churches. A study will be conducted to understand
whether and how alternative
routes
should be marketed and promoted to help the visitors that
arrive in the city to use the central areas in the most adequate and sustainable manner.
l
The second measure is related to the possibility of the use of
innovative technologies (telecommunication
and computer
technology) to manage the arrival, unloading, loading and
departure of buses in historical towns, being elaborated on
Salzburgs experiences with a specific scheme for bus traffic.
l
The third measure concerns the potentials that INTERNET, a
booming means of communication,
offers for the management of visitor and traffic flows. This particular part of the
pilot study builds further on an experiment that has been
initiated recently in Venice.
l
The fourth measure is related to the management of cultural
events. Effective co-ordination with other events may lead to
an improvement of seasonal fluctuations.
What is common to all the measures is that they originate
from an extensive analysis of the behaviour of visitors and that
they must lead to some incentives to make them adjust their behaviour, rather than form a set of restrictions.
The results of these experiments and of the related discussion that will take place in the international meeting to be held
just after their completion will form the basis of a Manual or
20
TOURISMMANAGEMENT IN EUROPEANHERITAGECITIES
21
References
Audretsch D.B., Feldman MP. (1995), Innovative clusters and the industry life cycle, CEPR Discussion paper series, no. 1161, London.
Bianchini F. (1993), Culture, conflicts and cities: issues and prospects
for the 199Os, in Cultural policy and urban regeneration: the West European experience, ed. by Franc0 Bianchini and Michael Parkinson,
Manchester University Press, Manchester.
Butler R. (1991), Designing organisations: a decision-making perspective,
Routledge, London.
Butler R.W. (1980), The concept of a tourist area cycle of evolution:
implications
for management of resources, Canadian Geographer,
vol. 24, n. 1.
Cohen M.D., March J.G. and Olsen P.J. (1972), A garbage can model of
organisational choice, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 17, pp.
l-25.
De Brabander G. and Gijsbrechts E. (1994), Cultural Policy and Urban
Marketing, a General Framework and some Antwerp Experiences,
in: G. Ave and F. Corsica (eds.), Urban Marketing in Europe, Turin,
Torino Incontra, pp. 814-841.
De Man A.P. (1994), Organisational
Aspects of Clusters: Continuity,
Promiscuity, Competition, EUR/Rotterdam
School of Management
Report Series No. 195.
Di Monte G., Scaramuzzi I. (eds.) (1997), Una provincia ospitale, 11 Mulino, Bologna.
Garnham N. (1990), Capitalism and communication, Sage, London.
Heilbrun J. (1992), Art and Culture as Central Place Functions, in UYban Studies, Vol. 29 (2), pp. 205-215.
Jansen-Verbeke M. (1988), Leisure, recreation and tourism in inner cities,
KU Nijmegen (Nederlandse Geografische Studies n. 58).
Kooiman J. (1993), Modern governance, SAGE, London.
Krugman I. (1991), Increasing
returns and economic geography,
Journal of political economy, 99, pgg. 483-499.
Martinotti
G. (1993), Metropoli. La nuozja morfologia sociale della citta, il
Mulino, Bologna.
Osborne D., Gaebler T. (1992), Reinventing the government, Reading, MA.
Ottaviano G.M., Puga D. (1997), Agglomeration in the global economy: a
22
23
Mr Chairman,
Dear Colleagues,
While agreeing with the strategic approach and the objectives of the proposal presented by Mr. Van Der Borg, I would
like, in the light of UNESCOs experience, to make comments
and suggestions for discussion at this seminar.
A complex
and multidisciplinary
issue
24
HER& BARRY
KEY NOTESPEECH
25
cities have even shifted recently from industry to tourism to ensure the future development of the city. In our view, tourism
has become the foremost world vector of cultural exchange. In
an increasingly globalised world, the city is the privileged place
where a multiplicity
of cultures meet and interact thanks to
tourism.
Global and integrated management - or sustainable management - of cultural tourism should therefore seek to:
l
Tourism, culture, development, for the citizens, for the city. Our
project embraces the issues resulting fYom the interrelations between
these threefields of activity.
If it is an innovation to think to apply the sustainable concept to urban areas, it is also new to apply this concept to urban
cultural heritage.
26
HERVE BARRY:
A holistic approach
cities.
to tourism management
in heritage
KEYNOTESPEECH
27
28
HERV~ BARRY:
zens in the safeguard of the cultural heritage which are essential to supplementing public policy in this matter. A responsible attitude towards the heritage, in the form of a cultural civic spirit, should be
adopted by populations living near sites and by tourists who - as
travelling citizens - should appreciate the universal value of the
heritage they are visiting. Cultural tourism policies should include a sensitisation programme to improve their efficiency.
Evaluation
tourism.
of the economic,
This evaluation should become a part of tourism management. This involves, first and foremost, the costs of conservation and maintenance of heritage open to visitors, and more
generally of the heritage of the city. These costs should be
shared proportionally
between the city budget, i.e., tax-payers,
the visitors, and the big and small businesses that benefit directly from cultural urban tourism such as hotels, souvenir shops
and restaurants.
Considering the trend observed in recent years towards a
steady decline in public funds allocated to the protection of the
heritage, guidelines for a financing of cultural policy, including
the participation
of tourists and tourism business would be of
considerable interest and utility.
Furthermore, tourism inevitably entails new developments,
transformations
and positive and negative changes in the ecological, cultural, social and economic contexts. The issue of how
to limit the undesirable effects of tourism should also be part of
the project. The criterium of the respect of the carrying capacity
would be of a considerable help in this matter. The difficulty is
that of defining the level of the carrying capacity.
Tourism managemenf, reappropriation of the cultural heritage by the dtizens, and spatial partition of the cify.
Tourism
management
appears to be inextricably
linked with
KEYNOTESPEECH
29
the reappropriation
of the cultural heritage by the citizens and
in general with the issue of the spatial partition of the city. We
all know of cities that have built their prosperity on industrial,
agricultural, or even on administrative
activities and that re-discover their heritage for themselves and as a basis for their future development.
This shift in the development
scheme of a city is closely
linked to a re-appropriation
process of the history and heritage
of the city by the citizens themselves, which is a decisive attitude for cultural development.
Then, the management of cultural assets and tourism becomes more complex as the cultural life, festivals, enhancement
of the cultural heritage must respond to both the visitors and
the inhabitants cultural demand and centre of interests. They
may not be the same. In such cities that have made the choice of
tourism development, a big challenge is to create tourism facilities for access to the city (roads, motorways, collective transports), for accommodation
(hotels, rooms to rent, camping
sites), for other tourism services, that harmoniously
and aesthetically take their place in the city without doing harm to its
charm. Tourism management cannot ignore the zoning of the
cities for a convenient distribution
of tourist facilities that respect the city and its cultural heritage.
A major issue in that field is to prevent the partition of a city between the museied tourist centre and the marginalised periphery,
that concentrates industrial and economic functions necessary
to the life of the city. Such partition - observed in many heritage
cities - leads to a social partition of the city, the local inhabitants
being rejected to the periphery, as if expelled from their own
historic, social and cultural landmarks.
Beyond the tourism management policy, the aim is to find
long-lasting
solutions for the development
needs of the local
communities, to create a favourable climate for intercultural dialogue, and to seek a better integration of the cultural heritage
30
HERV~ BARR-Z
The importance
of international networking.
The networking
of cities and universities interested in the
project is a very important aspect. In many fields of sustainable
urban development
and environmental
planning,
network
work as effective tools for knowledge circulation and strategy
formulation. I was recently in Budapest for a conference on culture and tourism, and an official of the Municipality
of P&s
asked me about our project that I had mentioned in my speech.
She told me of another European network on similar issues and
proposed co-operation. I am glad that a representative of this
network, Mr Souchier, from the city of Tours, is with us today
to discuss possible co-operation. Avoiding the duplication
of
similar projects and implementing
co-operation with other organisations and networks is also a decisive issue for the success
of our project.
In that perspective, close co-operation would have to be implemented with the Organisation
of World Heritage Cities
(OWHC), founded in 1993. The Organisation
is made up of
KEYNOTESPEECH
31
more than 140 cities in which are located sites included on the
UNESCO World Heritage List.
The OWHCs initiatives - geared to the implementation
of
the World Heritage Convention - consist mainly in improving
strategies pertaining to the preservation of historic cities, in relation to the specific requirements of having a site on the UNESCO World Heritage List. In the coming years, this Organisation will focus on the establishment of an electronic communication network linking member cities through the Internet and
the creation of data bank on historic cities.
There is, by evidence, a mutual interest to implement a close
co-operation
with those existing networks. Still, the present
project is of a wider scope, for it addresses also cities that would
never belong to the World Heritage List, but that nevertheless
want to develop their cultural capacities and attractiveness.
Another aspect of this project is indeed to link expertise to
decision, academics to municipality
councils and mayors, and
to link expertise and decision to civil society and the field workers. The pertinence of the output relies much on the quality of
these links, and on the creative co-operation
between these
three types of actors of the urban life. Such co-operation should
facilitate the translation of research results in policy practices. I
then support totally the proposed measures for extending and
consolidating the network.
Networking
between universities,
between cities and between universities and cities is a crucial issue for the project. On
this networks relies the collection and integration of data-bases,
the sharing of experience and the research work that makes the
knowledge we want to create.
32
HERVE BARR-~
cisions to be taken by the city council should be carefully considered in this context. The local tourist board is a privileged forum where all the actors can debate, and decide to propose to
the Municipality
to improve some aspects of tourism policy by
means of modifications
in local legislation, tax policy or urban
estate policy and zoning. It is also the privileged place for the
adoption of positive approaches to conflict resolution by identifying common interests between the different parties. Foreign
Tour Operators could be invited to participate in some specific
meetings dealing with circuits and tourism flux management.
The co-operation
KEYNOTESPEECH
33
2. FIRSTSESSION:
EXPERIENCESWITH SUSTAINABLE
TOURISM DEVELOPMENT
PROJECTS IN EUROPE
37
38
EXPERIENCES
WITH SUSTAINABLETOURISMDEVELOPMENTPROJECTS
IN EUROPE
It is suggested that the community approach to tourism development may well be the stumbling block to securing a sustainable future for tourism. Some hard-hitting questions need to
be addressed: does the community
really understand
the
tourism market and can it really make strategic decisions? Is the
community responsible enough to protect the heritage environment in which it lives, or should the community be told what is
good for its future? Clearly a new visionary approach to heritage resort planning is needed if the product is to be revived
and made successful. Ian Jenkins paper challenges these politically correct issues, as he calls them. The aim is to put forward
a new approach to regenerating the heritage resort, based upon
revising the community approach to tourism development.
In the case of Sintra, the project presented aims at developing a tourism marketing strategy that can attract a sufficient
mass of tourists to make tourism development sustainable. Cultural tourism is perceived to be a potential engine of growth,
but this possibility is inextricably linked to the capacity to preserve the authenticity and the quality of the cultural heritage;
the tension between these two apparently conflicting objectives
leads to a set of policy indications.
The case of Bruges is that of a heritage city of enormous success that has a tradition of active attention towards tourism development. The master plan for the central areas of the Flemish
city is admirable in his experimental (and largely successful) attempt to limit tourism development to particular zones. Yet this
model is beginning to be worn by time and needs to be redefined. The presentation of Mr. Desimpeleare represents an indepth reflection about the significance of cultural tourism and
role of culture in the contemporary
urban environment.
The
very economic relevance of tourism is questioned, together
with the way in which policy-making
compounds the interests
of the various social groups in relation to tourism development.
The above mentioned cases clarify that the globalisation of
EXPERIENCES
WITH SUSTAINABLETOURISMDEVELOPMENTPROJECTS
IN EUROPE
39
the tourism market - as well as the increasing complexity, diversity and dynamics of the processes taking place locally - demands a swift change in the attitude of governance to cope with
these problems and yield satisfactory results.
When on the contrary policy-making
lags behind - or,
worse, it adapts to the consolidated interests of specific stakeholders - it is very unlikely to influence the way in which the
market and the environment autonomously evolve.
This is the basic consideration that leads the evolution of the
old Art Cities and Visitors Flows into the new Tourism
Management in Heritage Cities project: the necessity to adapt
policy making in the field of sustainable tourism to an increasingly complex environment. In the new context, the traditional
boundaries between domains of policy-making
- the public versus the private sector, tourism versus the other sectors of the
economy, citizens versus visitors, local versus national authorities - have to be crossed or somewhat redefined for governance
to be effective.
Hence the necessity to create networks, both at the local and
at the supra-local scale: a networking style of government is the
more adequate to overcome these boundaries and to replicate
the dynamism of the modern society (Kooiman, 1993). Moreover, intelligent
imitation from past experiences and mutual
contamination
seem to be very fruitful approaches for governance in situations in which it is difficult to tell problems from
solutions, and no-one is really in charge to solve problems (as in
the garbage can model described by Cohen et al. (1972)).
The three cases presented represent tourism development
projects that subsume this innovative view and translate it into
concrete policy action.
41
2.1.1. introduction
Tenby is a small town situated on the western fringe of Wales
and the U.K. (see fig. 2.1). It is serviced by road and rail networks; however neither can be said to be effective or efficient, engendering a rather isolated perception of Tenby. It also has the
problem of trying to provide a unique and distinct image. Wales
has no real tourist identity and is often consequently subsumed
as part of England; one possible reason for this is that for some
considerable
time marketing
was carried out by the British
Tourist Authority
(B.T.A.). This meant that Wales was sold as
part of a package with London and England as the Gateway to
Wales. However, Wales is culturally
different from England,
which should provide it with a unique marketing advantage.
However it has a relatively small population of 2.9 million people
and only covers an area of 20,776 square kilometres (World Travel Guide, 1998). It also competes with other smaller countries
found within the British Isles, such as Scotland and Ireland
which both seem to have clear tourist images and identities.
Linguistic Authenticity
Tenby is situated in an authentic cultural landscape, in a region that has one of Europes oldest Celtic languages. This is il-
42
Historical Importance
Tenby is historically
important
the Street Plan and the buildings,
43
pied since the Bronze Age. It is one of the few seaside walled
towns in Europe which dates back to the 13th century. Tenby
was also one of the originators of the Walled Towns Friendship Circle - founder members being, St. Malo, Limerick,
Donauworth, and Nordlingen.
Its position at the end of the Bristol Channel made it important for trade, with the protective harbour being the towns focal point. Nearby on the island of Caldy is a Cistercian
Monastery which has been in existence since 500 AD. This provides valuable tourism for the town, as well as helping to maintain the monastery.
in Britains
only Coastal
National
Park,
44
which means that the town is subject to the rules and legislation
of National Park status. Again this can be seen as both benefit
from a marketing aspect and a possible draw back from a development point of view. Clearly the sea and the beaches are
important
to the tourism product of Tenby. Tenby has two
sandy beaches within the urban area, the North beach having
the status of the European Blue flag (see Fig. 2.2).
of technolo-
45
46
IANJENKINSAND ANDYJONES
2. I. 3. Positive Developments
Tenby has been trying to redress the problems that it now
faces. Efforts have been made to improve the quality of the built
environment.
It is also clear that Tenby is still perceived as a
tourist destination, as the peak period of the summer sees the
town full of visitors. However the nature and type of tourism is
very different to that which it experienced in its heyday.
Historic Town Scheme: Tenby is still an important heritage
town and the current tourism product is still based, to some extent, upon its past. The many historic buildings give Tenby a
very clear image and colour that can not be found elsewhere.
Hence, it is not surprising that a considerable amount of money has been spent on trying to restore the period buildings of
the town. In 1988 a scheme was initiated to ensure that buildings would be continually maintained. It was engendered and
initiated by the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park (PCNP), it
was and is a partnership approach where property owners and
other government bodies (South Pembrokeshire District Council, CADW, Wales Tourist Board and The Welsh Development
Agency) assist in restoring
the historic fabric of the town
(Corp, 1998). Some E250,OOOa year is spent on individual properties.
Development of Diverse Retail Sector: The PCNP has also
explored other opportunities to ensure that the Park is a living
community
and not just a built or natural environment. In its
Deposit Version Action Plan (Corp, 1998) it identifies the importance of the diverse retail sector which it sees as an important aspect of tourism development within the town. The plan
is clearly aiming at maintaining
and consolidating
this retail
sector, which is believed to benefit both residents and tourists
alike. Its intention is to grant chunge of use of buildings which
47
fall within the designated areas of the town thus aiming to stimulate new economic growth (Corp, 1998).
Environmental
Enhancement Projects: As with the restoration scheme Tenby has also benefited from a further E250,OOO
per year spent on items such as street furniture and community
developments. This has been seen as a means to try and further
encourage the return to a positive image for Tenby through environmental enhancement.
Festival & Events: In order to try and extend the tourist season Tenby has developed a highly structured all season programme of events and festivals. Rarely a month goes by without
some event being staged, in order to entice the visitor into the
town. Tenby is especially well known for New Years Eve and
other events connected with this time of year. The success of this
programme of events and festivals is difficult to assess; but any
marketing and profiling must be seen as a benefit to the area.
48
change is structural caused by economic, technological and social advances which have taken place in the UK and Europe. In
one sense the resort is rather like a large super tanker that has
tried to change direction. Due to a lack of vision and a tendency
to hold onto declining tourism products, the direction change
has been slight and there appears to be the suggestion that the
business community soldiers on regardless.
This sense of open as usual is mirrored in the context of
the data available. Present visitor figures are at best estimations
and are clearly biased - the only available figures are those provided by the Tourism Information Centre (TIC), which suggests
that in 1996 there were 304,777 domestic 40,857 and international visitors to the area. The number of overnight stays or day
trips is not known, but there is evidence to suggest that the daytrippers may well be predominant. It is also clear that since the
Second World War that holidays to the British seaside have declined which further supports the notion that the day-tripper is
the predominant
market. Evidence of the nature and type of
visitor has to be gleaned from the commercial fabric (retail &
accommodation)
which suggests a low grade, quick visit
tourism product.
It is suggested that Tenbys problems can be categorised into
two sections: Micro and Macro.
Micro Problems
The micro problems are seen in the context of localised issues that do not have any strategic orientation. They are in the
main community based and are an outcome of the Communitys attitude to tourism in Tenby.
Low grade accommodation stock. As development in Tenby
has clearly peaked and it is on a decline slope, the quality of the
accommodation
stock has been lost. Apart from a 3 star hotel,
the stock is either B&B - a significant number of which appear
49
50
Traffic management schemes have been initiated but with marginal success. Attempts have been made to try and introduce
aspects of pedestrianisation.
This would enhance the aesthetic
and environmental
context of the town; however, the greater
part of the community
seems to oppose this, seeing it as adversely affecting business demand in the town, in the face of
clear evidence that in fact pedestrianisation
actually enhances
demand (Morris, 1998). Due to the structure of Tenby the streets
are unsuitable for high traffic flows and congestion inevitably
occurs. There are parking spaces within the town which encourage the demand of car rides.
The volume of traffic and the access of heavy vehicles into
the town are damaging the visual amenity, as well as the physical structures to the extent that lorries reverse and collide with
the urban furniture and buildings. In addition, there is the unseen damage caused by the traffic vibrations to the foundation
of many of the buildings thus exacerbating the immediate problems. The major problems relating to traffic management occur
during the summer period as a result of the seasonal nature of
the tourist product. A reduction in the volume of tourists to the
town at peak season would be environmentally
sound: a
rescheduling in the period of year that the visits are made appears desirable.
Bucket b Spade market. The major market for Tenby is
the Bucket & Spade. The quality of the market is perceptively
directed to social classes C, D & Es. This market currently sustains the present tourist season but is reflective of the decline of
Tenby from a high-grade quality seaside town, sustained over
the last 300 years.
The dominance of this market suggests that the community
is reluctant to develop other aspect of the tourism market, such
as Adventure
Activities
and Special Interest tourism, which
have lower volumes of tourists but with higher aspirations and
51
needs. It would also need capital investment and venture capital being available to encourage present providers to explore
other latent markets.
Community
infighting.
An important
determinant
of the
tourism product is the community. As expounded by Murphy
(1985), in the 1980s the community was an important factor to
the success of any tourism product. However certain basic assumptions are made that the community
is a homogeneous
body with a single purpose. Tenby clearly does not reflect this
and there are many political considerations which need to be
addressed and seem to be overlooked in some of the recent
tourism development plans.
The pedestrianisations
of the town and vehicle restrictions
have failed, as the community does not see the advantage. The
prevailing
attitude of the community
seems to be we know
best. Clearly the sections above show that the community
is
not too worried about the historic ambience of the town or the
type of tourism product being offered. In essence it could be argued that it is not responsible enough to actually see or protect
the very essence of the tourism product. This is a broad assertion and can not be attributed to the whole community. Certain
members of the community
however see the advantage of
restoring the buildings and have matched funded restoration
projects.
The evidence so far suggests that the community is far from
the best body to decide the tourism development in Tenby. This
is clearly a contentious and politically
incorrect assertion but
needs to be reviewed in the light of Tenbys current tourist
product.
Sea quality. The recent Sea Empress disaster of February
1996 has also tarnished the image of Tenby, which is known for
its clean environment (especially as it is the only coastal Nation-
52
Macro Problems
Market transformation
and splintering. Tenby is reflective
of many of the present UK seaside resorts which have seen considerable change and decline (Holloway,
1998; Borrill, 1992).
However Tenby is in a unique position, being the only resort to
be included in a coastal National Park and has a wealth of heritage and culture to draw upon. Evidence suggests that since
the 1970s there has been a substantial shift away from beach
holidays within Britain towards the countryside and urban areas (Corp, 1998 citing Wales Tourist Board, 1992).
The new move seems to be towards a splintered market
which will eventually develop into niche markets. Niche markets are still somewhat embryonic, however society in general
seems to be focusing on specialised outlets and consumer items.
This must herald a move away from blanket marketing. The advent of all weather facilities such as Centre Parks and Oasis
(newly launched by Rank) must also pose threats to the resort.
These self-contained resorts offer the tourist controlled physical
climates with all-weather leisure facilities and it is not surprising that these now rival some of the smaller seaside resorts.
Tenby appears to have been slow to capitalise upon the aspects of niche market development
such as Special Interest
tourism. Its tendency has been to stick with the traditional and
53
54
hours travelling time it is not surprising that a significant number of tourists to Tenby are in fact visitors from local urban areas. The actual numbers of real tourist and visitors is not known
which illustrates a rather ad-hoc development
of the current
tourism product.
Boffom-Up
The eighties saw the Community Approach (Murphy, 1985)
as champion. Grass roots seemed to be the answer by empowering the community. This assumption was based upon the
premise that the people who lived and worked within the urban environment knew what was best for the area. But as pointed out earlier the assumption seems to be that a location contains a more or less a homogeneous group of people who have
the same aspirations and views. However, as with the family,
there are many differences of opinion and if these differences
are translated to a street then to a district and so on, the complicated perceptions and outcomes will vary enormously, result-
55
56
57
Top-Down
This suggests a far more authoritarian
approach to tourism
development and is reflective of many past aspects of tourism
planning, which were shelved for the grass roots approach of
the eighties.
Just like in the bottom-down
scheme, the elements of the
top-down approach are driven by two types of epistemology,
namely private and government sectors. Each appears on the
surface to have differing philosophies; in general, but not always, the case of the private sector is driven simply by profit
generation, whereas the public sector is driven by political
achievements. This naturally produces in many instances, competing issues and outcomes.
Even within these separate elements there are issues of internal inconsistency. An organisation with a defined mission may
well be driven by different power bases and issues resulting in
internal rivalry and conflict which hinders the actual aims and
objective of the organisation.
Top-down development can also be interesting as it is unaware of the nuances of community power or aims, to the ex-
58
tent that the strong power bases of the community, are able to
thwart and redirect development. However from a positive aspect the top down approach is able to offer a number of important variables that can help in achieving successful tourist development programme
Moreover, it is able to see the general picture and future of
the market and hence should be able to advise the community
on the direction that the market is going in and where it will be
in the future.
This approach is also usually based upon a wealth of specialised knowledge that can be used for the community. Members of these organisations are able to lobby in power circles
that the community would have no access to. This can result in
the unlocking of important resources that can be utilised for
successful tourism development.
In summary it is evident that neither the grass roots or the
top-down approaches are paragons for tourism development
and a new approach is required which synthesises the positive
attributes
of all the actors involved
in the development
of
tourism. It is important to be aware that over simplification
or
quick solutions are unlikely to be successful due to the complex
and organic nature of the actors involved in the development
process.
With this in mind the research proposes a process to produce a new model, to be tested on the community
of Tenby.
This is an outcome of the points and arguments already presented. It has been assumed that sustainability
is an implicit
goal for all actors. It is not the intention of the paper to enter into the wide debate on sustainability,
but to assume the basic
concept that Tenbys future lies in the fact that it must be economically viable whilst at the same time assuring the integrity
of its environment.
59
Key elements
in model
development
EQUILIBRIUM BALANCES:
-
aspirations
of the community
with strategic
development
need to address wider economic
sectors and integration
economics
of the community
with historic fabric protection
need for a balance
of decision making between
community and interventionist
ideologies
60
61
2.1.7. Conclusions
It is evident that Tenby is a typical case study of the British
seaside resort. The past 300 hundred years has seen the development of a successful tourism product. However, the last 30
years has seen this product decline. It seems a pertinent time for
Tenby to take hard decisions in terms of both an historic perspective and an economic one. It is evident that both the historical fabric and the community are currently suffering from decline.
It is hoped that this paper has suggested that a new model
for regenerating heritage towns will be needed to ensure their
futures. The embryonic concept of synergenetics may well be
an approach that can be used to address some of the problems
found in heritage urban environments.
Where the organic
processes of the actors are explored and matched and then an
equilibrium
is identified that matches the aspiration. It is argued that the key to the direction and success is in the context
of decisions and decision-makers, It is important that the areas
of decisions that match the proposed development strategy are
enhanced in order to effect a successful tourism product while
maintaining the integrity of the heritage fabric of the town.
It is important to challenge the current ideologies and attitudes of tourism development and there is a clear need for a
fresh approach which is not necessarily community-based
or
which reflects biased local democratic processes. This must be
based upon the issues of priority, but the burning question is:
for whom? As with all heritage towns and cities the dominating
element and shadow is the historical fabric not necessarily the
community. This begs the question of ownership. For whom is
the Town of Tenby to be developed: the tourist, the community,
neither or both?
62
References
Borrill R. (1992), Wish You Were Here, The Independent on Sunday,
2.8.92, p.3.
Corp C. (1998), A Future for Our Coastal Resorts? An Analysis of the Future Prospects of Two Welsh Coastal Resorts - Barry island b Tenby.
MSc. Thesis, Swansea Institute. Swansea.
Holloway J.C. (1998), The Business of Tourism, (5h Ed.). Longman, London.
Murphy P.E. (1985), Tourism: a Community Approach, Routledge, London.
Shepard A. (1996), A Visitors Guide to Caldy Island, Alan Shepard Publishing.
Shepard A. (1996), Tenby: The Official Guide, Alan Shepard Publishing.
Stevens T. & Jenkins I.S. (1993), Activity Holiday Centres Managing A
Safer Product, SaiL, Swansea Institute, Swansea.
World Travel Guide (1998), Columbus Press, London.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Tim Morris and Claire Deacon, of
Pembrokeshire
National Parks for their help and support in
compiling this paper.
63
Sintra, which was listed under the Cultural Landscape section of UNESCOs World Heritage Site classification in 1995, is
one of the most important cultural destinations in Portugal.
The potential of Sintra and its surroundings - this romantic
town is less than a thirty kilometres drive from the international
airport of the Portuguese capital, Lisbon, or other destinations
in the surrounding area such as Cascais or Estoril, and the Atlantic Coast itself - have always been important factors in attracting visitors, many of whom have made their home here.
Its palaces, castles, churches, monasteries and convents,
steep winding roads clearly show a Moorish influence in addition to Medieval influences, Renaissance architecture and above
all, Romantic inspiration. Such Romanticism can be felt in the
lush verdure of its green hills, its magnificent woodland, its excellent water springs and beautiful palatial homes wherever
one looks. Sintra is imbued with the spirit of the past, which can
still be felt nowadays. Poets, writers and artists such as Carnoes,
Beckford, Byron, Hans Christian Anderson and Strauss inter
alios, were enraptured by the ambience of Sintra and produced
some of the best descriptions of Sintra in their own words. Byrons Sintra, the Glorious Eden, is, in my opinion, a good example.
Tourist potential, however, is much more than historical
buildings or natural beauty. In the specific case of Sintra its also
includes the international wine of Colares, pastries, such as the
famous local cheesecakes or Queijadas, handicrafts and many
other products which should be protected and preserved. First-
64
ly, because they are all part of Sintras culture and secondly, because they mark the difference in terms of quality, supply and
demand.
Sintra - and in particular its historical centre - is still, unfortunately, a one-day excursion destination.
The 1997 figures
show that around 114,000 (one hundred and fourteen thousand)
people spent a total of 200,000 (two hundred thousand) nights,
in Sintra as a whole. The National Palace, however, during the
same period, registered almost 300,000 (three hundred thousand) visitors. This exemplifies the situation to perfection. And
why is this the case? Some possible reasons:
the proximity of Lisbon
an insufficient promotional activity
a relatively unknown destination
the scarce relevance of Sintra as a cultural
tion
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tourism
destina-
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66
opened next year. This will encourage an expansion of accommodation and a more stable distribution of overnight stays during the year as a whole.
Specific promotions and tourist information offices are also
ideas that we have in mind. Workshops, important tourist fairs
and meetings in Portugal or abroad are several ways of getting
to know the tourist market, its needs, its motivation
and, of
course, the promotion of our products.
The development of a tourist area requires the need to cater
for the local community.
Social and economic benefits must
firstly benefit the local population and then tourism. The Town
Council has, accordingly,
prepared several different
programmes to improve living conditions
in Sintra. The Programme for the Rehabilitation
of Rented Accommodation,
Pavements or the Global Infrastructure Plan for remodelling the
water supply, or restructuring
the telecommunications
and
electrical systems are some of the measures to be taken. There
are also special discounts for entrances to palaces, museums or
cultural events, such as the international famous Music Festival,
which has been organised since 1957 in settings such as beautiful, privately owned, manor houses, in addition to the Ballet
Evenings, in the gardens of Seteais, which also encourage local
culture.
The implementation
of correct tourist strategies will enable
us to preserve our identity. These include quality certification
for local handicrafts,
an association of authentic Queijada
producers are possibilities involving traditions, culture and the
local population and will help to promote tourism.
Another possibility of preserving our historical and natural
heritage involves the promotion of the Sintra-Cascais Natural
Park Area which embraces most of the important sites in Sintra
as well the Pena National Palace and Park, the Moorish Castle,
the Gardens of Monserrate and Cabo da Rota which is the westernmost point on the Continent of Europe.
67
Special strategies to promote sustainable tourism also involve support for some activities associated with street entertainment including parades, specialised markets, such as the
strawberry and apple market, historical recreations, theme related issues such as the Queirosian, medieval and esoteric tours,
botanical routes and gastronomy festivals and competitions.
The responsibility
of being a World Heritage Site represents
the first and possibly the final step in improving quality based
on a relationship
between culture and heritage. We are fully
aware that much still needs to be done, but we are also equally
committed to protecting our own specific cultural heritage and
developing sustainable tourism.
The Town Council understands that people in general and
tourists in particular live in a mass-media world culture. Therefore, attractive
promotional
films, beautifully
taken photographs, leaflets and postcards, although whetting the appetite, help to create expectations which are not always objectively, clearly or really fulfilled. In short, our challenge is to
show that Sintra still has a long way to travel on the road to
perfection, but that it is also genuine and unique.
69
What we can try to learn perhaps about the period of townplanning in Europe between 1050 and 1350 is still crucial today.
This network of hundreds of towns all over Europe with the
numerous differentiated
centres grown into time has been
shaping till today the base of the network of cities in which we
continue to live.
We recognise our cities until today and created an emotional
band that forms until now a decisive part of our European identity. Because Europe is profoundly
polyphonic
and our cities
are all different voices of the beautiful symphony
made by
them, inciting us to continue this singing together by multicultural and multidisciplinary
complementarity.
The character of our cities, which have been extended in later periods many times, is still conditioned and determined by
the framework of the towns created in the Middle Ages. And
we still identify ourselves as citizens: Venetians, Florentines,
Brugeans, Parisiens, Krakovians, etc. We talk about the Scala of
Milano, the Opera of Paris, the Belfry of Brugge, the Town Hall
of Siena.
Precisely this identification
with the own roots within our
own identity may open our horizon towards other cultures, and
even bigger political frameworks
as Europe and other world
communities. As a consequence of such deep conviction about
the essential, profound role the (historical) town is playing in
the daily life of each culture, we started up the revitalisation
process of Brugge, already in 1971,27 years ago.
The town was then becoming more and more a decor for
increasing traffic and evolved as a kind of archaeological CU-
70
WERNERDESIMPELAERE
URBANPLANNINGINBRUGES
71
in market
square
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WERNERDESIMPELAERE
LJRBANPLANNINGINBRUGES
73
(social acceptance and value of tourism) is to a great extent dependent on the phase in which the development of the tourist
activity can be situated.
The development
of tourism as a product (within the historic city a predominantly
cultural tourism) can be explained in
a growth model: from a prospective, explorative phase through
to a critical turning point, which can either lead to degeneration
or further generation.
In the exploratory
stage energy and effort are invested so
that the product, the historic cultural city, radiates a national
and international force of attraction thus creating a positive profile in relation to the tourist market. Artistic and historic identity and authenticity are emphasised to ensure an advantageous
position in an extremely competitive
market. Following
the
elaboration of the structure plan since 1972, Bruges experienced
a substantial progression in this sector. As a result of the application of a consequent restoration policy and a strategy to renovate and conserve public open space, the city achieved international fame and reputation.
In the development
phase the professionalisation
of the
tourist sector occurs and inward investment is created. Travel
arrangements remain individually
organised and unregulated
but nonetheless within a context of growth.
The feeling of competition
develops further, along with
tourism promotion, which is stimulated predominantly
within
the sphere of influence of local or regional authorities.
At this stage the experience with tourism development projects generally signals that the budget available for promotion
together with the level of input by the local authority remains
too limited. It is at this point that the transition from the development phase to the mature phase can be identified.
In the mature phase tourism becomes an essential factor for
the functional and economic health of the city. The urban heritage and the monuments (as tourist attractions) are comple-
74
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LJRBANPLANNINGINBRUGES
75
tourism) does not correspond to a similar growth in consumption however, and more specifically in expenditure.
The average visit for such a tourist is rarely longer than a
half-day: an orientation towards fast consumption in the catering sector and the sandwich box day-tourist phenomenon are
characteristic of this market development.
Budget hotels organise themselves to answer this growing
market segment particularly
to accommodate weekend (short
break) holidays. The average number of bed nights per holiday
either stagnates or declines.
New tourism destinations (for instance in Eastern Europe)
create an expansion in the opportunities on offer for the growing number of cultural tourists. Traditional historic cities are
forced into ever-harder competitive situations in respect of new
destinations, whereby the travel distance both for day-trips and
weekend holidays is extended.
The growing competition in the tourist market puts the old
historic cities under pressure, taking care to preserve quality
(and not quantity) becomes extremely important; and a co-ordination of town planning (spatial) policy and tourism management is essential.
Where are the acceptable limits to such tourist development,
and what are the thresholds determining
the overreaching of
capacity which define the breaking point in tourist growth?
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WERNERDESIMPELAERE
visiting a relatively small area of the inner city, namely the triangular area between the Minnewater, the Zand square and the
Market place. This is the hard tourist zone, existing as a cultural
and visitor axis, in the southern part of the town.
In this concentration
model, parameters have been established within which tourist infrastructure
can be introduced.
Within this zone tourist facilities and the implantation of such is
limited.
In the dispersion model certain other areas of the inner city
could be included in the development of tourist routes while
others have been consciously excluded. In this way the cultural
and visitor axis could be extended to the northern district and
services and facilities for day tourism could be introduced in
the northern section of the Bruges inner city.
The ultimate choice of one or other of these models has of
course a number of direct consequences: the total capacity for
the reception and guiding of tourists within the concentration
model is smaller, whereby in peak periods the pressure on
some areas of the city and/or sites becomes too great. In the
high season, on the other hand, a smaller capacity has advantages in maintaining
the feeling of an inviting and animated
city centre.
Owing to the fact that the concentration model implies that a
part of the inner city is predominantly
characterised by tourist
attraction poles, in principle the quality of the tourist experience is enlarged while the risk of confrontation with the rest of
the inner-area of the city is minimised. In respect of this model
however there are also disadvantages:
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URBANPLANNINGINBRUGES
77
In the concentration
model the average period spent on a
visit by the day-tripper will generally be shorter, because people can more rapidly see everything
so to say. This means
that the expenditure of the tourist is also less. The advantage of
short visits is that there is an increase on the other hand in capacity, with the freeing of new capacity at regular intervals to
accept more tourists. In the dispersion model the visit period
will correspondingly
be longer because more time is required to
visit all the sites and attractions on offer. As a result of this
longer stay in the town the chance then exists that the visitor
will also take advantage of the opportunity
to shop, to eat at a
restaurant or drink in a cafe thus contributing to the local economy directly.
The support in terms of services and infrastructure
(hotels,
catering etc.) is greater with the choice of the concentration
model. A disadvantage however is the possibility of insufficient
capacity in the longer term and at peak periods, while the support for services within the defined zone of the concentration
model is naturally less interesting.
The tourist dispersion model presents on the other hand
greater risks of uncontrolled
expansion (i.e. in the hotel and
catering sector), and the danger of creating an intense and undesirable tourist pressure on predominantly
residential
districts. The local inhabitant is thus threatened in his own residential environment.
In the recent urban management plan for Bruges, the proposal
was defended to apply a strict concentration model based on:
l
a YZUWEYOUS
clausus in respect of new permissions for hotel
development does not include existing facilities, in order to
support the congress activities which are an important element for the city.
the concentration of day tourism and related activities, to a
southern axis between the Zand Square and the Market
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WERNERDESIMPELAERE
fines it. What is claimed today under the nice name of cosmopolitanism,
is not anymore, to quote Hannah Ahrendt, the
disposal to share the world with other men, it is the mondialisation of me, it is not anymore this enlarged mentality defined
by Kant as the ability to transport his thoughts to other points
of view.
Although
philosophers
as Levinas, Finkielkraut,
Hannah
Ahrend and Franfoise Choay warn for the rising alienation between man and his community,
and thus man and his traditions, I am afraid that very few politicians - it means responsible for the polis - the town - have the courage to take decisions
to come back to the essence of the voyager integrating himself mentally and physically in the being and the culture of the
other.
In so far we are convinced that the very last relicts of our
cultural heritage have to be kept and, even more, have to be improved as examples of common being and living, we should also be convinced that the essence of the voyager has to be improved and to brought back to his essential quality of exploring
man and the way he created his shell and his environment.
Only then we will come back to a real communication,
exploring with an open mind the other, his culture and his art of
building improving all our quality of life and thus the quality of
our civitas.
3. SECOND SESSION:
NEW MARKETS, OLD PROBLEMS
83
Second Session:
New Markets, Old Problems.
The second working session has been dedicated to an exploration of new and challenging problems regarding tourism sustainability that are found when the focus of attention shifts to
emerging markets, or other destinations undergoing rapid economic and social changes.
The two cases that have been presented in this session represent two sides of the same coin, and show several analogies. In
the case of Sochi (Russia), the issue under focus is the necessity
to completely reshape the image and structures of a place that
has been a flourishing tourism destination for many years for a
market that was almost completely domestic and very peculiar
(as it was essentially represented by the Soviet bureaucrats apparatus, now practically vanished).
In the case of Nazareth
(Israel), the explosion
of mass
tourism poses the necessity of upgrading the infrastructures
of
a destination that - despite being one a major city for religious
tourism - has never known a huge residential tourist inflow,
which is rather attracted by the neighbouring resort of Tiberias.
The belief that heritage cities experiencing a sudden, explosive tourism development - as they become for the first time
fully accessible to the international market - are in a dangerous
position for what regards the sustainability
of local development is perceived by the organisers of this meeting as one of the
first motives for renewed action.
It is beyond doubt that the regions of central and eastern EUrope and of the Mediterranean Basin are hosting a huge stock of
heritage, most of which is not yet utilised for tourism purposes.
The understandable
hunger for the income and jobs that
tourism can generate may easily turn the intensification
of the
84
NEWMARKETS,OLDPROBLEMS
85
86
87
3.7.7. Introduction
Sochi presents the curious situation of a European city and
region that was off limits to most travellers for most of this century, but which has been a prime vacation destination in Russia
since the late 1800s - and shares ancient tourism traditions
with other Black Sea destinations.
The City of Sochi, which includes 145 kilometres of coastline, 4000 square kilometres of hinterland and about 400,000 inhabitants, is the only specially designated tourism zone in Russia, due to its unique subtropical climate in Russia, its mineral
waters and its location on the Black Sea in the shadow of the
Caucasus Mountains.
It is characterised
by the Black Sea
stretching out to the West, by grand manor houses and enormous gardens from the turn of the century, by some of the best
architecture done under the Soviets, and by the nearby Caucasus Mountains, creating important variations in conditions and
climates.
Sochis hinterland has been designated as a bio-diversity
reserve. Sochi is also characterised by Soviet planning and construction, and by the previous regimes conception of tourism
as an activity organised for social goals along corporative lines.
Shifting to a market economy in tourism involves a deep con-
88
ROBERTB. BENTLEY
ceptual shift, a sharp change in legislation regarding land ownership, new divisions between public and private responsibilities, enormous investment
in infrastructure,
and a rigorous
planning process to manage the destination.
Reinventing
Sochi will require wise decisions on what
should be preserved from the Soviet past and on a clear vision
of what Sochi is to become. Sochi has a very good chance of success, and the strategic model developed in this process will be
valuable for other destinations in Asia and Africa that will soon
be attempting to rescue their heritage.
3.7.2. History
There are very few European cities left to come on stream as
tourism destinations. Several in central Europe - Prague, Budapest, Krakow - catapulted to prime European destinations after 1989. The civil war in Yugoslavia has postponed visits to an
entire region. Now countries farther east are organising their
tourism. Destinations around the Black Sea will be especially
favoured, and Sochi is the pearl of the Black Sea.
Since the last century, Sochi has only been important
for
tourism. That vocation began in 1864, when Russian nobles received land grants in this remote, under-populated
region as a
reward for their victories in the Crimean War. Before that, Sochi
was shunned by the Greeks - the place of punishment
for
Prometheus - but home to various Caucasian ethnic groups,
most famously the Circassian pirates.
Land grants to the nobility determined key aspects of Sochis
development. The grand architecture and exotic gardens of the
city were the fruits of their rivalry. Sochis tourism vocation
dates officially from 1872, when its first spa opened. During the
Communist
Revolution,
the war between the Reds and the
Whites ended in Sochi in 1920. The triumphant
Communists
89
completely took over Sochis manor houses and its uses for
tourism and health. There was a conscious government effort to
create a Russian Riviera, and some of the best examples of Soviet architecture are represented there. Sochi became known as
Stalins traditional vacation spot, and that of the nomenklatura
of the Soviet regime. Given the special definitions of tourism
applied under the Soviet regime, Sochis tourism development
has been fairly linear, even though organised according to principles different from Western tourism.
Under the Soviet concept of vacation as a right to be enjoyed
by all workers, holiday offerings were organised according to
occupational category or age group or sex. Further, since a resort is defined in this concept as a place primarily for health
treatment rather than leisure, the hospitals, sanatoria and balnearia were the responsibility of the Ministry of Health. The great
majority of people who visited Sochi during the Soviet years jus-
Region)
90
ROBERTB. BENTLEY
91
of a strategy
92
ROBERT8. BENTLEY
has a tourism future, and if yes, of what sort. They have looked
at other economic options. In short, they have begun a systematic - step by step, sector by sector, project by project - review
of the citys assets and liabilities, in terms of its past and its future. Given Sochis importance for Russia, this is an enormously
complex project which must be done carefully integrating respect for the environment, the historical and social context, the
infrastructure
needs and a solidly grounded vision of Sochis
strategic development.
Several basic developments have occurred in the past year.
Sochis leaders have presented strategic options about Sochis
future to the President. These included letting the destination
die, moving away from tourism, or revitalising the tourism according to a new model. The decision was to recreate tourism in
Sochi according to a model which would bring in new development, privatise and renovate existing facilities, and create additional economic activity while conversing the biosphere reserve.
This requires a deep, integrated planning process to establish the basis for tourism development that preserves the natural environment
and is sensitive to the heritage of the place both in terms of recent Soviet history and earlier contributions.
Sochis leaders realise that this process will be aided by exchanging ideas and experiences with experts in other cities that
have faced similar problems.
Another decision during the past year changed the landholding law to permit foreigners to lease land for 49 years, addressing a fundamental
issue that has not been resolved in
some other former Socialist countries. This in turn will allow
the public enterprises in Sochi to consider various forms of privatisation. Privatisation strategies are under discussion.
Infrastructure work has been started on roads - which were
not an issue when Sochi did not have to compete against other
destinations - on electricity supply, which was organised on the
basis of the Soviet Union and now leaves Sochi too dependent
93
94
ROBERTB. BENTLEY
95
97
The angel Gabriel was sent from God to a city of Galilee named
Nazareth, to a virgin.... and the virgins name was Mary.... And he
came to her and said, Hail, 0 favoured one, the Lord is with you!
.-And behold, you will conceive in your womb and bear a son, and
you shall call his name Jesus. - Luke I
3.2.1. Introduction
Nazareth is first mentioned in the New Testament as the
place where Joseph and Mary - Jesus parents - reside. In
Nazareth, Mary learns of her pregnancy (the Annunciation)
and
in Nazareth Jesus grew up and was educated; the town also
served as his base as he wandered through the cities of the
Galilee. Consequently,
since the very early days of Christian
history, Nazareth became a focal point of Christian pilgrimage.
In the past 150 years, Nazareth also became a magnet for
other forms of tourism, following
the initial development
of
modern tourism in the Eastern Mediterranean Basin. Today, in
addition to its being a main focal point for tourism and pilgrimage to Israel, Nazareth is also the largest Arab city in Israel
(more than 60,000 residents) and serves as an economical centre
for the Arab population of Northern Israel.
Much like other small historical towns that are located in
98
NOAMSHOVAL
Tourism in Nazareth
Although the city receives 700,000 tourists annually, it almost
does not benefit from this intensive flow of tourists to the city,
since slightly over 95% of them are day-trippers that spend only
an average of several hours in the city. Paulus the eh Street - the
IN A HISTORIC CITY...
99
citys main traffic artery - is jammed most hours of the day and
this problem is only exacerbated by the dozens of tourist buses
that arrive to the city each day, park for several hours and then
depart from the city. The fact that most of the visitors are daytrippers imposes tremendous costs on the town, practically without contributing any real income for the local economy. In addition, due to the nature of the major tourist sights (churches), the
tourists do not even pay entrance fees anywhere in the city.
i
? ;
\ !
/
--^.
,
100
NOAMSHOVAL
The city presently offers some 600 hotel rooms that are characterised by an extremely low rate of occupancy. In 1995, which
was a record-breaking year in tourism to Israel, the rate of occupancy at the citys hotels never surpassed the 35% mark (in contrast to a nation-wide average of 70% that year). This problem is
common to other small historic cities that are located in proximity to larger tourist cities, and the same situation is shared by
Bethlehem, that is located near Jerusalem, with over 1.2 million
tourists annually - and even worse statistics.
The situation in Nazareth might have been better had it not
been neglected for decades by the central government while the
surrounding
region (especially Tiberias) was developed and
promoted during those same years. For comparison, since the
establishment
of the Ministry of Tourism in the mid-sixties,
Tiberias enjoyed a status of Type A development area and
was developed by the central government
as the centre for
tourism services in the Northern part of Israel. Nazareth received the same development status as Tiberias thirty years latter - 1993.
IN A HETORIC CITY...
101
102
NOAMSHOVAL
IN A HISTORIC CITY...
103
104
NOAMSHOVAL
IN A HISTORIC CITY...
105
106
NOAMSHOVAL
measures will be
@age I)
A large tourist population staying in the centre of Nazareth
would perhaps cause for tensions with the local population that
will maybe dislike the idea of the establishment of different
tourist enterprises (such as pubs, bars etc.) that might possess
an impact upon their daily life. Furthermore, the local population does not have a tradition of accommodating tourists and
pilgrims - as it was historically the different churches that took
charge of this and built hospices for the pilgrims. It is necessary
to further investigate the reactions of the local population to a
modification in the character of the old city. It is especially necessary to investigate which segments of the tourist population
should perhaps not be encouraged to stay (e.g., backpackers).
There is an urgent need to precisely understand the differences between a merely historic city to a city such as Nazareth
that also combines religious aspects. Foremost in importance
rests the question of whether the demand for the product is
rigid by nature. In other words, this means that the hardships
surrounding
a visit to the city are of no consequence, as the
tourists will continue to come because of the religious significance of the place. If this holds true, it may allow for the implementation of extreme measures in managing the tourism to
the city. It is important to understand whether the demand for
Nazareth is inflexible, in the sense that the tourism product that
the city offers simply cannot be found elsewhere and that most
of the tourists that visit the city today will continue to do so in
spite of any difficulties they will incur.
What are the different segments of tourists that visit the
city? Who are the ones that choose to stay more than just several hours and even spend the night and what is their spatial and
IN A HISTORIC CITY...
107
economical behaviour. It might be more useful not to concentrate on the religious segment since this segment does not have
sufficient time to spend in the city as its must visit a long list of
sites in the northern part of Israel and the itineraries for this
kind of tourism have been well established for years. Maybe it
would be consequently necessary to concentrate on other kinds
of tourists.
The historic centre includes many notable 19th century
homes that once belonged to wealthy merchants and landowners. These dwellings feature wooden ceiling beams, red-tiled
roofs, stained-glass windows, white marble floors, triple arches
and painted ceilings influenced by both Ottoman and European
architecture and ornamentation.
These mansions are ideal for
conversion for tourist uses such as hotels, restaurants, etc. Initially, research should concentrate on the different possibilities
of reusing these unique mansions and creating of a database of
the potential buildings. The same holds true for other old complexes that could be converted such as city hall and the adjacent
Mascobia - the complex that is currently used as a police station but in the last century was built as a hospice for Russian
pilgrims.
108
NOAMSHOVAL
IN A HISTORIC CITY...
109
The condition for commencing with the second stage of research and the extent of the research will depend upon the
available financial resources.
3.2.4. Conclusion
The work on Nazareth 2000 failed to produce a visitor and
management policy in the city. The preliminary research conducted thus far indicates that it may be almost impossible to
change the behaviour
of visitors by using soft methods
(methods to change the behaviour of visitors in such a way as
to render this behaviour more compatible with the actual structure of local society and economy, yet without limiting their actions) in order for a larger proportion
of them to become
overnight
visitors and for these overnight
visitors to stay
longer. This is attributed to several reasons:
a) The proximity
of alternative accommodation
in attractive
settings in the citys surroundings (for example the chain of
kibbutzim hotels).
b) Most of the tourism is organised tourism (85%) mainly because of the nature of this particular type of tourism (pilgrimage) and the tendency of this segment in Israel to travel in
groups. This indicates that it is not the tourists that should be
changed but rather the tour operator. This is far more complicated since the large tourism agents have different interests at play (accommodation they own in other places, etc.).
In addition to these reasons there exists the possibility that
not a lot can be changed in the patterns of visiting the city.
All these reasons lead to the conclusion that perhaps the city
should adopt a strategy of extreme methods of visitor and
transport management, as these might be the only means that
can change the present situation.
110
NOAMSHOVAL
References
Chad E. F. (1995), Beyond the Basilica: Christians and Muslims in Nazareth.
Chicago and London: The University of Chicago University Press.
Gera D. and Shay 0. (1997), Nazareth: The Missed Opportunity,
Globes Business Guide (August 6).
Hamdan H. and Jabarin J. (1997), Socio-economic profile of the Nazareth
Population. The Municipality
of Nazareth: Nazareth (In Hebrew).
Midgam - Consulting and Research Ltd. (1996), Tourists Survey: March
2995 -February 2996. Jerusalem: Ministry of Tourism.
Ministry
of Tourism and Israel Airport Authority
(1988), Survey of
Tourists and Residents Departing by Air 1986/7. Jerusalem: Dahaf Research Institute.
Rachamimof A. (1998), Master Plan for Nazareth: Final Draft. Tel-Aviv.
State of Israel, Central Bureau of Statistics and the Ministry of Tourism
(Various editions), Tourism and Hotel Services Statistics Quarterly.
Taskir - Survey and Research Ltd. (1995), Survey of Tourists Departing
from Israel 1994. Jerusalem: Ministry of Tourism.
The Israeli Ministry of Tourism (1994), Programmatic plan for developing
the tourist industry: Nazareth and Kefar Qana region. Jerusalem (In Hebrew).
The Israeli Ministry
of Tourism
(1997), Israel 2000: Final account.
Jerusalem (In Hebrew).
Acknowledgements
The author wants to thank Mr. Steve Abu-Hani, an engineer
in charge of several of the restoration and infrastructure
projects in the historical core in the Municipality
of Nazareth, for
the time he spent showing me around in the summer of 1997. I
also wish to thank Mr. Tareq Shehada, the Director of the municipalitys Tourism Unit for guiding me through the mazes of
this unique city.
4. THIRD SESSION:
NEW APPROACHES
FOR EMERGING ISSUES
113
114
NEW APPROACHESFOREMERGINGISSUES
NEW APPROACHESFOREMERGINGISSUES
115
117
4.1.1. Introduction
Cities of art in Europe find themselves in a critical situation.
On one hand, the balance of the effects of the high tourism pressure is increasingly pending on the side of the costs. The dynamics in the quality of the tourism products caused by congestion and adverse selection risks to put these cities in a cul-desac where the only local industry with an indisputable advantage is inherently led to a decline.
On the other hand, it seems that any attempt to control and
regulate the tourism industry inevitably fails. This is not only
explained by the intrinsically myopic behaviour of the economic agents involved, but also by the way in which the production
process in the city is organised and by the structural characteristic of the cultural sector which is the main feeder of the
tourism industry.
In this paper we investigate the conditions that we repute
necessary to make cultural tourism sustainable in a city of art.
We first focus on the structural characteristics that the cultural sector should exhibit to maximise its impact on the local
economy, and to be successfully marketed as an integral part of
the urban product. We suggest that the quality of inter-industrial linkages is a fundamental
element that may guarantee the
sustainability of urban growth in a global context.
However, looking at the hardware and the software of the
tourism industry is not sufficient to assess the capacity of an art
city to enter a sustainable path of tourism development. An in-
118
ANTONIOPAOLO Russo
119
120
ANTONIOPAOLO
Russo
121
122
ANTONIO
cluster
PAOLO Russo
in heritage
cities:
I
,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
i
t7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J
+
tourism producers (tour operators)
4
process
in an heritage
city
ORGANEINC
123
offices in charge of cultural planning and the managers of cultural institutions, etc.
In cities like Venice or Salzburg we indeed observe a fair
amount of economic activities directed to city users other than
the residents, and in particular tourists. Restaurants, hotels, shops
of all sorts - from luxury boutiques to cheap souvenir vendors art galleries, agglomerate around central attractions and public
spaces and interfere with the residential function of the city.
Agglomeration
derives from the immobile nature of the
physical capital - the cultural heritage -, which is the primary
motivation for such a huge demand basin. Statistical analyses
confirm that culture-related activities are concentrated in urban
areas, and this concentration (contrary to other information-intensive industries) is increasing in time (e.g. Heilbrun, 1992).
But to what extent this agglomeration of activities in a limited space can be considered a cluster? And can it be considered
a cultural cluster?
Fig. 4.1 sketches the main relations in the tourist industry in
a heritage city and the role played by cultural activities - we
doubt it is even possible to define it a ct~ltural sector in itself.
In the upper part of the diagram the main industrial sectors
of the heritage city are represented, namely the tourist sector
(comprehending
the primary and secondary products and the
services, that we call a tourist facility because they are mainly
utilised by non-residents) and the other.
The primary product, the cultural heritage, is part and parcel of the tourist industry; production is limited to the exhibition function. Through the mediation of the intermediate producers (the tour operators) and the local distributors,
the
tourism product is assembled and commercialised.
Actually,
distribution
implies a certain degree of overlapping between
the tourist production and the residential functions, since it
uses premises and facilities that are originally intended to serve
the resident population.
-.-
124
ANTONIOPAOLORUSSO
The tourist product and the other products, thus, are partially coincident; in particular, the cultural product is a part of the
tourist product, though it is also consumed by citizens and other city users.
Cultural institutions are often managed by the public sector,
and depend on public budgets; their revenues are internalised
in the central or supra-local layers of government, while the indirect and induced impacts on the urban economy are ambiguous. Cultural sector practitioners and small businesses are seldom fully connected into mainstream small business support.
The peculiarity of this model is that feedback only pertains to
residents, who can influence or decide upon the pattern of urban products they desire with their vote and consumption
choices (for example, voting with their feet, as in the classical
framework of Tiebout (1956)). But for the largely overwhelming
tourist products and services there is not such possibility, both
for lack of consultation and representation mechanisms, and because market mediation is virtually absent. The demand basin
for an art city is so large that the aggregate demand for the
tourist good is almost inelastic.
The de facto disenfranchising of the urban dweller in the place
which is subject to global forces (Martinotti,
1993) eventually
leads to a cut of the economic and institutional mechanisms that
ensure the continuous correspondence between urban functions
and auto-generated demand. Disequilibrating
pressures are set
on as long as the residents tastes are not matched by the
(tourist) product offered, and there is a permanent leakage of
local population and firms from the city.
Even though we may figure that this process is not endless that is, under a certain social threshold over which the city
becomes less attractive for visitors - this macro feedback is
very slow to set in motion, and by the time is starts to produce
its effects the local economy may already be seriously harmed,
so that recovery is almost impossible.
125
The rigidity in the production process of tourism also depends on the lack of feedback between assemblers and distributors of the tourist product. In fact, while the latter are local,
atomised and partly unaware of belonging to the tourism industry, the former are structured, often non-local and sector-optimisers (Van der Borg et al., 1998).
The only part of the scheme in which there is a certain degree of informal networking is among secondary tourism producers. Rather than of a cultural cluster, we could talk of a local
network of tourist operators, whose degree of cooperativeness
is strictly limited to lobbying and organising itineraries, but has
little if any strategic meaning.
Networking
is virtually absent across levels (e.g. between
producers in different sectors, service suppliers and public administration) and within levels (e.g. between producers and distributors, between producers and assemblers).
In synthesis, these are the main elements of the model of industrial organisation that is observed in heritage cities:
the lackof micro feedback leads to an overall lack of flexibility
and competition in the urban production, be it tourist or not;
the lack of macro feedback favours the adverse selection for
quality in the tourism market, with the consequence of an
overall decline of attractivity of the destination;
the confusion between tourist products and other products
is the main engine of the process of leakage of non-tourist
activities and citizens out of the heritage city;
because of the lack of feedback, innovation in the tourist industry as a strategic opportunity to avoid the decline of the
life-cycle is poor.
In other words, the risk is high of entering the declining stage of the
tourist destination life cycle, described - among the others - by Butler (1980)
and van der Borg and Gotti (1995).
126
ANTONIOPAOLO
Russo
ORGANISINGSUSTAINABLETOURISMDEVELOPMENTIN HERITAGECITIES
127
The combinations
and linkages between these fields are a
variety, dictated by proximity advantages and the common development of a local know-how. For example, new technologies
are applied for the creation of services or products that are supplied together with the traditional visit to the cultural attrac-
pijggjq
strategic, global, command
cultural industry
cluster
in heritage
cities
128
ANTONIOPAOLORUSSO
concentration.
While
fast-growing
regional
ORGANISINGSUSTAINABLETOURISMDEVELOPMENTIN HERITAGECITIES
129
Innovation
is stimulated
in a competi-
130
tive environment. In the heritage city, rents and monopolistic position are created by the proximity to the primary product and by
the restricted and immobile nature of the central land supply.
It is therefore desirable to attack monopolistic
practices by
favouring a virtual access to the central tourist product (e.g.
through the organisation of electronic malls and kiosks), promoting the diffusion of the primary product to peripheral and
depressed areas (e.g. a policy of decentralisation of the museum
supply, organisation of provincial itineraries), and controlling
for the quality of the product offered by central activities, in
such a way that location advantages are not translated into increases of the price/ quality ratio.
Promote co-operation. Being the case of a sector dominated
by a very large number of micro-businesses and self-employed,
focusing on products rather than businesses, the organisations of
cultural tourism producers tend to be highly unstable, and
planning is not found at the industry level.
The government,
or any initiator of a policy change of
strategic city marketing, can do little to promote co-operation if
the local environment is poorly co-operative or if there exist a
strong asymmetry
between suppliers and producers on one
side and producers and consumers on the other. It is also difficult, if possible, to incentive and reward the delivery of complex and innovative products respect to banal and low added
value products.
Governmental tasks can be hardly more than organisational,
still there are many things that can be done and actions to be
taken in the field of information
and marketing. The local authorities should be able to enact a policy of city marketing directed to the local actors, aiming at developing a common vision of the citys mission from an analysis of the threats and
opportunities that it faces.
They must convince all actors influencing
the path of
ORGANISINGSUSTAINABLETOURISMDEVELOPMENTIN HERITAGECITIES
131
132
ORGANISINGSUSTAINABLETOURISMDEVELOPMENTIN HERITAGECITIES
133
134
ANTONIOPAOLO Russc
135
References
Audretsch D.B., Feldman M.P. (1995), Inrzouative clusters and the industry life cycle, CEPR Discussion paper series, no. 1161, London.
Bianchini F. (1993), Culture, conflicts and cities: issues and prospects
for the 199Os, in Cultural policy and urban regeneration: the West European experience, ed. by Franc0 Bianchini and Michael Parkinson,
Manchester University Press, Manchester.
De Brabander G. and Gijsbrechts E. (1994), Cultural Policy and Urban
Marketing, a General Framework and some Antwerp Experiences,
in: G. Ave and F. Corsica (eds.), Urban Marketing in Europe, Turin,
Torino Incontra, pp. 814-841.
Di Monte G., Scaramuzzi I. (eds.) (1997), Una provincia ospitale, II Mulino, Bologna.
Heilbrun J. (1992), Art and Culture as Central Place Functions, in Lluban Studies, Vol. 29 (2), pp. 205-215.
Jansen-Verbeke M. (1988), Leisure, recreation and tourism in inner cities,
KU Nijmegen (Nederlandse Geografische Studies n. 58).
Kooiman J. (1993), Modern governance, SAGE, London.
Martinotti G. (1993), Metropoli. La nuova morfologia sociale della citta,
il Mulino, Bologna.
Osborne D., Gaebler T. (1992), Reinventing the governmenf, Reading,
MA.
Russo A. (1998), Organising sustainable tourism development in heritage
cities, Working Paper EURICUR, 98/02, Rotterdam.
Tiebout, C. M. (1956) A Pure Theory of Local Expenditures,
in ]ournal of Political Economy, 64(3), pp. 416-24.
Van den Berg L., Braun E., Van der Meer J. (1997), Metropolitan organising capacity: experiences with organising major projects in European
Cities, Ashgate, Aldershot.
Van der Borg J., Gotti G. (1995), Tourism
and cities of art,
UNESCO/ ROSTE Technical Report n. 20, Venice.
Van der Borg J., Minghetti V., Russo A. (1998), La diffusione delle tecnologie informatiche e telematiche nellindustria turistica italiana, Quaderno
CISET n. 20 / 98, Universith di Venezia
Van der Borg J., Russo A. (1997), Lo sviluppo turistico di Venezia: analisi
136
ANTONIOPAOLO Russo
137
4.2 Meeting
Priscilla Boniface
4.2.1. Introduction
and definitions
The essence of the city, in its traditional and European format, is that it is a gathering point of functions and of those people involved with them. It is a communications
centre, deriving
from the functions having arisen and been in dialogue, and/or
because it was - and is - a good place of transportation convergence. Significant and needing to be recognised in finding ways
to conduct well the management of tourism in heritage cities
are: that tourism is likely to be but one specific endeavour
among a citys roles; that a citys historicity can be only one of
its aspects needing to be addressed. The contemporary viability
and vibrancy of a city rests upon a balance and interaction - as
well as satisfaction as far as possible - of the needs of: the citys
material fabric; its citizens; its other users and stakeholders.
Consider first the key words of management, tourism, and heritage cities. Management is, or ought to be, the outcome from an
earlier process. This is a process of strategic assessment and
thinking, and from thence, decisions about suitable policy, and
there forward to formulation
of plans of implementation.
Of
these last, management will form the structure and method of
operation. Clearly, essential to right choices being made and
procedures being established is that the best information possible serves as the basis of beginning.
Tourism is a phenomenon and an industry and so is complex and encompasses much. The dimensions in relation to the
historic city include the general industry players involved such
as tour operators, and those among the accommodation,
trans-
138
PRISCILLABONIFACE
139
140
PRISCILLABONIFACE
4.2.2. Analysing
141
142
PRECILLA BONIFACE
143
meeting between these and other participants, as the Figures reveal. Perhaps the important bond to build on between tourist
and host in relation to the city is in their common need that it
should have a good range of facilities for use and attractions for
attendance and also the general wish to be in an environment of
quality and stimulation. When tourism becomes over-intrusive
as a facet of a heritage city, the community quality of life, rather
than being enhanced and stimulated, can become reduced as is
the threat to residents of the major crescent in the World Heritage City of Bath in the UK (Boniface 1994: 106). As well as
among types of tourist markets, varieties of viewpoint may be
revealed between groups within an overall city community. As
an example, the business sectors - those relying on tourism for
business and those which do not - may see tourism differently
and place different scales of value upon it.
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Crnd render
ir7 global
a IDiaction
to
:ommunity
flJrther
c rdvice &
tl ,aining
C ustomer
t ruman
d issatisfaction
Crbsence
rrde or
Usefulness
existence
atmosphere
U nvrability
i )ortfolio
lissatisfaction
of
aura &
Researchers
and
Educatofs
Clistinctive
Suffering
oecral
sporlation
,umber
:ustomers
or
focus of
xs of
ock of
fravel
Industty
Inaterial
esoruces
nsufficient
Tmnsnaiionai
erg. (e.g
UNESCO,
EU)
of
146
PRISCILLABONIFACE
147
information
gatherers and disseminators, unless they are employed to serve a sectional interest, will deliver data that is as
objective in its style as it is possible to achieve or expect.
The facility of access to information and data sources needs
to be offered by city participants in their own immediate interests. Need of information
is encountered by tourists to avoid
harm by ignorance of a heritage resource or of offence to the
communities
of a city. Equally, hosts and planners need to
know the calibre of their heritage product and the style of the
markets for the product and also to understand how tourism
fits among their other city functions and duties.
Therefore, heritage city participants have a meeting point in
requiring sufficient amount and quality of information towards
serving their needs. Educators, of course, serve the vital training need in the range of areas within heritage, tourism, and urban affairs. Academics customarily
have an interest in their
subject of investigation in its own right and beyond its immediate uses and applications.
They are well equipped to help
spread acquired knowledge and to establish and contribute to
networks so that cities information is shared and exchanged to
overall benefit. Academics share the wider objective with the
relevant transnational organisations, as exemplified again are
UNESCO and the EU.
Figures 4.3 and 4.4 reveal a way of identifying
aspects in
common among city actors. To demonstrate the method of approach, probable city players have been presented and, in
columns beneath, the features the players might want and not
want are shown. Some among the gatherings of shared interest
have been specifically identified and discussed as more likely
and relevant to the heritage city scene. These features are perceived as probable to most heritage city circumstances. They
should not, however, be regarded as exclusive or prescriptive.
As has been emphasised, each heritage-city circumstance produces its particular aspects which are wanted and not wanted.
148
PRISCILLABONIFACE
The items the Figures provide for the actors are generalised too,
whereas the outlined process in individual
application would
need to deliver more specific, detailed and deep information to
be really useful.
149
150
PRISCILLABONIFACE
151
152
PRISCILLABONIFACE
With more enlightened and changing movement and dispersal of visitors about the hill of the Acropolis, no one individual
piece would need to suffer more unduly that another and each
could be afforded a period of rest. Elsewhere, visitor vehicles
can present a visual intrusion, whereas here the main pollutant
on the eye is the intense and ill-distributed
visitor volume.
Venice, because it is bounded and permeated by water, reveals the importance of the transport dimension on one particular way. In many historic cities visited by tourists, transport is
shown to be a critical presence.
Transport decisions are significantly
important
towards
meeting the needs of place, resident and visitor. Regarding tour
buses, for example, historic city areas by their nature are unlikely to be instrinsically
equipped to accommodate them. If these
are allowed into an area which was built for an earlier way of
life and a smaller-scale of transport, the buses visually intrude
and their fumes do no good to the historic fabric. If buses are relinquished at the areas edge, they intrude visually as a group,
not to say may help create a boundary between a tourist area
and resident areas which is not conducive to the city and its facilities being shared and used as a whole among people. A
ubiquitous
solution to transporting
tourists round a historic
area is to carry them in small trains of carriages pulled by an
engine vehicle.
The mechanism may offer less visual pollution in one sense
but it again delivers a presence of make believe and otherness
to a historic area and so provides a semblance to it of a theme
park rather than a real place. As another idea, the Danish capital Copenhagen encourages bicycle use in its centre (Boniface
1996: 53) by providing stands of bikes which can be released for
use by the insertion of a coin. On depositing the bike at the
stand or at another, a coin refund is obtained. As has been
stressed already, transport must be used as a management tool.
Choices about transport towards achieving agreed objectives
153
154
PRISCILLABONIFACE
155
156
PRISCILLABONIFACE
157
Stratford-upon-Avon
Management
Action Programme,
sees
managing visitors as to be dealing with the issues and interrelationships associated with: (a) visitor impacts; (b) visitor movement; (c) the visitor welcome (1995: 242).
The other is the Chester Action Programme, which - as Page
says - describes itself as a vision of success for all those who
live and work in Chester or who visit the city (1995: 243). The
Chester Programme sounds to have formulated as its essence of
approach a determination
to identify a meeting ground among
city needs, and appears by the description to have succeeded in
finding it.
Finding shared needs, it should not be forgotten, is an activity which is a means to an end. The objective, surely an item to
find approbation between all city participants and so to serve as
a point of congregation in itself, is for heritage cities engaged in
tourism to be vibrant entities, and therefore not to be ossified
and inactive. As Landry et al opine cities are not static - that, after all, is the root of their vitality - and todays problems are not
those of tomorrow (1996:18). The encapsulation is that the most
salient needs in the delivery of Ziving heritage cities for tourism,
which the process of identification of points in common is likely
to reveal, are those to refresh, of flexibility and to change.
So the requirements can be encapsulated as:
Refresh
l
popular products
l
stale or declining products
l
the overall city fabric
l
ideas
Flexibility
l
inflows
l
among seasons
l
among products
158
Change
l
find or develop new products
products
l
inform and alter attitudes in
(a) tourists
(b) residents
(c) the tourist industry.
PRISCILLABONIFACE
extent of
It should be accepted that the needs to be fulfilled in the heritage city with activity in tourism will always change. It is necessary that they should do so. Not even the needs of the physical city fabric of heritage will stay the same. However, at any
one time, for needs to be satisfied as far as possible and in as
fair a balance as possible, they ought first to be recognised and
identified in their full range. From this starting point, the task
can set to met of finding as many areas of need in common as
possible, for the goal of setting out the planning and delivery of
a resident - tourist - heritage city of overall pride, stimulation
and pleasure.
159
References
Ashworth G. J. and Tunbridge J.E. (1990), The Tourist-Historic City, Belhaven, London and New York
Boniface I. (1994), Theme Park Britain: Who Benefits and Who Loses.7 in Fladmark, J.M. (ed.), Cultural Tourism, Donhead, London
Boniface I. (1995), Managing Quality Cultural Tourism, Routledge, London and New York
Boniface P. (1996), Rewind or Fast-Forward Culture for Tourism in
Robinson, M., Evans, N. and Callaghan, P. (eds.), Tourism and Cultural Change, Centre for Travel and Tourism in association with
Business Education Publishers Limited, Sunderland
Boniface I. (1998a), Are Museums Putting Heritage Under the Domination of the Tourism Industry?, Nordisk Museologi, Vol 1
Boniface P. (1998b), Tourism and Cultures: Consensus in the Making? in Robinson,
M. and Boniface P. Tourism and Cultural
Conflicts, CAB International Publishing, Wallingford, pp 287-306
Burtenshaw D., Bateman M. and Ashworth G. J. (1991), The European
City: A Western PerspectizJe, David Fulton Publishers, London
Cook S. (1998), Its payback time, folks!, in The Guardian 28 November
Hooper J. (1998), Lagoon Blues in The Guardian, 24 December
for Sustainable Tourism
Jamal T.B. and Getz D. (1997), Visioning
Development: Community-Based
Collaboratations
in Murphy, I.
(ed.) Quality Management in Urban Tourism, Wiley, Chichester
Krippendorf J. (1984, 1987), The Holiday Makers: understanding the impact
of leisure and travel, Butterworth-Heinemann,
Oxford
Landry C., Greene L., Matarasso F. and Bianchini F. (1996), The Art oj
regeneration: urban renewal through culfural activity, Comedia, Stroud
McLuhan M. (1969), Counterblast, 1970, Rapp and Whiting, London
Page S. (1995) Urban Tourism, Routledge, London and New York
Richards G. (1996) Cultural Tourism in The Netherlands in Richards,
G. (ed.) Cultural Tourism in Europe, CAB International, Wallingford
Robinson M. (1998b), Cultural Conflicts in Tourism: Inevitability
and
Inequality in Robinson, M. and Boniface P. (eds.), Tourism and Cultural Conflicts, CAB International Publishing, Wallingford,
pp l-32
160
PRISCILLABONIFACE
161
162
BARBARARAVNIK-TOMAN
Photo:
Drago
Holynski)
MUSEUM PROFESSIONS
IN HERITAGEMANAGEMENT: THE CASE OF SLOVENIA
163
In fact, museums exhibitions are the most effective tool to interact with and to enlighten the visiting public. It is through exhibitions of objects that museums reflect and reinforce the peoples collective memory so as to make them culturally
conscious. The information - or knowledge - thus acquired forms
the message which has to be communicated to visitors. A museum exhibition, therefore, deals primarily with three things: museum objects, the message and the people who are at the receiving end (Nigam, 1995).
The new partnership that must be established between heritage and tourism depends in large measure on enlightened mediators who can reconcile a host of divergent viewpoints and
approaches (De Blanca, 1998). If cultural tourism is to become a
genuine learning and entertaining
experience for an even
broader public, museums and heritage sites must become more
user-friendly
and communicate
stories rather than messages (Schouten, 1998).
And we believe that it is hard to be a better heritage professional, a custodian and communicator. Visitors are meant to be
challenged by our communications,
their fantasy must be activated, and there must be a sense of discovery about the place
that actuates their willingness to receive experiences and information. A massive number of modern aids and techniques are
available for the heritage professionals to find a site out of the
ordinary and propel it into the attention of the modern leisure
seeker. But even more important than the technology is the approach of the theme and items presented from the perspective
of the professional colleague instead of the lay person. Such an
attitude may help to make museums and heritage sites a better
place to stay for the enjoyment of visitors, and to give museums
with their rich resources, the place they deserve in the leisure
and tourism industry (Schouten, 1998).
Nowadays a lot of attention tends to be focused on cultural
tourism, which is perceived in a more favourable light than
164
BARBARARAVNIK-TOMAN
MUSEUM PROFESSIONS
IN HERITAGEMANAGEMENT: THE CASE OF SLOVENIA
165
166
BARBARARAVNIK-TOMAN
References
De Blanca M. G. (1998), The museum as mediator, Museum International (UNESCO Paris), No. ZOO,p. 21.
Nigam M. I. (1995), Creating a context: a challenge to Indian museums, Museum International (UNESCO Paris), No. 785, p. 21.
Perier-Dleteren
C. (1998), Tourism and conservation: striking a balance, Museum International (UNESCO Paris), No. 200, p. 5.
Schouten F. (1998), Professionals and visitors: closing the gap, Museum International (UNESCO Paris), No. 200, p. 27.
167
168
RAPHAELSOUCHIER
on the other hand, there are evident mutually beneficial synergies to be developed between the surrounding region and
the city itself (e.g. the possibility, for an overcrowded historical centre, to take advantage of existing or still to be created
alternative routes, in and around the city; or, for a city handicapped by an unbalanced structure of tourism flows, the
option to enrich the diversity and attractiveness of its main
tourism supply; thus strengthening the overnight visitors
client group and somehow reducing the burden generated
by an overwhelmingly
dominant
excursionist
client
group.
169
Of course, each partner city has also set specific local objectives.
Three steps
How is the project going to develop in time?
A. Preparation stage (94-98). From June 1994 to December
1998, the initial group gathered new partners and progressively
identified common purposes and objectives. The project was officially selected and co-financed by the European Commission
(Ecos-Ouverture
east-west co-operation program) in December
1998.
II. Launching stage (98-99). The second step (December 98December 99) is dedicated to:
l
the setting up or strengthening
of each partners intra-regional AVEC network (local, regional & national authorities,
universities, private and NC0 sector);
l
the creation of the interregional co-operation frame and tools
(legal aspects, common data bank on Internet, printed material, search for new partners and financing opportunities);
l
a first series of local and interregional
studies and experiments:
C. Opening-up stage (2000 on). After a preparatory session
held at Tours next October, the first official plenary session of
170
RAPHAELSOUCHIER
is planned to be organised
in P&s
Organisation
The AVEC networks concrete activities are developed in the
frame of permanent interregional workshops.
At this point, and for the launching stage, seven workshops
have been identified:
1. Heritage and employment
2. Creation of the permanent AVEC network
3. Communication
and promotion
4. UNESCO World heritage Cities candidatures
5. Urban heritage management data base and practical guide
6. local promotion of heritage and its (re)appropriation
by the
citizens
7. technological innovation and promotion of heritage
4.4.2. Opportunities
for co-operation
mass tourism
may be-
THEAVEC
NE?U~ORK:~OININGEFFORTSTOPROMOTESUSTAINABLEHERITAGE 171
come a strong cause of destruction for both material and immaterial heritage, as well as for local cultural identities:
l
sustainability is becoming a major issue, not only for natural
but also for cultural heritage and urban tourism; it cannot be
conceived as an isolated policy, but must be an element of a
global development strategy;
. more and more tourism and heritage professionals and administrators are looking forward to learning from each other
and exchange data as well as experiences.
AVEC partners feel rather at ease with UNESCOs comprehensive approach.
For them, the major risk generated by the museum city
phenomenon does not only lay in the decaying of built local
heritage and the accompanying growth of urban nuisances.
The development of a dominant tourist sector - sometimes
ending as a mono-industry
- might tend to weaken the city
and/or the regions traditional
activities and their ability to
generate diversified alternatives;
Excessive - and/or mismanaged - tourist flows also generate cultural and social risks:
l
the local community
may be - or feel - expelled from its
own physical and symbolic territory,
to be replaced by
wealthier newcomers and foreign perman,ent or visiting
populations;
l
the weakening of local traditions - reduced to superficial folklore by their commercial mise en scene-; also the shrinking
of social and cultural initiatives to a mere artificial representation, only aimed at tourists benefit rather than at the inner expression and deepening of local communities social and cultural identity, vitality and their opening up to the world;
l
the reduction of relationship between local communities and
these waves of modern seasonal migrants to its only commercial dimension.
172
RAPHAELSOUCHIER
a comple-
HERITAGE
173
5. THE CHALLENGE OF
TOURISM MANAGEMENT
IN HERITAGE CITIES:
CONCLUSIONS
AND PLAN OF ACTION
177
Conclusions
Jan van der Borg, Antonio Paolo Russ0
The Preparatory Meeting on the Project Tourism Management in Heritage Cities: Networking
Practices and Sharing Experiences, held in Venice 18-19 December 1998, has given to
the organising subjects and the participating institutions the opportunity to establish a common framework for research and
action in the field of tourism management in heritage cities.
The participants have appreciated the important results of
the Project Art Cities and Visitors Flow launched in 1991 by
the University
of Venice and the UNESCO Venice Office in
which innovative
perspectives and policy actions for tourist
flow management in art cities in Europe were presented.
Moreover, they share the consideration that the urgent necessity of management tools and policy arrangements for the
sustainable tourism in heritage cities is not constrained to traditional destinations of cultural tourism and regions enjoying a
consolidated position on the tourism market.
Therefore, the institutions
responsible for the 1991 project
(UNESCO Venice Office, Erasmus Universities
of Rotterdam,
University Ca Foscari of Venice) contributed to the organisation of this new meeting to gather new ideas and new directions to revitalise, strengthen and extend the co-operation between cities engaged in the common effort of sustainable
tourism management and the network of experts in this field.
The new challenges that are faced by heritage cities, the traditional - for the increasing competition and mobility - as well
as the emerging - due to the expansion of tourism destination
regions and to the opening of new markets - demand a higher
178
JANVANDERBORG,ANTONIOPAOLO Russ0
179
180
JANVANDERBORG,ANTONIOPAOLORUSSO
181
2.
3.
4.
5.
182
TANVANDER BORG,ANTONIOPAOLORUSSO
183
Recommend
to promote the following initiatives
operation for the year 1999:
regarding
international
co-
emerging issues,
institutions:
184
3. An International Meeting (to be held in a selected city during the second half of the year 1999) as a follow up of the
Preparatory Meeting to evaluate the advance of knowledge
and skills relating to cultural tourism and development leading to mutual appreciation of cultures,
4. The publication of an authoritative manual entitled Guidelines for Tourism Management in Heritage Cities in co-operation with several partners including, among others, the
Alliance des Villes Europeennes de Culture (AVEC), with
the aims of providing
handy and comprehensive
orientations to tourism managers engaging in innovative strategies
in the field of cultural tourism, together with general principles for sustainable tourism management supported by specific cases and experiences;
5. To stimulate the creation of further UNESCO Chairs in cultural tourism, enhancing the network and providing training and education;
6. The creation of a Iago for the network, which would eventually be utilised for projects associated with the network, on
conditions that such projects should be recommended by the
National Commission for UNESCO concerned, submitted to
and approved by the Scientific Committee of the network.
Moreover,
the participants
185
Recommend
that the following long-term activities in terms of the management and promotion of the network activities;
1. The preparation of a public relations kit and a brochure to
introduce and promote the activities of the network among
potentially interested cities and institutions, thus stimulating
the autonomous preparation of relevant materials by the interested cities;
2. Active efforts to ensure the contribution of the mass-media
in promoting the objectives and undertakings of the project
to the general public;
3. The preparation of web pages - to be updated with regularity - with the aims of promoting the activities of the network,
providing links to the participating institutions and other existing networks, and allowing the access of the cities to existing on-line databases;
4. The issue of a newsletter (at least two
including comprehensive information
ties, to be diffused among network
participants, as well as through other
APPENDIX
189
List of Participants
Paolo COSTA,
Tullia
CARETTONI,
Herve BARRE,
APPENDIX
190
Gkrard BOLLA,
Vladimir
KOUZMINOV,
Robert BENTLEY,
Nuria
BLANC0
CAMPOS,
LwoF
191
PARTICIPANTS
Priscilla
BONIFACE,
University of Northumbria
at Newcastle
47b Leazes Terrace - NE1 4LZ
Newcastle upon Tyne,
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. ++ 44 191232 1056
Fax. ++ 44 191232 1056
E-mail: priscilla.boniface@unn.ac.uk
Sarath DIVISEKERA,
Victoria
University
of Technology,
Australia - Dept. Applied Economics St Albans Campus
Victoria University of Technology
PO BOX 14428
Melbourne City MC 8001
AUSTRALIA
Tel. ++ 613 9365 2150
Fax. ++ 613 9365 2596
E-mail: Sarath.Divisekera@vut.edu.au
Werner
DESIMPELAERE,
Maria de FBtima
FERNANDES,
APPENDIX
192
Sonsoles GUILLgN
RUIZ-AYtiCAR,
Ian JENKINS,
Gemma LLOBET,
Danka RADIC,
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
193
Barbara
RAVNIK-TOMAN,
Gordana RESTOVIC,
Antonio
Paolo RUSSO,
Noam SHOVAL,
of
194
Raphiel
APPENDIX
SOUCHIER,
Akatsuki
TAKAHASHI,
Jan VAN
Viekoslav
DER BORG,
VIERDA,
LmoF
P.~RTICIPANE
195
Jose Maria
BALLESTER,
Georges CAZES,
Evangelou
CHRISTOU,
National Commission
of Libya for UNESCO
196
APPENDIX
NaYma TABET
Dino MILINOVIC
Leon DEBEN,
Dept. of Sociology,
Universitiet van Amsterdam
Oude Hoogstraat 24
NL 1012 CE
Amsterdam, THE NETHERLANDS
Tel. ++ 3120 525 2204 / 2217
E-mail: deben@pscw.uva.nl
Harald GARDOS,
National
LIsToF PARTICI~>ANTS
197
Kerry GODFREY,
Victoria
Chief Executive
Marketing Machester
Churchgate House, 56 Oxford Street
Ml 6EU Manchester
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. ++ 44 1612371010
Fax. ++ 44 1612282960
E-mail: mmamarketing-manchester.
co.uk
GREGORY,
Derek HALL,
Chris HAMNETT,
APPENDIX
198
Daniel0
HIERNAUX-NICOLAS
Christina
HVID,
Wolfgang
J. KRAUS,
Nils KROESEN,
Director of Heidelberg
Convention
and Visitors Bureau
Postfach 10 58 60
D-69048 Heidelberg - GERMANY
Tel. ++ 49 622114 22 17
Fax. ++ 49 6221 14 22 22
E-mail: cvbhd@info.hd.eunet.de
LIsToF PARTICIPANTS
199
Jana KUCEROVA,
Anna LEASK,
Robert MAITLAND,
APPENDIX
200
Harsha
MUNASINGHE,
Jiri MUSIL,
Vaclav NOVOTNY,
Antonio
PAIVA,
201
L~STOFPARTICIPANTS
Rui PEREIRA,
Cristina
ROCHA,
Carlos SPOTTORNO
DIAZ CAR0
Peter STONE,
202
APPENDIX
Swedish National
Commission
for UNESCO
Noriko
TOKUNAGA,
Jean-Daniel
TERRASSIN
Martha WALGER,
LIsToF PARTICIPANTS
203
Eugenio YUNIS,