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PROCEEDINGS OF THE

INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR
TOURISM MANAGEMENT
IN HERITAGE CITIES
Organised by:
UNESCO VENICE OFFICE
ERASMUS UNIVERSITY ROTTERDAM
UNIVERSITY OF VENICE CA FOSCARI

18-19 December 1998 - Venice, Italy


Edited by J. van der Borg and A. I. Russo

UNESCO VENICE OFFICE


Regional Office for Science and Technology for Europe (ROSTE)
1262/A Dorsoduro, Venice, Italy 30123
Tel. +39-41-522-5535 - Fax +39-41-528-9995 - E-mail: roste@unesco.org
0 Copyrights

UNESCO Venice Office - 1999

Stampa Cierre Grafica - Verona

The authors are responsible for the choice and presentation of


the facts contained in this book and for the opinions expressed
therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not
commit the Organization.

CONTENTS

CONTENTS
PREFACE
(V. Kouzminov)

VII

WORDS OF WELCOME
CH. Barr4

IX

FOREWORD AND STRUCTURE


(J. van der Borg - A.P. Russo)

OF THIS REPORT

1. INTRODUCTORY
TOPICS AND OBJECTIVES
OF THE MEETING
1.1 Tourism Management in European Heritage Cities:
Networking Practices and Sharing Experiences
1.2 ~e~~~~~%

fl?B%~~

2. FIRST SESSION: EXPERIENCES WITH


SUSTAINABLE
TOURISM DEVELOPMENT
PROJECTS IN EUROPE
2.1 Turning the Tide. The Future of the Historic
Seaside Resort of Dinbych y Pysgod (Tenby)
(1. Jenkins - A. Jones)
2.2 Tourism and the Preservation of Local Culture
in Sintra (M. F. Fernandes)
2.3 Urban Planning in Bruges (W. Desimpelaere)
3. SECOND SESSION: NEW MARKETS,
OLD PROBLEMS
3.1 Tourism Development in Sochi: Expanding
the Envelope of Heritage Conservation. Sorting
Out the Past, Planning the Future CR. Bentley)

XIII

3
23

35

41
63
69

81

87

CONTENTS

VI

3.2 The Challenge of Urban Tourism Management


in a Historic City and a Pilgrimage Centre:
Nazareth as a Case Study (N. Shoval)
4. THIRD SESSION: NEW APPROACHES
FOR EMERGING
ISSUES
4.1 Organising Sustainable Tourism Development
in Heritage Cities (A.P. Russo)
4.2 Meeting Needs in Heritage Cities (I. Boniface)
4.3 Museum Professions in Heritage Management:
the Case of Slovenia (B. Ravnik-Tomad
4.4 The AVEC Network: Joining Efforts to Promote
Sustainable Heritage and Tourism Management
in European Cities CR. Souchier)
5. THE CHALLENGE
OF TOURISM
MANAGEMENT
IN HERITAGE CITIES: CONCLUSIONS
AND
PLAN OF ACTION FOR INTERNATIONAL
CO-OPERATION

97

111
117
137
161

167

175

APPENDIX
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

187

VII

Preface
Vladimir Kouzminov

This Technical Report of the UNESCO Venice Office is the


result of a Preparatory Meeting for the Project Tourism Management in Heritage Cities organised by the UNESCO Venice
Office in collaboration with the European Institute for Comparative Urban Research (EURICUR) of the Erasmus University of
Rotterdam and the Faculty of Economics of the University
of
Venice - Ca Foscari from 18 - 19 December 1998 in Venice, Italy.
This preparatory meeting was held as a follow-up of the project Art Cities and Visitors Flow implemented by the UNESCO
Venice Office and is a new project aimed at extending an existing
network of art cities into heritage cities in Europe and the
Mediterranean in order to facilitate the sharing of knowledge and
skills related to the management of tourism in such places.
The report contains the different contributions of the participants in the preparatory meeting, some of which are theoretical
research into cultural and urban tourism in heritage cities, and
others are case studies on this phenomenon in heritage cities.
It is expected that the report will serve to shape the future
directions of the Tourism
Management
in Heritage Cities
project, and that the included Plan of Action which resulted
from the Meeting will help to develop this interdisciplinary
project through constructive and creative partnership with different heritage cities in the world.
For additional information on the project, please contact Ms.
A. Takahashi, Programme Specialist of the UNESCO Venice Office - Liaison Office for the Safeguarding of Venice (UVO-LO),
63 St. Marks Square, Venice, Italy 30124, tel. +39-041-520-9989,
fax. +39-041-520-9988, Email : uhvni@unesco.org

IX

Words of Welcome
Herd Barr6

Prof. Costa,
Mr Chairman,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
Colleagues,
It is a pleasure for me to be here to discuss this very promising
project on Tourism
Management
in Heritage Cities and I
wish to thank Prof. Paolo Costa, the University of Venice my
colleagues, Mr. Vladimir Kouzminov,
Deputy Director of the
UNESCO Venice Office, and Mr. Jan Van der Borg for taking
this initiative. I would also like to thank the academics of the
Erasmus University of Rotterdam, the Italian National Research
Council and to all the participants for being here to share views
on how this project should address the most relevant issues and
define a proper agenda of activities with the aim of improving
the management of tourism in heritage cities.
We should remember that this project comes after the Art
Cities and Visitors Flow project supported by UNESCO and
which was a seminar of experience sharing, research and publications. These results will be useful for our project.
The Ca Foscari University has now a leading position in the
field of tourism development in a sensitive urban environment.
This new step should consolidate and further expand this position, in co-operation with the European Centre for Comparative
Urban Research of the Erasmus University of Rotterdam, and it is hoped -with other universities.
The project submitted

to us is timely

and relevant. It is a fi-

H. BARRY

nal break with an attitude prevailing until recently, the belief


that tourism does not need management and develops as a natural phenomenon. We now know that such an approach is obsolete, and that tourism, thanks to such projects, is gradually
taking on the status of a serious activity whose development
should move forward on scientific bases and be managed with
appropriate tools.
An increasingly interdependent and globalised world needs,
as never before, to share experiences on common challenges
and to draw up guidelines, conventions, charters, general policy principles of a universal scope. Beyond local specificities, it is
indeed possible to identify similar issues being faced in all heritage cities and make it possible to draw general policy principles based on case-studies. It is UNESCOs mission to make a
contribution to this endeavour.
There is a strong demand from UNESCO Member States for
guidelines on development strategies concerning complex issues
such as urban cultural tourism. It is characteristic of our time
that the most important issues are complex and need an interdisciplinary approach to be dealt with properly.
Decision-makers
need knowledge,
to tackle properly the
new challenges of today, and challenges linked to tourism development, in particular.
A recent report of the World Bank on the theme Knowledge for Development closely links the gap between rich and
poor countries to similar gaps between the quality of their
knowledge. The report draws a distinction between knowledge
and information. The difference is vast: information consists of
a bunch of files, reports and statistics lying on a desk, while
knowledge is analysed, culled, and organised to facilitate decision-making.

CONTENTS

XI

Tourism is one of the most information-rich


but knowledgestarved of all activities. UNESCO proposes conventions: on cultural heritage conservation, with the 1972 World Heritage List
Convention; on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the IIlicit Import, Export and Transfer of Cultural Property with the
1970 Convention; we are working with ICOMOS on an International Cultural Tourism Charter of a general scope. However,
we proposed nothing on specific issues like this of tourism
management in heritage cities. This project should fill this gap.
Our project must then aim to create knowledge and disseminate it throughout
the world, especially to the parts of the
world where it is the most needed. Even more, the aim of this
project should be to create new tools for new situations proper
to help decision-makers and the concerned populations to make
appropriate
decisions for the tourism management
of their
cities.
This is a stimulating task and I am sure that, all together we
will be able to take up this challenge and respond to the demand.
I am also glad for the opportunity to work in close co-operation with my colleagues of the UNESCO Office in Venice, especially Mr. Vladimir Kouzminov
and Ms. Akatsuki Takahashi,
and to offer all support from UNESCO.
I hope - or better I am sure - our seminar will be useful in
exchanging views and ideas for finalising the project proposal.

XIII

Foreword and structure of this report


Jan van der Borg, Antonio Paolo Russo

From various studies undertaken by the University Ca Foscari of Venice regarding the impact of tourism in art cities, it
has emerged that many of them presently suffer from an excessive volume of visitors. In fact, not only are the inhabitants, economic activities and heritage threatened by mass tourism, but
even tourism itself is eventually hurt by the congestion and pollution generated by visitors.
Only recently, rigorous methods have been developed to
properly utilise the opportunities that tourism offers to heritage
cities, guaranteeing
at the same time the sustainability
of
tourism development.
Soft instruments
- such as marketing
techniques and booking systems, the creation of alternative
routes in and among cities of art, information
systems - have
been suggested to overcome these problems.
Already in 1991, UNESCO Venice Office and the University
Ca Foscari of Venice, in the context of the Art Cities and Visitors Flow project, established an open, non-exclusive network
of - mostly West European - heritage cities. This network has
served on several occasions as a vehicle for the exchange of experiences and know-how concerning the specific problems of
tourism management
in sensitive urban environments
with
which such cities are confronted. That project made the UNESCO Venice Office and the University Ca Foscari of Venice assume a leading position in the field of tourism management in
sensitive urban environments.
The new project Tourism Management in Heritage Cities
intends to consolidate and further expand this position, extending and strengthening
the existing network in collaboration

XIV

JANVANDERBORG,ANTONIOPAOLORUSSO

with the UNESCO Venice Office, the University Ca Foscari of


Venice, and the European Centre for Comparative Urban Research (EURICUR) of the Erasmus University of Rotterdam.
A first step of the new activities has already been made with
the preparatory meeting for Tourism Management in Heritage
Cities, held in Venice, Italy from 18th to 19th December 1998.
This preparatory meeting has been the occasion for representatives of city authorities, academic institutions, international co-operation institutions and NGOs to share ideas and examine the crucial issues regarding the sustainability of tourism
in heritage cities, and to develop together a framework for the
analysis of the related problems.
Moreover, it has enabled the participants to agree on a series
of activities of international
research and co-operation in the
field of tourism management in heritage cities, to be undertaken by the network developed through the project Art Cities
and Visitors Flow, which will be strengthened and expanded
along the directions indicated by the plan of action for international co-operation.
This report contains all the essential information
about the
discussion and the conclusions of such preparatory meeting, as
well as an outline of the proposed agenda activities of the network.
In Chapter 1, the introductory
speeches to the Venice Meeting are presented. The first section is a review of the principal
issues that regard tourism management in heritage cities, and
provides some technical suggestions, a methodology and a proposal for the continuation
of the networking
practices in this
field. The considerations contained there have been presented
as a technical document to the meeting, and have been thoroughly discussed. In the second section, the keynote speech addresses the contents of the technical documents and translates
them in specific policy statements and considerations that have
to become the framework of the future programme of activities

FOREWORDAND STRUCTURE
OF THIS REPORT

xv

to be undertaken by the Network on Tourism Management in


Heritage Cities in Europe and the Mediterranean.
In Chapters 2, 3 and 4, the different working sessions of the
meeting are presented,
with the most interesting
issues
emerged from the presentation and discussion of theoretical insights and various case studies - concrete projects of tourism
management in heritage cities who candidate themselves to be
executed under the general framework of this new co-operation
programme.
Chapter 5 contains the conclusions of the meeting, including
the recommendations
of UNESCO for this new project for the
expansion and consolidation of the network of heritage cities,
an agenda of future activities to be undertaken by the group of
institutions interested and the approved plan of action for international co-operation.
This volume has been edited by Jan van der Borg (University Ca Foscari of Venice), Antonio Paolo Russo (Erasmus University Rotterdam) and Rosanna Santesso (UNESCO Venice Office). Given the character of this technical report - the proceedings of an international seminar - the contributions have been
adjusted only marginally merely to present a common format.
The authors remain therefore responsible for the contents.
The editors intend to thank for constant technical and practical assistance, Ms. Akatsuki Takahashi of the UNESCO Venice
Office - Liaison Office for the Safeguarding of Venice, and the
members
of the Coordinating
Committee
of the project
Tourism Management in Heritage Cities for their precious
guidance and advice: Mr. Gerard Bolla, Prof. Paolo Costa, Mrs.
Tullia Carettoni, Dr. Vladimir Kouzminov and Mr. Her& Barr-6
for their support and enthusiasm in starting this new project of
co-operation.

1. INTRODUCTORY TOPICS AND


OBJECTIVES OF THE MEETING

1.1 Tourism Management


in
European Heritage Cities:
Networking Practices and Sharing
Experiences
Jan van der Borg, Antonio Paolo Russo

The sustainability

of tourism in the cities of a&

The impacts of tourism activities on urban areas have been


the subject of a considerable amount of research (Briassoulis
and Van der Straaten 1992, UNESCO/ROSTE
1993). Most of
these studies focus on the process of crowding-out
of the functions for residents caused by the huge pressure of tourism-related activities. Models of urban land use yield the optimal number of visitors that leaves unviolated the carrying capacity of
the sub-system of which the city consists, or the optimal mix between categories of visitors characterised by different budgets
and mobility patterns (Costa and Canestrelli, 1991). In a dynamic setting, they can predict the optimal side-payment associated
with a restriction to the visits (Batten 1991).
However, it is common observation that economic research
finds a bottleneck in translating its results into policy practices.
The recognition that demand-side measures are often useless or
easily side-stepped led to an increasing interest towards supply-side measures, due to increase the added value of tourism,
while at the same time minimising the negative impact on other
economic and social functions of the town.
Often, though, even supply policies have proved ineffective,
because of lack of control of the local governments over the financial resources or lack of co-ordination between the different

JANVANDERBORC,ANTONIOPAOLORUSSO

actors determining the outcome of policy efforts. In the largely


prevailing - context of administrative
fragmentation and scarce
participation in the decision-making
process, it is very difficult
to pursue autonomous tourism policies and to develop adequate incentives for the local actors to move in accord with the
urban strategy.
Hence, the necessity of moving from the analysis of the
tourism sector, as isolated or opposed to other sectors, to
explore the feasible synergies of a sustainable tourism sector on
the local economy and society. The studies which explicitly and
thoroughly try to evaluate the impact of tourism on the local
economy adopt a static approach: a qualitative assessment of
the capacity of tourism to positively impact on the urban development is absent, though comparative static studies and inputoutput analyses (like Fletcher, 1989) of the local economy are by
no means useful to judge upon the potentialities of the system.
The socio-economic impact of tourism in an area is strictly
linked with the characteristics of the demand and the organisation of the supply. The demand side of the tourism market is
characterised by the place of origin of the visitors, their motivations, and the mode of use of the place of each of the segments.
The number of overnight stays, their distribution and the divergence between the region of imposition of costs (extension of
the area visited) and the region of benefits (where the visitors
spend their budgets) represent good indicators of the economic
impact of tourism.
In areas where such divergence is large, the tourism pressure becomes unsustainable. Common features of such scenario
are boosting central rents, a high share of excursionists on the
visitors flow and the start of an unrecoverable urban and fiscal

See for an extensive


(1993)

review

of methodologies

Yzewyn

and De Brabander

TOURISMMANAGEMENT IN EUROPEANHERITAGECITIES

crisis. The resources destined to the maintenance of monuments


are drained from the regional centre, and this compounds the
crisis of the tourism sector itself, due the decline in the quality
of the product. The structure of the visitors flow - characterised by their distribution in the region and their mobility pattern - determines how heavy is the pressure of the tourist demand on the site. Tourism changes a local society and sustainability is closely connected with such changes or, more precisely, with acceptable change. Not only does the local society
continuously undergo changes, but also tourism in the destination itself tends to change over time.
The dynamic relation of tourism demand with the performance of the tourism system is well described by the theory of
the life-cycle of tourism destinations: the attractiveness of the
resort is thought to follow a cyclical path. Cities that are able to
reach the critical mass in terms of tourist attractiveness take off
and reach maturity; then, when the costs imposed by tourism
activities taking place in the area begin to outweigh the benefits,
tourism - if unmanaged - may eventually decline.
Each of those stages is associated with a specific spatial distribution of costs and benefits from tourism (Russo, 1998 : lo),
and with a well-defined composition of the visitors flows (Van
der Borg, 1991).
Growth in tourism demand will positively affect income and
employment levels of a relevant part of the population. At the
same time, increasing numbers of visitors will generate negative effects, or costs borne by the physical and cultural environment, the local population and the visitors themselves. By
comparing benefits and costs in each heritage city, it is possible
to determine whether tourist flows are either insufficiently
voluminous or excessive. In reality, the assessment of the benefits
and the costs of tourism is difficult, because there are several
parties involved, perceiving benefits and costs in a different
manner.

JAN VAN DERBORGANTONIOPAOLORUSSO

The share of day-trippers in the visitors flow is of decisive


importance, because they impose a huge amount of costs on the
town with contributing
for very little part to their coverage.
Since the importance of their share is associated with the first
and the maturity
stages of the urban life cycle, a successful
management of this segment is the key issue to spur up the development of tourism and to prevent its decline in a later stage.
However, the information
about the excursionists flow is
scarce and not systematically collectable. Excursions do not imply an overnight stay in the accommodations;
the visit is concentrated in one single day. An art city can be the destination of
up to 8 million excursionists every year, as in the case of Venice,
where they represent the 80% of the overall mass of visitors.
In general, pro-active policies - aiming at ensuring in advance the conditions for the sustainability of each forthcoming
stage and at minimising
the conflicts that emerge in the different stages - are required to maintain a stable path of tourism
development. When they are missing, the danger of an unsustainable tourism development is high. Tourism activities eventually decline due to the increasing costs and the decay in quality, and the urban economy - at that stage transformed
in a
tourist mono-culture - is damaged beyond repair.

Management

models

and significant

experiences:

the

case of Culturul Capitals of Europe


It should be clear from the above that a management model
for the tourist city which considers the tourist sector as an isolated sub-system, with one-way interrelations
with the other
urban functions, can be profitable to the tourism businesses in
the medium term, but may prove unsustainable for the urban
economy on the whole.
We could even sketch out a paradox of a very successful

TOURISMMANAGEMENT IN EUROPEANHERITAGECITIES

tourist management
strategy which increases the value of
tourism business so much that the urban economy gets transformed into a tourism mono-culture. The characteristics of such
a management model are the following: a) to promote tourism
through a sectoral strategy; b) to maximise the profits of the sector; c) to guarantee its continuity; d) to defend its position with
respect to the other sectors; e) to compete with other tourist destinations.
An alternative model of tourism development is one that establishes and manages synergetic two-way relationships with
the other sectors of the urban economy; its objective is to maximise the performance of the urban economy as a whole and
promote the growth of the strategic sectors. Some characteristics of what we may call the synergetic
model of tourism
management are the following:
l
it strives to maximise the impact of tourism on the other sectors of the urban economy;
l
it fosters the development of supplier service sector;
l
it derives its input from a productive and lively cultural sector;
l
it aims at optimising quality rather than maximising quantities;
l
its approach is integral and of long-period.
In the long term, this strategy is sustainable, because it
avoids the risk of a mono-culture,
while at the same time providing a sound opportunity
for the growth of other industries,
especially in the information
and cultural industries that possess a high strategic importance.
The impulse to the cultural sector may therefore be considered a strategic option available to cities that want to keep their
tourism industry inside the tracks of sustainable development.
Yet the endowment with an important cultural and architectural heritage is neither a sufficient condition for an innovative

JAN VAN DERBORG,ANTONIO PAOLO Russo

and durable cultural sector to grow, nor a necessary one, as it is


demonstrated by the cases of - respectively - many art tourism
leader cities and many former Cultural Capitals of Europe.
The study of different cases of urban tourism development allows to draw a distinction between a spontaneously exploitable
cultural heritage attracting albeit huge tourist flows, and an organised cultural cluster reproducing itself in a virtuous synergy
with the other economic functions performed in the urban area.
The latter case is that of the cities with a far inferior heritage
to count upon and without a strong tradition of tourism destination. Among those cities, we can count Antwerp, Glasgow,
Copenhagen, Rotterdam, Thessaloniki. These cities were freer
to organise a profitable cultural sector, of which clustering of
different strategic activities was a crucial feature.
Some common elements which are to be found in the way
those cities dealt with development policies are the following:
a general dissatisfaction with the economic performance of
the urban area, and in particular a perceived incapacity to
attract visitors, residents, and economic activities; this corresponds to a low growth position in the curve of the life cycle of a tourist destination;
the transition of the local economies from an industrial or
commercial specialisation to an advanced service industry,
with the related necessity to re-position the city in the new
hierarchy of urban functions and networks and a general
need to improve the infrastructures
so as to adapt them to
the requirements of the new economy;
the recognition of the potentiality of the cultural sector as a
breeding ground for new businesses linked to the hi-tech
and hi-touch industries, as well as a means for social development and upgrading of the towns skills and image;
facing with that recognition, a scarcity in the endowment
and performance of cultural institutions,
exposition halls,
theatre companies, nightlife entertainment, etc.;

TOURISMMANAGEMENT IN EUROPEANHERITAGECITIES

the widespread agreement on the need for a strategic market


planning process as the basic instrument for an urban recovery.

The designation as Cultural Capitals of Europe by the European Council meant for some of these cities the accomplishment of a well defined path towards the reorganisation of the
role and function of their cultural heritage, and the starting
point of a strategy aiming at maximising the impact of their cultural production and environmental
diversity on the local society and economy.
These cities were able to substantially improve their image
and propose themselves as new and atypical regional centres
with a creative environment, fully projected on the large networks of an integrating
European economy with their own
speciality and a well-defined role.
The events and festivals connected to that designation enabled those cities to increase the revenues and the jobs in the
visitor-related
industry, reabsorbing the harshest effects of deindustrialisation
and inter-regional competition. The fact of being under the international
spotlight for a whole year made
those cities reach a critical mass to permanently up-grade their
attraction capacity respect to cultural visitors - but also to new
citizens and businesses.
On the opposite front stands the experience of some European queens of cultural
tourism.
In most of those cities,
tourism has already reached the maximum threshold of the carrying capacity, and it seems that the risks of entering the declining stage of the life cycle are very high.
In those cases, such as big attractions like Venice, Salzburg,
Toledo, Prague, Bruges - among others - the cultural character
of the visits is still very strong, but two elements are slowly
coming to evidence:
1) the cultural sector and the single institutions have lost a lot

10

JAN VAN DER BORG,ANTONIO PAOLO Russo

of their attracting power, or the city authorities feel dissatisfied with the performance of those attractions in the overall
weight of the tourism sector;
the
cultural production
in the town is poor, getting more
2)
and more banal, and the research institutions which should
keep alive the cultural tradition of the town are increasingly
faced with funding shortages and identity problems.
Only recently, methods have been developed to properly
utilise the chances tourism offers to heritage cities, but guaranteeing sustainability of tourism development at the same time.
Soft instruments, such as marketing and electronic information
systems, have been suggested to overcome these problems.
The distinction we did between cities facing different situations with respect to their capacity of managing tourism growth
leads us to the following considerations.
Cities of art or heritage cities are the focal points of European
history and culture. Their preservation is of the utmost importance to mankind. Indeed, it seems that the attitude towards heritage conservation has been gradually changing. In fact, with the
budgetary difficulties that governmental institutions find themselves nowadays, a shift has taken place from a passive to an
active philosophy of conserving heritage. This active way of
conserving heritage means that at least a part of the costs of conserving it ought to be derived from its use.
Tourism, of course, is an important way of using heritage. It
is beyond question that such use must be intelligent,
that is
compatible with the physical condition of the heritage itself, but
also compatible with the environment,
in the broad sense physical, economic, social, cultural - in which the heritage is
placed.
In the next section, we argue that strategic networking provides an opportunity
to help the cities to make tourism development more sustainable.

TOURISMMANAGEMENT IN EUROPEANHERITAGECITIES

11

The role of networks for tourism management in heritage


cities: past UNESCO activities and new challenges
The main objective of the project Tourism Management in
Heritage Cities is to promote the strategies of sustainable
tourism development in heritage cities. These cities are medium-sized regional centres, interested by massive flows of visitors attracted by the cultural and historical heritage that they
host. Such flows are to be considered excessive in relation to the
physical characteristics of the heritage and socio-economic features of the city.
Thereto, the awareness of all actors - directly and indirectly
involved in tourism development - needs to be raised, so that, in
the long run, it is also in their interest to make and keep tourism
development sustainable. Among these actors, there are:
l
the local, regional and national authorities
l
the industry and the associations of entrepreneurs
l
national tourism organisations
l
the managers of historical and cultural sites and single institutions
l
the international organisations and NGOs
l
consumer organisations
l
chambers of commerce
l
environmental organisations
l
research institutes, universities and training institutions
Sustainability has become a central issue in much of todays
tourism development
literature. However, the application of
the concept of sustainable tourism development
has largely
been limited to non-urban or rural areas. Only recently has it
been recognised that it can be applied to the urban environment
as well.
Tourism management strategies for cities that face the problem of how to overcome the minimum limit to sustainability are

12

JANVANDERBORG, ANTONIOPAOLO Russo

not central to the present project. In the case of heritage cities, it


is the maximum limit to tourism development, which is very
much related to what is more generally known as the carrying
capacity, that is most relevant.
In many of these cities, the cultural services supplied are
those the tourists ask for. In most cases, those are no more no
less than a mere representation of the visitors expectations and
cliche images. There is no perceived need to organise a cultural
sector: the value of tourism remains in hotels, guided trips and
cheap souvenir shops, with churches and museums acting just
as lark-mirrors.
Yet, as we know from the theory of life cycle and observation, this is not a never-ending process; there exists a threshold
beyond which - if unmanaged - the attractiveness of a tourist
town stagnates and then declines.
It is then a strategic issue for art cities, within the context of
sustainability, to improve the quality, the accessibility and the added
value of their heritage in order to expand the benefits from
tourism to the whole of the local society and economies, providing at the same time the financial and human resources to the
preservation and enhancement of the same heritage.
This policy change - the undertaking
of an active role in
steering the performance of the tourism towards sustainability,
through innovative organisational solutions and industrial policy actions - is by no means automatic and demands a careful
consideration of the potentialities and the weaknesses of each
situation, as well as the identification
of the actors to be involved in the decision making in such a way as to maximise the
chances of a successful recovery (Van den Berg et al., 1997). In a
few words, a strategic market planning process should be initiated.
A good infrastructure
and a pervasive training program, for
example, seem crucial elements of this strategy, as well as the
promotion of horizontal co-operation and the reinforcement of

TOURISMMANAGEMENT IN EUROPEANHERITAGECITIES

13

existing private support. Organic links should be established


between policies on culture and policies on training, education,
research and development.
The way in which the professionals and managers of the cultural institutions interact with the local authorities and all the
other actors involved in the tourism industry is fundamental in
determining the desired outcome of the process of revitalisation
of the cultural supply. There is no standardised policy formula
for triggering off this strategic interaction; each situation must
be treated with the different tools of urban planning. The observation of other experiences, the set-up of a common database
and the circulation
of knowledge
and human resources between cities engaged in the same policies is crucial, especially
when the harsh and rigid context of local politics leaves no
room for route corrections and learning from past errors.
In synthesis, only through an exhaustive planning process of which strategic networking is a fundamental
element - will
tourism in cities of art result in a sustainable industry, contributing to the satisfaction of the needs of the inhabitants and
of the many small and medium-sized
firms producing tourism
goods and services and capable of auto-generating the resource
for its own growth. The visitors will perceive an increase in the
quality of the experience and cultural heritage may benefit from
the income that tourism generates.
UNESCO in Venice has already in 1991 initiated and developed an open, non-exclusive network of heritage cities that has
served on several occasions as a vehicle for the exchange of experiences and know-how concerning the specific problems the
sensitive urban environments of such cities are confronted with.
The network has, for example, been used successfully to develop the earlier described Alternative
Routes in Cities of Art
project.
However, in the last years the tourism market did not stay
still. On the contrary, the tourism industry has evolved to meet

14

JANVAN DERBORG,ANTONIOPAOLO;:USSO

the new needs, to explore new markets and to develop lew


products and skills. The old problems have become increas ingly complex, and new problems approach the stage. One fo all,
the increased tension between a global phenomena like tou aism
- maybe, together with finance, the only truly global indust] y of
the planet - and the local character of management poli :ies,
that replicates - projecting it on an immensely wider scale - the
spatial mismatch between areas of costs and area or hem fits.
This conflict between globalisation
and localism risks tc increase dramatically the ineffectiveness of the traditional wz y to
cope with excessive tourism pressure on the cultural heri,:age
and the local societies, and the inadequacy of the old bor.ndaries between authorities and levels of government.
The new challenges demand then new solutions, or at 1east
new ways to interpret what is going on. Therefore, the nece: sity
is felt to mark a new phase of international
co-operatio I in
tourism management. And the global arena of tourism econ amits makes networking and sharing experience an even more important ingredient of such programmes.

Networking practices, sharing experiences:


a proposal of co-operation
Any network should be more than a large number of nc Ides
and links between them. It is therefore important that the network and its members will be assisted permanently by a SCientific Committee - meeting twice a year - that is responsiblt for
the research and development strategy of the participants tc the
network. For the time being, it consists of representatives oj the
partners that are already involved in the programme, but will
be updated regularly according to the development of the network.
To arrive at a truly Global Network of Art Cities, that : s so

TOURISMMANAGEMENT IN EUROPEANHERITAGE CITIES

15

urgently needed to enhance awareness of issues of sustainability, of best management practice and of available technologies to
monitor and manage visitors and traffic flows, the UNESCO
Venice Office proposes to extend the existing network in two
directions:
. first, by involving a greater variety of actors concerned with
or interested in tourism in the art cities;
l
secondly, by involving heritage cities in countries in which
tourism development is still in its infancy.
The cities that already have experienced or are about to experience a sudden, explosive tourism development, find themselves in a situation that is worse than many of their western
counterparts.
It is beyond doubt that the regions of central and eastern Europe and of the Mediterranean Basin are hosting a huge stock of
heritage, most of which is not yet utilised for tourism purposes.
The understandable
hunger for the income and jobs that
tourism can generate may easily turn the intensification
of the
use of urban heritage into a cultural disaster without precedents. It is therefore of the utmost importance that these heritage cities plan their tourism development
in a sustainable
manner right from the start, allowing them to avoid many of
the errors that have been made by many western urban destinations.
The importance of networking
practices and sharing experiences stems from the difficulty
of indicating
a universal
model of visitor management that might be valid for any situation and any type of heritage. The extreme heterogeneity of the
cities involved, though experiencing similar outcomes in terms
of unsustainable
phenomena, demands to be treated with a
wide and differentiated range of instruments.
It is therefore important for the cities to dispose of a database of related issues, policy outcomes, expertise and human re-

16

JANVANDERBORG,ANTONIOPAOLORUSSO

sources, quantitative
data and project-design
methodology.
They can identify, adapt or improve best practices in the field
of heritage management and tourism regulation, They can consult the best people who have already worked in the field, or
train their own experts on the bases of those examples. They
can use the successful cases as benchmarks to evaluate their
performance.
They can invent new forms of management by
learning from the shortfalls of the previous experience. They
can involve all the relevant actors in the decision-making
process, by closely examining what actors are playing an important role in determining
the successful outcome of the
tourism strategies undertaken in other cities.
It is also very important for cities involved in this project to
be concerned with the quality of their cultural heritage, and of
the environment in which it is conserved. Cities have to be able
to exert an active surveillance against the trend to the decline in
the quality of the tourism product, that easily translates - as it
has been argued before - in a damage (physical or just aesthetic) to the cultural values, symbols and social importance of the
heritage. Therefore, an active involvement
in the network can
be a signal of a responsible attitude with respect to quality
preservation. It is then desirable to create a logo that binds (although in a non-compulsory
way) the participating cities to apply the conservation policies that will be worked out and refined within the context of the network activities.
The exchange of information
and experiences between the
cities involved will take place through international
seminars
and conferences - the former more scientifically
oriented and
restricted in the participation, the latter directed to a wider public and with a political
orientation
-, together with some
newsletters and the demonstrative pilot projects, serving also as
input for the seminars and conferences.
The seminars and the conferences are not only the occasions
of presentation and discussion, but also provide important op-

TOURISMMANAGEMENT IN EUROPEANHERITAGECITIES

17

portunities to confirm interest in the networks activities and


evaluate the progress made in the project.
The activities thus developed need continuity,
and it will
therefore be a priority to render them self-sufficient intellectually and financially. In the years to follow, activities of training
and education for professionals and graduate students regarding the management of heritage cities can be added to the regular activities of the network.
The members of the Scientific Committee of the network also provide scientific guidance for seminars or conferences to be
organised, ensuring the coherence of its relevance to the other
activities of the project Tourism
Management
in Heritage
cities.
As an example of the international
research and co-operation to be undertaken
within the framework
of the project
Tourism Management in Heritage Cities, a pilot project on
soft measures of visitor flow control will be developed by the
project co-ordinator in two cities to be selected on the base of
their relevance and their immediate
financial engagement.
These projects need to be self-financing in principle, while some
of them may have the possibility
of receiving financial assistance from funding sources to be identified.
The pilot studies respond to a multitude of objectives. They
strengthen the working relationships among heritage cities and
transfers know-how that aims at adding value to urban tourism
heritage. They explicitly address issues regarding visitor management and traffic management in an innovative and multidisciplinary way, not only through pilot-projects,
but also by allowing to share successful and unsuccessful past experiences of
the cities in this field.
Moreover, involving
international
organisations,
the pilot
projects actually have the potential to contribute to the establishment of a truly global network of historic towns. They thus
help to spread information
among all the actors involved in

18

JANVANDERBORG,ANTONIOPAOLORUSSO

tourism development,
to promote management solutions, to
give notice of relevant actions that are already or might be taken and to establish the information and research facilities.
One concrete goal is to evaluate the effectiveness of soft
methods of visitor and transport management. These soft methods are assumed to change the behaviour of visitors in such a
way as to make it more compatible with the structure of the local society and economy, but without limiting their actions. In
practice, the study aims at identifying manners that (1) stimulate
excursionists to become overnight visitors, (2) make overnight
visitors stay longer and (3) change the external and internal mobility of visitors with respect to the cities in question.
Marketing,
and thus new and innovative
technologies of
communication
with the visitors, are central parts of the solutions that will be studied for the cities chosen as a pilot case.

The pilot study will consist of the following

two modules:

a) The Creation of a Decision Support System:


Gathering of the required information is necessary to monitor the changes on the local tourism market and in particular
the pattern and development of visitor and traffic flows.
In this module, a uniform scheme will be proposed for both
cities chosen as a pilot case that contains the crucial variables for
tourism management in sensitive urban environments, Though
most information is already available, some additional research
is necessary. In particular, a linear-programming
model will be
calibrated to establish what the tourist carrying capacity is for
that city, considering the model constructed for Venice.
b) Effectiveness of Visitor and Traffic Management Measures:
On the basis of the information
concerning the spatial and
economic dimensions of behaviour collected in the first module,

TOURISMMANAGEMENT IN EUROPEANHERITAGECITIES

19

the possibility
to implement
a number of soft measures that
may reduce the negative impacts of tourism in the sensitive urban environments of the selected cities will be analysed.
The following measures might be studied:
l
The first measure may be considered as a follow-up of the
Alternative
Routes in Cities of Art project, and builds on
the experience that ICARE of the University of Venice and
the City of Venice have obtained with an alternative route
that connected Venetian churches. A study will be conducted to understand
whether and how alternative
routes
should be marketed and promoted to help the visitors that
arrive in the city to use the central areas in the most adequate and sustainable manner.
l
The second measure is related to the possibility of the use of
innovative technologies (telecommunication
and computer
technology) to manage the arrival, unloading, loading and
departure of buses in historical towns, being elaborated on
Salzburgs experiences with a specific scheme for bus traffic.
l
The third measure concerns the potentials that INTERNET, a
booming means of communication,
offers for the management of visitor and traffic flows. This particular part of the
pilot study builds further on an experiment that has been
initiated recently in Venice.
l
The fourth measure is related to the management of cultural
events. Effective co-ordination with other events may lead to
an improvement of seasonal fluctuations.
What is common to all the measures is that they originate
from an extensive analysis of the behaviour of visitors and that
they must lead to some incentives to make them adjust their behaviour, rather than form a set of restrictions.
The results of these experiments and of the related discussion that will take place in the international meeting to be held
just after their completion will form the basis of a Manual or

20

JAN VAN DERBORG,ANTONIO PAOLO Russo

Guide on Soft Techniques of Visitor and Traffic Management


in Historic Towns, to be published by UNESCO Office Venice
and diffused among the cities of the network and the national
and international institutions through the decisive activities of
the Liaison Office of UVO.

Strucfure of the meeting and main subjects of discussion


The main objective of the preparatory meeting for the project Tourism Management in Heritage Cities will be that of
giving to selected personnel and scholars an opportunity
for a
thorough brainstorming
about new challenges and required action in the field of cultural tourism.
The collection of ideas arising from the presentations, the related discussions and the informal meetings have been fruitful,
and suggested to the organisers of this meeting directions and
approaches to follow in the building-up
of the network of heritage cities and of the programme of activities.
To put some broad boundaries to the wide range of topics to
be discussed, three working sessions have been organised plus
an opening session of welcome and address to the participants
and a closing session to sum up ideas and propose a follow-up
of the meeting.

TOURISMMANAGEMENT IN EUROPEANHERITAGECITIES

21

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G. (1993), Metropoli. La nuozja morfologia sociale della citta, il
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survey of the new economic geography, CORE paper n.356.


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23

1.2 Keynote Speech


Hem! Barr&

Mr Chairman,
Dear Colleagues,
While agreeing with the strategic approach and the objectives of the proposal presented by Mr. Van Der Borg, I would
like, in the light of UNESCOs experience, to make comments
and suggestions for discussion at this seminar.

A complex

and multidisciplinary

issue

The Tourism Management in Heritage Cities project lies at


the crossroads of some of the major issues that are now at the
top of the agenda of the international community.
Urban deveZopment. Assuming that two-thirds of the inhabitants of the planet will be city dwellers by the end of the next
century, the United Nations Conference on Human Settlements,
known as Habitat II, held in Istanbul in June 1996, considered
that building
the city of the twenty-first
century is a major
challenge.
Recalling that cities in history have been cradles of civilisation, it was proposed that one of the goals to reach for the city
of the twenty-first
century was to become a plural space and a
place where different cultures meet and mingle, for it will need
to manage complexity, aspiration to diversity. The Conference
underlined the urgency of defining an urban development policy, which should comprise an analysis of present urban development trends.

24

HER& BARRY

Culture and development. The first objective of a cultural


policy recommended by the Intergovernmental
Conference on
Cultural Policies for Development, held in Stockholm from 30
March to 2 April 1998, is to make cultural policy one of the key
components of development strategy, and also to
I... ensure that tourism is respectful of cultures and of the environment and that the income it generates is also used for equitably
preserving heritage resources and for strengthening cultural development.
Tourism without any doubt is fully part of the culture and
development
combination.
Cultural
and tourism
policies
should be firmly linked in order to be successful, because each
needs the other as an asset for tourism activity or as a resource
for maintenance costs. It is now well-established
that cultural
heritage and cultural life can be the basis for a city development
project.
In Europe, the culture sector accounts for three million jobs,
according to a recent estimate by the Austrian Secretary of State
for Culture. The number of people working in the culture sector
rose by 34% in Great Britain and 37% in France in the 1980s.
This situation is largely the result of the new attraction of culture, which has made possible the creation of a veritable cultural industry sector of which urban cultural tourism is naturally a significant part.
Tourism for development and cultural exchange. In the space
of fifteen years tourism has developed into a major economic,
cultural and social phenomenon of the end of this century. The
scale of the phenomenon is shown by the steady growth (about
4% per annum) in the number of international visitors, the total
of which already exceeds 600 million according to WTO.
Urban tourism is one of the most booming forms of tourism
today, and has become a major activity in many cities. Some

KEY NOTESPEECH

25

cities have even shifted recently from industry to tourism to ensure the future development of the city. In our view, tourism
has become the foremost world vector of cultural exchange. In
an increasingly globalised world, the city is the privileged place
where a multiplicity
of cultures meet and interact thanks to
tourism.
Global and integrated management - or sustainable management - of cultural tourism should therefore seek to:
l

respond to the expectations of visitors by ensuring that they


are satisfied with their visits;
preserve the quality and integrity of the cultural and natural
heritage, that is to say, preserve its capacity to attract
tourists in the future;
satisfy populations living near sites, through economic spinoffs and jobs, as well as greater contact with tourists and a
feeling of pride at the interest aroused by their local heritage.

Tourism, culture, development, for the citizens, for the city. Our
project embraces the issues resulting fYom the interrelations between
these threefields of activity.
If it is an innovation to think to apply the sustainable concept to urban areas, it is also new to apply this concept to urban
cultural heritage.

For a project that is ambitious and concrete


I would like to submit to the Seminar some considerations
and suggestions in order to contribute to make our project really conceptually ambitious, forward-looking
and concrete in its
output and recommendations.
On the one hand, the analysis
should embrace all aspects of management of tourism in her-

26

HERVE BARRY:

itage cities, that is to say adopt an approach that includes the


various dimensions of tourism: economic, social, cultural, educational, scientific, ethical, aesthetic. On the other hand, it
should propose recommendations
and guidelines that are understandable to and applicable by city decision-makers who are
not specialists in tourism management.

A holistic approach
cities.

to tourism management

in heritage

This approach for tourism was proposed by the Mayor of


Evora in Portugal at a conference which Mr. Van Der Borg and I
attended last year. The Mayor pointed out that the development
of tourism in his city had not been the result of economic policy,
but the consequence of the value, care and consideration which
the local population attached to its cultural heritage. He went on
to say that the local peoples attitude was the result of a lengthy
process - he had been Mayor for 20 years - of discussion and
participation on the part of the population and those involved in
social, cultural and economic activities in regard to choices and
decisions to be made for the development of the city.
In that way, the cultural functions of safeguarding and enhancing the heritage - in tourism terms - are not at odds with
economic operations related to transport, communications
and
trade, as well as functions related to the daily life of the inhabitants such as the education of children, leisure activities, health
care and local services. In other words, using this method,
tourism management guidelines can provide an opportunity to
conciliate long-term cultural trends and short-term
requirements of economic activities.
It also reveals the crucial importance of the political determination of mayors, as well as locally elected representatives and
organs of local democracy, in implementing
high-standard
tourism policies. This aspect should be borne in mind in the
project.

KEYNOTESPEECH

27

Preservation of cultural herjtage and tourism development.


Another ambition of the project will be to propose strategies
that conciliate the long-term safeguarding of cultural heritage
with a competitive tourism policy.
It seems to me that UNESCOs tasks in regard to the cultural
heritage are perfectly geared to the concerns of mayors who
wish to make their tourism facilities competitive on the international scene. Today, the call for improved quality and a better
adapted response to the new demands of tourists, which are determining factors in the competitiveness of any particular destination, can correspond to the objectives of conservation and enhancement of the heritage.
It is commonly known that too much tourism can do harm to
the heritage, but we should also assume that too little tourism
can equally be negative for cultural heritage when abandoned to
negligence and decay for want of public interest, consideration
and financial resources for its proper maintenance.
I will make a specific comment on cultural heritage: we are
faced with the paradox according to which, on the one hand,
the cultural heritage has never been as threatened as it is today
by population growth, economic activities, urbanisation, mass
tourism, indifference and neglect; and, at the same time, it has
never been considered, until today, as useful and necessary and
been the subject of so much interest at national and international level.
I suggest that specific attention is to be paid, in the project,
to the cultural assets conservation policies of cities, and that an
appropriate combination of cultural and tourism policies should be
identified
and recommended.
It is obvious that an adequate
knowledge of cultural resources, their classification and their
protection through appropriate legislation are a preliminary requirement for high standard tourism management.
Accordingly, it is clear that it is vital tofaster the emergence of a
new awareness among the public at large and the involvement of citi-

28

HERV~ BARRY:

zens in the safeguard of the cultural heritage which are essential to supplementing public policy in this matter. A responsible attitude towards the heritage, in the form of a cultural civic spirit, should be
adopted by populations living near sites and by tourists who - as
travelling citizens - should appreciate the universal value of the
heritage they are visiting. Cultural tourism policies should include a sensitisation programme to improve their efficiency.

Evaluation
tourism.

of the economic,

social and cultural costs of

This evaluation should become a part of tourism management. This involves, first and foremost, the costs of conservation and maintenance of heritage open to visitors, and more
generally of the heritage of the city. These costs should be
shared proportionally
between the city budget, i.e., tax-payers,
the visitors, and the big and small businesses that benefit directly from cultural urban tourism such as hotels, souvenir shops
and restaurants.
Considering the trend observed in recent years towards a
steady decline in public funds allocated to the protection of the
heritage, guidelines for a financing of cultural policy, including
the participation
of tourists and tourism business would be of
considerable interest and utility.
Furthermore, tourism inevitably entails new developments,
transformations
and positive and negative changes in the ecological, cultural, social and economic contexts. The issue of how
to limit the undesirable effects of tourism should also be part of
the project. The criterium of the respect of the carrying capacity
would be of a considerable help in this matter. The difficulty is
that of defining the level of the carrying capacity.

Tourism managemenf, reappropriation of the cultural heritage by the dtizens, and spatial partition of the cify.
Tourism

management

appears to be inextricably

linked with

KEYNOTESPEECH

29

the reappropriation
of the cultural heritage by the citizens and
in general with the issue of the spatial partition of the city. We
all know of cities that have built their prosperity on industrial,
agricultural, or even on administrative
activities and that re-discover their heritage for themselves and as a basis for their future development.
This shift in the development
scheme of a city is closely
linked to a re-appropriation
process of the history and heritage
of the city by the citizens themselves, which is a decisive attitude for cultural development.
Then, the management of cultural assets and tourism becomes more complex as the cultural life, festivals, enhancement
of the cultural heritage must respond to both the visitors and
the inhabitants cultural demand and centre of interests. They
may not be the same. In such cities that have made the choice of
tourism development, a big challenge is to create tourism facilities for access to the city (roads, motorways, collective transports), for accommodation
(hotels, rooms to rent, camping
sites), for other tourism services, that harmoniously
and aesthetically take their place in the city without doing harm to its
charm. Tourism management cannot ignore the zoning of the
cities for a convenient distribution
of tourist facilities that respect the city and its cultural heritage.
A major issue in that field is to prevent the partition of a city between the museied tourist centre and the marginalised periphery,
that concentrates industrial and economic functions necessary
to the life of the city. Such partition - observed in many heritage
cities - leads to a social partition of the city, the local inhabitants
being rejected to the periphery, as if expelled from their own
historic, social and cultural landmarks.
Beyond the tourism management policy, the aim is to find
long-lasting
solutions for the development
needs of the local
communities, to create a favourable climate for intercultural dialogue, and to seek a better integration of the cultural heritage

30

HERV~ BARR-Z

with the social and economic life of local communities.


It appears that the response to the challenges of tourism management will consist in a combination of urgent short term measures - soft measures if possible - for the control of visitors
flow, for example, and in long term plans of actions based on
tourism development strategies.
Before launching urban tourism projects, it seems that a
public debate should take place to give a collective answer to
questions like: what tourism do we want for our city? For
which type of development? Who will benefit from it? Who will
support the costs?
I would suggest, then, to include in the case studies an evaluation of the decision-making
process of the cultural tourism
policies. This process is an integral part of the urban tourism
policies.

The importance

of international networking.

The networking
of cities and universities interested in the
project is a very important aspect. In many fields of sustainable
urban development
and environmental
planning,
network
work as effective tools for knowledge circulation and strategy
formulation. I was recently in Budapest for a conference on culture and tourism, and an official of the Municipality
of P&s
asked me about our project that I had mentioned in my speech.
She told me of another European network on similar issues and
proposed co-operation. I am glad that a representative of this
network, Mr Souchier, from the city of Tours, is with us today
to discuss possible co-operation. Avoiding the duplication
of
similar projects and implementing
co-operation with other organisations and networks is also a decisive issue for the success
of our project.
In that perspective, close co-operation would have to be implemented with the Organisation
of World Heritage Cities
(OWHC), founded in 1993. The Organisation
is made up of

KEYNOTESPEECH

31

more than 140 cities in which are located sites included on the
UNESCO World Heritage List.
The OWHCs initiatives - geared to the implementation
of
the World Heritage Convention - consist mainly in improving
strategies pertaining to the preservation of historic cities, in relation to the specific requirements of having a site on the UNESCO World Heritage List. In the coming years, this Organisation will focus on the establishment of an electronic communication network linking member cities through the Internet and
the creation of data bank on historic cities.
There is, by evidence, a mutual interest to implement a close
co-operation
with those existing networks. Still, the present
project is of a wider scope, for it addresses also cities that would
never belong to the World Heritage List, but that nevertheless
want to develop their cultural capacities and attractiveness.
Another aspect of this project is indeed to link expertise to
decision, academics to municipality
councils and mayors, and
to link expertise and decision to civil society and the field workers. The pertinence of the output relies much on the quality of
these links, and on the creative co-operation
between these
three types of actors of the urban life. Such co-operation should
facilitate the translation of research results in policy practices. I
then support totally the proposed measures for extending and
consolidating the network.
Networking
between universities,
between cities and between universities and cities is a crucial issue for the project. On
this networks relies the collection and integration of data-bases,
the sharing of experience and the research work that makes the
knowledge we want to create.

The local nodes of the network.


The intersectoral working of an institution such as the city
tourism board, where all the stake-holders
or partners of
tourism activities, public and private, meet and discuss the de-

32

HERVE BARR-~

cisions to be taken by the city council should be carefully considered in this context. The local tourist board is a privileged forum where all the actors can debate, and decide to propose to
the Municipality
to improve some aspects of tourism policy by
means of modifications
in local legislation, tax policy or urban
estate policy and zoning. It is also the privileged place for the
adoption of positive approaches to conflict resolution by identifying common interests between the different parties. Foreign
Tour Operators could be invited to participate in some specific
meetings dealing with circuits and tourism flux management.

The co-operation

dimension of the project.

I would like to emphasise on the co-operation dimension of


the project, and express the wish that the knowledge thus created be disseminated widely, and especially where it is the most
needed.
In particular, efforts must be paid to reach and involve in the
programme of activities those cities that are going through a socalled economic transition period in Eastern Europe. Transfer of
know-how and capacity-building
is part of the project.
We will have the difficulty of indicating an universal model,
valid for all continents, all situations. I think that the publication of case studies could help overcoming this difficulty
by
easing the understanding of the general principles.
UNESCO will help to disseminate the results which I hope
can be published in the form of a brochure to be sent to each of
its 185 Member states. We might also consider the results at
UNESCO Headquarters in Paris at a seminar to which the mayors of small and medium-sized cities would be invited.
By way of conclusion,
l

I would add that:

The objective of the project is to create, through analysis and


experience sharing, a knowledge of - progressively - a uni-

KEYNOTESPEECH

33

versa1 scope, and to disseminate it widely;


Our project should become a reference and should include a
set of concrete recommendations
to assist decision-makers in
drawing up tourism management policies. It should be clear
that this project is not for academics, but for city councils,
and that management techniques are only a part of the problem they have to face with.
There is nothing inevitable about the ill-planned growth of
tourism, bringing in its train the wrong kind of development, socio-cultural disruption and damage to the built cultural heritage. The choice of a well-planned
tourism and
more generally urban development is in fact in the hands of
the elected public institutions. Our ambition is to contribute
to helping them to prepare proper decisions in the crucial
field of tourism management.

2. FIRSTSESSION:
EXPERIENCESWITH SUSTAINABLE
TOURISM DEVELOPMENT
PROJECTS IN EUROPE

37

First Session: Experiences with


Sustainable Tourism Development
Projects in Europe
The first working session has been devoted to the new ways
of approaching problems with tourism management in traditional heritage cities, or mature markets. This session was intended to represent a bridge between the old art cities and visitors flows project and the new project.
Some cases have been presented of cities dealing with unsatisfactory tourism flows, threatening the sustainability of the socio-economic environment and the physical preservation of the
heritage. The exposition of these case studies was useful to assess the complexity of the problems related to tourism sustainability in the contemporary urban areas.
From the problem of having too few tourist to make up the
mass needed for a profitable tourism industry (Sintra), to the
excessive attention received by tourism in the political environment and the ambiguous economic relevance of mass tourism
(Bruges), to the naivete of approaches that do not take into account the interrelation
between sectoral policies and the poor
outcome of adopting bottom-up
approaches in the decision
making process (Tenby), all these presentations pointed to the
necessity of re-focusing tourism management strategies face to
unsolved conflicts and unsatisfied wants.
The project regarding the Welsh resort of Tenby reacts to a
perceived incapacity
of the city to overcome the problems
linked with the enormous increase in the costs of tourism - and
the related decline of its attractiveness - and with the scarce incentives for the local tourism operators to support a supply p01icy aiming at repositioning this destination in the tourism market.

38

EXPERIENCES
WITH SUSTAINABLETOURISMDEVELOPMENTPROJECTS
IN EUROPE

It is suggested that the community approach to tourism development may well be the stumbling block to securing a sustainable future for tourism. Some hard-hitting questions need to
be addressed: does the community
really understand
the
tourism market and can it really make strategic decisions? Is the
community responsible enough to protect the heritage environment in which it lives, or should the community be told what is
good for its future? Clearly a new visionary approach to heritage resort planning is needed if the product is to be revived
and made successful. Ian Jenkins paper challenges these politically correct issues, as he calls them. The aim is to put forward
a new approach to regenerating the heritage resort, based upon
revising the community approach to tourism development.
In the case of Sintra, the project presented aims at developing a tourism marketing strategy that can attract a sufficient
mass of tourists to make tourism development sustainable. Cultural tourism is perceived to be a potential engine of growth,
but this possibility is inextricably linked to the capacity to preserve the authenticity and the quality of the cultural heritage;
the tension between these two apparently conflicting objectives
leads to a set of policy indications.
The case of Bruges is that of a heritage city of enormous success that has a tradition of active attention towards tourism development. The master plan for the central areas of the Flemish
city is admirable in his experimental (and largely successful) attempt to limit tourism development to particular zones. Yet this
model is beginning to be worn by time and needs to be redefined. The presentation of Mr. Desimpeleare represents an indepth reflection about the significance of cultural tourism and
role of culture in the contemporary
urban environment.
The
very economic relevance of tourism is questioned, together
with the way in which policy-making
compounds the interests
of the various social groups in relation to tourism development.
The above mentioned cases clarify that the globalisation of

EXPERIENCES
WITH SUSTAINABLETOURISMDEVELOPMENTPROJECTS
IN EUROPE

39

the tourism market - as well as the increasing complexity, diversity and dynamics of the processes taking place locally - demands a swift change in the attitude of governance to cope with
these problems and yield satisfactory results.
When on the contrary policy-making
lags behind - or,
worse, it adapts to the consolidated interests of specific stakeholders - it is very unlikely to influence the way in which the
market and the environment autonomously evolve.
This is the basic consideration that leads the evolution of the
old Art Cities and Visitors Flows into the new Tourism
Management in Heritage Cities project: the necessity to adapt
policy making in the field of sustainable tourism to an increasingly complex environment. In the new context, the traditional
boundaries between domains of policy-making
- the public versus the private sector, tourism versus the other sectors of the
economy, citizens versus visitors, local versus national authorities - have to be crossed or somewhat redefined for governance
to be effective.
Hence the necessity to create networks, both at the local and
at the supra-local scale: a networking style of government is the
more adequate to overcome these boundaries and to replicate
the dynamism of the modern society (Kooiman, 1993). Moreover, intelligent
imitation from past experiences and mutual
contamination
seem to be very fruitful approaches for governance in situations in which it is difficult to tell problems from
solutions, and no-one is really in charge to solve problems (as in
the garbage can model described by Cohen et al. (1972)).
The three cases presented represent tourism development
projects that subsume this innovative view and translate it into
concrete policy action.

41

2.1 Turning the tide. Integrating the


communities aspirations with future strategic needs: The future
of the historic seaside resort of
Dinbych y Pysgod (Tenby)
Ian Jenkins and Andy jones

2.1.1. introduction
Tenby is a small town situated on the western fringe of Wales
and the U.K. (see fig. 2.1). It is serviced by road and rail networks; however neither can be said to be effective or efficient, engendering a rather isolated perception of Tenby. It also has the
problem of trying to provide a unique and distinct image. Wales
has no real tourist identity and is often consequently subsumed
as part of England; one possible reason for this is that for some
considerable
time marketing
was carried out by the British
Tourist Authority
(B.T.A.). This meant that Wales was sold as
part of a package with London and England as the Gateway to
Wales. However, Wales is culturally
different from England,
which should provide it with a unique marketing advantage.
However it has a relatively small population of 2.9 million people
and only covers an area of 20,776 square kilometres (World Travel Guide, 1998). It also competes with other smaller countries
found within the British Isles, such as Scotland and Ireland
which both seem to have clear tourist images and identities.

Linguistic Authenticity
Tenby is situated in an authentic cultural landscape, in a region that has one of Europes oldest Celtic languages. This is il-

42

IAN~ENKINSAND ANDY TONES

lustrated by the bi-lingual place names to be found throughout


Wales; Tenbys Welsh name is Dinbych y Pysgod which translated to English means Little Fort of the Fishes which probably
refers to its roots as a fortified port. The Welsh language is also
growing after a century of decline with many schools now offering education completely through the medium of Welsh. However the language far from being a paragon of identity and image is
seen by certain groups of the domestic market as being threatening and divisive, especially to English visitors who may well feel
isolated and unwelcomed.
Therefore the Welsh language is a
paradox in terms of tourism marketing and image building.

Historical Importance
Tenby is historically
important
the Street Plan and the buildings,

for its Medieval Walls, for


as well as for the site occu-

Fig. 2.1 - Aerial view of Tenby (reproduced


with kind permission
of Alan Shepard Publishing)

TURNING THE TIDE. INTEGRATINGTHE COMMUNITIESASPIRATIONS

43

pied since the Bronze Age. It is one of the few seaside walled
towns in Europe which dates back to the 13th century. Tenby
was also one of the originators of the Walled Towns Friendship Circle - founder members being, St. Malo, Limerick,
Donauworth, and Nordlingen.
Its position at the end of the Bristol Channel made it important for trade, with the protective harbour being the towns focal point. Nearby on the island of Caldy is a Cistercian
Monastery which has been in existence since 500 AD. This provides valuable tourism for the town, as well as helping to maintain the monastery.

Landscape and Environment


Tenby is located

in Britains

only Coastal

National

Fig. 2.2 - Town plan of Tenby (reproduced


with kind
permission of Alan Shepard Publishing)

Park,

44

IAN JENKINSAND ANDY JONES

which means that the town is subject to the rules and legislation
of National Park status. Again this can be seen as both benefit
from a marketing aspect and a possible draw back from a development point of view. Clearly the sea and the beaches are
important
to the tourism product of Tenby. Tenby has two
sandy beaches within the urban area, the North beach having
the status of the European Blue flag (see Fig. 2.2).

2.7.2. 300 Year Legacy of Tourism


Tenby has been a tourism town for some three hundred
years. Transposed onto Butlers Model of tourism development,
this causes problems in trying to locate where Tenby currently
lies on the models phase of development. It is quite clear that
Tenby has grown in tourism development over this period and
exhibits the vestiges and legacy of past tourism. Indeed Tenby
has currently been featured in a BBC drama series Vanity Fair
as a surrogate Georgian Brighton. This again underlines the
importance of the environment both built and natural that Tenby exhibits.
In essence there have been 4 phases of development that relate to tourism growth within Tenby, these are as follows:
1. Georgian (Circa XXVIII c.): The foundation of tourism in
Tenby was based upon the evolution and growth of Spa Towns.
The medical profession decided that the sea offered similar
healing powers to those offered by the Spa Towns. Subsequently, there was a move to the coast by the fashionable elements of
society. This period has left Tenby with a significant number of
Georgian town houses which engenders its quaint and colourful ambience, especially around the harbour area.
2. Victorian

(Circa XIX cent.): The development

of technolo-

TURNING THE TIDE. INTEGRATINGTHE COMMUNITIESASPIRATIONS

45

gy gave rise to the advent of the railway and steamboats, which


provided Tenby with further tourism growth. Tenby was now
easily accessible from many parts of Britain with the main
building programme taking place outside the Town Wall (Shepard, 1996). However this period also resulted in many properties being demolished and rebuilt to improve the access of the
tourist.
3. Edwardian (to 1950s ): The town continued to grow. Between the Wars the town continued to flourish and was known
as the The Naples of Wales (Shepard, 1996). Most visitors still
arrived at the town by rail and many came on special trains. After the Second World War the market began to change with the
development of cheaper Bed and Breakfast accommodation together with a dramatic increase in self-catering, in particular
camping and caravanning.
4. 2960s to present: The dominating features since the 1960s
have been the ever-growing importance of the car and the shift
from domestic tourism to international holidays. Access to Tenby has been continually improved over the last 30 years with
the new M4 motorway
being completed and link roads improved. However, this has caused tremendous problems for
Tenby, in terms of both vehicle access and congestion. The
move to self-catering and new holiday destinations has left the
resort with deteriorating buildings which are no longer fit for
purpose. The townscape now reflects a mix of old and new with
modern visual clutter ornamenting, despite the restrictions to
development
imposed by the National Park status. Although
during the summer the hotel occupancy rate approaches lOO%,
the general impression is that Tenby has reached a plateau and
may well be in a state of decline, although this view might be
challenged by certain sectors of the tourism community. It is evident that Tenby has gone past its heyday.

46

IANJENKINSAND ANDYJONES

2. I. 3. Positive Developments
Tenby has been trying to redress the problems that it now
faces. Efforts have been made to improve the quality of the built
environment.
It is also clear that Tenby is still perceived as a
tourist destination, as the peak period of the summer sees the
town full of visitors. However the nature and type of tourism is
very different to that which it experienced in its heyday.
Historic Town Scheme: Tenby is still an important heritage
town and the current tourism product is still based, to some extent, upon its past. The many historic buildings give Tenby a
very clear image and colour that can not be found elsewhere.
Hence, it is not surprising that a considerable amount of money has been spent on trying to restore the period buildings of
the town. In 1988 a scheme was initiated to ensure that buildings would be continually maintained. It was engendered and
initiated by the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park (PCNP), it
was and is a partnership approach where property owners and
other government bodies (South Pembrokeshire District Council, CADW, Wales Tourist Board and The Welsh Development
Agency) assist in restoring
the historic fabric of the town
(Corp, 1998). Some E250,OOOa year is spent on individual properties.
Development of Diverse Retail Sector: The PCNP has also
explored other opportunities to ensure that the Park is a living
community
and not just a built or natural environment. In its
Deposit Version Action Plan (Corp, 1998) it identifies the importance of the diverse retail sector which it sees as an important aspect of tourism development within the town. The plan
is clearly aiming at maintaining
and consolidating
this retail
sector, which is believed to benefit both residents and tourists
alike. Its intention is to grant chunge of use of buildings which

TURNING THE TIDE. INTEGRATINGTHE COMMUNITIESASPIRATIONS

47

fall within the designated areas of the town thus aiming to stimulate new economic growth (Corp, 1998).
Environmental
Enhancement Projects: As with the restoration scheme Tenby has also benefited from a further E250,OOO
per year spent on items such as street furniture and community
developments. This has been seen as a means to try and further
encourage the return to a positive image for Tenby through environmental enhancement.
Festival & Events: In order to try and extend the tourist season Tenby has developed a highly structured all season programme of events and festivals. Rarely a month goes by without
some event being staged, in order to entice the visitor into the
town. Tenby is especially well known for New Years Eve and
other events connected with this time of year. The success of this
programme of events and festivals is difficult to assess; but any
marketing and profiling must be seen as a benefit to the area.

2.1.4. Present Caveats


As can been seen from the above, the last phase of tourism
development in Tenby has been characterised by the so-called
Legacy of Neglect attributed to most sea side resorts (Corp,
1998 citing the E.T.B). This is rather a sweeping phrase, but it
goes some way to demonstrating the present predicament that
Tenby faces.
It is clear that the tourism market has changed drastically
(Corp, 1998 citing Williams & Shaw 1997,5) over the last 30
years and it is asserted that Tenby can be placed on the decline
line of Butlers model of resort development.
Anyway,
the
change has been dramatic
considering
the long sustained
growth of Tenby over 300 years. It is suggested that much of the

48

IAN JENKINSAND ANDY JONES

change is structural caused by economic, technological and social advances which have taken place in the UK and Europe. In
one sense the resort is rather like a large super tanker that has
tried to change direction. Due to a lack of vision and a tendency
to hold onto declining tourism products, the direction change
has been slight and there appears to be the suggestion that the
business community soldiers on regardless.
This sense of open as usual is mirrored in the context of
the data available. Present visitor figures are at best estimations
and are clearly biased - the only available figures are those provided by the Tourism Information Centre (TIC), which suggests
that in 1996 there were 304,777 domestic 40,857 and international visitors to the area. The number of overnight stays or day
trips is not known, but there is evidence to suggest that the daytrippers may well be predominant. It is also clear that since the
Second World War that holidays to the British seaside have declined which further supports the notion that the day-tripper is
the predominant
market. Evidence of the nature and type of
visitor has to be gleaned from the commercial fabric (retail &
accommodation)
which suggests a low grade, quick visit
tourism product.
It is suggested that Tenbys problems can be categorised into
two sections: Micro and Macro.

Micro Problems
The micro problems are seen in the context of localised issues that do not have any strategic orientation. They are in the
main community based and are an outcome of the Communitys attitude to tourism in Tenby.
Low grade accommodation stock. As development in Tenby
has clearly peaked and it is on a decline slope, the quality of the
accommodation
stock has been lost. Apart from a 3 star hotel,
the stock is either B&B - a significant number of which appear

TURNING THE TIDE. INTEGRATINGTHE COMMUNITIESASPIRATIONS

49

to be in a poor state of repair - or self-catering centred on the


burgeoning out of town campsites. A passing observation and
confirmation
from the Park Authority
(Tim Morris & Clair
Deakin, 1998) identifies this as still a problem for the town. As a
result of a lack of high quality hotels, Tenby is unable to offer
conference facilities to any significant extent; numbers of delegates above 70 could not be accommodated.
However, the present statistics demonstrate a high occupancy rate even in the off-season months (Corp, 1998). This seems
to suggest that there could well be under capacity of appropriate accommodation for off-season tourism markets such as the
conference.
Resource audits have shown that Tenby lacks a substantial
conference facility. The availability of this might well extend the
season to some extent all be it a limited number of tourist. However the spin-off could well be repeat visits by those delegates
who find Tenby to their liking. The British weather also clearly
has an affect upon the choice of holidays that people will
choose.
Growth of Caravan parks. The caravan and self-catering elements of the tourism market within Tenby are dominant (Corp,
1998) and reflect the general pattern of tourism trends in Domestic UK tourism. The area offers both touring and static facilities with a number of large companies owning some of the major caravan parks. Some of the permanent caravans are privately owned, which encourages repeat visits to the town by the
owners.
Traffic management. The car appears to be dominant as a
means of getting to Tenby. Nearly 70 % of all cars entering the
town in the summer period leave within 10 minutes (Corp,
1998) which illustrates, firstly, the volume of unnecessary traffic
flows and secondly, the problem of parking within the town.

50

IAN JENKINSAND ANDY JONES

Traffic management schemes have been initiated but with marginal success. Attempts have been made to try and introduce
aspects of pedestrianisation.
This would enhance the aesthetic
and environmental
context of the town; however, the greater
part of the community
seems to oppose this, seeing it as adversely affecting business demand in the town, in the face of
clear evidence that in fact pedestrianisation
actually enhances
demand (Morris, 1998). Due to the structure of Tenby the streets
are unsuitable for high traffic flows and congestion inevitably
occurs. There are parking spaces within the town which encourage the demand of car rides.
The volume of traffic and the access of heavy vehicles into
the town are damaging the visual amenity, as well as the physical structures to the extent that lorries reverse and collide with
the urban furniture and buildings. In addition, there is the unseen damage caused by the traffic vibrations to the foundation
of many of the buildings thus exacerbating the immediate problems. The major problems relating to traffic management occur
during the summer period as a result of the seasonal nature of
the tourist product. A reduction in the volume of tourists to the
town at peak season would be environmentally
sound: a
rescheduling in the period of year that the visits are made appears desirable.
Bucket b Spade market. The major market for Tenby is
the Bucket & Spade. The quality of the market is perceptively
directed to social classes C, D & Es. This market currently sustains the present tourist season but is reflective of the decline of
Tenby from a high-grade quality seaside town, sustained over
the last 300 years.
The dominance of this market suggests that the community
is reluctant to develop other aspect of the tourism market, such
as Adventure
Activities
and Special Interest tourism, which
have lower volumes of tourists but with higher aspirations and

TURNING THE TIDE. INTEGRATINGTHE COMMUNITIESASPIRATIONS

51

needs. It would also need capital investment and venture capital being available to encourage present providers to explore
other latent markets.
Community
infighting.
An important
determinant
of the
tourism product is the community. As expounded by Murphy
(1985), in the 1980s the community was an important factor to
the success of any tourism product. However certain basic assumptions are made that the community
is a homogeneous
body with a single purpose. Tenby clearly does not reflect this
and there are many political considerations which need to be
addressed and seem to be overlooked in some of the recent
tourism development plans.
The pedestrianisations
of the town and vehicle restrictions
have failed, as the community does not see the advantage. The
prevailing
attitude of the community
seems to be we know
best. Clearly the sections above show that the community
is
not too worried about the historic ambience of the town or the
type of tourism product being offered. In essence it could be argued that it is not responsible enough to actually see or protect
the very essence of the tourism product. This is a broad assertion and can not be attributed to the whole community. Certain
members of the community
however see the advantage of
restoring the buildings and have matched funded restoration
projects.
The evidence so far suggests that the community is far from
the best body to decide the tourism development in Tenby. This
is clearly a contentious and politically
incorrect assertion but
needs to be reviewed in the light of Tenbys current tourist
product.
Sea quality. The recent Sea Empress disaster of February
1996 has also tarnished the image of Tenby, which is known for
its clean environment (especially as it is the only coastal Nation-

52

IAN JENKINSAND ANDY JONES

al Park in Britain). The Sea Empress polluted the beaches of


Tenby with thousands of litres of oil; the town also had oil
walked through it. However, two years later there is little evidence of the disaster however the oil may well be residual, below the initial sand covering of the beaches. To what extent this
has permanently damaged the image of Tenby is debatable but
at the time it is certain to have deterred people from going there
in the summer of 1996.

Macro Problems
Market transformation
and splintering. Tenby is reflective
of many of the present UK seaside resorts which have seen considerable change and decline (Holloway,
1998; Borrill, 1992).
However Tenby is in a unique position, being the only resort to
be included in a coastal National Park and has a wealth of heritage and culture to draw upon. Evidence suggests that since
the 1970s there has been a substantial shift away from beach
holidays within Britain towards the countryside and urban areas (Corp, 1998 citing Wales Tourist Board, 1992).
The new move seems to be towards a splintered market
which will eventually develop into niche markets. Niche markets are still somewhat embryonic, however society in general
seems to be focusing on specialised outlets and consumer items.
This must herald a move away from blanket marketing. The advent of all weather facilities such as Centre Parks and Oasis
(newly launched by Rank) must also pose threats to the resort.
These self-contained resorts offer the tourist controlled physical
climates with all-weather leisure facilities and it is not surprising that these now rival some of the smaller seaside resorts.
Tenby appears to have been slow to capitalise upon the aspects of niche market development
such as Special Interest
tourism. Its tendency has been to stick with the traditional and

TURNING THE TIDE. INTEGRATINGTHE COMMUNITIESASPIRATIONS

53

known market. It has evidently lost out to certain developments


of the tourism market in Wales. For example Adventure Holidays in Wales account for some El00 million (Stevens & Jenkins, 1993) which can be seen as 10% of Wales tourism budget.
Geographical location. As explained at the beginning of the
paper, Tenby is located on the western periphery of Britain. Although access routes and technology have improved the accessibility of the town this very technology has also opened up
other markets which now compete with Tenby.
National Park status. The National Park status, as well as
being a benefit, can also be viewed as a restrictive element for
the development of the economy caused by restrictive planning
policies limiting development permits.
Minimal
investment by governments. The Historical Town
scheme has been successful, but it is quite evident that E250,OOO
a year is insufficient. As stated above there is a need to provide
venture capital and development
programmes to try and encourage the growth of new types of tourism products.
Destination
image. Wales has a problem with image; most
international
tourists have heard of Scotland and Ireland but
are not sure where Wales is. Yet, as illustrated earlier, Wales
has as much Celtic culture and heritage as both these nations;
this implies that Tenby is currently missing out on potential international tourist markets. But until Wales establishes a clear
and unique image Tenby is unlikely to gain from this market.
Growth of day trips. The increased access of locations has
fostered the day-trip mode of visitors; which is eminently domestic and rarely generates any real income. Tenby is no exception; with the conurbations of Swansea and Cardiff within l-2

54

IAN JENKINSAND ANDY JONES

hours travelling time it is not surprising that a significant number of tourists to Tenby are in fact visitors from local urban areas. The actual numbers of real tourist and visitors is not known
which illustrates a rather ad-hoc development
of the current
tourism product.

2.7.5. Sustainable Futures


Tenby is far from losing its fight to survive and remain in
the tourism business. But the evidence suggests that it may well
need a radical rethink focused on how it will retrieve its position as a successful tourism destination, which it maintained for
some 300 years. It is argued that a new approach to tourism development needs to be tabled which will provide a sustainable
future for Tenby. There is a need to challenge some of the original thoughts, in particular
how to engender and develop a
tourism ethos in a location? A number of approaches have been
tried but these are clearly not successful. The following sections
will try and examine the current approaches and attempt to
identify a way forward.

Boffom-Up
The eighties saw the Community Approach (Murphy, 1985)
as champion. Grass roots seemed to be the answer by empowering the community. This assumption was based upon the
premise that the people who lived and worked within the urban environment knew what was best for the area. But as pointed out earlier the assumption seems to be that a location contains a more or less a homogeneous group of people who have
the same aspirations and views. However, as with the family,
there are many differences of opinion and if these differences
are translated to a street then to a district and so on, the complicated perceptions and outcomes will vary enormously, result-

TURNING THE TIDE. INTEGRATINGTHE COMMUNITIESASPIRATIONS

55

ing in confusion and lack of consensus and at worst conflict.


These elements of disparate and different aspirations can be
mirrored in Tenby.
Not homogeneous. The community is made up of a number
of different lobby groups all having the need for different outcomes from the tourist. For example the residents may wish for
a non-invasive element in tourism which does not cause problems and frustrations at the height of the tourist season. Attitudes relating to the tourist will differ depending on where they
live within Tenby and whether they are economically
dependent on the tourist product.
Politically
biased. Two types of power groups are found
within this section, those with clear political affiliations to political processes and ideology and those who are driven by monetary needs to ensure that the town provides them with profitable incomes.
Undemocratic. Clearly the aspect of democracy is challenged
as lobbying and manipulation
of issues can distort the truth.
Without appropriate data and ideas, the electorate leaves the
decisions to a small number of people who are suppose to represent their aspirations.
Lack of strategic vision. The community will not be aware
of the possible options that they may take in the development
of tourism. Without inputs from outside bodies the community
will have no knowledge of the opportunities. But how does one
disseminate this to every member of the community and how
does the whole community identify what the majority wants?
The decision making process is clearly not democratic in the
context of all the community.
However do you really need
democracy when there are issues of the national interest such as

56

IAN JENKINSAND ANDY JONES

historic buildings and fragile natural environments that need to


be protected? If the community wants to destroy these elements
why shouldnt it? This is clearly an issue affecting large sectors
of society, not simply the local community.
This raises the question as to whether the community
can
truly be a guardian of the heritage. It is also further assumed
the community has been actively involved in the creation of the
heritage. In addition the community
has inherited buildings
and structures that it may well not want or appreciate and consequently can not understand the importance of ensuring authenticity. For example, the issue of plastic windows is clearly
one which frays tempers within Tenby, with certain residents
not really understanding how the proportions and the nature of
the material affects the ambience and integrity of an historic
building (Morris & Deakin, 1998).
Within the same argument, it is clear that certain sections of
the community are opposed to improvements
if they feel that
their utility and economic well-being may be affected. It appears evident that the community views the idea of restricted
access and pedestrianisation
with suspicion and previous attempts to try and introduce measures to improve the aesthetic
ambience of the town by restricting vehicle access have failed or
been met with marginal success. This again raises the question
of whether the community
is responsible enough to actually
protect and enhance the very special and unique environment
that it lives in. It also demonstrates the power that the community has to actually veto or circumvent measures that will actually improve the environment of the urban fabric.
However, the community
knows the tourist well and has
clear knowledge and detail of the tourist or visitor. The community and its attitude are the interface at which the tourist exchange takes place. This emphasises the need not to exclude the
community from tourism development, which would be sure to

TURNING THE TIDE. INTEGRATINGTHE COMMUNITIESASPIRATIONS

57

meet with failure, especially if the community does not approve.


The real question to be asked relates not to the community as a
whole but rather to those sections or groups that hold the executive power to control what exactly is developed in Tenby.
To summarise, it is clear that there are many aspects of community-led
tourism approaches that need to be re-thought. In
particular the idea that the community is a homogeneous entity
which acts in unison. It is important to involve the community
and try to ensure support but there are certainly issues that go
outside the community level especially where there are unique
environmental
issues to be addressed. This seems to suggest
that another approach might produce a better outcome for example: the top-down delivery.

Top-Down
This suggests a far more authoritarian
approach to tourism
development and is reflective of many past aspects of tourism
planning, which were shelved for the grass roots approach of
the eighties.
Just like in the bottom-down
scheme, the elements of the
top-down approach are driven by two types of epistemology,
namely private and government sectors. Each appears on the
surface to have differing philosophies; in general, but not always, the case of the private sector is driven simply by profit
generation, whereas the public sector is driven by political
achievements. This naturally produces in many instances, competing issues and outcomes.
Even within these separate elements there are issues of internal inconsistency. An organisation with a defined mission may
well be driven by different power bases and issues resulting in
internal rivalry and conflict which hinders the actual aims and
objective of the organisation.
Top-down development can also be interesting as it is unaware of the nuances of community power or aims, to the ex-

58

IAN JENKINSAND ANDY JONES

tent that the strong power bases of the community, are able to
thwart and redirect development. However from a positive aspect the top down approach is able to offer a number of important variables that can help in achieving successful tourist development programme
Moreover, it is able to see the general picture and future of
the market and hence should be able to advise the community
on the direction that the market is going in and where it will be
in the future.
This approach is also usually based upon a wealth of specialised knowledge that can be used for the community. Members of these organisations are able to lobby in power circles
that the community would have no access to. This can result in
the unlocking of important resources that can be utilised for
successful tourism development.
In summary it is evident that neither the grass roots or the
top-down approaches are paragons for tourism development
and a new approach is required which synthesises the positive
attributes
of all the actors involved
in the development
of
tourism. It is important to be aware that over simplification
or
quick solutions are unlikely to be successful due to the complex
and organic nature of the actors involved in the development
process.
With this in mind the research proposes a process to produce a new model, to be tested on the community
of Tenby.
This is an outcome of the points and arguments already presented. It has been assumed that sustainability
is an implicit
goal for all actors. It is not the intention of the paper to enter into the wide debate on sustainability,
but to assume the basic
concept that Tenbys future lies in the fact that it must be economically viable whilst at the same time assuring the integrity
of its environment.

TURNING THE TIDE. INTEGRATINGTHE COMMUNITIESASPIRATIONS

59

2.1.6. Synergetics = Sustainability


There are clearly important
variables that need to be addressed and developed in order to ensure sustainability
and
these are seen in the context of developing
equilibrium
balances. The approach to the model development is detailed in
the following sections and identifies what are believed to be the
key elements in successful resort development within heritage
urban areas. The approach has been termed Synergenetics and
is based upon the idea of the synergy of aspirations of the
tourism development process focusing upon social genetics,
where mutually acceptable codes/signals can be identified and
then joined to form a coherent strategy for development. As indicated above, this is complicated and multi-factorial
and requires a focus on the last premise, that of decision-making.

Key elements

in model

development

EQUILIBRIUM BALANCES:
-

aspirations
of the community
with strategic
development
need to address wider economic
sectors and integration
economics
of the community
with historic fabric protection
need for a balance
of decision making between
community and interventionist
ideologies

The development of the model should be based upon 4 basic


premises which have emerged from the current research.
Firstly, the aspirations of all the actors in the development
processes need to be identified and then matched. These can
then be overlaid with models of future strategic developments

60

IAN JENKINSAND ANDY JONES

fitting - to some degree - the matched aspirations of all the


power actors in the community.
Secondly, it appears evident that sustainability
can not be
seen solely in the context of tourism. There are many other sectors of the economy that can be used to support or in fact to
dominate the development of tourism. Tourism has never existed in isolation but is clearly the product of economic development. It may well be important
to understand and integrate
tourism with other potential industries that can be located into
the area. It necessarily follows that the main emphasis and success for tourism development could be in the context of developing a new economic sector.
Thirdly, an equilibrium
must be established between the
heritage of the urban area and the economic viability
of the
community.
Clearly, there are trade-offs on both sides of the
equation, which may mean the loss of some heritage for the
gain of economic viability. But equally so there is clearly a need
for the economic sector to be compromised in view of the importance of the heritage fabric. A system of prioritisation
needs
to be developed in relation to both variables.
Fourthly, a critical aspect of any development process is decision-making.
As indicated earlier, decisions are taken by the
power bases of both the grass roots and top-down approaches.
Understanding
how, who and where decisions are made in
both camps is the key to controlling
the type and nature of
tourism development. It is argued that some balance - not necessarily equal or democratic - needs to be established during
the process of decision making. To some extent this already exists, as real democracy is difficult to identify in any current system. The balance should be decided by the first criteria of
matching aspirations and the strategic goals that can be practically achieved. To achieve this controlling power must be assured for those power actors that are able to support the
processes of first three points.

TURNING THE TIDE. INTEGRATINGTHE COMMUNITIESASPIRATIONS

61

2.1.7. Conclusions
It is evident that Tenby is a typical case study of the British
seaside resort. The past 300 hundred years has seen the development of a successful tourism product. However, the last 30
years has seen this product decline. It seems a pertinent time for
Tenby to take hard decisions in terms of both an historic perspective and an economic one. It is evident that both the historical fabric and the community are currently suffering from decline.
It is hoped that this paper has suggested that a new model
for regenerating heritage towns will be needed to ensure their
futures. The embryonic concept of synergenetics may well be
an approach that can be used to address some of the problems
found in heritage urban environments.
Where the organic
processes of the actors are explored and matched and then an
equilibrium
is identified that matches the aspiration. It is argued that the key to the direction and success is in the context
of decisions and decision-makers, It is important that the areas
of decisions that match the proposed development strategy are
enhanced in order to effect a successful tourism product while
maintaining the integrity of the heritage fabric of the town.
It is important to challenge the current ideologies and attitudes of tourism development and there is a clear need for a
fresh approach which is not necessarily community-based
or
which reflects biased local democratic processes. This must be
based upon the issues of priority, but the burning question is:
for whom? As with all heritage towns and cities the dominating
element and shadow is the historical fabric not necessarily the
community. This begs the question of ownership. For whom is
the Town of Tenby to be developed: the tourist, the community,
neither or both?

62

IAN JENKINSAND ANDY JONES

References
Borrill R. (1992), Wish You Were Here, The Independent on Sunday,
2.8.92, p.3.
Corp C. (1998), A Future for Our Coastal Resorts? An Analysis of the Future Prospects of Two Welsh Coastal Resorts - Barry island b Tenby.
MSc. Thesis, Swansea Institute. Swansea.
Holloway J.C. (1998), The Business of Tourism, (5h Ed.). Longman, London.
Murphy P.E. (1985), Tourism: a Community Approach, Routledge, London.
Shepard A. (1996), A Visitors Guide to Caldy Island, Alan Shepard Publishing.
Shepard A. (1996), Tenby: The Official Guide, Alan Shepard Publishing.
Stevens T. & Jenkins I.S. (1993), Activity Holiday Centres Managing A
Safer Product, SaiL, Swansea Institute, Swansea.
World Travel Guide (1998), Columbus Press, London.

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Tim Morris and Claire Deacon, of
Pembrokeshire
National Parks for their help and support in
compiling this paper.

63

2.2 Tourism and the Preservation


of local Culture in Sintra
Maria de Fatima Fernandes

Sintra, which was listed under the Cultural Landscape section of UNESCOs World Heritage Site classification in 1995, is
one of the most important cultural destinations in Portugal.
The potential of Sintra and its surroundings - this romantic
town is less than a thirty kilometres drive from the international
airport of the Portuguese capital, Lisbon, or other destinations
in the surrounding area such as Cascais or Estoril, and the Atlantic Coast itself - have always been important factors in attracting visitors, many of whom have made their home here.
Its palaces, castles, churches, monasteries and convents,
steep winding roads clearly show a Moorish influence in addition to Medieval influences, Renaissance architecture and above
all, Romantic inspiration. Such Romanticism can be felt in the
lush verdure of its green hills, its magnificent woodland, its excellent water springs and beautiful palatial homes wherever
one looks. Sintra is imbued with the spirit of the past, which can
still be felt nowadays. Poets, writers and artists such as Carnoes,
Beckford, Byron, Hans Christian Anderson and Strauss inter
alios, were enraptured by the ambience of Sintra and produced
some of the best descriptions of Sintra in their own words. Byrons Sintra, the Glorious Eden, is, in my opinion, a good example.
Tourist potential, however, is much more than historical
buildings or natural beauty. In the specific case of Sintra its also
includes the international wine of Colares, pastries, such as the
famous local cheesecakes or Queijadas, handicrafts and many
other products which should be protected and preserved. First-

64

MARIA DE FATIMA FERNANDES

ly, because they are all part of Sintras culture and secondly, because they mark the difference in terms of quality, supply and
demand.
Sintra - and in particular its historical centre - is still, unfortunately, a one-day excursion destination.
The 1997 figures
show that around 114,000 (one hundred and fourteen thousand)
people spent a total of 200,000 (two hundred thousand) nights,
in Sintra as a whole. The National Palace, however, during the
same period, registered almost 300,000 (three hundred thousand) visitors. This exemplifies the situation to perfection. And
why is this the case? Some possible reasons:
the proximity of Lisbon
an insufficient promotional activity
a relatively unknown destination
the scarce relevance of Sintra as a cultural
tion

l
l
l
l

tourism

destina-

The answer, however, is very simple. The problem is that


Sintra offers no more than around 1,350 beds. That is clearly insufficient to provide for an expansion in the number of visitors.
The Tourist Department of the Town Council, in its endeavour to remedy this situation, has set up an office to promote
and support private investment. Seminars and meetings have
been held to explain the situation and provide private investors
with any information.
The promotion of Manor House accommodation in the area
is one of the methods used to encourage overnight stays. This
accommodation option and closer contact between tourists and
the local population bring the following benefits:
l
l
l

the conservation of historical houses;


the preservation of traditions;
showing how the Portuguese really live;

TOURISMAND THE PRESERVATION


OF LOCAL CULTUREIN SINTRA

l
l

65

integrating tourist as members of the family;


i.e., preserving and displaying our own, unique culture.

Another problem affecting Sintra and which is probably


common to most tourist destinations is the seasonal nature of
tourism itself. The town centre is particularly
full of visitors in
Easter, July, August and September and this is a highly negative factor as regards tourism in Sintra.
The promoting of attractive, different and interesting places
out of the Centre, such as the Sintra Museum of Modern Art,
the Odrinhas Museum and the Archaeological Site, the Colares
Wine Cellars or the future Theme Park, with the co-operation of
different organisations involved in tourism development,
are
some of the possible solutions to this problem.
Traffic and car parking facilities are also another major area
of concern in which the municipality
is already active. The
tourist buses/coaches visiting in large numbers Sintra every
day are no longer allowed to park in the Historical Centre. The
construction of coach/bus parking facilities outside the main
area has proved to be the answer to this vexing problem. Expandmg pedestrian walkways, creating special parking spots
inside and outside the Old Quarter with the support of a public
transport system, the refurbishing of the old tramway from the
centre of Sintra to the coast, a cable car to the top of the mountain are several of the possibilities under consideration to resolve these problems. Sintra is very much interested in being a
pedestrian town of the future.
Although Sintra is principally a cultural destination, the area
is being subjected to other types of demands such as Golf
Tourism and Business and Congress Tourism. The Town Council provides support for all meetings, seminars and conferences
being held in the Sintra area. A congress hall with an auditorium for such cultural events as opera, music, concerts, theatre,
ballet and other artistic performances,
is also expected to be

66

MARIA DE FATIMA FERNANDES

opened next year. This will encourage an expansion of accommodation and a more stable distribution of overnight stays during the year as a whole.
Specific promotions and tourist information offices are also
ideas that we have in mind. Workshops, important tourist fairs
and meetings in Portugal or abroad are several ways of getting
to know the tourist market, its needs, its motivation
and, of
course, the promotion of our products.
The development of a tourist area requires the need to cater
for the local community.
Social and economic benefits must
firstly benefit the local population and then tourism. The Town
Council has, accordingly,
prepared several different
programmes to improve living conditions
in Sintra. The Programme for the Rehabilitation
of Rented Accommodation,
Pavements or the Global Infrastructure Plan for remodelling the
water supply, or restructuring
the telecommunications
and
electrical systems are some of the measures to be taken. There
are also special discounts for entrances to palaces, museums or
cultural events, such as the international famous Music Festival,
which has been organised since 1957 in settings such as beautiful, privately owned, manor houses, in addition to the Ballet
Evenings, in the gardens of Seteais, which also encourage local
culture.
The implementation
of correct tourist strategies will enable
us to preserve our identity. These include quality certification
for local handicrafts,
an association of authentic Queijada
producers are possibilities involving traditions, culture and the
local population and will help to promote tourism.
Another possibility of preserving our historical and natural
heritage involves the promotion of the Sintra-Cascais Natural
Park Area which embraces most of the important sites in Sintra
as well the Pena National Palace and Park, the Moorish Castle,
the Gardens of Monserrate and Cabo da Rota which is the westernmost point on the Continent of Europe.

TOURISMAND THE PRESERVATION


OF LOCAL CULTUREIN SINTRA

67

Special strategies to promote sustainable tourism also involve support for some activities associated with street entertainment including parades, specialised markets, such as the
strawberry and apple market, historical recreations, theme related issues such as the Queirosian, medieval and esoteric tours,
botanical routes and gastronomy festivals and competitions.
The responsibility
of being a World Heritage Site represents
the first and possibly the final step in improving quality based
on a relationship
between culture and heritage. We are fully
aware that much still needs to be done, but we are also equally
committed to protecting our own specific cultural heritage and
developing sustainable tourism.
The Town Council understands that people in general and
tourists in particular live in a mass-media world culture. Therefore, attractive
promotional
films, beautifully
taken photographs, leaflets and postcards, although whetting the appetite, help to create expectations which are not always objectively, clearly or really fulfilled. In short, our challenge is to
show that Sintra still has a long way to travel on the road to
perfection, but that it is also genuine and unique.

69

2.3 Urban Planning in Bruges


Werner Desimpelaeve

What we can try to learn perhaps about the period of townplanning in Europe between 1050 and 1350 is still crucial today.
This network of hundreds of towns all over Europe with the
numerous differentiated
centres grown into time has been
shaping till today the base of the network of cities in which we
continue to live.
We recognise our cities until today and created an emotional
band that forms until now a decisive part of our European identity. Because Europe is profoundly
polyphonic
and our cities
are all different voices of the beautiful symphony
made by
them, inciting us to continue this singing together by multicultural and multidisciplinary
complementarity.
The character of our cities, which have been extended in later periods many times, is still conditioned and determined by
the framework of the towns created in the Middle Ages. And
we still identify ourselves as citizens: Venetians, Florentines,
Brugeans, Parisiens, Krakovians, etc. We talk about the Scala of
Milano, the Opera of Paris, the Belfry of Brugge, the Town Hall
of Siena.
Precisely this identification
with the own roots within our
own identity may open our horizon towards other cultures, and
even bigger political frameworks
as Europe and other world
communities. As a consequence of such deep conviction about
the essential, profound role the (historical) town is playing in
the daily life of each culture, we started up the revitalisation
process of Brugge, already in 1971,27 years ago.
The town was then becoming more and more a decor for
increasing traffic and evolved as a kind of archaeological CU-

70

WERNERDESIMPELAERE

riosity as a result of lack of interest from its inhabitants, who


were steadily leaving the centre in search of a better dwelling in
the outskirts. Therefore, we started up a conservation policy,
not as a conservative policy but on the contrary as an eminently
progressive way of living, trying to give a future to the past.
The history of Bruges, and of most old, historic cities is a history of growth and of continuous change. Thus the real problem of our town was to develop a plan that proposed a real balance between the conservation of her essential character and the
changes, necessary for modern living conditions.
The crucial question still remains to find a balance between
the capacity of the town for change and the needs of the life of
the town.
In other words, it means evaluating the towns disposition
for change while maintaining its character and even improving
it as much as possible.
This balance is extremely delicate, and to make use of our
cultural heritage, we have to do more than to remember or to
honour it, but to go into an active confrontation with it. A living
heritage is a heritage which incites us to understand better the
present within the perspective of the past and the past within
the perspective of the present and the future.
While speaking about mankind and humanity, we may not
forget to speak about aspects of fundamental tradition. The etymology of the word tradition originates from tra-dere being a
joining together of trans and dare: over-giving. Tradere is an active word in contradiction
with conservare,
which is much
more passive.
Tradition is fundamentally
integrated in our human precedents and perceptions and within the institutions of our society
and signifies continuity within the ups and downs of multiple
generations. Eva Hoffman, a Jewish-Polish writer and journalist
argues that the massive consumption culture of today (just as is
the case with mass-consumption
tourism) is only reacting to ac-

URBANPLANNINGINBRUGES

71

tual, immediate and direct stimuli, in the same way as blind


economical rationalism and the utilitarian morality.
I am afraid that todays tourism is suffering from the same
need of direct stimuli, which not only creates masses of tourists
manipulated by the so-called tour operators, but also re-creates
the visited towns in a kind of senseless decorum.

Fig. 2.3 - Bruges: horse and carriage

in market

square

A durable development of tourism should be more than researching tourism-economic


growing models or market-potentialities, but creating a balance between tourism growth and the
habitability of the town. This means the control and the spatial
conditioning of tourism. The economical, ecological and social
impacts of tourism have been largely examined in all different
countries, and already been evaluated largely in this room.

72

WERNERDESIMPELAERE

In concepts as sustainability and durable environmental


development there seems to be a lacking of operational criteria.
The spatial planning of tourism should start first of all from the
potentiality
of the town and not from the demand of the
tourism industry.
How to measure the sustainability
of the historical town?
There is not an objective methodology to do it.
It seems to be an evidence for me that:
l
there are borders and thresholds;
l
although
these barriers
are being more and more approached, in so far they have not already been crossed in
Bruges;
l
by this crossing the historical town itself comes under pressure and any correction is almost impossible;
l
thus, a precious historical city cannot be put out of balance
by waiting for objective criteria about its sustainability.
Anyway, tourism is continuously
creating a higher impact
on the functioning
of the town: as tourism traffic is claiming
more and more public space, visitors push away the inhabitants
and the commercial circuit orientates itself unilaterally
on the
tourism market.
As a result of the economic significance of the growth in
leisure and free time, tourism is continuing to play a more and
more important role in urban and regional planning. Tourism is
a fundamental element in the urban economy, not only because
of its direct influence on the wealth of an area or city, but also
through the enhanced image and the international
reputation
which it creates, whereby inward investment can be attracted. It
is no accident that a lobby to appoint Bruges as European Cultural Capital in 2002 has been extremely active and finally also
successful in this respect.
The reaction to tourism and the interaction between tourism
and the city (functions, morphology, traffic) and her inhabitants

LJRBANPLANNINGINBRUGES

73

(social acceptance and value of tourism) is to a great extent dependent on the phase in which the development of the tourist
activity can be situated.
The development
of tourism as a product (within the historic city a predominantly
cultural tourism) can be explained in
a growth model: from a prospective, explorative phase through
to a critical turning point, which can either lead to degeneration
or further generation.
In the exploratory
stage energy and effort are invested so
that the product, the historic cultural city, radiates a national
and international force of attraction thus creating a positive profile in relation to the tourist market. Artistic and historic identity and authenticity are emphasised to ensure an advantageous
position in an extremely competitive
market. Following
the
elaboration of the structure plan since 1972, Bruges experienced
a substantial progression in this sector. As a result of the application of a consequent restoration policy and a strategy to renovate and conserve public open space, the city achieved international fame and reputation.
In the development
phase the professionalisation
of the
tourist sector occurs and inward investment is created. Travel
arrangements remain individually
organised and unregulated
but nonetheless within a context of growth.
The feeling of competition
develops further, along with
tourism promotion, which is stimulated predominantly
within
the sphere of influence of local or regional authorities.
At this stage the experience with tourism development projects generally signals that the budget available for promotion
together with the level of input by the local authority remains
too limited. It is at this point that the transition from the development phase to the mature phase can be identified.
In the mature phase tourism becomes an essential factor for
the functional and economic health of the city. The urban heritage and the monuments (as tourist attractions) are comple-

74

WERNERDESIMPELAERE

mented by the addition of infrastructure


for day-trippers,
for
whom promotion programmes and events are organised. The
increase in the scale of the phenomenon bears witness to the
transition from individual
to mass tourism and the product,
tourism, is incorporated
in the programmes
of international
tour operators.
The capacity in terms of accommodation expands exponentially and international chains organise to sell their products to
investors. The tension in the market place between the lowbudget and the 4 and 5 star hotels is also increasing. Saturation
of the hotel sector occurs, while the average level of room occupation continues to increase. New projects are set out but difficulties arise in terms of implementation.
External investors and
groups dominate the attention of the authorities to the detriment of local investors.
Cities and other tourist destinations face a constant challenge to maintain their position in the tourism market. The opportunities for further growth are often estimated too optimistically and the first signs of conflict between inhabitants and visitors begin to manifest themselves.
Eventually this type of evolution can lead to a negative image for the tourist (the day-tripper) but also for the historic city
as tourist destination. The break point in the growth curve is
reached, whereby guidance and fine timing with regard to spatial capacity and quality improvement become essential.
City tourism and cultural tourism together form an important growth market. Changes in holiday behaviour patterns and
leisure time provide an advantage for city tourism, together
with the continual growth in the significance of mobile citizens
in senior age groups, as consumers of tourism. Cities which
have accentuated their profile over the whole year to accommodate this market segment have thereby increased their potential. The growth in tourism in Bruges and in one-day tourism
confirms this trend. This growth (above all for 2 to 4 hours

LJRBANPLANNINGINBRUGES

75

tourism) does not correspond to a similar growth in consumption however, and more specifically in expenditure.
The average visit for such a tourist is rarely longer than a
half-day: an orientation towards fast consumption in the catering sector and the sandwich box day-tourist phenomenon are
characteristic of this market development.
Budget hotels organise themselves to answer this growing
market segment particularly
to accommodate weekend (short
break) holidays. The average number of bed nights per holiday
either stagnates or declines.
New tourism destinations (for instance in Eastern Europe)
create an expansion in the opportunities on offer for the growing number of cultural tourists. Traditional historic cities are
forced into ever-harder competitive situations in respect of new
destinations, whereby the travel distance both for day-trips and
weekend holidays is extended.
The growing competition in the tourist market puts the old
historic cities under pressure, taking care to preserve quality
(and not quantity) becomes extremely important; and a co-ordination of town planning (spatial) policy and tourism management is essential.
Where are the acceptable limits to such tourist development,
and what are the thresholds determining
the overreaching of
capacity which define the breaking point in tourist growth?

l
l
l

Three criteria are relevant:


social acceptance
alienation and displacement
physical capacity, overcrowding.

On the base of these criteria, in Bruges we had to decide


about two models of tourism development: the concentration
versus the dispersion model.
In the concentration
model the day-tripper
is confined to

76

WERNERDESIMPELAERE

visiting a relatively small area of the inner city, namely the triangular area between the Minnewater, the Zand square and the
Market place. This is the hard tourist zone, existing as a cultural
and visitor axis, in the southern part of the town.
In this concentration
model, parameters have been established within which tourist infrastructure
can be introduced.
Within this zone tourist facilities and the implantation of such is
limited.
In the dispersion model certain other areas of the inner city
could be included in the development of tourist routes while
others have been consciously excluded. In this way the cultural
and visitor axis could be extended to the northern district and
services and facilities for day tourism could be introduced in
the northern section of the Bruges inner city.
The ultimate choice of one or other of these models has of
course a number of direct consequences: the total capacity for
the reception and guiding of tourists within the concentration
model is smaller, whereby in peak periods the pressure on
some areas of the city and/or sites becomes too great. In the
high season, on the other hand, a smaller capacity has advantages in maintaining
the feeling of an inviting and animated
city centre.
Owing to the fact that the concentration model implies that a
part of the inner city is predominantly
characterised by tourist
attraction poles, in principle the quality of the tourist experience is enlarged while the risk of confrontation with the rest of
the inner-area of the city is minimised. In respect of this model
however there are also disadvantages:
l

people do not learn to appreciate the real Bruges, but only


a number of historic elements within it;
in peak periods the capacity is probably too limited so that a
level of pressure (and irritation)
arises which has a direct
negative effect in terms of the perception of the city.

URBANPLANNINGINBRUGES

77

In the concentration
model the average period spent on a
visit by the day-tripper will generally be shorter, because people can more rapidly see everything
so to say. This means
that the expenditure of the tourist is also less. The advantage of
short visits is that there is an increase on the other hand in capacity, with the freeing of new capacity at regular intervals to
accept more tourists. In the dispersion model the visit period
will correspondingly
be longer because more time is required to
visit all the sites and attractions on offer. As a result of this
longer stay in the town the chance then exists that the visitor
will also take advantage of the opportunity
to shop, to eat at a
restaurant or drink in a cafe thus contributing to the local economy directly.
The support in terms of services and infrastructure
(hotels,
catering etc.) is greater with the choice of the concentration
model. A disadvantage however is the possibility of insufficient
capacity in the longer term and at peak periods, while the support for services within the defined zone of the concentration
model is naturally less interesting.
The tourist dispersion model presents on the other hand
greater risks of uncontrolled
expansion (i.e. in the hotel and
catering sector), and the danger of creating an intense and undesirable tourist pressure on predominantly
residential
districts. The local inhabitant is thus threatened in his own residential environment.
In the recent urban management plan for Bruges, the proposal
was defended to apply a strict concentration model based on:
l

a YZUWEYOUS
clausus in respect of new permissions for hotel
development does not include existing facilities, in order to
support the congress activities which are an important element for the city.
the concentration of day tourism and related activities, to a
southern axis between the Zand Square and the Market

78

WERNERDESIMPELAERE

place by means of a strict definition of this zone, is intended


to create a transition zone between the inner city and the
purely residential districts as regards the implantation
of
day tripper facilities and the catering sector (orientated towards the tourist sector).
To conclude, I propose we should think together about the
advantages and the disadvantages
of the so-called cultural
tourism.
Has cultural tourism - with the exception of some shares really to do with culture, or is it a well-wrapped
up consumption product organised by cities and tour operators to take advantage of the ongoing trends?
Observing the numerous groups visiting Bruges, following
as under aged sheep their so-called guide, I personally have a
lot of questions about the search of the daily kick. I professionally visited many historical cities during my life, and I cannot remember having seen one which did not degrade and banalise as a consequence of the search of tourists revenues.
Be it in Venice (North-Italy),
Firenze, Alberobello
(SouthItaly), Taormina (Sicily), the isles of Ibiza, Kreta, Santorini or
Capri, belonging to the so called old world of Western-Europe; or be it the Central European cities, doing their very best
to eat from the same tourism cake, as Krakow in Poland, Tallinn
in Estonia, even the nowadays Mostar in Bosnia or Dubrovnik
in Croatia. All over Europe we observe a degradation of the
quality of the towns.
We will have to make choices to create clear conditions concerning tourism which deserves the name of cultural tourism.
Are we still interested in the specificity and the personality of
each culture, each town, each region?
Is the increasing world of communication,
voyaging and
thus of tourism creating a common sauce of increasing vulgarity and mediocrity, offering all over the world the same beds,
the same food, the same souvenirs, wrapped up in the same

URBAN PLANNING IN BRUCES

79

packing, sold by the same kind of shops?


Is the tourism Mat World destroying itself on long term,
destroying the object itself which originally created the interest?
Is it possible to protect our heritage against this increasing
erosion of mass tourism and to create a kind of physical and/or
psychological barriers sustaining and improving the quality of
real tourism: it means taking part of the culture of the other
and learning to situate ourselves as integral part of a marvellous variety of culture in the real sense of the word?
The latin Cultura derived from the verb Colere always
expressed what was cultivated in agriculture and metaphorical
about what mankind took care, what was honoured and cherished by continuing transpiration and inspiration, first of all expressing the being of a person, a group of persons, a community.
Since the origin of Catal Huyuk, the first so-called town in
Anatolia, 7000 B.C., each community
expressed itself in artefacts, first of all expressing their way of living together.
Nowadays I am afraid that a misunderstood
globalisation is
eroding the soul itself of communities which evolve to the same
consumption
patterns.
The French philosopher
Alain
Finkielkraut,
wrote some years ago, an Essai sur le vingtieme
siecle (an essay concerning the twentieth century) under the title LHumaniM
perdue - the lost Humanity.
In the last chapter of his book, he concludes that (I quote)
...the modern man became tourist of himself and tourist of the
other. He creates his world in an enormous attraction park, an
endless museum where identity as much as difference present
themselves to his discrete glance.
In other words, tourism is not simply the voyaging way by
which the today-stayers fulfil their free time, it is the state of
which mankind is on his way, and at the moment of making the
balance, this state is raised to a supreme value.
All tourists, tourists for ever. This is the final formula of
the emancipation
and of the brotherhood,
as Finkielkraut
de-

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WERNERDESIMPELAERE

fines it. What is claimed today under the nice name of cosmopolitanism,
is not anymore, to quote Hannah Ahrendt, the
disposal to share the world with other men, it is the mondialisation of me, it is not anymore this enlarged mentality defined
by Kant as the ability to transport his thoughts to other points
of view.
Although
philosophers
as Levinas, Finkielkraut,
Hannah
Ahrend and Franfoise Choay warn for the rising alienation between man and his community,
and thus man and his traditions, I am afraid that very few politicians - it means responsible for the polis - the town - have the courage to take decisions
to come back to the essence of the voyager integrating himself mentally and physically in the being and the culture of the
other.
In so far we are convinced that the very last relicts of our
cultural heritage have to be kept and, even more, have to be improved as examples of common being and living, we should also be convinced that the essence of the voyager has to be improved and to brought back to his essential quality of exploring
man and the way he created his shell and his environment.
Only then we will come back to a real communication,
exploring with an open mind the other, his culture and his art of
building improving all our quality of life and thus the quality of
our civitas.

3. SECOND SESSION:
NEW MARKETS, OLD PROBLEMS

83

Second Session:
New Markets, Old Problems.
The second working session has been dedicated to an exploration of new and challenging problems regarding tourism sustainability that are found when the focus of attention shifts to
emerging markets, or other destinations undergoing rapid economic and social changes.
The two cases that have been presented in this session represent two sides of the same coin, and show several analogies. In
the case of Sochi (Russia), the issue under focus is the necessity
to completely reshape the image and structures of a place that
has been a flourishing tourism destination for many years for a
market that was almost completely domestic and very peculiar
(as it was essentially represented by the Soviet bureaucrats apparatus, now practically vanished).
In the case of Nazareth
(Israel), the explosion
of mass
tourism poses the necessity of upgrading the infrastructures
of
a destination that - despite being one a major city for religious
tourism - has never known a huge residential tourist inflow,
which is rather attracted by the neighbouring resort of Tiberias.
The belief that heritage cities experiencing a sudden, explosive tourism development - as they become for the first time
fully accessible to the international market - are in a dangerous
position for what regards the sustainability
of local development is perceived by the organisers of this meeting as one of the
first motives for renewed action.
It is beyond doubt that the regions of central and eastern EUrope and of the Mediterranean Basin are hosting a huge stock of
heritage, most of which is not yet utilised for tourism purposes.
The understandable
hunger for the income and jobs that
tourism can generate may easily turn the intensification
of the

84

NEWMARKETS,OLDPROBLEMS

use of urban heritage into a cultural disaster without precedents.


It is therefore of the utmost importance that these heritage
cities plan their tourism development in a sustainable manner
right from the beginning, so that they can avoid many of the errors that have been made by many western urban destinations.
The strength of the transformation processes at work is such
that - at least in the case of Nazareth - hard methods of
tourism regulation seem advisable at this stage. This means providing for tourism facilities and controlling
the expansion of
tourism activities or - as in the case of Sochi - it means reconverting facilities that were meant for completely different markets
and needs different than the ones of international mass tourism.
Whereas traditional tourism destinations have often had the
opportunity to form their own skills and know-how in the field
of heritage conservation and tourism organisation in the years,
the new markets are under-endowed
in this respect. Hence
the necessity to acquire knowledge and experience from international co-operation. Of course, international training schemes
and technology transfer are the best elements for the circulation
of knowledge in this field.
There are three elements of significance that emerged from
the presentations.
l
The necessity to consider a broader definition of cultural heritage than the merely physical. In both cases, the cultural or
immaterial facets of heritage (case of Nazareth) and the natural environment (case of Sochi) seemed elements that add to
the built heritage to constitute an unicum that needs to be
preserved rather than the single parts. In the case of Sochi,
the beautiful tropical landscape is combined with the typical
soviet-era architecture defining a unique environment.
l
The opportunities
offered by international tourism. In both
cases, rather than a threat, the growth of mass tourism - effective in the case of Nazareth, only potential in the case of
Sochi - is perceived by the local operators as an unique

NEW MARKETS, OLD PROBLEMS

85

chance to implement active policies in the preservation and


restoration of the cultural heritage. The revitalisation
of the
historic core in Nazareth, the re-functionalisation
of halls
and palaces in Sochi can only be accomplished if there is a
demand for an up-grade of these facilities. This is even more
realistic when countries undergoing economic transition and
social transformation
are taken into consideration.
The resources for the maintenance of the natural landscape can
come if a serious planning is made for the development of
tourist facilities. The city becomes attractive to a wide public
(residents and business included) if professions and skills
are developed in the field of welcoming,
hosting and informing foreigners.
The constraints faced by local institutions
to govern the
process of change. In these and other cases, turning the page
of local development to tune on the evolution of global markets is something that goes beyond the scope and capacities
of local governments. At the same time, new actors enter the
scene - tour operators, building corporations, conservative
groups, organised criminality - that may enhance or hamper
the effectiveness of the efforts spent by dynamic and attentive governments.

These aspects are to be taken thoroughly into account when


planning for sustainable tourism development. The wide participation and interest for this meeting by personnel and institutions from Mediterranean
countries and Central and Eastern
European countries show that the awareness is high, but further
support is needed.
The network of heritage cities can work as a very effective
vehicle to transfer know how between cities that find themselves in different stages of their life-cycle, to anticipate in the
adequate way to undesired evolutions, and to catch all the opportunities that the evolution of world tourism markets offer.

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NEW MARKETS,OLD PROBLEMS

Moreover, also cities in traditional tourist regions have to learn


from emerging heritage destinations, when they dont have a
history of destinations for cultural tourism or when they are
planning the reconversion of their economic base to strategic industries and global markets.

87

3.1 Tourism Development in Sochi:


Expandin
the Envelope of
Heritage 8 onservation. Sorting
Out the Past, Planning the Future
Robert B. Bentley

3.7.7. Introduction
Sochi presents the curious situation of a European city and
region that was off limits to most travellers for most of this century, but which has been a prime vacation destination in Russia
since the late 1800s - and shares ancient tourism traditions
with other Black Sea destinations.
The City of Sochi, which includes 145 kilometres of coastline, 4000 square kilometres of hinterland and about 400,000 inhabitants, is the only specially designated tourism zone in Russia, due to its unique subtropical climate in Russia, its mineral
waters and its location on the Black Sea in the shadow of the
Caucasus Mountains.
It is characterised
by the Black Sea
stretching out to the West, by grand manor houses and enormous gardens from the turn of the century, by some of the best
architecture done under the Soviets, and by the nearby Caucasus Mountains, creating important variations in conditions and
climates.
Sochis hinterland has been designated as a bio-diversity
reserve. Sochi is also characterised by Soviet planning and construction, and by the previous regimes conception of tourism
as an activity organised for social goals along corporative lines.
Shifting to a market economy in tourism involves a deep con-

88

ROBERTB. BENTLEY

ceptual shift, a sharp change in legislation regarding land ownership, new divisions between public and private responsibilities, enormous investment
in infrastructure,
and a rigorous
planning process to manage the destination.
Reinventing
Sochi will require wise decisions on what
should be preserved from the Soviet past and on a clear vision
of what Sochi is to become. Sochi has a very good chance of success, and the strategic model developed in this process will be
valuable for other destinations in Asia and Africa that will soon
be attempting to rescue their heritage.

3.7.2. History
There are very few European cities left to come on stream as
tourism destinations. Several in central Europe - Prague, Budapest, Krakow - catapulted to prime European destinations after 1989. The civil war in Yugoslavia has postponed visits to an
entire region. Now countries farther east are organising their
tourism. Destinations around the Black Sea will be especially
favoured, and Sochi is the pearl of the Black Sea.
Since the last century, Sochi has only been important
for
tourism. That vocation began in 1864, when Russian nobles received land grants in this remote, under-populated
region as a
reward for their victories in the Crimean War. Before that, Sochi
was shunned by the Greeks - the place of punishment
for
Prometheus - but home to various Caucasian ethnic groups,
most famously the Circassian pirates.
Land grants to the nobility determined key aspects of Sochis
development. The grand architecture and exotic gardens of the
city were the fruits of their rivalry. Sochis tourism vocation
dates officially from 1872, when its first spa opened. During the
Communist
Revolution,
the war between the Reds and the
Whites ended in Sochi in 1920. The triumphant
Communists

TOURISMDEVELOPMENTIN SOCHI: EXPANDINGTHE ENVELOPE...

89

completely took over Sochis manor houses and its uses for
tourism and health. There was a conscious government effort to
create a Russian Riviera, and some of the best examples of Soviet architecture are represented there. Sochi became known as
Stalins traditional vacation spot, and that of the nomenklatura
of the Soviet regime. Given the special definitions of tourism
applied under the Soviet regime, Sochis tourism development
has been fairly linear, even though organised according to principles different from Western tourism.
Under the Soviet concept of vacation as a right to be enjoyed
by all workers, holiday offerings were organised according to
occupational category or age group or sex. Further, since a resort is defined in this concept as a place primarily for health
treatment rather than leisure, the hospitals, sanatoria and balnearia were the responsibility of the Ministry of Health. The great
majority of people who visited Sochi during the Soviet years jus-

Fig. 3.1 - The Region of Sukan (from an old map


of the Caucassian

Region)

90

ROBERTB. BENTLEY

tified their visit primarily as a way to improve their health. In


this, Sochis tourism was more like Western European spas of
the 19th Century than like modern resort leisure tourism that
developed in the rest of the world after the jet airplane in the late
1960s made mass international tourism possible.
Under these different organising principles, tourism in Sochi
grew to around 6 million tourists annually in 1989, mostly domestic from the Soviet Union, with some from other Socialist
countries. These visitors in large majority went to hotels, balnearia and sanatoria owned for the exclusive use by employees
of ministries, government agencies and special interest groups,
such as youth organisations. Some hotels were run by the Soviet tourism organisation
INTOURIST,
and received foreign
tourists, even though each person had to be cleared through a
special process to permit them to be in Sochi. The tourism was
purpose-designed
for the regime. The collapse of the Soviet
Union left Sochi - as happened in other parts of the Soviet economy - with a tourism structure irrelevant to the way the business is carried out elsewhere in the world.
The number of visitors dropped sharply after 1989, as it became possible for Russians to travel abroad freely, not all government organisations had funds to subsidise vacations for their
employees, and the cost /benefit ratios of vacationing in Sochi
lost out to more competitive foreign destinations. By 1997, Sochi
had lost 88% of its business, with about 700,000 tourists, including about 35,000 international visitors, mostly on business.
The season had shrunk from the former period of May to
October, to three months from mid-June to mid-September. The
large majority of persons coming to Sochi now are Russians
who receive some sort of vacation subsidy from their place of
employment. Around 70% of accommodation capacity is still in
public hands. But the drastic decline in tourism has had a devastating impact on jobs in Sochi, on the tourism superstructure
and on infrastructure.

TOURISMDEVELOPMENTIN SOCHI: EXPANDINGTHE ENVELOPE...

91

3.1.3. Current situation


The City of Sochi comprises a large area of 4000 square
kilometres, with 145 kilometres of coastline and about 400,000
inhabitants.
A large part of Sochi is in the Caucasus Mountains, which
come almost to the Black Sea at this point. The Caucasus Mountains determine Sochis mild subtropical climate, protecting the
area from the cold North winds. As a result, one sees magnolia
trees, palms and banana plants in abundance in Sochi. The forest area behind Sochi has been declared a Russian biosphere reserve. The citys proximity to the Black Sea moderates the climate, so that there few snowfalls and the snow does not stay in
winter, and the temperature rarely rises above 30C in summer.
In tourism terms, it means that people can enjoy the beach and
the mountains, with their lush, almost virgin forests - and even
skiing for eight months of the year - in the same day.
Sochi has for some time enjoyed the status of a special zone
- along with Moscow and St. Petersburg. Sochi is the only Russian special zone for tourism. In administrative
terms, Sochi reports directly to the President - usually a First Deputy Prime
Minister, in practice - rather than to the governor of Krasnodar
province, where it is located. This arrangement endows Sochi
with considerable independence to decide its development options. Special measures can be adopted for Sochi alone, and do
not need to be the subject of nation-wide
legislation.
Also,
Sochis status gives it a certain administrative
agility, since it is
not subject to the entire hierarchy of decision making.

3.1.4. The beginnings

of a strategy

Since 1997, Sochis leaders have been analysing the whole


range of the citys options. They have considered whether Sochi

92

ROBERT8. BENTLEY

has a tourism future, and if yes, of what sort. They have looked
at other economic options. In short, they have begun a systematic - step by step, sector by sector, project by project - review
of the citys assets and liabilities, in terms of its past and its future. Given Sochis importance for Russia, this is an enormously
complex project which must be done carefully integrating respect for the environment, the historical and social context, the
infrastructure
needs and a solidly grounded vision of Sochis
strategic development.
Several basic developments have occurred in the past year.
Sochis leaders have presented strategic options about Sochis
future to the President. These included letting the destination
die, moving away from tourism, or revitalising the tourism according to a new model. The decision was to recreate tourism in
Sochi according to a model which would bring in new development, privatise and renovate existing facilities, and create additional economic activity while conversing the biosphere reserve.
This requires a deep, integrated planning process to establish the basis for tourism development that preserves the natural environment
and is sensitive to the heritage of the place both in terms of recent Soviet history and earlier contributions.
Sochis leaders realise that this process will be aided by exchanging ideas and experiences with experts in other cities that
have faced similar problems.
Another decision during the past year changed the landholding law to permit foreigners to lease land for 49 years, addressing a fundamental
issue that has not been resolved in
some other former Socialist countries. This in turn will allow
the public enterprises in Sochi to consider various forms of privatisation. Privatisation strategies are under discussion.
Infrastructure work has been started on roads - which were
not an issue when Sochi did not have to compete against other
destinations - on electricity supply, which was organised on the
basis of the Soviet Union and now leaves Sochi too dependent

TOURISMDEVELOPMENTIN C&HI: EXPANDINGTHE ENVELOPE...

93

on supplies coming from independent Georgia, and on water


supply, which needs modernisation.
The entire city is being
prepared for natural gas. Economic duty free zones are being
established for light manufacturing
close to the airport. The airport is receiving a new terminal. Still to be resolved are issues
relating to facilitation and air transport. However, these access
issues, which require careful national review and approval, are
now being addressed.
Concurrently
with these decisions and actions, human resource issues are being tackled. The former Tourism Institute
has been upgraded to the Sochi University
for Tourism and
Recreation. It is the only university
in Russia dedicated to
tourism. The recently founded Sochi Business School is also
working on aspects of tourism, notably on organising convention and meeting tourism. Sochi, because of its high quality mineral waters and spa treatments, has a very large number of medical doctors, many specialised in treatments related to ageing.
Through collaboration with the universities, the medical staffs at
the various facilities are beginning to work out how they will
make the transition from working in a public context to a private
one. People working in the hospitality services and food areas
will have to be retrained to provide international levels of service. Fortunately, there is excellent co-operation between the city
leaders, the universities, and the tourism sector, which makes it
possible for effecting these changes with local resources.
The decisions taken so far are relatively non-polemical
and
are viewed as clear benefits by the vast majority of people in
Sochi. The truly difficult issues are yet to be addressed.
Sochi is largely a product of Soviet development. It was Stalins favourite place, near his birthplace in Georgia, and his dncha
is there. Because Soviet leaders came to Sochi, so did everyone
else, and there are resorts that belonged to the KGB, to the
Communist
Party Central Committee,
to the tax collectors,
labour unions, youth organisations - all the powerful organisa-

94

ROBERTB. BENTLEY

tions in the old regime were represented in Sochi. This sort of


development was not very different in structure from that of
the preceding group of nobles, who built their manor houses
and gardens. In many cases, these pre-Soviet properties were
taken over directly and are still in fine condition. In other cases,
they have been considered as symbols of a decadent past and
allowed to rot.
What is to be kept from the different periods? What are the
criteria? Under the Soviets, the criteria were often politically,
rather than aesthetically, based.
As an essential element of Sochis strategic vision for
tourism development, it will be important to develop a process
that is supported by the local population for deciding what to
keep and what to change. This is fundamental for all aspects of
Sochis tourism development - natural and built - since Sochi
has not in the past been subjected to western-style development
pressures. Sochi will benefit from outside views in this process,
since many other places face similar issues, although usually
not so dramatically, and also because one aspect to consider is
what attracts foreign tourists.
A second fundamental element in creating a strategic vision
has to do with the ethnic makeup of the place. Sochi is located
in the Caucasus, which can be considered a global ethnic fault
line. There are centuries of divisions among small groups in the
region that never were fully resolved in Soviet times and are
not resolved now, as the various wars in neighbouring regions
testify. Under the Soviets, the objective was to encompass all
nationalities
in a concept of Soviet man. However, from a
number of points of view - and for local richness for tourism the various ethnic groups in Sochi will probably want greater
expression. How that is done, without tearing the social fabric,
will be a challenge. One possibility is to channel the desires for
ethnic expression into forms of tourism business, but this must
be done carefully. However, consciously developing a strategy

TOURISMDEVELOPMENTIN SOCHI: EXPANDINGTHE ENVELOPE...

95

for ethnic expression will provide a way to come to terms with


the essence of the place, before the Soviets, before the Czars
land grants. This aspect of heritage practically only exists today
in the history books - and in the homes and families.
As Sochi begins to work out its development
strategy for
bringing wealth back to the city, relying on tourism and health
care as the main industries, it will need help in this complex
task. However, as seen above, Sochi has a number of important
assets and a very good chance of success. An international effort with Sochi could provide useful lessons for a number of
destinations in Asia and Africa that soon will be attempting to
rescue their heritage.

97

3.2 The Challenge of Urban Tourism


Management
in a Historic City
and a Pilgrima e Centre:
Nazareth as a 8 ase Study
Noam Shoval

The angel Gabriel was sent from God to a city of Galilee named
Nazareth, to a virgin.... and the virgins name was Mary.... And he
came to her and said, Hail, 0 favoured one, the Lord is with you!
.-And behold, you will conceive in your womb and bear a son, and
you shall call his name Jesus. - Luke I

3.2.1. Introduction
Nazareth is first mentioned in the New Testament as the
place where Joseph and Mary - Jesus parents - reside. In
Nazareth, Mary learns of her pregnancy (the Annunciation)
and
in Nazareth Jesus grew up and was educated; the town also
served as his base as he wandered through the cities of the
Galilee. Consequently,
since the very early days of Christian
history, Nazareth became a focal point of Christian pilgrimage.
In the past 150 years, Nazareth also became a magnet for
other forms of tourism, following
the initial development
of
modern tourism in the Eastern Mediterranean Basin. Today, in
addition to its being a main focal point for tourism and pilgrimage to Israel, Nazareth is also the largest Arab city in Israel
(more than 60,000 residents) and serves as an economical centre
for the Arab population of Northern Israel.
Much like other small historical towns that are located in

98

NOAMSHOVAL

proximity to large cities (especially in a small country like Israel),


Nazareth suffers from the fact that most visitors to the city arrive
for a short visit of only several hours and then tend to leave the
city, practically without making any economic contribution.
Nazareth annually receives approximately
700,000 incoming
tourists to Israel, but since only less than 5% of those remain to
spend the night - it enjoys practically
none of the economic
benefits that originate from its being an important tourist attraction, while it suffers from negative impacts such as traffic and
parking problems. Despite the poor performance of the tourist
industry, this would nevertheless seem to be the citys best
available direction of economic development since it is precisely in this area that the city enjoys a relative potential advantage.
About half the population of Nazareth lives below the governments official poverty line and most of the citys workforce
(70%) work outside the city. Therefore any development of the
tourism industry would serve to create jobs that would allow
many of the local residents to refrain from commuting to distant places every day.
For the past ten years, the Nazareth Municipality
has striven
to change this situation altogether. Accordingly, in the early 9Os,
the Municipality set the year 2000 as a leverage for attaining various goals such as the renovation of the city centre and the development of tourism infrastructure that will render possible the desired transformation. However, it is already evident that despite
the comprehensive actions that were initiated in the city in conjunction with the national government in anticipation of the year
2000 - the realisation of the goals remains distant at this stage.

Tourism in Nazareth
Although the city receives 700,000 tourists annually, it almost
does not benefit from this intensive flow of tourists to the city,
since slightly over 95% of them are day-trippers that spend only
an average of several hours in the city. Paulus the eh Street - the

THE CHALLANGE OF URBAN TOURISM MANAGEMENT

IN A HISTORIC CITY...

99

citys main traffic artery - is jammed most hours of the day and
this problem is only exacerbated by the dozens of tourist buses
that arrive to the city each day, park for several hours and then
depart from the city. The fact that most of the visitors are daytrippers imposes tremendous costs on the town, practically without contributing any real income for the local economy. In addition, due to the nature of the major tourist sights (churches), the
tourists do not even pay entrance fees anywhere in the city.

i
? ;
\ !
/
--^.
,

Fig. 3.2 - Major Tourist Sights and Accommodation


in Nazareth, 1998 - (Source: fieldwork by the author, 1998)

100

NOAMSHOVAL

The city presently offers some 600 hotel rooms that are characterised by an extremely low rate of occupancy. In 1995, which
was a record-breaking year in tourism to Israel, the rate of occupancy at the citys hotels never surpassed the 35% mark (in contrast to a nation-wide average of 70% that year). This problem is
common to other small historic cities that are located in proximity to larger tourist cities, and the same situation is shared by
Bethlehem, that is located near Jerusalem, with over 1.2 million
tourists annually - and even worse statistics.
The situation in Nazareth might have been better had it not
been neglected for decades by the central government while the
surrounding
region (especially Tiberias) was developed and
promoted during those same years. For comparison, since the
establishment
of the Ministry of Tourism in the mid-sixties,
Tiberias enjoyed a status of Type A development area and
was developed by the central government
as the centre for
tourism services in the Northern part of Israel. Nazareth received the same development status as Tiberias thirty years latter - 1993.

The Historic Core of Nazareth


The historic core of Nazareth is very compact and serves
both as the major concentration of tourist sights and as the commercial and administrative
centre for the population
of
Nazareth and its Arab environs. As was the case in many other
historic city cores, the core has suffered from urban decline that
was characterised by population changes - as affluent families
left their homes in the centre for larger and more modern
homes in more distant and affluent neighbourhoods.
The new population that arrived to occupy the housing that
was left behind usually consisted of lower income, predominantly Muslim families. Lately, the Oslo agreements and the Israeli withdrawal from several Palestinian cities in the northern
part of the West Bank (such as Jenin), caused several hundreds

THE CHALLANGE OF URBAN TOURISM MANAGEMENT

IN A HETORIC CITY...

101

of ex-collaborators with the Israeli authorities to move to the


historic core of the city where low-rent housing may be found.

3.2.2. Nazareth 2000


The idea of Nazareth 2000 was initiated in 1991. The aim
of the project was to transform the city into a tourist city by
building urban and tourist infrastructure
such as new hotels,
improving access to the city, renovating the old bazaar, the conservation of historic monuments, the dramatic lighting of monuments and the creation of tourist signposting. The Labour Party Government under the leadership of the late Prime Minister
Itzhak Rabin, took up the challenge and decided to lend financial support to the project initiated
by the Municipality
of
Nazareth and promised relatively large amounts of money for
the project, while labelling it a national project. Even though
the right wing government that came into power in 1996 did
not support the project as enthusiastically as the former one, it
continued to support the project while also beginning to promote the Year 2000 issue in general.
The government promised to allocate relatively large sums
of money ($100 million)
and also changed the status of
Nazareth in 1993 and turned the city into a Type A development area. This enables hotels and other tourist facilities to enjoy the benefits of being classified as an Approved Enterprise
(eligible for 24% government grants, government-backed
loans
and tax holidays).
The city of Nazareth wanted to expand its economic base
since the municipality
does not have many businesses or functions that generate large amounts of local taxes, and the local
population in general - is not affluent. The municipality
saw a
chance to build many hotel rooms that will be translated into
prosperity for the local economy.

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NOAMSHOVAL

The government budgets were used primarily for two main


purposes: The first was to solve the traffic problems concerning
the access to Nazareth and especially the movement within
Nazareth itself. The second was taking care of all the infrastructure (electricity, water, gas etc.) in the historical core of the city
(including the Old Bazaar) that lies beneath its two major attractions - the Basilica of Annunciation and the Greek Orthodox St.
Gabriel Church. These changes failed to alter the pattern of visiting Nazareth since the improvement
in transportation
only
made it possible for tourists to actually spend even less time in
Nazareth (although we must not underestimate the improvement of life for the local population).
The second major improvement was also a blessing for the local population that continues to live and shop in the historical core, although it did not
generate more tourist nights, since not even one single hotel
room was established in the city so far and not even one hotel
room will be established in the near future in the historical core
of the city.
The intensive marketing and promotion of Nazareth 2000
resulted in the construction of three large hotels: the Marriott
(250 rooms) located outside the municipal
boundary
of
Nazareth, the Howard Johnson - located in proximity to the
historical core (246 rooms) and another hotel near the Mt. of the
Precipice tourism complex (270 rooms). In addition to these hotels, there are three medium-sized hotels presently under construction not far from the historic core, yet it would appear that
due to financial problems their construction will not be completed until the year 2000. In total, some 1000 new hotel rooms
will join the existing inventory of 600 hotel rooms in all categories (300 hotel rooms and 300 more rooms in Christian hospices).
The Mount of the Precipice is traditionally
identified as the
brow of the hill to which Jesus was led by an angry crowd
(Luke 4:29). This compound
in the southern
entrance to

THE CHALLANCE OF URBAN TOURISM MANAGEMENT

IN A HISTORIC CITY...

103

Nazareth comprises of 2500 planned hotel rooms (in 10 hotels).


At the beginning of 1996, the tenders for hotel construction
were published but no bids were submitted
by developers
(probably because of their location and the sum requested for
the plots). In our opinion (and the present situation lends credence to that), the decision to establish a huge tourism complex
in the southern entrance to Nazareth was basically faulty - even
tough it was perhaps the only large area of government land
that was available for such a complex.
First of all, the large distance between the complex and the
historic core, coupled with the fact that the complex was
planned in such a way that it could support itself in terms of
shopping and dining - would have led this complex (even if it
had been built) not to contribute to the revitalisation of the historic core of Nazareth. Tourists staying in this complex will
have the same effect upon the declining core as tourists that are
visiting Nazareth and then stay in Tiberias (apart from the taxes
that the local municipality
will collect). Tiberias was developed
by Israel during the last several decades as the centre for
tourism services in the northern part of Israel.
In summary the project had two main impacts on the city so
far. These impacts did not have any significant impact upon increasing the tourism to the city:
Improvement of accessibility.
Loosening the traffic congestion in the city and especially in the citys main artery, Pope
Paul VI street, by turning it into a one-way boulevard with twoway traffic being permitted
only for buses. These improvements had opposite effects in terms of keeping tourists longer
in the city, and from the following quotation its seems that the
planners didnt have any ideas of the outcomes of changes in
accessibility in a city like Nazareth: I... 1~ any event, it is much
more advisable to offer free parking if tourism is to be seriously encouraged. (N azareth 2000 1995, 29). Beside the revolution

104

within central Nazareths transportation


roads to Nazareth itself were built.

NOAMSHOVAL

system, new access

Renovation of the Old Market. The old city market is one of


Israels largest traditional bazaars, it is comprised of many secondary markets. For many years the market infrastructure was
neglected, the drainage and sewage situation was catastrophic,
and the area was entangled in a web of electrical and telephone
wires. Vendors invaded street and squares, occasionally blocking them entirely with their booths. The first stage of the
bazaars renovation was to install underground water, sewage,
electrical, telephone and cable television lines. The facades of
the shops were then renovated while the entire bazaar was covered with a modern, uniform roof. The bazaar streets were
paved and rest areas were built.
The Nazareth 2000 plan is more a construction plan than a
plan for developing tourism. Because of the focus upon improving the transportation
infrastructure
to the city and inside the
city, this will enable tourists to spend an even shorter time in
the city, since they will be spared from spending one out of the
two hours they spend in the city sitting in the tour bus in heavy
traffic (Gera and Shay 1997, 12). At the beginning
of the
Nazareth 2000 process, the municipality
was optimistic and
felt that changes were on the way, there were expectations that
during the years of preparations the number of bednights spent
in the city will grow four times and that during the year 2000
the number will be even greater. In reality, no significant increase in the number of bednights spent in the city has been
recorded thus far.

THE CHALLANGE OF URBAN TOURISM MANAGEMENT

IN A HISTORIC CITY...

105

3.2.3. Tourism Management


in European Heritage Cities Project: Implementation in Nazareth
Despite its location in the eastern part of the Mediterranean,
Nazareth could be seen as a natural candidate for the European
heritage cities project because of several reasons: First and foremost is its importance for European history and culture as it is
the cradle of Christianity. Second, the direct European influence
upon the citys history and architecture: during the Roman,
Byzantine and Crusader periods and lately in the 19h century
when the different European powers erected churches, monasteries, schools and hospitals (that are still dominating the landscape of the city) in order to acquire control over the Holy
Land.
The first stage of this project will take place during the first
half of 1999. This first stage will consist of a comprehensive survey of the tourist supply in the city and its immediate area and
will also entail an analysis of the demand for tourism in the city
- including an examination and characterisation of the spatial
behaviour of various tourist types in the city. These surveys will
serve for assessing the various problems that exist in terms of
Urban Tourism Management and practical methods will be proposed for the complete or partial solution of these problems.
This same stage will also cover the formulation of the financial
resources for implementing
the various projects that constitute
the second stage. The first stage will primarily consist of research
work, to be conducted by some 30 students, as part of a practical
course dealing in urban tourism, that will also include four concentrated days of field work in Nazareth during March 1999.
There were two main reasons for choosing Nazareth for this
project: First, the compactness of the historical core is suitable
for efficient research and second, the severe situation of tourism
in the city, wherein the city receives practically no utility from
the hundreds of thousands of tourists that visit its sites each

106

year, so that the effectiveness of the different


easily detected.

NOAMSHOVAL

measures will be

Subjects for immediate theoretical and empirical research

@age I)
A large tourist population staying in the centre of Nazareth
would perhaps cause for tensions with the local population that
will maybe dislike the idea of the establishment of different
tourist enterprises (such as pubs, bars etc.) that might possess
an impact upon their daily life. Furthermore, the local population does not have a tradition of accommodating tourists and
pilgrims - as it was historically the different churches that took
charge of this and built hospices for the pilgrims. It is necessary
to further investigate the reactions of the local population to a
modification in the character of the old city. It is especially necessary to investigate which segments of the tourist population
should perhaps not be encouraged to stay (e.g., backpackers).
There is an urgent need to precisely understand the differences between a merely historic city to a city such as Nazareth
that also combines religious aspects. Foremost in importance
rests the question of whether the demand for the product is
rigid by nature. In other words, this means that the hardships
surrounding
a visit to the city are of no consequence, as the
tourists will continue to come because of the religious significance of the place. If this holds true, it may allow for the implementation of extreme measures in managing the tourism to
the city. It is important to understand whether the demand for
Nazareth is inflexible, in the sense that the tourism product that
the city offers simply cannot be found elsewhere and that most
of the tourists that visit the city today will continue to do so in
spite of any difficulties they will incur.
What are the different segments of tourists that visit the
city? Who are the ones that choose to stay more than just several hours and even spend the night and what is their spatial and

THE CHALLANCE OF URBAN TOURISM MANAGEMENT

IN A HISTORIC CITY...

107

economical behaviour. It might be more useful not to concentrate on the religious segment since this segment does not have
sufficient time to spend in the city as its must visit a long list of
sites in the northern part of Israel and the itineraries for this
kind of tourism have been well established for years. Maybe it
would be consequently necessary to concentrate on other kinds
of tourists.
The historic centre includes many notable 19th century
homes that once belonged to wealthy merchants and landowners. These dwellings feature wooden ceiling beams, red-tiled
roofs, stained-glass windows, white marble floors, triple arches
and painted ceilings influenced by both Ottoman and European
architecture and ornamentation.
These mansions are ideal for
conversion for tourist uses such as hotels, restaurants, etc. Initially, research should concentrate on the different possibilities
of reusing these unique mansions and creating of a database of
the potential buildings. The same holds true for other old complexes that could be converted such as city hall and the adjacent
Mascobia - the complex that is currently used as a police station but in the last century was built as a hospice for Russian
pilgrims.

Projectsfor implemenfution (Stage 2)


On the basis of information collected in the first stage, the
possibilities of implementing
a number of soft (or hard) measures that may reduce the negative impacts of tourism in the
sensitive urban environment of Nazareth will be investigated,
for example:
Policies regarding parking and tourist transportation.
The
city of Nazareth does not have any policy for parking in the city
centre. This actually implies that tourist buses or private vehicles
belonging to the local population and to visitors of any kind can
park anywhere in the city for as long as they want! A parking

108

NOAMSHOVAL

policy must be implemented that will make tourist buses and


other visitor vehicles pay for the use of parking space and for
their use of the main traffic arteries of the city. A more sophisticated strategy might revolve around certain times of the day
during which tourists will not be allowed in with their buses.
The implementation
of such hard measures (restrictions on entering with busses during certain hours) will be combined with
soft measures (for example - system of bookings).
Incentives to the establishment of (small) hotels. Tools for
encouraging the establishment of (small) hotels in the historic
core will be investigated and implemented, especially in converted historic mansions. Converting old houses with significant architecture and history into hotels or into other tourist uses is crucial for the regeneration of the historic core of Nazareth.
Examples of potential buildings are the municipality
itself and
the local police station which are located in the Mascobia hospice and in other buildings erected by the Russian Czar to accommodate Russian Orthodox pilgrims, near the major attractions of the city.
A study of the spatial behaviour of tourists in Nazareth will
be the basis for implementation
of soft measures that will try
to make the tourists stay longer in the city, for example through
the manipulation
of opening hours of different tourist attractions, by adding new attractions, or even by establishing a system of paying for entrance to the area of the Old City.
It would appear that - in contrast with the soft measures suggested for the pilot study to be carried out in the selected cities,
that hopefully must lead to make them (the visitors) adjust this
behaviour, rather than form a set of restrictions - in the case of
Nazareth it might be necessary to begin with the implementation
of certain hard measures that will force tour operators and visitors to consider increasing their visiting time in Nazareth.

THE CHALLANCE OF URBAN TOURISM MANAGEMENT

IN A HISTORIC CITY...

109

The condition for commencing with the second stage of research and the extent of the research will depend upon the
available financial resources.

3.2.4. Conclusion
The work on Nazareth 2000 failed to produce a visitor and
management policy in the city. The preliminary research conducted thus far indicates that it may be almost impossible to
change the behaviour
of visitors by using soft methods
(methods to change the behaviour of visitors in such a way as
to render this behaviour more compatible with the actual structure of local society and economy, yet without limiting their actions) in order for a larger proportion
of them to become
overnight
visitors and for these overnight
visitors to stay
longer. This is attributed to several reasons:
a) The proximity
of alternative accommodation
in attractive
settings in the citys surroundings (for example the chain of
kibbutzim hotels).
b) Most of the tourism is organised tourism (85%) mainly because of the nature of this particular type of tourism (pilgrimage) and the tendency of this segment in Israel to travel in
groups. This indicates that it is not the tourists that should be
changed but rather the tour operator. This is far more complicated since the large tourism agents have different interests at play (accommodation they own in other places, etc.).
In addition to these reasons there exists the possibility that
not a lot can be changed in the patterns of visiting the city.
All these reasons lead to the conclusion that perhaps the city
should adopt a strategy of extreme methods of visitor and
transport management, as these might be the only means that
can change the present situation.

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NOAMSHOVAL

References
Chad E. F. (1995), Beyond the Basilica: Christians and Muslims in Nazareth.
Chicago and London: The University of Chicago University Press.
Gera D. and Shay 0. (1997), Nazareth: The Missed Opportunity,
Globes Business Guide (August 6).
Hamdan H. and Jabarin J. (1997), Socio-economic profile of the Nazareth
Population. The Municipality
of Nazareth: Nazareth (In Hebrew).
Midgam - Consulting and Research Ltd. (1996), Tourists Survey: March
2995 -February 2996. Jerusalem: Ministry of Tourism.
Ministry
of Tourism and Israel Airport Authority
(1988), Survey of
Tourists and Residents Departing by Air 1986/7. Jerusalem: Dahaf Research Institute.
Rachamimof A. (1998), Master Plan for Nazareth: Final Draft. Tel-Aviv.
State of Israel, Central Bureau of Statistics and the Ministry of Tourism
(Various editions), Tourism and Hotel Services Statistics Quarterly.
Taskir - Survey and Research Ltd. (1995), Survey of Tourists Departing
from Israel 1994. Jerusalem: Ministry of Tourism.
The Israeli Ministry of Tourism (1994), Programmatic plan for developing
the tourist industry: Nazareth and Kefar Qana region. Jerusalem (In Hebrew).
The Israeli Ministry
of Tourism
(1997), Israel 2000: Final account.
Jerusalem (In Hebrew).

Acknowledgements
The author wants to thank Mr. Steve Abu-Hani, an engineer
in charge of several of the restoration and infrastructure
projects in the historical core in the Municipality
of Nazareth, for
the time he spent showing me around in the summer of 1997. I
also wish to thank Mr. Tareq Shehada, the Director of the municipalitys Tourism Unit for guiding me through the mazes of
this unique city.

4. THIRD SESSION:
NEW APPROACHES
FOR EMERGING ISSUES

113

Third Session: New Approaches


for Emerging Issues.
The last session of the meeting has been assigned the task to
derive general principles and practical recommendations
from
the issues emerged in the case study expositions. The presentations in this session all pointed at developing new approaches
to the complexity of problems with sustainable tourism development in traditional and emerging cultural destinations.
The session has been opened by the chairman Paolo Costa,
who underlined the main aspects of this discussion. First of all,
the problem of local democracy implicit in the consideration of
the world heritage as something that should be managed with
an eye to the needs and preferences of non-local actors (and
non-present generations). As a consequence, innovative ways of
solving the conflict between local and global - exasperated
by the international and short-term character of tourism - have
to be found.
The four presentations of these sessions underwent these issues from different angles. Antonio Paolo Russo offered an
analysis of the way in which an improvement
in the network
organisation of the cultural industry can support a sustainable
tourism development in heritage cities, based on synergies with
strategic sectors and innovation capacity. However, he underlined the difficulties and risks in the policy change cycle that
is needed for such a re-organisation, and offered some practical
suggestions of urban policies that go in the desired direction.
Priscilla Boniface continued this analysis in the field of organisation and environmental
constraints, analysing in great
depth the difference in needs and attitudes between the actors
that - formally or informally - influence the outcome of tourism
policies. Her suggestion is that part of the ability to manage

114

NEW APPROACHESFOREMERGINGISSUES

tourism in individual historic cities, and the capacity to deliver


greater benefits from the process than disadvantages (costs), depends on the readiness and will to alter our mind-sets to perceive and include other actors as candidates to tourist cities
governance.
In fact, the needs to be fulfilled in the heritage city with activity in tourism will always change; not even the needs of the
physical city fabric of heritage will stay the same. However, at
any time, for needs to be satisfied as far as possible and in as
fair a balance as possible, they ought first to be recognised and
identified in their full range. From this starting point, the task
can be set to find as many areas of need in common as possible,
for the goal of setting out the planning and delivery of a resident - tourist - heritage city of overall pride, stimulation and
pleasure.
In the analysis of Barbara Ravnik-Toman,
the museum professions are considered key skills to be developed in heritage
sites because of their character of enlightened mediators who
can reconcile a host of divergent viewpoints
and approaches.
The importance of communication
(the story, rather than a
simple message) as a substantial contribution to the ontological qualities of the heritage itself is thus at the centre of attention, representing the base element a consistent policy to reconcile tourism and the heritage. On this approach a project of networking museums in a region strongly characterised for the
archeological heritage is built.
The extension of the range of issues treated in this session
clarified that new solutions to the problems of sustainable urban tourism have to be looked for in non-traditional
forms and
approaches.
Be it the search for new meanings
and roles
(Ravnik-Toman),
new frameworks of analysis (Russo), or new
relations between actors (Boniface), all these presentations
stress the need to upgrade the tourism managers and heritage
conservators vision and tasks to the increasing complexity as-

NEW APPROACHESFOREMERGINGISSUES

115

sumed by the maintenance of quality in the delivery of a very


scarce and so hardly priceable good as culture is.
The session was concluded by Raphael Souchier, who exposed the activities of a network of heritage cities engaged in
sustainable tourism development projects (Alliance des Villes
Europeennes de Culture/Alliance
of European Culture Cities)
indicating the importance of stimulating
local network of actors. The double tier of networking (local-supralocal)
is important to stimulate imitation of best practices involving actors that
are traditionally
excluded from the decision making process. In
particular, such a reorganisation of policy making is fundamental to have all the actors involved sharing the responsibilities for
quality concerns, often overlooked when short-term reasoning
and atomistic behaviour prevail.
Souchier then proposes a fruitful collaboration between the
already existing AVEC network and the constituenda UNESCO
network of heritage cities based on complementarity
and information exchange.

117

4 .1 Organising Sustainable Tourism


Development in Heritage Cities
Antonio Paolo Russo

4.1.1. Introduction
Cities of art in Europe find themselves in a critical situation.
On one hand, the balance of the effects of the high tourism pressure is increasingly pending on the side of the costs. The dynamics in the quality of the tourism products caused by congestion and adverse selection risks to put these cities in a cul-desac where the only local industry with an indisputable advantage is inherently led to a decline.
On the other hand, it seems that any attempt to control and
regulate the tourism industry inevitably fails. This is not only
explained by the intrinsically myopic behaviour of the economic agents involved, but also by the way in which the production
process in the city is organised and by the structural characteristic of the cultural sector which is the main feeder of the
tourism industry.
In this paper we investigate the conditions that we repute
necessary to make cultural tourism sustainable in a city of art.
We first focus on the structural characteristics that the cultural sector should exhibit to maximise its impact on the local
economy, and to be successfully marketed as an integral part of
the urban product. We suggest that the quality of inter-industrial linkages is a fundamental
element that may guarantee the
sustainability of urban growth in a global context.
However, looking at the hardware and the software of the
tourism industry is not sufficient to assess the capacity of an art
city to enter a sustainable path of tourism development. An in-

118

ANTONIOPAOLO Russo

depth analysis must be undertaken of desirable pre-conditions


that may favour, in a dynamic sense, the triggering-off of a virtuous model of tourism management.
To enact such a policy change means stimulating the actors
involved in the development process to adopt a new vision, and
work together to achieve a new set of (sometimes conflicting)
objectives. The orgware of the process, then, is a set of crucial organisational requirements for a smooth and effective transition
to a new set of rules that may guarantee the sustainability of local development,
and for the continuity of the policy change
process.
Without an explicit consideration of both the structural and
the organisational
conditions, it would not be possible to explain why more and more middle-sized art cities in Europe face
problems with the sustainability of their tourism development,
with a decline in the quality of the tourist product that is reflected in the disappointing
performance
of the cultural system.
Moreover, it would be hard to tell why art cities that recognise
their crisis and study measures to react against a possible stagnation of their success on the tourism market, are seldom successful in such tourism management policies.

4.1.2. Clusters and the city


The global reorganisation of production processes which is
taking place, and the extension of markets and competition
forces on a planetary scale, put a great emphasis on the capacity
of firms to organise their roles in networks of producers.
Cities themselves are increasingly part of a growing web of
relations that spans the entire globe and that has come to be defined with the term globalisation
(Martinotti,
1993). In networks, each place can concentrate on its core competencies; the
production process is the outcome of competitive/collaborative

ORGANISING SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN HERITAGE CITIES

119

interaction between agents in a market environment


that is
highly flexible to suit changing tastes and exploit fast-growing
opportunities.
The conceptual definition of clusters is a refinement and a
specification of network organisations. Clusters may be defined
as geographically concentrated sets of relationships between organisations (public and private) in a certain industry, strongly
based on collaboration principles as an outcome of historical
and structural socio-economic linkages between agents. A clustered organisation of production typically leads to the rise of
positive technological and pecuniary externalities.
We can describe clusters according to the nature of the coalitions between the actors involved. Among co-operative clusters,
we can distinguish those clusters that are characterised by longlasting links between vertically-related
sectors, and those that
are based on more informal intra-industry relations.
The strategic alliance framework of vertical co-operation
assigns a great importance to common product development, to
strong and lasting ties between producers and suppliers, to infrastructural links between industries (transport, communication), to quality concerns. Efficiency in production and innovative product development are then favoured.
The rigidity of the production process (combined with flexibility in the functions and in the modes) allows the organisation
of a stable network (physical and immaterial) that connects all
the units of the process, increasing dramatically their capacity
to interact, learn, process information and approach the market.
A second organisational form of production peculiar of clusters is the horizontal (or flexible) co-operation taking place
between firms and agencies placed on the same level of the production process. At its highest degree, co-operation may imply
collusive behaviour and oligopolisitic price formation, but this
is not necessary and strategic alliances can be established also in
a competitive environment.

120

ANTONIOPAOLO

Russo

The quality of interpersonal relationships and the organisation of institutional


arrangements
(commissions,
technical
boards, workers committees, etc.) are functional
to the endurance of that organisational form, but flexible alliances have
to be seen more appropriately
as ecological organisms that
change in time and adapt to new situations.
The most important quality of this organisational
pattern
comes from its highly innovative and adaptive quality that is
transformed into location advantages for the site in question.
Proximity and concentration are more stringent requirements
than in the previous case, and a symmetry of the different units
on the horizontal level is not necessary: also small firms can
cooperage with the big and medium, co-ordinating the processes and specialising in certain tasks or niches.
The role of the public sector is very important in creating the
right conditions
for a co-operative
environment,
but other
agents like private parties, industrial organisations or universities can strongly influence this outcome.
It is worth mentioning - for the relevance it has in the tourist
industry - a third organisational
model which has recently
gained much attention. It is the diagonal-alliance
model, according to which economic units connected with particular
stages of different production
processes co-operate to realise
new complex products and services. Typically, it is the case of
the co-operation between producers and service providers traditionally serving different production chains, or of conglomerate diversification
involving local and non-local producers.
Growth occurring at the intersection of traditionally
separated and parallel sectors is one of the characteristics
of global
cities, on the edge of innovation in many fields. Needless to say,
the shrieking of product life cycles makes diagonal strategic alliances ever more frequent, as well as the extended communication opportunities allowed by the new technologies of information.

ORGANISING SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN HERITAGE CITIES

121

Obviously, more realistic forms of organisation of a cluster


derive from combinations of these three basic categories on different scales. Moreover, their evolution is consistent with the
different stages of the life cycle (Audretsch and Feldman, 1995).
In practice, flexible horizontal alliances and intra- industrial agglomeration prevail in the first stage of a industry life cycle, and
reflect in the emergence of a specialised urban production in the
city centre, where proximity and knowledge spillovers make a
difference.
The second stage, that of expansion, is associated to the establishment
of strong and stable inter-industrial
or vertical
links; this stage is marked by a dispersion of activities in the region, and a shift of R&D efforts to non-central and marginal
units. The last kind of strategic organisation, the diagonal alliance, is typical of the maturity stage of an industry life cycle,
when the urge for restructuring
and developing new market
lines is more evident and differentiation
across industries is the
key to innovation.
In general, clusters guarantee the development of a specialisation that can be spent in the regional organisation of production, in a sector in which the central city has a comparative advantage for proximity. At the same time they help to keep the
productive base diversified, because the know-how and the orgware developed in the sector can be reproduced as a service
supporting other sectors: that is, the small software companies
and graphic studios working for museums and opera theatres
can easily serve the press industry, the research institutions, or
even the banking and insurance sector.
In the case of the contemporary heritage cities, the clustered
organisation appears fundamental for the production of new
(sub)cultures, new media, advanced and intelligent hi-tech services and hi-touch design products, for the flexible and information-intensive nature that characterises these industries.

122

ANTONIO

4.7.3. The cultural


concept or reality?

cluster

PAOLO Russo

in heritage

cities:

We now focus on the peculiarities of the cities under issue.


In the case of heritage cities, we should consider whether a cluster of cultural activities is identifiable,
and to what extent, if
present, it is beneficial to urban sustainability.
The cultural sector comprehends (De Brabander and Gijsbrechts (1994), Jansen-Verbeke (1988)): cultural institutions such
as galleries and theatres, the performers and artists organisations, firms providing the technological infrastructures for exhibitions, software developers, data storage services, tour operators and travel agents, companies providing ticketing services
and promotion, educational institutions and schools, the public

I
,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

I I

i
t7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J

+
tourism producers (tour operators)
4

Distribution and commercialisation (travel agents, retail shops, banks, etc.)


4
tourism product
i

Fig. 4.1 - The fordist production

process

in an heritage

city

ORGANEINC

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN HERITAGE CITIES

123

offices in charge of cultural planning and the managers of cultural institutions, etc.
In cities like Venice or Salzburg we indeed observe a fair
amount of economic activities directed to city users other than
the residents, and in particular tourists. Restaurants, hotels, shops
of all sorts - from luxury boutiques to cheap souvenir vendors art galleries, agglomerate around central attractions and public
spaces and interfere with the residential function of the city.
Agglomeration
derives from the immobile nature of the
physical capital - the cultural heritage -, which is the primary
motivation for such a huge demand basin. Statistical analyses
confirm that culture-related activities are concentrated in urban
areas, and this concentration (contrary to other information-intensive industries) is increasing in time (e.g. Heilbrun, 1992).
But to what extent this agglomeration of activities in a limited space can be considered a cluster? And can it be considered
a cultural cluster?
Fig. 4.1 sketches the main relations in the tourist industry in
a heritage city and the role played by cultural activities - we
doubt it is even possible to define it a ct~ltural sector in itself.
In the upper part of the diagram the main industrial sectors
of the heritage city are represented, namely the tourist sector
(comprehending
the primary and secondary products and the
services, that we call a tourist facility because they are mainly
utilised by non-residents) and the other.
The primary product, the cultural heritage, is part and parcel of the tourist industry; production is limited to the exhibition function. Through the mediation of the intermediate producers (the tour operators) and the local distributors,
the
tourism product is assembled and commercialised.
Actually,
distribution
implies a certain degree of overlapping between
the tourist production and the residential functions, since it
uses premises and facilities that are originally intended to serve
the resident population.

-.-

124

ANTONIOPAOLORUSSO

The tourist product and the other products, thus, are partially coincident; in particular, the cultural product is a part of the
tourist product, though it is also consumed by citizens and other city users.
Cultural institutions are often managed by the public sector,
and depend on public budgets; their revenues are internalised
in the central or supra-local layers of government, while the indirect and induced impacts on the urban economy are ambiguous. Cultural sector practitioners and small businesses are seldom fully connected into mainstream small business support.
The peculiarity of this model is that feedback only pertains to
residents, who can influence or decide upon the pattern of urban products they desire with their vote and consumption
choices (for example, voting with their feet, as in the classical
framework of Tiebout (1956)). But for the largely overwhelming
tourist products and services there is not such possibility, both
for lack of consultation and representation mechanisms, and because market mediation is virtually absent. The demand basin
for an art city is so large that the aggregate demand for the
tourist good is almost inelastic.
The de facto disenfranchising of the urban dweller in the place
which is subject to global forces (Martinotti,
1993) eventually
leads to a cut of the economic and institutional mechanisms that
ensure the continuous correspondence between urban functions
and auto-generated demand. Disequilibrating
pressures are set
on as long as the residents tastes are not matched by the
(tourist) product offered, and there is a permanent leakage of
local population and firms from the city.
Even though we may figure that this process is not endless that is, under a certain social threshold over which the city
becomes less attractive for visitors - this macro feedback is
very slow to set in motion, and by the time is starts to produce
its effects the local economy may already be seriously harmed,
so that recovery is almost impossible.

ORGANISING SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN HERITAGE CITIES

125

The rigidity in the production process of tourism also depends on the lack of feedback between assemblers and distributors of the tourist product. In fact, while the latter are local,
atomised and partly unaware of belonging to the tourism industry, the former are structured, often non-local and sector-optimisers (Van der Borg et al., 1998).
The only part of the scheme in which there is a certain degree of informal networking is among secondary tourism producers. Rather than of a cultural cluster, we could talk of a local
network of tourist operators, whose degree of cooperativeness
is strictly limited to lobbying and organising itineraries, but has
little if any strategic meaning.
Networking
is virtually absent across levels (e.g. between
producers in different sectors, service suppliers and public administration) and within levels (e.g. between producers and distributors, between producers and assemblers).
In synthesis, these are the main elements of the model of industrial organisation that is observed in heritage cities:
the lackof micro feedback leads to an overall lack of flexibility
and competition in the urban production, be it tourist or not;
the lack of macro feedback favours the adverse selection for
quality in the tourism market, with the consequence of an
overall decline of attractivity of the destination;
the confusion between tourist products and other products
is the main engine of the process of leakage of non-tourist
activities and citizens out of the heritage city;
because of the lack of feedback, innovation in the tourist industry as a strategic opportunity to avoid the decline of the
life-cycle is poor.

In other words, the risk is high of entering the declining stage of the
tourist destination life cycle, described - among the others - by Butler (1980)
and van der Borg and Gotti (1995).

126

ANTONIOPAOLO

Russo

This framework leaves little scope to knowledge spillovers


and network economies typical of the industrial district. The organisation
of the cultural
production
resembles more the
fordist mass production model than the post-industrial
flexible, innovative and quality-optimising
environment of successful cities and regions in the global economy (Morgan 1992). In
the end, it is not suitable to face the challenges of the international competition and to maintain the comparative advantages
enjoyed by the heritage city. It is thus necessary to analyse what
are the weak parts in this model and to investigate how to
make it more sustainable.

4.7.4. Policy suggestions


The relations characterising a sustainable cultural cluster are
sketched in fig. 4.2.
Essentially, three categories of linkages have to be considered within the cultural industry and between the cultural industry and the rest of the urban economy.
The first (A in the horizontal block arrows) are the intra-industrial linkages among the actors in the cultural sector, defined before as strategic alliances.
Co-operation and process co-ordination
can be established
between the different fields of cultural production:
l
the traditional loci of cultural consumption;
l
the new producers, such as the visual and pop artists, the
roots cultures or ethnic producers and the creative industries of hi-tech and hi-touch, such as design, fashion, software developers, etc.;
l
the events industry, a whole set of mass-mediatic and logistic organisers which ranges from venue managers, to international consultants, congress and fairs organisers, and the
sports and leisure associations.

ORGANISINGSUSTAINABLETOURISMDEVELOPMENTIN HERITAGECITIES

127

The combinations
and linkages between these fields are a
variety, dictated by proximity advantages and the common development of a local know-how. For example, new technologies
are applied for the creation of services or products that are supplied together with the traditional visit to the cultural attrac-

pijggjq
strategic, global, command

cultural industry

tourism d&ibution, tourism agents,


commercial offices 01 museums. selling

Fig. 4.2 - The cultural

business sector and lacilities,

cluster

in heritage

cities

128

ANTONIOPAOLORUSSO

tions to greatly improve the cultural content (CD-ROMs, access


to remote archives, audio-visual and multimedia supports etc.).
The proximity
of these activities is fundamental,
for the
open circulation of the human skills from one sector to the other
and the reciprocal evolutionary contamination
it implies (observed in fast growing cultural district of global metropoles,
like the West End in London, the Village in N.Y., the former
eastern part of Berlin, etc.).
The second (B) are the vertical linkages identifying supplierproducer-consumer
co-operation
at any level of the chain of
value of local cultural production.
The relationships between producers and suppliers are characterised by collaboration, high quality orientation, just-in-time
supply arrangements and flexible product development.
The
mission of the production process comes to be shared with the
formation of partnerships
and multi-purpose
inter-industrial
organisations.
The third direction of clustering (C) regards the formation of
diagonal partnerships between the cultural industry and other
strategic sectors seeking to diversify their products to adapt
them to the local profitable conditions.
Typical examples are banks that co-operate with local small
producers of software to sell commercial tourist services, international press that informs and advertises upon a local fashionable scene, multinational
catering companies that enter the traditional restaurant market, etc. Such kind of informal collaborations can also be seen from the other way round as successful
efforts of local producers to reach a global audience through an
international projection.
Once identified
the potentially
fruitful relations between
agents of the local economy, we turn to look at the policies that
may favour cluster formation.
Promote

concentration.

While

fast-growing

regional

ORGANISINGSUSTAINABLETOURISMDEVELOPMENTIN HERITAGECITIES

129

economies attract services and infrastructure,


it seems that urban centres are not able to retain any of the activities that may
be interesting for the establishment
of network co-operation
and knowledge spillover.
A strategy should be implemented to give producer services
- especially if interesting for the cultural specialisation of the
city of art - the opportunity to find locations in the city centres,
offering financial incentives and creating the structural premises (infrastructured
and easily accessible lots, highly flexible
land use regulations, etc.). The restructuring of former industrial areas close to the city centre and their reconversion to cultural facilities or highly equipped areas is a fundamental element
of planning policies.
Promote knowledge creation and circulation.
Sub-cultures
and new-cultures should integrate the educational programmes
of high-schools and human science academies; business applied
to arts and non profit institutions should receive due attention.
Moreover, university research should be directly linked with
the urban production and provides a continuous input in terms
of best practices and innovative management models. R&D in
the same fields should be publicly supported to sustain urban
growth; organic links should be organised between policies on
culture and policies on training, education, research and development (Bianchini, 1993).
A public policy for patent protection in the development of
new cultural products and the delivery of innovative services,
though limiting the extent of competition, can increase the stimuli for innovation and foster the realisation of advanced organisational forms between producers and institutions. Knowledge
circulation is also favoured by information
diffusion and by a
flexible labour regulation with incentives to firms and workers.
Promote competition.

Innovation

is stimulated

in a competi-

130

ANTONIO PAOLO Russo

tive environment. In the heritage city, rents and monopolistic position are created by the proximity to the primary product and by
the restricted and immobile nature of the central land supply.
It is therefore desirable to attack monopolistic
practices by
favouring a virtual access to the central tourist product (e.g.
through the organisation of electronic malls and kiosks), promoting the diffusion of the primary product to peripheral and
depressed areas (e.g. a policy of decentralisation of the museum
supply, organisation of provincial itineraries), and controlling
for the quality of the product offered by central activities, in
such a way that location advantages are not translated into increases of the price/ quality ratio.
Promote co-operation. Being the case of a sector dominated
by a very large number of micro-businesses and self-employed,
focusing on products rather than businesses, the organisations of
cultural tourism producers tend to be highly unstable, and
planning is not found at the industry level.
The government,
or any initiator of a policy change of
strategic city marketing, can do little to promote co-operation if
the local environment is poorly co-operative or if there exist a
strong asymmetry
between suppliers and producers on one
side and producers and consumers on the other. It is also difficult, if possible, to incentive and reward the delivery of complex and innovative products respect to banal and low added
value products.
Governmental tasks can be hardly more than organisational,
still there are many things that can be done and actions to be
taken in the field of information
and marketing. The local authorities should be able to enact a policy of city marketing directed to the local actors, aiming at developing a common vision of the citys mission from an analysis of the threats and
opportunities that it faces.
They must convince all actors influencing
the path of

ORGANISINGSUSTAINABLETOURISMDEVELOPMENTIN HERITAGECITIES

131

tourism - and, more generally of urban - development that a


sustainable growth is convenient for all of them in the long
term. At the same time, they must convince the city users of the
credibility of such policy change.
Promote the local ownership of cultural production
and
consumption facilities. Vertical and diagonal integration in the
cultural industries means that many forms of cultural provision
are owned by large companies. As a consequence, small record
companies, that often act as R&D centres in the music industry,
spotting and cultivating new trends and styles, are eventually
affiliated to the major multinationals.
The resulting problem is
that cultural production and consumption are increasingly externally owned and controlled, thus failing to achieve the regeneration objective for a locality (Williams 1997).
Then much emphasis will need to be spent to considering
ways in which locally owned indigenous enterprises can be
supported and developed; at the same time denser inter-industrial linkages will result, with increasing employment multipliers (indirect and induced).
Organising a network of cultural producers and linking it to
the commercial tourist structure by means of a soft advancedbooking apparatus (exploiting for instance fibre-optics technology) is a good example of a policy programme
with good
chances to achieve a number of objectives.
In fact, that would: (i) enable a visitor management strategy
based on decentralisation, peak smoothing and on-line interactive marketing; (ii) allow a more strict control of local regulators
over the tourist resources and facilitate forecasts and strategic
actions (Di Monte, Scaramuzzi, 1997); (iii) increase the quality
content of the product sold and erode proximity-advantages,
improving the competitive environment; (iv) incentive co-operation between agents at different stages of the chain of value of

132

ANTONIO PAOLO Russo

cultural tourism; (v) favour the development of a local industry


of telecommunication-related
operations (cable production,
telecom engineering, software development).
On the other hand, the only drawback might be that opening
the local market there are greater chances that non-local operators may enter (e.g. tour operators, real estate agents), facilitated by the possibility of remote operations. But that might not be
a negative fact after all, if the activated diagonal linkages also
work in the other direction and allow local producers to easily
approach outside markets.

4.1.5. Final remarks


A strategic marketing process that guarantees the maximum
impact of the cultural production on the local economy, as well
as a long-run consistency with the tourism orientation of the
heritage cities, should be based on the following steps:
Investigate the present opportunities.
A local economy can
display strengths, but to translate them into real opportunities there must be a comparative advantage respect to competing economies or tourist destinations. Therefore, to succeed in
creating a cluster of culture-related activities, the actors of local
development
will have to promote and improve the location
factors for which the city is less endowed respect to other cities,
i.e. the quality of life, the environmental
quality, the quality of
infrastructure, etc.
Developing a vision and an idea of integral product. Only if
a common knowledge of the desired development of the local
economy is shared by all the actors involved, the divergences
upon means are minimised, and the decision-making
process is
initiated in the most effective way. Moreover, a shared belief in

ORGANISINGSUSTAINABLETOURISMDEVELOPMENTIN HERITAGECITIES

133

the mission of the place is the best way to ensure continuity


to the policy cycle.
Organising
the missing
links. According
to Kooiman
(1993), to keep up with the complexity of the modern organisation of society, the governance scheme should reproduce the dynamic, complex and diverse character of the decision making
process. This requires a great deal of organisational ability and
flexibility of the new-style public managers. The missing links
in the scheme of the organisation of the cultural sector, namely,
horizontal and feedback links, should be organised by stimulating the creation of institutions where ideas circulate, giving incentives to co-operation, promoting customer audits and providing a technical support for the creation of integrated data-bases.
Create adequate institutions
to support the reorganised system. The traditional governmental institutions, with fragmented powers on a horizontal and vertical scale, will no further be
adequate to represent the interests and to second the dynamics
of the local society, A re-design of governmental institutions is
needed - of a kind that steer more than they row (Osborne
and Gabler, 1992) - to overcome the usual territorial division
and lack of co-ordination of the local governments, and to fully
take into account the interests of market forces, although it
must be clear from the above that they should not be only led
by market calculus.
Yet, the policy change that these steps imply is far from
automatically
achievable. The inner dynamics of tourism, and
the strength of consolidated interests, make it very difficult for
policy makers to start this new cycle. The organising capacity of
the policy leader is the issue, and it is by no means something
that can be given for granted.
A scheme that represents in the appropriate
way the re-

134

ANTONIOPAOLO Russc

quirements of a policy change in strategic planning has been


developed by Van den Berg, Braun and Van der Meer (1997).
These authors define as organising capacity the ability to enlist
all actors involved, and with their help generate new ideas and develop
and implement a policy designed to respond to fundamental changes
and create conditions for sustainable development. According to the
theoretical framework of organising capacity, the factors which
determine the success of modern cities in the complex, dynamic
and differentiated
socio-economic
environment
of today require the ability to create strategic networks as a means to replicate that complexity in the governance scheme.
Our conclusive reflection is that with increasing local and international competition, less and less the problems of tourism
development in sensitive urban areas are solved in the domain
of tourism alone. For its nature, tourism is inextricably linked
with the urban economy as a whole, from many points of view:
spatially, culturally, functionally, semiotic. Therefore, it seems a
very bad idea to insist in regulating the only sector of the economy that (a) is internally successful and (b) is global.
Rather, the key to a successful strategy for a sustainable
tourism development stands in exploiting in the most adequate
way the short-term economic potential of tourism to improve
the performance of the industries that can support the success
of tourism itself in the long-term. The strategic information-intensive industries that are becoming increasingly important in
the organisation and commercialisation
of the cultural product
are the obvious candidate to this role.

ORGANISINGSUSTAINABLETOURISMDEVELOPMENTIN HERITAGE CITIES

135

References
Audretsch D.B., Feldman M.P. (1995), Inrzouative clusters and the industry life cycle, CEPR Discussion paper series, no. 1161, London.
Bianchini F. (1993), Culture, conflicts and cities: issues and prospects
for the 199Os, in Cultural policy and urban regeneration: the West European experience, ed. by Franc0 Bianchini and Michael Parkinson,
Manchester University Press, Manchester.
De Brabander G. and Gijsbrechts E. (1994), Cultural Policy and Urban
Marketing, a General Framework and some Antwerp Experiences,
in: G. Ave and F. Corsica (eds.), Urban Marketing in Europe, Turin,
Torino Incontra, pp. 814-841.
Di Monte G., Scaramuzzi I. (eds.) (1997), Una provincia ospitale, II Mulino, Bologna.
Heilbrun J. (1992), Art and Culture as Central Place Functions, in Lluban Studies, Vol. 29 (2), pp. 205-215.
Jansen-Verbeke M. (1988), Leisure, recreation and tourism in inner cities,
KU Nijmegen (Nederlandse Geografische Studies n. 58).
Kooiman J. (1993), Modern governance, SAGE, London.
Martinotti G. (1993), Metropoli. La nuova morfologia sociale della citta,
il Mulino, Bologna.
Osborne D., Gaebler T. (1992), Reinventing the governmenf, Reading,
MA.
Russo A. (1998), Organising sustainable tourism development in heritage
cities, Working Paper EURICUR, 98/02, Rotterdam.
Tiebout, C. M. (1956) A Pure Theory of Local Expenditures,
in ]ournal of Political Economy, 64(3), pp. 416-24.
Van den Berg L., Braun E., Van der Meer J. (1997), Metropolitan organising capacity: experiences with organising major projects in European
Cities, Ashgate, Aldershot.
Van der Borg J., Gotti G. (1995), Tourism
and cities of art,
UNESCO/ ROSTE Technical Report n. 20, Venice.
Van der Borg J., Minghetti V., Russo A. (1998), La diffusione delle tecnologie informatiche e telematiche nellindustria turistica italiana, Quaderno
CISET n. 20 / 98, Universith di Venezia
Van der Borg J., Russo A. (1997), Lo sviluppo turistico di Venezia: analisi

136

ANTONIOPAOLO Russo

territoriale e scenari di sostenibilitri, Working Paper FEEM n. 07197.


Williams C.C. (1997), Consumer services and economic development, Routledge, London and New York.

137

4.2 Meeting

Needs in Heritage Cities

Priscilla Boniface

4.2.1. Introduction

and definitions

The essence of the city, in its traditional and European format, is that it is a gathering point of functions and of those people involved with them. It is a communications
centre, deriving
from the functions having arisen and been in dialogue, and/or
because it was - and is - a good place of transportation convergence. Significant and needing to be recognised in finding ways
to conduct well the management of tourism in heritage cities
are: that tourism is likely to be but one specific endeavour
among a citys roles; that a citys historicity can be only one of
its aspects needing to be addressed. The contemporary viability
and vibrancy of a city rests upon a balance and interaction - as
well as satisfaction as far as possible - of the needs of: the citys
material fabric; its citizens; its other users and stakeholders.
Consider first the key words of management, tourism, and heritage cities. Management is, or ought to be, the outcome from an
earlier process. This is a process of strategic assessment and
thinking, and from thence, decisions about suitable policy, and
there forward to formulation
of plans of implementation.
Of
these last, management will form the structure and method of
operation. Clearly, essential to right choices being made and
procedures being established is that the best information possible serves as the basis of beginning.
Tourism is a phenomenon and an industry and so is complex and encompasses much. The dimensions in relation to the
historic city include the general industry players involved such
as tour operators, and those among the accommodation,
trans-

138

PRISCILLABONIFACE

portation and attractions sectors, together with founders and


grant-donors to tourism initiatives and activities. The tourist to
the historic city might, in a simplistic way, be seen as one market distinguished by the tendency to spend time away in a city
with historic features but the reality is of much more divisible
segments. This separation can be: first, by basic characteristics
such as whether the stay is overnight(s) or a visit in a day; or alternatively, by the generalised division of whether travellers are
actually interested or motivated by the citys historic elements
or if they merely regard them as a presence drawing no direct
interest and even being looked upon as a nuisance.
Definitions of heritage are difficult to agree, and so perhaps
the more so heritage cities. Probably a generalised acceptance of
what is meant by heritage cities is held even if an actual definition is difficult. At the World Heritage Site level, of course UNESCO in identifying cities or significant parts of them to be on
the World Heritage List takes the responsibility
and strongly
implies that the relevant choices on the List are heritage cities Venice for example. Such cities are supposedly of universal value, albeit with a sneaking suspicion existing of a bias, especially
hitherto, due to background and context of circumstance, being
towards those places which represent what the western world
most esteems.
Heritage cities are probably traditionally
seen as those urban
places of which their history and the resulting old built fabric
are well known and which perhaps the two joined together are
regarded as the citys main claim to fame in outsiders eyes. A
further characteristic
of heritage cities is that their peak of
prominence, in perception, is likely to be seen as having been
past and in the past rather than current or to be in the future.
Because the past is the prominent element in these cities image,
the past, provided
adequate physical remnants exist to be
viewed, is the most probable reason for these cities to be visited.
Among the category are large numbers of cities of former glory

MEETING NEEDS IN HERITAGECITIES

139

in Europe ranging from Arles to Bergen, Florence, Istanbul,


Lubeck, St Petersburg and Toledo. All these examples embrace
World Heritage Sites within them.
Of course most capital cities of the world contain heritage or
historic districts - and a many of them, like Athens, Brussels,
Budapest, London, Paris and Rome, contain World Heritage
Sites -but while the old aspects are an attraction, the important
present role means that being heritage cities is not their sole
character. Also, and importantly,
as key centres capital cities
tend to have the resources and facilities to be able to cater for
tourists attending their heritage features because the heritage is
not the only feature of attraction. Therefore, they can handle the
tourism activity without the visitors overwhelming
the place
functionally or visually.
Most - if not all - cities across the globe have some sort of
heritage in the make-up. Far from all of them are viewed,
though, as heritage cities - e.g. those cities whose heritage is
seen as their main function and claim upon outside attention.
This can mean one of two things. One is that they are not attracting such numbers of visitors for them to represent a management problem or to create an imbalance of function among
others in the place. The other is that they are suffering the difficulties of tourism, and management of it, which are undergone
by heritage cities, but that due to their choice or lack of resources they are not making the feature known. Of course,
these heritage cities may be those most needful of the help of
successful counterpart experience, help, advice and guidelines
in contending with tourists and other needs. A further group of
unknown heritage cities are those which would heartily welcome more visitors - post-industrial
and other cities in economic or social decline are cases in point. It should be recognised
that cities which have lost a prime function may be glad to substitute a function as a heritage city.
In being helped to attract visitors and make their perhaps

140

PRISCILLABONIFACE

differently inviting kind of historicity appealing to tourists to,


for example, a picturesque medieval burg, such cities can play
their part not only in their own revival but in drawing visitor
attention from heritage cities which are beyond their carrying
capacity of visitors. Part of the ability to manage tourism in individual historic cities, and the capacity to deliver greater benefits from the process than disadvantages
(costs), depends on
our readiness and will to alter our mind-sets to perceive and include others as among candidates as tourist-historic
cities - to
borrow the useful phrase of Ashworth and Tunbridge (1990).

4.2.2. Analysing

functions and needs

The role of the city in the customary western form is to hold


functions. Its potential decline and death is when its range of
functions ceases to exist or are not equally addressed. As Marshall McLuhan already opined thirty years ago - when historic
city visiting was far less a major and mass activity than now the city no longer exists except as a cultural ghost for tourists
(1969: 12). We know instinctively
that cities sole endeavour
should not be tourism - otherwise McLuhans polemical pronouncement will have been shown to be true. For its continued
survival the city needs to cater to its traditional fundamental
features of being a centre and vessel of a mass of functions but,
most importantly,
the roles it should be serving now must be
contemporary
and relevant rather than those archaic and redundant ones.
If the success of a city relies on being multi-functional
and
balanced, then tourism when present in a city needs to be treated as one among the functions and to be regarded in context.
Should the city of which tourism is a feature be old and perhaps
unique in its appearance and historic fabric, then an extra facet
is involved and needs to be addressed. Management of heritage

MEETING NEEDS IN HERITAGECITIES

141

cities relies upon the accurate analysis of the particular situation


of a city and of how it wants to regard tourism as one among
possible or existing functions or options. It is a truism to say
that each historic city engaged in tourism, or wanting to engage
in tourism, is different. To help policy decision and management in the different circumstances,
an ideal is to deliver a
mechanism of common application to help identify and decide
the best way to proceed.
Here it is suggested that a method of general deployment is
an audit of the needs of main city participants and actors. The
idea of this activity is to identify common areas of perspective
and skeins of interest to serve as foundations to develop more
areas of agreement, and to provide starting points to move towards the definition and drawing up of agreed and integrated
plans of approach which reflect the historic citys whole contemporary state of function. In Fig. 4.3 likely categories of players are given with their probable general wants in the historic
city that is engaged in tourism. In Fig. 4.4 the players are indicated with those aspects that they are likely to wish to avoid. In
the Figures, the city participants put forward are those that will
probably always be constant to the heritage city so their categories can be the basis of the method of approach for non-particularised use. The matters suggested as wanted or not wanted
are regarded as among the most likely, but clearly they are only
indicative since every situation must vary.
To look at some of the needs and undesirables as depicted in
the Figures and to consider also those which are underlying or
that are also known and identified, the start should be with the
distinctive element to the tourism in heritage city situation, the
heritage item itself. Its needs are various (Boniface 1995: 41-54). A
citys heritage critical needs, for its conservation, are recognition
and attention, understanding and appreciation, and funding.
The travel industry needing a feature of attraction to tourists
and of reliability for medium- or long- term planning and in-

142

PRECILLA BONIFACE

vestment, city fathers needing a distinctive and lucrative aspect


for, respectively, imaging and economic development,
and to
harbor local community
pride and well-being: both need the
presence and continuity of the citys heritage feature.
Hence, here is common ground between participating
dimensions upon which to start a dialogue of co-operation to preserve the item which both need. The tourists too are attracted
by the aspects of uniqueness, fascination, and distinctive aura
that a citys particular heritage domain provides. This can be so
whether the tourist is impelled towards the heritage directly or
simply regards it as a pleasant quality and aspect of environment for presence while other tourism goals are pursued. In
any instance, an over-abundance
of direct tourist attention is
counterproductive
to the needs of a physical heritage item in
that its level of sustainability will have been exceeded.
Good management is the essential input to the endeavour of
heritage in knowing ways of achieving maximum public visibility while staying within bounds set for achieving conservation.
The decision to be reached in this found arena of common
ground is where, and with what balance of emphasis, responsibility lies for funding the preservation of a citys heritage. Visitors can be seen by certain factions as a source of some funding
but, as research into the area by the Tourism Consultancy
(Cook 1998) has shown, there are dilemmas. One aspect is that
while putting supplements for conservation automatically on to
tourists bills, opt-out is seen as likely to raise more sums and
be easier to administer than voluntary on-site contribution by
visitors. Commercial enterprises may be concerned that markets might resent products which have been priced to include
the conservation subsidy or be deterred from buying them altogether.
It can frequently be seen that the host and tourist are destined to conflict, and that they do not share ground. Yet there
are ways of dialogue (Boniface 199813) and areas of potential

MEETING NEEDS IN HERITAGECITIES

143

meeting between these and other participants, as the Figures reveal. Perhaps the important bond to build on between tourist
and host in relation to the city is in their common need that it
should have a good range of facilities for use and attractions for
attendance and also the general wish to be in an environment of
quality and stimulation. When tourism becomes over-intrusive
as a facet of a heritage city, the community quality of life, rather
than being enhanced and stimulated, can become reduced as is
the threat to residents of the major crescent in the World Heritage City of Bath in the UK (Boniface 1994: 106). As well as
among types of tourist markets, varieties of viewpoint may be
revealed between groups within an overall city community. As
an example, the business sectors - those relying on tourism for
business and those which do not - may see tourism differently
and place different scales of value upon it.

Figure 4.3 - WANTS


local
residenfs

l----r
conservatron
funding
attention
l

public
* specidist

difference
stimulation
& variety
quality & safe
environment

good housing

local
business

Notional

Govemmenf

Transnafional
org. (e.g

Dave/
hdushy

Researchers
and
Educators

UNESCO,
ElII
profit

good transport viability

quality&safe
good transport environment
& accessibility
from place
good shoppry
of orrgin
a range of
activitv

local
Government

,distinctiveness

tatus

&ainability

)rofit

1ncome

iability

iability

xsured
xoduct and
ifrastructure

good transpor t (community


+&being
communrty
acceptance

ultural
listinction

data
collection
information
dissemination

:ommunity

UPPOrt

& paMpants

:ustomer
atisfaction

to global
communty
of academics
& policy
makers

to

tourists

Figure 4.4 - NOT WANTS


hfist0ricCity
Fabric

i(jnorance
it s existante

of

local
business

Tourists

Naionai
Govemmenf

Jnviability

i Jnviability

I drain of

Ciestruction

clichd

?bbs and

ack of

similarity

Iows in

jistinctiveness

low-quality

rading

I(lck of

low-quality

environnment

fr JndinQ

environment

and facilities

and facilities
ir reparable
Clamage

local
Govemmenf

a single
boredom

of

familiairty

function

ncome

of

ource

of

#hame
zommunity
dissatisfaction

activity
resident

iuality

hostility or

fluctuations

antipathy

in viable

spoilatron
aura &

of a place

atmosphere
of a place

l(ock of

or

IC)ss or

Study to

of

for

Il3s of

a letriment
0 distrinctive

k nowledge

c:ultural items

PNroduct or

Crnd render

ir7 global

a IDiaction

to

:ommunity

flJrther

c rdvice &
tl ,aining

C ustomer
t ruman

d issatisfaction

Crbsence
rrde or
Usefulness

existence

atmosphere

U nvrability

i )ortfolio
lissatisfaction

of

aura &

Researchers
and
Educatofs

Clistinctive

Suffering

oecral

sporlation

,umber
:ustomers
or

focus of

xs of

ock of

fravel
Industty

Inaterial

esoruces
nsufficient

Tmnsnaiionai
erg. (e.g
UNESCO,
EU)

of

146

PRISCILLABONIFACE

Concerning the community


specifically, and in relation to
tourism in the city, Jamal and Getz are, too, recommending
finding points of same concern as a way forward. The approach
of community-based
visioning, they argue, could provide a
flexible mechanism for enabling community members to develop a better awareness of interdependence and an appreciation
of jointly held values, needs, and aspirations (1997: 217).
Among areas of common ground revealed in the information detailed in Figures 4.3 and 4.4 are those in the sectors of national and local government and the travel industry. Local government and the travel industry have the shared objective, albeit doubtless for variegated reasons, of wanting a contented
and supportive community. Tourists, naturally, will be uncomfortable in a destination where the locals are unfriendly and unwelcoming (Robinson 1998).
Transnational
organisations
concerned with cultural matters, such as UNESCO and the European Union [EU], will wish
to see cultures protected amid a community in a way to ensure
the cultures continuation
and protection.
They will want a
citys viability in the same way that local and national governments will wish it, and as local businesses will want it to. The
sources of motivation will differ among some of these in that
while local businesses will be concerned with viability for immediate financial reasons, local and national governments will
require viability to avoid the broad problems for themselves
and demands upon them of community
unviability,
and
transnational organisations will have societys welfare and enhancement to the fore in their thoughts in wanting viability as
the necessary climate for cultures and heritages to be preserved.
Underpinning
and helping the process of getting groups together are information,
knowledge and understanding
of the
different standpoints and priorities of sectors. Researchers and
educators have the professional role of obtaining that which is
suitable information and making it available. Most among such

MEETING NEEDS IN HERITAGECITIES

147

information
gatherers and disseminators, unless they are employed to serve a sectional interest, will deliver data that is as
objective in its style as it is possible to achieve or expect.
The facility of access to information and data sources needs
to be offered by city participants in their own immediate interests. Need of information
is encountered by tourists to avoid
harm by ignorance of a heritage resource or of offence to the
communities
of a city. Equally, hosts and planners need to
know the calibre of their heritage product and the style of the
markets for the product and also to understand how tourism
fits among their other city functions and duties.
Therefore, heritage city participants have a meeting point in
requiring sufficient amount and quality of information towards
serving their needs. Educators, of course, serve the vital training need in the range of areas within heritage, tourism, and urban affairs. Academics customarily
have an interest in their
subject of investigation in its own right and beyond its immediate uses and applications.
They are well equipped to help
spread acquired knowledge and to establish and contribute to
networks so that cities information is shared and exchanged to
overall benefit. Academics share the wider objective with the
relevant transnational organisations, as exemplified again are
UNESCO and the EU.
Figures 4.3 and 4.4 reveal a way of identifying
aspects in
common among city actors. To demonstrate the method of approach, probable city players have been presented and, in
columns beneath, the features the players might want and not
want are shown. Some among the gatherings of shared interest
have been specifically identified and discussed as more likely
and relevant to the heritage city scene. These features are perceived as probable to most heritage city circumstances. They
should not, however, be regarded as exclusive or prescriptive.
As has been emphasised, each heritage-city circumstance produces its particular aspects which are wanted and not wanted.

148

PRISCILLABONIFACE

The items the Figures provide for the actors are generalised too,
whereas the outlined process in individual
application would
need to deliver more specific, detailed and deep information to
be really useful.

4.2.3. Catering to core identified needs


With the aid of the mechanism of approach which Figures 1
and 2 portray, certain basic overall needs can be identified
which could reasonably be expected to be held in common even though not necessarily for the same reasons - by most if
not all players in a heritage-city in a situation where tourism is
present or is planned to be present. These meeting grounds can
be summarised as:
l

The need to preserve the means of attraction and for it to


be distinctive
l
conserving the resource which is the attraction and promoting and presenting its particular distinctive character
The need to have a quality environment
and milieu overall, and of a nature to be reliable
l
offering a variety of facilities and items of stimulation
l
providing an amount and variety of transport to dovetail
with the requirements of the historic fabric, tourist and
resident
The need for community
viability
and contentment in an
ongoing way and on a regular basis - and so not to be dependent on any one activity
l
involving key representatives among the community
in
the wide process of tourism
l
managing tourism activity to be as balanced as possible

MEETING NEEDS IN HERITAGECITIES

149

across time and to be as much a part of the communitys


everyday life as possible
ensuring that many other activities proceed alongside
tourism

The need for information


gathering and communication
l
conducting sufficient research into historic city destinations
l
informing the tourists about the place and circumstances
in which they are visitors and about choices of attractions
available to them
l
telling and training businesses and communities what to
expect in the visitor
l
a system of continuous monitoring to feed into planning
l
exchanging and disseminating
information
and experience among destinations.

Critical needs can be summarised as being those in the areas


of: delivering a heritage city with a multiplicity
of roles: of seeing that the function of tourism is integrated among the other
city functions rather than having a stronger emphasis and profile than the rest; of delivering the citys heritage as representing a special and distinctive feature; of not regarding a citys
portfolio of heritage products as stationery; of positively organising flows and attendances of tourists, and, as tool of efficacy towards objectives, using transport; of imbuing adequate
knowledge where it is required.
Now in more detail some of these points will be discussed in
relation to actual heritage cities beginning with Venice. The city
has an undue focus upon tourism (Sudjic 1992: 267). It is seen as
being over its visitor carrying-capacity
(Page 1995: 146-153); to
the detriment
of certain among its most popular and well
known historic attractions; to put undue pressure on locals in
some areas; - and as an additional dimension visitors are being

150

PRISCILLABONIFACE

attracted in wrong proportions


to meet local business needs.
Page emphasises that carrying capacity can be judged on physical or ecological or social terms, and Venice can be seen as being flooded in every way.
The international
community
recognised Venices unique
and perishable condition, with such as UNESCO at the helm
spearheading the effort of publicity and attention. However, as
Ashworth and Tunbridge define (1990; 18-19), outside intervention is ineffective without national, regional, provincial and local
planning reflecting the concern and carrying ideas through to
implementation.
Hooper (1998) reports how the demography of
the historic part of Venice is altering as outsiders purchase second homes and to render dwellings too expensive to locals (a familiar outcome when a place enters into tourisms too strong
grip), and his reminder is that Venice, in encompassing Mestre
on the mainland, is represented by more than its historic area.
Clearly, transport is a critical dimension in historic Venice,
and while the necessary travel by boat is picturesque to the eye
and fun for tourists it may be more of a nuisance to daily life. It
is not perhaps very appealing to contemporary businesses other
than those related to tourism. If the need were agreed to produce a greater spread of tourists across the historic part of
Venice, clearly the accessibility, positioning, frequency and relative costs of boat transport are relevant towards the objective.
Say, for example, points of embarkation
for zqmretti, were
moved, so too ought tourist runs to change correspondingly.
Were no ferry-boats to go near a major attraction, its number of
visitors would be likely to reduce. Price differentials
are also
useful for management: if, for example, it were made extremely
expensive to travel along certain overused routes and to alight
at much-peopled
destinations, whereas to travel and visit less
peopled places was commensurately less expensive, a change in
the pattern of tourist deployment could be triggered in desired
directions. The simple device of developing a new and enticing

MEETING NEEDS IN HERITAGECITIES

151

visitor feature in a less frequented part of Venice could also


cause quite dramatic change of usage among the historic city.
Of course, a critical dimension to making changes and managing is awareness. A tourist, or resident, cannot visit somewhere if they do not know about it, and so making information
available, and at the place and in the form that the relevant audience will absorb it, is a necessary action of the provider. Overall, Venices defect is that it has lost its energy and range of dimensions and it has the particular difficulty that its fabric is especially strongly threatened. The conclusion is that city is not
being replenished with new facets overall and provided with
new attractions for stimulating tourists and residents.
Many of the symptoms Venice features - often acutely - are
experienced by other cities. Athens as a capital city is large
enough to accommodate tourism as only one function among
its various activities and for tourism to not be omni-present
overall. However, the care and conservation needs of its most
famous historic attraction, the Acropolis, which is a World Heritage Site, are manifestly
not being conducted as well they
could be. Similarly the tourists need of the site are being underrealised.
Not even the need of the commercial dimension is being met
very well, both through the quality inadequacy of food and
souvenir outlets around the Acropolis and through the missed
opportunities for allowing, albeit in a suitably low-key and high
standard way, retail of guidebooks
and other appropriate
goods to be retailed at, or in the environs of, the site. Visitors
clearly lack sufficient information when touring the ruins of the
Acropolis. The site need and a visitor need common ground
are depicted through the opinion of Ashworth and Tunbridge
(1990: 53) in their words, It is difficult to experience much aesthetic pleasure when visitors are crocodiled in continuously
moving unbroken columns along roped channels, shepherded
by guards with whistles.

152

PRISCILLABONIFACE

With more enlightened and changing movement and dispersal of visitors about the hill of the Acropolis, no one individual
piece would need to suffer more unduly that another and each
could be afforded a period of rest. Elsewhere, visitor vehicles
can present a visual intrusion, whereas here the main pollutant
on the eye is the intense and ill-distributed
visitor volume.
Venice, because it is bounded and permeated by water, reveals the importance of the transport dimension on one particular way. In many historic cities visited by tourists, transport is
shown to be a critical presence.
Transport decisions are significantly
important
towards
meeting the needs of place, resident and visitor. Regarding tour
buses, for example, historic city areas by their nature are unlikely to be instrinsically
equipped to accommodate them. If these
are allowed into an area which was built for an earlier way of
life and a smaller-scale of transport, the buses visually intrude
and their fumes do no good to the historic fabric. If buses are relinquished at the areas edge, they intrude visually as a group,
not to say may help create a boundary between a tourist area
and resident areas which is not conducive to the city and its facilities being shared and used as a whole among people. A
ubiquitous
solution to transporting
tourists round a historic
area is to carry them in small trains of carriages pulled by an
engine vehicle.
The mechanism may offer less visual pollution in one sense
but it again delivers a presence of make believe and otherness
to a historic area and so provides a semblance to it of a theme
park rather than a real place. As another idea, the Danish capital Copenhagen encourages bicycle use in its centre (Boniface
1996: 53) by providing stands of bikes which can be released for
use by the insertion of a coin. On depositing the bike at the
stand or at another, a coin refund is obtained. As has been
stressed already, transport must be used as a management tool.
Choices about transport towards achieving agreed objectives

MEETING NEEDS IN HERITAGECITIES

153

concern what types of vehicle to allow or not, in which places


and not, and which among methods should be provided as
public - and for what charge if any -, and which should be left
for private provision.
Cities that are historic and undervisited, or that have undervisited areas as a portion, are showing methods of meeting the
need of attracting visitors or of changing where they go in a
city. An essential way, of which the city of Bilbao (Boniface
1998: 28) offers a prime example, is to deliver a unique and visually arresting and enticing item, in the instance the new
Guggenheim Museum (even if the brand is drawn from elsewhere). Historic cities, indeed all cities, are all essentially different in some way: in competing with other venues, however,
they do not always present and promote their distinctiveness.
In Tyneside in the UK, cities facing each other across the River
Tyne and vying for attention are Newcastle and Gateshead. The
one is relying on heritage, of which it has some superb examples, to be the direct city attraction,
whereas the other,
Gateshead, is only using its heritage as a focus and starting
point with the provision of an arts factory in an old flour mill
(Boniface 1996: 95) around which will be ranged new cultural
attractions on the old quayside newly designated Gateshead
Quays.
These initiatives are intended to bring in tourists - not least
because, unlike Venice for example, Tyneside has massive spare
carrying capacity. They also have in view the wide needs of
their cities and stakeholders to bring about revival and economic and social development.
Even the most appealing historic
city, in the lesson which theme parks teach, has to recognise
that if it wants to meet its needs of being visited and revisited,
while keeping its citizens stimulated and supportive, it ought to
provide new interest and diversion
in its midst. Nimes, a
French city of Roman origin, has a major attraction at its heart
in its very well-preserved Roman temple but, it has daringly re-

154

PRISCILLABONIFACE

freshed itself and its image by the provision, in juxtaposition to


the temple, of a pronouncedly modern contemporary art centre
of galleries and mediatheque (Boniface 1995: 31 and 59).
Rotterdam has historic portions but none which are so special or distinctive to compete with other alternatives such as
Hollands capital city of Amsterdam
or the smaller town of
Delft. It is in the category of under-visited cities and its generally accepted need is for more tourists in part of a strategy for
economic revival of the city. Richards reports (1996: 236) that
water, architecture and culture were decided as the items of
attractions. The city has followed the line of developing new attractions - though with the existing museum as the starting
point - to form a Museum Park holding the unique and internationally known new Netherlands Architecture
Centre and an
Art Gallery complex designed by avant-garde Dutch architect
Rem Koolhaas (Boniface 1995: 59). The distinctive dimension to
Rotterdam is that it is trying to be inclusive. This is firstly in
creating a pool of common need in embarking on the promotion Rotterdam Delta which Van den Berg, Van der Borg and
Van der Meer (1995: 180) report stands for the whole attractions and sights which Rotterdam represents. Secondly, it is
trying to be more enveloping
still and produce integration
through policy to deliver a complete town. . for citizens and
visitors (ibid: 182). Van den Berg et al. argue that the philosophy is that such measures may enhance Rotterdams attractive:
ness as a location for high-grade economic activities (ibid: 183).

4.2.4. Acting on group needs


The usefulness of identifying groups of needs which various
heritage city players share when tourism is a feature of presence has been indicated. A method has been portrayed in Figures 4.3 and 4.4 for placing and identifying needs and so reveal-

MEETING NEEDS IN HERITAGECITIES

155

ing where common purposes lie. Certain needs to be expected


to be held by several players have been picked out and their
significance in the effective operation of the city has been depicted. Outcomes for planning and on the ground action will
now be shown.
As indicated by the foregoing discussion, pivotal management
dimensions concerning tourism and heritage management are:
l
to be pro-active and set up a template or standard
l
to establish the necessary infrastructure for achievement
l
to consult among all representing participants
l
to evaluate costs and benefits
l
to make new efficiencies
l
to share knowledge
l
to market, and de-market, towards objectives
l
to regulate as necessary
l
to consider whether to impose a visiting fee
l
to use availability or reduction/removal
of transport in pursuing objectives
l
to look for ways of adding value for all concerned
Felicitous co-operation which produces completely agreed
objectives and ways of action is, of course, the ideal for the historic city possessing tourism as a facet of its life. The complexity
of situation and the balances of desires to be accommodated,
however, mean that the optimum accommodation is rarely likely to be realised. Once the various needs have been clearly defined and the points of convergence among them been identified, the latter serve as meeting grounds to start developing a
broad consensus for coordinated action among a citys factions
and interests.
The importance of trying to co-operate and find points in
common among needs in the city is perhaps now generally accepted. The situation pertaining after the Second World War
which Burtenshaw, Bateman and Ashworth (1991: 299) report

156

PRISCILLABONIFACE

in which planners, while thinking themselves to be acting and


making choices about what to do entirely
for the public,
would no more consult the citizen than a surgeon would consult the patient on how to proceed, is not acceptable now.
Hearing all participants viewpoints is necessarily important.
Landry et al (1996: 19) conclude that programmes to improve
communities self-esteem and accomplishments are likely to be
less productive than to focus urban policies on giving people
real access to decision making and influence over what happens
in their area, as well as on capacity building at local level so that
they can act to address their own needs. In planning, to see
tourism as separate from other city functions is unrealistic and
not useful (Burtenshaw, Bateman and Ashworth 1991: 218). City
players need to decide how much their citys tourism function is
to be integrated among the whole city in physical terms, in other
words whether they wish to adopt Krippendorfs
decentralised
concentration (1984,1987) approach.
Separation can in theory be an attractive stance to residents
feeling overwhelmed by tourists. However, it is certain that the
solutions to tourism inundation are both managing flows and
spreading tourists out - in time and place - to cause less acute
bad effect in any instance and most importantly
to avoid delivering numbers beyond a historic citys carrying capacity by
the several criteria.
Landry et al (1996:27) say how economic and social factors
cause locals to feel they cannot use and be part of an area frequented by tourists and Albert Dock in the city of Liverpool
serves as their example. It should be mentioned that this area of
Liverpool
is also somewhat physically
apart from the main
workaday and shopping centre of the city which aspects doubtless contribute to the demarcation. Inclusivity, as the Rotterdam
approach reveals, is likely to deliver a more healthy situation
and a better balance of need being met. Page reports on two approaches in the UK revealing the approach. One of these, the

MEETING NEEDS IN HERITAGECITIES

157

Stratford-upon-Avon
Management
Action Programme,
sees
managing visitors as to be dealing with the issues and interrelationships associated with: (a) visitor impacts; (b) visitor movement; (c) the visitor welcome (1995: 242).
The other is the Chester Action Programme, which - as Page
says - describes itself as a vision of success for all those who
live and work in Chester or who visit the city (1995: 243). The
Chester Programme sounds to have formulated as its essence of
approach a determination
to identify a meeting ground among
city needs, and appears by the description to have succeeded in
finding it.
Finding shared needs, it should not be forgotten, is an activity which is a means to an end. The objective, surely an item to
find approbation between all city participants and so to serve as
a point of congregation in itself, is for heritage cities engaged in
tourism to be vibrant entities, and therefore not to be ossified
and inactive. As Landry et al opine cities are not static - that, after all, is the root of their vitality - and todays problems are not
those of tomorrow (1996:18). The encapsulation is that the most
salient needs in the delivery of Ziving heritage cities for tourism,
which the process of identification of points in common is likely
to reveal, are those to refresh, of flexibility and to change.
So the requirements can be encapsulated as:
Refresh
l
popular products
l
stale or declining products
l
the overall city fabric
l
ideas
Flexibility
l
inflows
l
among seasons
l
among products

158

Change
l
find or develop new products
products
l
inform and alter attitudes in
(a) tourists
(b) residents
(c) the tourist industry.

PRISCILLABONIFACE

and create a wider

extent of

It should be accepted that the needs to be fulfilled in the heritage city with activity in tourism will always change. It is necessary that they should do so. Not even the needs of the physical city fabric of heritage will stay the same. However, at any
one time, for needs to be satisfied as far as possible and in as
fair a balance as possible, they ought first to be recognised and
identified in their full range. From this starting point, the task
can set to met of finding as many areas of need in common as
possible, for the goal of setting out the planning and delivery of
a resident - tourist - heritage city of overall pride, stimulation
and pleasure.

MEETING NEEDS IN HERITAGECITIES

159

References
Ashworth G. J. and Tunbridge J.E. (1990), The Tourist-Historic City, Belhaven, London and New York
Boniface I. (1994), Theme Park Britain: Who Benefits and Who Loses.7 in Fladmark, J.M. (ed.), Cultural Tourism, Donhead, London
Boniface I. (1995), Managing Quality Cultural Tourism, Routledge, London and New York
Boniface P. (1996), Rewind or Fast-Forward Culture for Tourism in
Robinson, M., Evans, N. and Callaghan, P. (eds.), Tourism and Cultural Change, Centre for Travel and Tourism in association with
Business Education Publishers Limited, Sunderland
Boniface I. (1998a), Are Museums Putting Heritage Under the Domination of the Tourism Industry?, Nordisk Museologi, Vol 1
Boniface P. (1998b), Tourism and Cultures: Consensus in the Making? in Robinson,
M. and Boniface P. Tourism and Cultural
Conflicts, CAB International Publishing, Wallingford, pp 287-306
Burtenshaw D., Bateman M. and Ashworth G. J. (1991), The European
City: A Western PerspectizJe, David Fulton Publishers, London
Cook S. (1998), Its payback time, folks!, in The Guardian 28 November
Hooper J. (1998), Lagoon Blues in The Guardian, 24 December
for Sustainable Tourism
Jamal T.B. and Getz D. (1997), Visioning
Development: Community-Based
Collaboratations
in Murphy, I.
(ed.) Quality Management in Urban Tourism, Wiley, Chichester
Krippendorf J. (1984, 1987), The Holiday Makers: understanding the impact
of leisure and travel, Butterworth-Heinemann,
Oxford
Landry C., Greene L., Matarasso F. and Bianchini F. (1996), The Art oj
regeneration: urban renewal through culfural activity, Comedia, Stroud
McLuhan M. (1969), Counterblast, 1970, Rapp and Whiting, London
Page S. (1995) Urban Tourism, Routledge, London and New York
Richards G. (1996) Cultural Tourism in The Netherlands in Richards,
G. (ed.) Cultural Tourism in Europe, CAB International, Wallingford
Robinson M. (1998b), Cultural Conflicts in Tourism: Inevitability
and
Inequality in Robinson, M. and Boniface P. (eds.), Tourism and Cultural Conflicts, CAB International Publishing, Wallingford,
pp l-32

160

PRISCILLABONIFACE

Sudjic D. (1992) The 100 Mile City, Andre Deutsch, London


Van den Berg L., Van der Borg J. and Van der Meer J. (1995) Urban
Tourism: Performance and strategies in eight European cities, Avebury,
Aldershot
Wilson E. (1991) The Sphinx in the City; Urban Life, the Control of Disovder, and Women, Virago, London

161

4.3 Museum Professions in Heritage


Management:
the Case
of Slovenia
Barbara Ravnik-Toman

A museum is like an iceberg, to a large degree


not discernible to the casual eye - Colbert
Geographically,
Slovenia is a very small country: it can be
crossed by car in just a few hours, both north-south and eastwest. However, this small area is the point of contact for three
very different landscapes, with rich histories expressed not just
in the cultural regions but also in architecture, both urban and
rural. This interesting geographical position in the centre of Europe has advantages as well as disadvantages, pros and cons
which we notice while formulating
and directing tourist services.
Museums have only an indirect role to play in this, but it is
both possible and necessary that we be more active in the future. In the last few years, the question of the role of museums
in tourism has been posed with increasing frequency. The
Tourism Association of Slovenia declared 1997 to be the Year of
Culture in Tourism. Museums responded to this initiative in a
disorganised manner, since we only learnt of it indirectly, and
were not involved in formulating
the program. Nevertheless,
the campaign achieved its goals in museums.
On 11 February, 1998, museum and tourism workers met at
their first organised meeting. After a few hours it became apparent that we scarcely knew each others abilities, that there
was practically no flow of information between us, and that we

162

BARBARARAVNIK-TOMAN

urgently needed each other. Museums are trying to attract more


visitors, while tourism workers must improve tourist services
if we want the wave of tourists travelling through Slovenia during the summer to visit our towns and other attractions. We feel
that we have something to offer, both in terms of the diverse
and beautiful countryside,
including several areas which are
world-renowned,
as well as old medieval towns and castles
with their beautiful museums and galleries.

Fig. 4.5: View of Kranj (auth. reproduction

Photo:

Drago

Holynski)

MUSEUM PROFESSIONS
IN HERITAGEMANAGEMENT: THE CASE OF SLOVENIA

163

In fact, museums exhibitions are the most effective tool to interact with and to enlighten the visiting public. It is through exhibitions of objects that museums reflect and reinforce the peoples collective memory so as to make them culturally
conscious. The information - or knowledge - thus acquired forms
the message which has to be communicated to visitors. A museum exhibition, therefore, deals primarily with three things: museum objects, the message and the people who are at the receiving end (Nigam, 1995).
The new partnership that must be established between heritage and tourism depends in large measure on enlightened mediators who can reconcile a host of divergent viewpoints and
approaches (De Blanca, 1998). If cultural tourism is to become a
genuine learning and entertaining
experience for an even
broader public, museums and heritage sites must become more
user-friendly
and communicate
stories rather than messages (Schouten, 1998).
And we believe that it is hard to be a better heritage professional, a custodian and communicator. Visitors are meant to be
challenged by our communications,
their fantasy must be activated, and there must be a sense of discovery about the place
that actuates their willingness to receive experiences and information. A massive number of modern aids and techniques are
available for the heritage professionals to find a site out of the
ordinary and propel it into the attention of the modern leisure
seeker. But even more important than the technology is the approach of the theme and items presented from the perspective
of the professional colleague instead of the lay person. Such an
attitude may help to make museums and heritage sites a better
place to stay for the enjoyment of visitors, and to give museums
with their rich resources, the place they deserve in the leisure
and tourism industry (Schouten, 1998).
Nowadays a lot of attention tends to be focused on cultural
tourism, which is perceived in a more favourable light than

164

BARBARARAVNIK-TOMAN

mass tourism. However, unless a consistent policy to reconcile


tourism and the heritage is introduced, together with the means
to apply it, its effects may also turn to be harmful (PerierDIeteren, 1998). Too many tourists can not only physically destroy art cities, buildings, tourist districts and the environment
but can also cause them to loose their symbolic value or historical authenticity (ibid.).
In order to encourage our colleagues to think along these
lines, the Slovenian Museum Society placed this topic on the
agenda of the coming biennial meeting, taking place in October
1999. The debate will be based on thematic papers written by
museum professionals, tourist workers, lecturers from tourism
secondary schools and the university, journalists who report on
tourism and an expert from the Tourism Association.
Gorenjska is a Slovenian region rather active in tourism. Visitors come in the winter for skiing (and other winter sports),
and in summer for swimming in our Alpine lakes and mountaineering. For the most part, tourists in Gorenjska remain in
the main tourist centres, while they usually bypass major towns
on the motorway. This in turn leads to overcrowding
of some
sites while equally interesting places are poorly visited.
The working group of Gorenjska museums has brought together six museum institutions with more than 50 permanent
museum exhibitions. Since we are united by common problems
which we wish to solve in the same way while at the same time
striving to operate as positively as possible through joint campaigns, we have deliberately remained informally
organised;
this stresses the voluntary nature of our professional association.
Apart from producing joint guides and posters, and making
joint appearances at museum fairs and similar events, we decided to jointly produce some thematic museum routes: Medieval
castles, Archaeological
sites, Traditional
craft workshops and
Medieval towns and markets, for example. Our educational cu-

MUSEUM PROFESSIONS
IN HERITAGEMANAGEMENT: THE CASE OF SLOVENIA

165

rators will prepare precise itineraries with rich contents with


the help of museum curators and other heritage experts. Each
route will have several variants, depending on the curiosity and
requirements
of our users, the time they have available, the
type of transport (private car or tour bus), whether they wish to
travel independently
or in an organised group, and of course
their budget. A suitable selection of choices for places to eat will
be given, in some instances providing costumes, and we will
prepare workshops in which guests will have the chance to try
their hand at traditional
crafts (thread making and spinning,
weaving, knitting.. .) or to attend short cooking classes and similar courses. We will encourage them to visit our museums, but
we will not emphasise this so much as to deter tourists looking
for rest and recreation on holiday, which is of course the main
point of holidays. Hotel owners, small innkeepers and farmers
involved in tourism will have to be persuaded to participate.
Workshops will be prepared in our museums, particularly
in
eco-museums, where the equipment required is already available.
In this same context, travel agencies could themselves offer a
longer list of museums to visit and increase the choice of exhibits to see in them. In this way, the tourists would be more
evenly distributed and the range of subjects opened up to them
would be enlarged (Perier-DIeteren, 1998).
In conclusion, a better balance between tourism and the heritage could be found in the implementation
of the ideas set out
above. Among them, there are four main objectives to be borne
in mind: providing genuine alternatives to mass tourism; making better use of human potential and modern technology in order to develop an understanding of the heritage and its conservation and restoration;
finding sources of funding that will
keep pace with the growing tourist demand to visit heritage
property; and encouraging cultural tourism to take a new direction by helping the public to see, appreciate and show regard

166

BARBARARAVNIK-TOMAN

for their cultural heritage (P&ier-DIeteren,


1998).
Regarding most of these, great potentials can be found in
museums where at least some of these activities are being constantly performed, perhaps not always in front of the eyes of
our visitors.

References
De Blanca M. G. (1998), The museum as mediator, Museum International (UNESCO Paris), No. ZOO,p. 21.
Nigam M. I. (1995), Creating a context: a challenge to Indian museums, Museum International (UNESCO Paris), No. 785, p. 21.
Perier-Dleteren
C. (1998), Tourism and conservation: striking a balance, Museum International (UNESCO Paris), No. 200, p. 5.
Schouten F. (1998), Professionals and visitors: closing the gap, Museum International (UNESCO Paris), No. 200, p. 27.

167

4.4 The AVEC network: joining


efforts to promote sustainable
heritage and tourism
management
in European cities
Raphad Souchier

4.4.1. The AVEC network


The AVEC acronym goes for Alliance de Villes Europeennes
de Culture / Alliance of European Culture Cities. It is the name
of a European network of medium sized heritage cities. The five
initial partners are historical cities from central Europe - Pets
(Hungary), Olomouc (Czech Rep.) - and the European Union Tours (France), Toledo (Spain), Cosenza (Italy).

Origin of the network


Our idea when creating a European network of heritage
cities originated in June 1994, as a conclusion of a previous European Union interregional
co-operation
project. The aim of
that former project had been to exchange experiences and build
co-operation between central, eastern and western European
tourist regions.
At that time, it had clearly appeared to the partners that a regional tourist trail (e.g. Wine Route, Romanic Architecture
Route, etc.) relies for its success on the quality and attractiveness of main tourist destinations in the region, be them situated
on the itinerary itself or in its tourist catchment area.
It also had appeared that:
l
on the one end, such cities acting as regional focal points
deal with specific problems in terms of tourism but also heritage management;

168

RAPHAELSOUCHIER

on the other hand, there are evident mutually beneficial synergies to be developed between the surrounding region and
the city itself (e.g. the possibility, for an overcrowded historical centre, to take advantage of existing or still to be created
alternative routes, in and around the city; or, for a city handicapped by an unbalanced structure of tourism flows, the
option to enrich the diversity and attractiveness of its main
tourism supply; thus strengthening the overnight visitors
client group and somehow reducing the burden generated
by an overwhelmingly
dominant
excursionist
client
group.

Purpose and objectives of the A VEC network


l

The networks purpose is double:


to strengthen the local communities by a reinforced local cooperation between partners of all sectors (public, private and
non-profit; administrative,
educational, social, business);
to create a permanent - though light and dynamic - frame of
co-operation between European cities willing to optimise the
contribution of their cultural heritage to their global (cultural, social and economic) development.

The concrete objectives are many. The following


are the
main ones:
l
to generate new lasting jobs in heritage-related activities (rehabilitation, tourism, . . .)
l
to reinforce and diversify the cities tourism supply and its
global attractiveness (for inhabitants, investors, tourists);
l
to revitalise historic districts without
chasing away autochthonous population to the exclusive benefit of trade and
high income population or visitors;
l
to set up a local inter-disciplinary
co-operation network between all the local/regional
partners (administration,
university, business, NGOs, churches) interested in the preser-

THE AVEC NETWORK:JOINING EFFORTS


TO PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE HERITAGE

169

vation and/or the promotion of heritage, making it one of


the local developments main lines;
to develop the local authorities skills in the field of heritage
and tourism strategy and management, namely through interregional training and exchange;
to launch the AVEC full-size network at the beginning of
year 2000.

Of course, each partner city has also set specific local objectives.

Three steps
How is the project going to develop in time?
A. Preparation stage (94-98). From June 1994 to December
1998, the initial group gathered new partners and progressively
identified common purposes and objectives. The project was officially selected and co-financed by the European Commission
(Ecos-Ouverture
east-west co-operation program) in December
1998.
II. Launching stage (98-99). The second step (December 98December 99) is dedicated to:
l
the setting up or strengthening
of each partners intra-regional AVEC network (local, regional & national authorities,
universities, private and NC0 sector);
l
the creation of the interregional co-operation frame and tools
(legal aspects, common data bank on Internet, printed material, search for new partners and financing opportunities);
l
a first series of local and interregional
studies and experiments:
C. Opening-up stage (2000 on). After a preparatory session
held at Tours next October, the first official plenary session of

170

RAPHAELSOUCHIER

the real-size AVEC network


in February 2000.

is planned to be organised

in P&s

Organisation
The AVEC networks concrete activities are developed in the
frame of permanent interregional workshops.
At this point, and for the launching stage, seven workshops
have been identified:
1. Heritage and employment
2. Creation of the permanent AVEC network
3. Communication
and promotion
4. UNESCO World heritage Cities candidatures
5. Urban heritage management data base and practical guide
6. local promotion of heritage and its (re)appropriation
by the
citizens
7. technological innovation and promotion of heritage

4.4.2. Opportunities

for co-operation

UNESCO: food for thought and action


Numerous
researches and experts meetings on tourism
(many of them at UNESCOs initiative) have stressed a series of
important points, among which one can underline the following:
l
tourism has become one of the developed worlds main industries and is extending to the whole planet, appearing as
an important factor of development for the South;
l
not only does it have a strong economic impact, but it also
has a cultural impact on the life of the local populations as
well as on exchanges between cultures: tourism is one of the
most powerful vectors of world-wide cultural exchange;
But it also appears that ill-managed

mass tourism

may be-

THEAVEC

NE?U~ORK:~OININGEFFORTSTOPROMOTESUSTAINABLEHERITAGE 171

come a strong cause of destruction for both material and immaterial heritage, as well as for local cultural identities:
l
sustainability is becoming a major issue, not only for natural
but also for cultural heritage and urban tourism; it cannot be
conceived as an isolated policy, but must be an element of a
global development strategy;
. more and more tourism and heritage professionals and administrators are looking forward to learning from each other
and exchange data as well as experiences.
AVEC partners feel rather at ease with UNESCOs comprehensive approach.
For them, the major risk generated by the museum city
phenomenon does not only lay in the decaying of built local
heritage and the accompanying growth of urban nuisances.
The development of a dominant tourist sector - sometimes
ending as a mono-industry
- might tend to weaken the city
and/or the regions traditional
activities and their ability to
generate diversified alternatives;
Excessive - and/or mismanaged - tourist flows also generate cultural and social risks:
l
the local community
may be - or feel - expelled from its
own physical and symbolic territory,
to be replaced by
wealthier newcomers and foreign perman,ent or visiting
populations;
l
the weakening of local traditions - reduced to superficial folklore by their commercial mise en scene-; also the shrinking
of social and cultural initiatives to a mere artificial representation, only aimed at tourists benefit rather than at the inner expression and deepening of local communities social and cultural identity, vitality and their opening up to the world;
l
the reduction of relationship between local communities and
these waves of modern seasonal migrants to its only commercial dimension.

172

RAPHAELSOUCHIER

The Heritage cities and visitors flow project:


mentary approach

a comple-

The Heritage cities and visitors flow projects initial aim


was to address the emergency situation of dangerously overcrowded heritage cities. The scientific results of the research
done by the partner universities should show useful for many
of our historical cities. The academic network constituted on
this issue by UNESCO along the recent years should constitute
a rich potential resource.
Even more now, as the network is opening to other aspects
of the urban cultural tourism phenomenon.
AVEC has a quite complementary
approach. Being a network of local governments, It has focused on issues like the integration of tourism in the local policies and socio-cultural
as
well as economic life. One could say it represents the visiteds
point of view.
Other significant concerns are:
l
the empowerment
of local communities
living in heritage
cities; the strengthening
of their role in heritage management as well as in the management of tourism activities generated by heritage;
l
the integration of tourism in urban cultural and social life as
well as economic prosperity.

Two pilot proposals for a concrete co-operation


At this stage, concrete paths of co-operation
could be explored together. As an example, the following two are suggested here:
Welcome to AVECs Data Base and Urban Heritage Management Guide workshop. AVEC member cities have set for
themselves some specific short term objectives as, for example,
the creation of a common Interactive Data Base and an Urban
Heritage Management Guide. They are willing to share with

THE AVECNETWORK: JOINING EFFORTSTOPROMOTESUSTAINABLE

HERITAGE

173

other partners the results of such a work. Even more, an early


co-operation could also be offered during the creation process
itself to new partners showing interest and competence in these
fields.
Help neededfiom UNESCO for the European Heritage Cities
QuaZity label. AVEC cities and their partners (national culture
ministries) are also working on the creation of a European quality label for heritage cities, for which the experience acquired by
UNESCO through the setting up and management of the World
Heritage List constitutes an irreplaceable source of inspiration
and learning. Co-operation
on this matter will be requested
from UNESCO during the coming months.
Taking into account the common philosophy which inspires,
on the one hand, UNESCO and its Heritage cities and visitors
flow project and, on the other hand, the AVEC heritage cities
network, it seems clear to me that the efforts of all should converge and be coordinated for the sake of our common goal: a
sound, lasting and meaningful
urban heritage and tourism
management.

5. THE CHALLENGE OF
TOURISM MANAGEMENT
IN HERITAGE CITIES:
CONCLUSIONS
AND PLAN OF ACTION

THE CHALLENGEOF TOURISM MANAGEMENT IN HERITAGECITIES

177

Conclusions
Jan van der Borg, Antonio Paolo Russ0

The Preparatory Meeting on the Project Tourism Management in Heritage Cities: Networking
Practices and Sharing Experiences, held in Venice 18-19 December 1998, has given to
the organising subjects and the participating institutions the opportunity to establish a common framework for research and
action in the field of tourism management in heritage cities.
The participants have appreciated the important results of
the Project Art Cities and Visitors Flow launched in 1991 by
the University
of Venice and the UNESCO Venice Office in
which innovative
perspectives and policy actions for tourist
flow management in art cities in Europe were presented.
Moreover, they share the consideration that the urgent necessity of management tools and policy arrangements for the
sustainable tourism in heritage cities is not constrained to traditional destinations of cultural tourism and regions enjoying a
consolidated position on the tourism market.
Therefore, the institutions
responsible for the 1991 project
(UNESCO Venice Office, Erasmus Universities
of Rotterdam,
University Ca Foscari of Venice) contributed to the organisation of this new meeting to gather new ideas and new directions to revitalise, strengthen and extend the co-operation between cities engaged in the common effort of sustainable
tourism management and the network of experts in this field.
The new challenges that are faced by heritage cities, the traditional - for the increasing competition and mobility - as well
as the emerging - due to the expansion of tourism destination
regions and to the opening of new markets - demand a higher

178

JANVANDERBORG,ANTONIOPAOLO Russ0

effort and scope of co-ordinated research and networking


between cities.
Thereto the necessity to make a new step in this co-operation
and to involve new subjects - like city managers and tourism
authorities in cities of the Mediterranean
Basin, in the central
and Eastern European countries, and in perspective in the Latin
American - that are rapidly starting to experience the same
problems with their tourism development of many traditional
European cultural tourism destinations.
Whereas the 1993 project has greatly contributed to address
the key problems of contemporary urban tourism and has provided an expert guide to cities starting with innovative tourism
management programmes, the new project responds to the new
imperatives of sustainability between global problems and local
solutions.
Two themes have emerged as central in this new approach
to tourism management problems.
The first is the necessity to continue the effort for a sustainable development
in heritage cities with new and refined instruments. The discussion that has taken place in the preparatory meeting has demonstrated how large is the necessity for policy action, or better to say governance, in the field of tourism
management in heritage cities, and - paradoxically - how easily
it can prove practically ineffective and out of focus if the complexity and dynamism of the present-day organisation of the
society is not taken into the proper consideration. What is needed, then, is a governance style and action that is capable of
replicating
the complexity
of the issues entailed by heritage
management in the mass-tourism era.
Hence the necessity of analysing in depth the institutional
mechanisms, the economic frameworks and the organisational
techniques that may favour the implementation
of innovative
and potentially successful management solutions like soft instruments for flows regulation, remote controls, reservation sys-

THE CHALLENGEOF TOURISM MANAGEMENT IN HERITAGECITIES

179

terns, incentives and decentralisation policies.


The second one has to do with the production and diffusion
of new knowledge. It is apparent that in a context of scarce possibility of route corrections and learning from past errors
that is favoured by the harsh game of local politics, learning
from other cities, disposing of a comprehensive
data base of
policy experiments and sharing a global know-how on the topic
(also by means of human capital circulation and international
education and training) is of fundamental importance.
The group of cities, tourism expert and professional and research and education institutions
gathered in Venice recommend then to start the following
projects of international
research and co-operation
to be financed from the interested
funding agencies:
l
Pilot Projects on the Tourist Flow Control in selected cities,
to sort the creation of a decision support system which can
be adapted to all the cities engaged in tourism management
and of a data base relative to the effectiveness of visitor and
traffic management measures.
l
An International Conference on Flows Regulation Systems
and Urban Tourism Management,
to evaluate the case
studies and stimulate the diffusion of pilot experiences to
the cities of the network;
l
The Publication
Guideline
for Tourism Management
in
Heritage Cities, to provide a handy and comprehensive advice to city managers engaging in innovative policies in the
field of cultural tourism.
The Network
on Tourism Management in Heritage Cities
in Europe and the Mediterranean recognises the importance of
a series of issues to be analysed and developed in the following
years. Among these issues, the implementation
of advanced
systems of flows regulation, the organisation
of the cultural
system in relation to the sustainability of urban tourism, the design of innovative institutional
forms at the local and interre-

180

JANVANDERBORG,ANTONIOPAOLORUSSO

gional scale to guide a sustainable tourism development,


the
importance of new technologies for heritage management and
their relation with the tourism industry.
These themes have to be the object of in depth research and
discussion in the follow-up of this programme, with the organisation of specific pilot projects in cities that are particularly
demonstrative, international seminars and conferences, publications and empirical studies.
The following
Plan of Action for International
Co-operation has been redacted by the Coordinating Committee of the
project Tourism Management in Heritage cities, according to
the indication of the participants to the Venice Meeting, and has
been adopted by UNESCO Venice Office as an official guideline
for the activities to be organised by the network of heritage
cities. It is meant to serve as a guideline and an instrument to
present and enlarge the Network on Tourism Management in
Heritage Cities in Europe and the Mediterranean
among the
cities, institutions, research centres and NGOs which are possibly interested in the project.
This report, together with the programme of activities to be
carried out by the network, will be distributed among the cities,
international institutions, universities and NGOs to extend the
number of actors and subjects involved along the directions expressed by the Plan of Action itself. To reinforce and make the
project more visible, the UVO has organised an international
contest for the preparation of a Iogo that will appear on all the
materials prepared by the network. Moreover, the information
will circulate by means of a newsletter to be issued regularly
and a web site which is also meant to be of practical relevance
as a data base on the activities of the participating institutions.

THE CHALLENGEOF TOURISM MANAGEMENT IN HERITAGECITIES

181

Plan of Action for International


Co-operation
The participants to the Preparatory Meeting on the Project
Tourism Management in Heritage Cities: Networking
Practices and Sharing Experiences, held in Venice from 18 to 19 December 1998;
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Appreciating the important results of the Project Art Cities


and Visitors Flow launched in 1991 by the University
of
Venice and the UNESCO Venice Office (UVO), which presented new perspectives
and strategies for tourist flow
management in art cities in Europe and led to the establishment of a network of art cities in Europe;
acknowledging that it is necessary to consider a broader definition of heritage than the physical one; recognising that
often the cultural, natural and immaterial
environment
are the primary source of attraction and face the dangers of
an excessive pressure by tourism-induced
activities, and
that the opportunities of the future generations to enjoy the
cultural heritage must be preserved;
conscious of the important role that cultural tourism can
play for intercultural
understanding
and the development
of a culture of peace;
considering the urgent necessity for holistic and innovative
strategies and management tools fostering a sustainable
tourism in heritage cities;
recognising that it is desirable to enlarge the existing network to include heritage cities in the Mediterranean
Basin
and those in Central and Eastern Europe with the economy
of transition, that are starting to experience problems with
the sustainability
of tourism development
that recall by

182

TANVANDER BORG,ANTONIOPAOLORUSSO

many aspects those of which traditional European cultural


tourism destinations faced in the recent past;
6. agreeing to launch a Network on Tourism Management in
Heritage Cities in Europe and the Mediterranean;
7. emphasising that such a new Network aims at facilitating,
among cities in Europe and the Mediterranean, to (a) learn
from each other (b) dispose of a comprehensive data base of
policy implementations
and experiments
and (c) share
knowledge, among others through the exchange of expertise and the participation
in international
programmes
of
education and training;
8. underlining
that the new Network should be an open and
self-sufficient
co-operation, co-ordinating
activities of collection and analysis of data, applied research and dissemination and sharing of information about the management of
cultural tourism with the extensive use of new information
and communication
technologies;
9. recognising that the new Network should respond to the
new imperatives of the sustainability of tourism in heritage
cities by taking into account local specificities of the problems, as well as considering the interests of actors that often
are not included in traditional decision making processes,
so that tourism management policies in heritage cities may
prove most effective;
IO. noting that the new Network intends to analyse in depth
the institutional mechanisms, the economic frameworks and
the organisational
techniques at the different levels concerned that may hamper or favour the implementation
of
innovative
and potentially
successful management solutions, such as soft instruments for flow regulation, reservation systems, incentives decentralisation policies, etc.

THE CHALLENGEOF TOURISM MANAGEMENT IN HERITAGECITIES

183

Recommend
to promote the following initiatives
operation for the year 1999:

regarding

1. International co-operation on the following


in collaboration with local and international
l

international

co-

emerging issues,
institutions:

the design and implementation


of advanced systems of
visitor flow management,
the organisation and implementation
of urban policies
for the sustainable urban tourism, in connection with the
preservation of the cultural heritage and its funding;
the design of innovative
institutional
arrangements
at
different levels to guide a sustainable tourism development, through inter-sectoral co-operation and public-private partnerships;
the innovative use of new information
and communication technologies for heritage management and their relation with the tourism industry;
the participation
of local communities
in the decisionmaking process as well as the democratic access to cultural resources and facilities;
training and education in the management of cultural
tourism in the existing and perspective segments of employment and administration,

2. Pilot Projects on the Control of Visitor Flows in smaller art


cities to be selected (e.g. Dubrovnik, Venice or Bruges), to facilitate the creation of a decision support system which can
be adapted to other cities with similar characteristics, and of
a data base relative to the effectiveness of visitor and traffic
management measures;

184

JAN VAN DER BORG,ANTONIO PAOLO Russo

3. An International Meeting (to be held in a selected city during the second half of the year 1999) as a follow up of the
Preparatory Meeting to evaluate the advance of knowledge
and skills relating to cultural tourism and development leading to mutual appreciation of cultures,
4. The publication of an authoritative manual entitled Guidelines for Tourism Management in Heritage Cities in co-operation with several partners including, among others, the
Alliance des Villes Europeennes de Culture (AVEC), with
the aims of providing
handy and comprehensive
orientations to tourism managers engaging in innovative strategies
in the field of cultural tourism, together with general principles for sustainable tourism management supported by specific cases and experiences;
5. To stimulate the creation of further UNESCO Chairs in cultural tourism, enhancing the network and providing training and education;
6. The creation of a Iago for the network, which would eventually be utilised for projects associated with the network, on
conditions that such projects should be recommended by the
National Commission for UNESCO concerned, submitted to
and approved by the Scientific Committee of the network.
Moreover,

the participants

THE CHALLENGEOF TOURISM MANAGEMENT IN HERITAGECITIES

185

Recommend
that the following long-term activities in terms of the management and promotion of the network activities;
1. The preparation of a public relations kit and a brochure to
introduce and promote the activities of the network among
potentially interested cities and institutions, thus stimulating
the autonomous preparation of relevant materials by the interested cities;
2. Active efforts to ensure the contribution of the mass-media
in promoting the objectives and undertakings of the project
to the general public;
3. The preparation of web pages - to be updated with regularity - with the aims of promoting the activities of the network,
providing links to the participating institutions and other existing networks, and allowing the access of the cities to existing on-line databases;
4. The issue of a newsletter (at least two
including comprehensive information
ties, to be diffused among network
participants, as well as through other

during the year 1999),


on the network activiparticipants,
potential
relevant networks;

5. Co-ordination of the network by UVO and UNESCO in Paris


in close collaboration
with the Universities
of Venice and
Rotterdam and in partnership
with international
institutions, universities, NGOs, city officers and the tourism industry, as well as existing networks concerned, with the aim
of rendering the network self-sufficient.

APPENDIX

189

List of Participants
Paolo COSTA,

(President of the Scientific Committee


of the Preparatory Meeting)
University of Ca Foscari Venice
Fondamenta San Giobbe 873,
I-30100 Venice - ITALY
Tel. +f 39 041257 4157
Fax. ++ 39 041257 4176(7)
E-mail: p-costa@unive.it

Tullia

President Italian National


Commission for UNESCO
(Member of the Scientific Committee
of the Preparatory Meeting)
Piazza Firenze, 1
00186 Rome - ITALY
Tel. ++ 39 06 6873712
Fax. ++ 39 06 6873684

CARETTONI,

Herve BARRE,

Head of Research and Development


Unit, Cultural Heritage Division
UNESCO
(Member of the Scientific Committee
of the Preparatory Meeting)
Rue Miollis 1
75015 Paris - FRANCE
Tel. ++ 33 145684299
Fax. ++ 33 145685593
E-mail: h.barre@unesco.org

APPENDIX

190

Gkrard BOLLA,

Former Deputy Director-General


of UNESCO
(Member of the Scientific Committee
of the Preparatory Meeting)
43 rue de Babylone
75007 Paris - FRANCE
Tel. ++ 33 145513035
Fax. ++ 33 147059416

Vladimir
KOUZMINOV,

Deputy Director UNESCO Venice


Office
(Member of the Scientific Committee
of the Preparatory Meeting)
Dorsoduro 1262 /A
30124 Venice, ITALY
Tel. ++ 39 041 522 5546
Fax. ++ 39 041528 9995
E-mail: v.kouzminov@unesco.org

Robert BENTLEY,

Director of Sustainable Tourism


Development Associates
Calle Lagasca, 10, Atico,
28001 Madrid - SPAIN
Tel./Fax. ++ 34 915759396
E-mail: 100544.3242@compuserve.com

Nuria
BLANC0

World Heritage Cities, Tourism Expert


Plaza de la Victoria 1
05001 Avila, SPAIN
Tel. ++ 34 920 359013
Fax. ++ 34 920 251886
E-mail: ciudades-patrimonio
@cyberspain.com

CAMPOS,

LwoF

191

PARTICIPANTS

Priscilla

BONIFACE,

University of Northumbria
at Newcastle
47b Leazes Terrace - NE1 4LZ
Newcastle upon Tyne,
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. ++ 44 191232 1056
Fax. ++ 44 191232 1056
E-mail: priscilla.boniface@unn.ac.uk

Sarath DIVISEKERA,

Victoria
University
of Technology,
Australia - Dept. Applied Economics St Albans Campus
Victoria University of Technology
PO BOX 14428
Melbourne City MC 8001
AUSTRALIA
Tel. ++ 613 9365 2150
Fax. ++ 613 9365 2596
E-mail: Sarath.Divisekera@vut.edu.au

Werner
DESIMPELAERE,

Planning Groep Bruges-Brussels,


Curator City of Bruges
Groep Planning Bruges-Brussels
Sint Jakobstraat 68
8000 Bruges - BELGIUM
Tel. ++ 32 50 331966
Fax. ++ 32 50 335243
E-mail: gplog@groepplanning.be

Maria de FBtima
FERNANDES,

Sintra City Council - Tourist


Department
Praca Republica 23
2710 Sintra - PORTUGAL
Tel. ++ 351 1931157 / 9233919
Fax. ++ 35119235176

APPENDIX

192

Sonsoles GUILLgN
RUIZ-AYtiCAR,

Secretary General Spanish World


Heritage Cities
Plaza de la Victoria 1
05001 Avila, SPAIN
Tel. ++ 34 920 359019
Fax. ++ 34 920 251886
E-mail: ciudades-patrimonio@cyberspain.com

Ian JENKINS,

Course Director Tourism Degree


Swansea Institute for Higher
Education
Pleasant Campus
Swansea - Wales
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. ++ 44 1792 481198 / 481150
Fax. ++ 44 1792 456326
E-mail: i.jenkins@sihe.ac.uk

Gemma LLOBET,

Barcelona Tourism Board, Product


Manager Arts and Culture
Turisme de Barcelona,
C. Tarragona 149-157
E-08015 Barcelona, SPAIN
Tel. ++ 34 3 423 1800
Fax. ++ 34 3 423 2649
E-mail: gllobet@barcelonaturisme.com

Danka RADIC,

Muzej Grada Trogira, Croatia


Gradska vrata 4
21220 Trogir
CROATIA
Tel. ++ 385 21881406

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

193

Barbara
RAVNIK-TOMAN,

Director of the Gorensjski Museum of


Kranj, Slovenia and President of the
Slovenian Archaeological Society
Gorensjski muzej Kranj, Tomsiceva 44
4000 Kranj - SLOVENIA
Tel. ++ 386 64 221071
Fax. ++ 386 64 223 168
E-mail: gorenjski.muzej@guest.arnes.si

Gordana RESTOVIC,

Director of Popular University


Porec, Croatia
Narodni trg 1
52440 Porec - CROATIA
Tel. ++ 385 52 432 263
Fax. ++ 385 52 431598
E-mail: uciliste-porec@pu.tel.hr

Antonio

Tinbergen Institute Erasmus University


Rotterdam
Kamer H 12-31- Postbus 1738
3000 DR Rotterdam - NETHERLANDS
Tel. ++ 3110 4081578 / 4081186
Fax. ++ 31 10 4527986
E-mail: russo@few.eur.nl

Paolo RUSSO,

Noam SHOVAL,

of

Researcher in Urban Tourism,


The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Department of Geography
Mount Scopus Campus
Jerusalem 91905 - ISRAEL
Tel. ++ 972 2 5883367
Fax. ++ 972 2 5826267
E-mail: mstul@mscc.huji.ac.il

194

Raphiel

APPENDIX

SOUCHIER,

Coordinator of AVEC - Alliance de


Villes Europeennes de Culture
D.R.I.R.E., Mairie de Tours, BP 3215
37032 Tours Cedex 1 - FRANCE
Tel. ++ 33 6 08542063
Fax. ++ 33 2 47421028
E-mail: cerclers@mail.club-internetfr

Akatsuki
TAKAHASHI,

Programme Specialist UNESCO


Venice Office
Liaison Office for the Safeguarding
of Venice
S. Marco 63 - 30124 Venice - ITALY
Tel.: ++ 39 0415285425
Fax.: ++ 30 0415209988
E-mail.: takahashi.a.unesco@ntt.it

Jan VAN

University of Ca Foscari Venice


and Erasmus University Rotterdam
Dip. Scienze Economiche
Universita Ca Foscari di Venezia
Fondamenta San Giobbe 873, I-30100
Venice - ITALY
Tel. ++ 39 041257 4157
Fax. ++ 39 041257 4176(7)
E-mail: vdborg@unive.it

Viekoslav

DER BORG,

VIERDA,

Institute for the Restoration of


Dubrovnik - C. Zuzovic 6
20000 Dubrovnik
- CROATIA
Tel. ++ 385 20 411187
Fax. ++ 385 20 411225
E-mail: zavod-za-obnovu-dubrovnika
@du.tel.hr

LmoF

P.~RTICIPANE

195

Jose Maria
BALLESTER,

Chief, Cultural Patrimony


Council of Europe
67075 Strasbourg - FRANCE
Tel. ++ 33 3 88412250
Fax. ++ 33 3 88412755
E-mail: jose-maria.ballestrer@coe.fr

Georges CAZES,

Director Research Team


Tourisme-D&eloppement
Universite de Paris 1
Pantheon-Sorbonne
191 rue Saint-Jacques
75005 Paris - FRANCE
Tel. ++ 33 144321403
Fax. ++ 33 144321454

Evangelou

Technological Educational Institute


of Thessaloniki
Department of Tourism Business
17 Athanasiou Soulioti
GR - 54642
Thessaloniki - GREECE
Tel. ++ 30 94 880131
Fax. ++ 30 33 817336
E-mail: epeaek@the.forthnet.gr

CHRISTOU,

National Commission
of Libya for UNESCO

Ministry of National Education


and Art
Palais de lUNESCO
Beyrouth - LEBANON
Tel. ++ 961 1 78.66.82/ (961-1) 79.04.91
Fax. ++ 961 1 78.66.56
E-mail: cnlu@cyberia.net.lb

196

APPENDIX

NaYma TABET

Secretary General, National


Commission of Maroc for UNESCO
Commission National Marocaine
pour lEducation, la Culture
et les Sciences
3 bis, Rue Innaouen - Agdal - Rabat
420 - RI., MAROC
Tel. ++ 212 7 68 24 81
Fax. ++ 212 7 68 24 81

Dino MILINOVIC

Secretary General, Croatian National


Commission for UNESCO
Trg Burze 6,
10000 Zagreb, CROATIA
Tel.++ 385 1 455.65.10/(385-l) 445.67.51
Fax. + 385 1 455.65.10/(385-l) 41.04.21
E-Mail: cronatcom-unesco@zg.tel.hr

Leon DEBEN,

Dept. of Sociology,
Universitiet van Amsterdam
Oude Hoogstraat 24
NL 1012 CE
Amsterdam, THE NETHERLANDS
Tel. ++ 3120 525 2204 / 2217
E-mail: deben@pscw.uva.nl

Harald GARDOS,

Secretary General, Austrian


Commission for UNESCO
Mentergasse 11
A-1070 Vienna - AUSTRIA
Tel. ++ 43 15236421
Fax. ++ 43 15261301/20
E-mail: oeuk@unesco.at

National

LIsToF PARTICI~>ANTS

197

Kerry GODFREY,

Oxford Brookes University, Oxford


Gipsy Lane Campus
Headington - Oxford OX3 OBP
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. ++ 44 1865 483427
Fax. ++ 44 1865 483559
E-mail: K.B.Godfrey@brookes.ac.uk

Victoria

Chief Executive
Marketing Machester
Churchgate House, 56 Oxford Street
Ml 6EU Manchester
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. ++ 44 1612371010
Fax. ++ 44 1612282960
E-mail: mmamarketing-manchester.
co.uk

GREGORY,

Derek HALL,

Head of Department of Leisure and


Tourism Management, SAC (Ayr)
SAC - Auchincruive,
Ayr KA6 5HW, Scotland
UNITED KNGDOM
Tel. ++ 44 1292 525054
Fax. ++ 44 1292 525055
E-mail: d.hall@au.sac.ac.uk

Chris HAMNETT,

Dept. of Geography, Kings College


London - Kings College
Strand, WC 2R 2LS - London
UNITED KNGDOM
Tel. ++ 44 171873 2611
Fax. ++ 44 171873 2287
E-mail: Chris.Hamnett@kcl.ac.uk

APPENDIX

198

Daniel0
HIERNAUX-NICOLAS

Dept. of Geography, University of


Mexico City
Hocaba, 20 Colonia Ejido de Padierna,
Delegation Tlalpan, Mexico DF
MEXICO
Tel. and Fax. ++ 52 5 645 3062 / 644 3629
E-mail: lares@ibm.net

Christina

HVID,

Project Manager of Wonderful


Copenhagen
Wonderful Copenhagen
Gammel Kongevej 1
1610 Kobenhavn V
DENMARK
Tel. ++ 45 3325 7400
Fax. ++ 45 3325 7410
E-mail: chvid@woco.dk

Wolfgang

J. KRAUS,

Deputy Managing Director


Vienna - Tourist Board
Obere Augartenstrasse 40
A-1025 Vienna - AUSTRIA
Tel.++ 43 12111460
Fax. ++ 43 12168492
E-mail: kraus@info.wien.at

Nils KROESEN,

Director of Heidelberg
Convention
and Visitors Bureau
Postfach 10 58 60
D-69048 Heidelberg - GERMANY
Tel. ++ 49 622114 22 17
Fax. ++ 49 6221 14 22 22
E-mail: cvbhd@info.hd.eunet.de

LIsToF PARTICIPANTS

199

Jana KUCEROVA,

Director of Foreign Section, Ministry


of Culture of the Czech Republic
Ministry of Culture of the Czech
Republic - Foreign Section
Milady Horakove 139
160 00 Prague 6
CZECH REPUBLIC
Fax. ++ 420 2 24324282

Anna LEASK,

Napier University Edinburgh


Department of Hospitality & Tourism
Management
Craighouse Road
EHlO 5LG Edinburgh
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. ++ 49 1314556247
Fax. ++ 49 1314556269
E-mail: a.leask@napier.ac.uk

Robert MAITLAND,

Chair of the Department of Tourism


University of Westminster
35 Marylebone Road
London NW1 5LS
UNITED KINGDOM
voicemail: f+ 44 (0)171 911 5000 ext.
3114 (7/7,24/24)
Fax. ++ 44 (0)1719115171
E-mail: R.A.Maitland@westminster.
ac.uk

APPENDIX

200

Harsha
MUNASINGHE,

Researcher - University of Oulu,


Finland
Talonpopjantie 17 / 305
00710 Helsinki - FINLAND
Tel. ++ 358 9 379337
E-mail:
Chandanie.Munasinghe@
Helsinki.FI

Jiri MUSIL,

Central European University


Prague,
CEU Research Project
Prokopova 9 - 130 00 Prague 3
CZECH REPUBLIC
Tel. ++ 420 2 2278 090912278 2140
Fax. ++ 420 2 22782201
E-mail:CEU.prague@ecn,cz

Vaclav NOVOTNY,

Director Prager Informationdienst


Betlemske Namesti 2
CZ-116 98 Prague 1
CZECH REPUBLIC
Tel. ++ 420 68 5513382
Fax. ++ 420 68 5220843
E-mail: director@pis.cz

Antonio

President, Camara Municipal


de Tomar
Services Municipais de Turismo
Av. Candid0 Madureira
(Edificio do Turismo)
2300 Tomar - PORTUGAL
Tel. ++ 35149 312105
Fax. ++ 35149 321026
E-mail: cmtomar@mail.telepac.pt

PAIVA,

201

L~STOFPARTICIPANTS

Rui PEREIRA,

Town Counsellor for Tourism Affairs


City of Sintra
Sintra City Council
Largo Dr. Virgilio Horta
2710 Sintra - PORTUGAL
Tel. ++ 35119238624
Fax. ++ 351 19238621 / 9235176
E-mail: ruipereira.cms@mail.telepac.pt

Cristina

Head of Department, Camara


Municipal de Lisboa
R. do Ouro 49 - 4. piso
1100 Lisbon - PORTUGAL
Tel. ++ 351 13227366
Fax. ++ 351 13227009
E-mail: griii&nail.cm-lisboa.pt

ROCHA,

Carlos SPOTTORNO
DIAZ CAR0

Secretary General, Spanish National


Commission for UNESCO
Paseo de Juan XXIII 5
28040 Madrid, SPAIN
Tel. ++ 34 1533 9639 / 554 3516
Fax. ++ 34 1535 1433

Peter STONE,

World Archaeological Congress Chief Executive Officer


Department of Archaeology,
University of Newcastle
Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. ++ 44 191222 7095
Fax. ++ 44 191222 7426
E-mail: p.g.stone@ncl.ac.uk

202

APPENDIX

Swedish National
Commission
for UNESCO

Ministry of Education and Science


Drottninggatan
16
S-103 33 Stockholm
SWEDEN
Tel. ++ 46 8 405.19.51 / 46 8 4051946
Fax. ++ 46 8 4110470 / 7231192
E-mail: swe-nat-com.unesco@education.ministry.se

Noriko

Dept. of International Business


Studies Gyosei International College
in the UK
London Road
Reading, Berkshire,
RG15AQ, UNITED KINGDOM
E-mail: tokunaga@gyosei.ac.uk

TOKUNAGA,

Jean-Daniel
TERRASSIN

Director of Tourism Office


of Bordeaux
12 Course du XXX Juillet
33080 Bordeaux Cedex
FRANCE
Tel. ++ 33 5 56006600
Fax. ++ 33 5 56006601
E-mail: otb@bordeaux-tourisme.com

Martha WALGER,

Director Tourism Office


dAvignon
41, Cours Jean-Jaures
84000 Avignon, FRANCE
Tel. ++ 33 4 90826511
Fax. ++ 33 4 90829503
E-mail: information@ot-avignon.fr

LIsToF PARTICIPANTS

203

Eugenio YUNIS,

Chief Environment and Planning


Division, World Tourism Organisation
Capitan Haya 42
28020 Madrid, SPAIN
Tel. ++ 34 915678100
Fax. ++34 91915713733
E-mail: omt@world-tourism.org

Fawzy Abdel ZAHER

Secretary General, Egyptian National


Commission for UNESCO
17, Ismail Abul Fotouh st. Dokki,
Cairo - EGYPT
Tel. ++ 20 2 360 9641
Fax. ++ 20 2 335 6947

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