Chapter 3: Anatomy of the Nervous System

3.1: General Layout of the Nervous System

Divisions of the Nervous System
The vertebrate nervous system is composed of two divisions:
o Central Nervous System: Division of the nervous system that is located within the skull and
spine. Composed of two parts: the brain (protected by the skull) and the spinal cord (protected
by the spine)
o Peripheral Nervous System: Division of the nervous system that is located outside of the skull
and spine. Composed of two parts: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous
system.
Somatic Nervous System: the portion of the peripheral nervous system which interacts
with the environment.
Afferent Nerves: Nerves within the somatic nervous sysem which carry sensory signals
to the central nervous system.
Efferent Nerves: Nerves within the somatic nervous system which carry motor signals
from the central nervous system to the skeletal muscles.
Autonomic Nervous System: Portion of the peripheral nervous system which regulates the
body's internal environment.
Afferent Nerves: Nerves within the autonomic nervous system which carry sensory
information from the body's internal organs to the central nervous system.
Efferent Nerves: Nerves within the autonomic nervous system which carry motor
signals from the central nervous system to the internal organs.
o Sympathetic Nerves: Class of efferent nerve within the autonomic nervous system
which project from the central nervous system in the lumbar (back) and thoracic
(chest) regions of the spinal cord.
Sympathetic neurons synapse onto secondary neurons at a significant distance
from the target organ
o Parasympathetic Nerves: Class of efferent nerve within the autonomic nervous
system which project from the brain and sacral (lower back) regions of the spinal
cord.
o All sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves are two stage neural pathways.
The sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves project from the central nervous
system, but do not reach the internal organs of interest.
Parasympathetic nerves synapse with secondary nerves near to the target organ.
o Sympathetic nerves stimulate, organize and mobilize energy resources in threatening
situations. Parasympathetic nerves do the opposite, conserving and calming energy
usage.
o Each autonomic target receives opposite input from sympathetic and
parasympathetic systems. The result is controlled by the relative input of both
systems.
o Sympathetic changes are associated with arousal and parasympathetic changes are
associated with relaxation.
o These are general rules, however each as special cases and exceptions.
All neurons within the parasympathetic system except 12 cranial nerves extend from the
spinal cord.

The cranial nerves are numbered from 1 to 12 from front to back.

Some cranial nerves are prely sensory such as the olfactory nerve and the optic nerve, but
most contain both motor and sensory neurons.
Longest cranial nerves are the vagus fibres which contain sensory and motor nerves for the
gut.
The autonomic motor fibres of the cranial nerves are parasympathetic.

Meninges, Ventricles, and Cerebrospinal Fluid

The brain and spinal cord are the most well protected areas of the body
Both are encased in bone and 3 protective membranes
Meninges: Group of three protective membranes which surround the brain and spinal cord.
o Dura Mater: Tough outer mininx protecting the brain and spinal cord. Means 'Tough Mother
o Arachnoid Membrane: Membrane located between the dura mater and the subarachnoid
space. Name means spiderweb-like membrane, and is named so because of its appearance like a
spider web.
o Subarachnoid Space: Space directly below the arachnoid membrane and above the pia matter.
Contains many large blood vessels
Carries spinal fluid
o Pia Mater: Soft, delicate innermost meninx protecting the brain and spinal cord. Attaches
directly to the brain and spinal cord. Means 'Pious Mother'.
Cerebrospinal Fluid: Fluid which fills the subarachnoid space, the central canal of the spinal cord
and the cerebral ventricles of the brain.
Central Canal: Small channel which runs the length of the spinal cord. Contains cerebrospinal
fluid.
Cerebral Ventricles: Four large internal chambers within the brain.
o Lateral Ventricles: Largest ventricles of the brain. Located symetrically on both sides within
the the cerebrum.
o Third Ventricle: Ventricle located in the center of the brain.
o Fourth Ventricle: Small lower ventricle located near the top of the cerebellum.
The subarachnoid space, central canal and cerebral ventricles are interconnected by a series of
openings and thus form a single resevoire.
Cerebrospinal fluid supports the brain.
Patients who have small amounts of cerebrospinal fluid removed often experience raging headaches
and sharp pain every time they turn their head.
Choroid Plexuses: Networks of capillaries that protrude into the ventricles from the pia mater.
Responsible for the production of cerebrospinal fluid.
Excess spinal fluid is drained into blood-filled spaces, or dural sinuses, which run through the dura
mater and drain into the large jugular veins of the neck.
Blood-Brain Barrier:
The blood-brain barrier impedes many toxic substances from reaching the central nervous system
and disrupting its balance.
Cells that compose the walls of central nervous system blood vessels are tightly packed together
and do not allow very many molecules to pass through them. In contrast, the cells that make up the
walls of most other blood vessels are loosely packed together and allow many different molecules
to pass through.

The degree to which therapeutic and recreational drugs are able to have an effect is often due to its
ability to cross the bloodbrain barrier.
Large molecules that are critical to the brain's survival are actively transported through the barrier
walls.
Certain areas of the bloodbrain barrier allow certain large molecules to pass through unimpeded.

3.2: Cells of the Nervous System

Most cells in the nervous system are of one of two types, neurons and glial cells
Anatomy of Neurons
Neuron: cells in the body specialized in reception, conduction, and transmission of electrochemical signals
o Neurons come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes.
External Anatomy of Neurons
Cell Membrane: Semi-permeable membrane that encloses the neuron
Dendrites: The short processes emanating from the cell body, which receive most of the synaptic
connections from other neurons
Axon: Long, narrow process that projects from the cell body.
Axon Hillock: Cone-shaped region at the junction between the axon and the cell body.
Cell Body: The metabolic centre of the neuron; also called the soma.
Myelin: Fatty insulation around many axons.
Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps between sections of myelin.
Synapses: The gaps between adjacent neurons across which chemical signals are transmitted.
Buttons: The button like endings of the axon branches, which release chemicals into the synapses.
Internal Anatomy of Neurons
Nucleus: The spherical, DNA-containing structure of the cell body. Carries the cell's instructions
for building proteins.
Mitochondria: Sites of aerobic (oxygen consuming) energy release. Generates ATP energy. Inner
folds allow more product of ATP.
Endoplasmic Reticulum: A system of folded membranes in the cell body; rough portions (those
with ribosomes) play a role in synthesis of proteins; smooth portions (those without ribosomes)
play a role in the synthesis of fats. A part of the Endomembrane system.
Cytoplasm: The clear, internal fluid of the cell
Ribosomes: Internal cellular structures on which proteins are synthesized. They are located on the
endoplasmic reticulum.
Golgi Complex: A connected system of membranes that packages molecules in vesicles. A part of
the endomembrane system.
Microtubules: Tubules responsible for the rapid transport of material throughout neurons.
Synaptic Vesicles: Spherical membrane packages that store neurotransmitter molecules ready for
release near the synapses.
Neurotransmitters: Molecules that are released from active neurons and influence the activity of
other cells.

Neuron Cell Membrane

Composed of a lipid bilayer (Two layers of fat molecules)
Inside the lipid bilayer, many proteins are embedded which make up the basis of the membrane's
basic functions.
Some membrane proteins are channel proteins, through which certain molecules can pass.
Some membrane proteins are signal proteins, which transmit a signal to the inside of the neuron
when a molecule binds to them on the outside of the neuron.
Classes of Neurons:
Neurons can be classified according to the number of processes or projections emanating from their
cell bodies.
Most neurons are multipolar.
Unipolar Neuron: A neuron with a single process extending out from the cell body.
Bipolar Neuron: A neuron with two processes extending out from the cell body.
Multipolar Neuron: Neurons with more than two processes extending out from the cell body.
Interneurons: Function is to integrate neural activity from a single brain structure, not to conduct
signals from one structure to another.
Neurons and Neuroanatomical Structure
Two broad categories of neurons within the body
o Neurons composed primarly of the cell body
o Neurons composed primarily of axons
Nuclei: Clusters of cell bodies in the central nervous system; not to be confused with the cellular
structure which contains DNA.
Ganglia: Clusters of cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system.
Tracts: bundles of axons in the central nervous system.
Nerves: bundles of axons in the peripheral nervous system.
Glial Cells: The Forgotten Cells
Glial cells are also found throughout both the central and peripheral nervous systems.
Glial cells predominate over neurons in some structures, but on the whole, there are an equal number of
glial cells and neurons.
There are several kinds of glial cells
o Oligodendrocytes: glial cells with extensions that wrap around the axons of some neurons of
the central nervous system.
Extensions are rich in myelin
Myelin sheathes that form increase speed and efficiency of axonal conduction.
Provides several myelin segments.
Cannot guide axonal regeneration
o Schwann Cells: similar function to oligodendrocytes, except performed within the periphal
nervous system.
Provides only a single myelin segment.
Can guide axonal regeneration
o Microglia: smallest class of glial cells.
Respond to injury and disease by multiplying, engulfing cellular debris, and triggering
inflammatory responses

o Astrocytes: Largest class of glial cell, so named because they are shaped like stars.
Extensions cover outer surfaces of blood vessels throughout the brain
Make contact with neuron cell bodies
Play a role in allowing the passage of some chemicals, and blocking the passage of
others
Send and receive signals from other glial cells
Control and maintain the synapses between neurons
Maintain the functions of other axons
Participate in glial circuits
3.3: Neuroanatomical Techniques and Directions
Neuroanatomical Techniques
Neurons are so tightly packed, and their axons are so intertwined, that looking at unprepared neural
tissue through a microscope reveals very little about them.
Different preparations of neural tissue allow us to see different aspects of neuronal structure
o Golgi Stain: Stain discovered by an Italian scientist in the 1870's.
Stains individual neurons entirely black
Allowed scientists to see individual neurons for the first time, but only in silhouette
Used when the overall shape of the neurons is of interest
When used, only a few neurons take up the stain, allowing us to see the shape of those
neurons in great detail
Provides no information about the internal structure of the neurons or how many are in an
area.
o Nissl Stain: Stain Developed by a German psychiatrist in the 1880's.
Dye used is typically Cresyl Violet
Nissl dyes bind well only to structures inside cell bodies.
Penetrates every neuron on the slide.
Used to estimate the number of cell bodies in an area, by counting the number of nissl
stained dots.
o Electron Microscopy: Neuroanatomical technique that provides information about the details
of neuronal structure.
Slices of neuronal tissue are first coated with an electron-absorbing substance that is taken
up by different parts of the neuron to different degrees.
A beam of electrons is passed through the tissue onto a photographic film.
The result is an electron micrograph, which shows internal neuronal structure in exquisite
detail.
A scanning electron microscope provides spectacular images in three dimensions, but is not
capable of as much magnification as a regular electron microscope.
Because images generated by electron microscopy are so detailed, it can be challenging
sometimes to visualize the broad and general aspects of neuroanatomical structure.
o Neuroanatomical Tracing Techniques: there are two types of neuroanatomical tracing
techniques
Anterograde tracing is forward tracing
Used when an investigator wants to trace the paths of axons projecting away from cell
bodies located in a given area.

Investigator injects the site of interest with a chemical that will be taken up by the cell
body and transported along the axon to its buttons.
After a few days, the area of the brain is removed and sliced.
Each slice is treated to reveal the locations of the injected chemical.
Retrograde tracing is backwards tracing
Used when an investigator wants to study the paths of axons leading towards an area of
interest.
Investigator injects the site of interest with a chemical that will be taken up by the
buttons and transported up the axon to the cell body.
After a few days, the section of the brain is removed and sliced.
Each slice is treated to reveal the locations of the injected chemical.

Directions in the Vertebrate Nervous System

Directions in the vertebrate nervous system are described in relation to the orientation of the spinal
cord.
The vertebrate nervous system has three axes
o Anterior-posterior
Anterior: Towards the nose; Also called rostral
Posterior: Towards the tail; Also called caudal
o Dorsal-ventral
Dorsal: Towards the surface of the back or the top of the head.
Ventral: Towards the surface of the chest or bottom of the head
o Medial lateral
Medial: Towards the middle of the body.
Lateral: Away from the midline towards the lateral surfaces.
o The terms superior and inferior are often used to describe the top and bottom of the primate
head.
o Proximal: Within the peripheral nervous system, proximal describes processes closer to the
central nervous system than another.
Ie. Your shoulders are proximal to your elbows, and your elbows are proximal to your
fingers
o Distal: Within the peripheral nervous system, distal describes processes farther away from the
central nervous system than another.
o Four types of sections that can be used to cut and examine the brain
Frontal Section:
saggital section:
Horizontal Section:
Cross Section: A section cut at a right angle to any long, narrow structure
3.4: The Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is comprised of two different areas
o Gray Matter: Composed largely of cell bodies and unmyelinated interneurons.
Dorsal Horns: two dorsal arms of the spinal gray matter.
Ventral Horns: two ventral arms of the spinal gray matter. Appearance of butterfly wings.
o White Matter: Composed primarily of myelinated axons. It is the myelin that gives white

matter its glossy, white sheen.

Pairs of spinal nerves are attached to the spinal cord (one on the left and one on the right) at 31
different levels of the spine.
o Each of these 62 spinal nerves divides as it nears the cord.
o Axons of these nerves are joined to the spinal cord via one of two roots
Dorsal root axons are sensory (afferent) unipolar neurons with their cell bodies clustered
together just outside the cord to form the dorsal root ganglia.
Dorsal Root Ganglia: Structures just outside the spinal cord that are composed of cell
bodies of dorsal root axons.
Many of the terminals are in the dorsal horns of the spinal gray matter
Ventral root axons are motor (efferent) multipolar neurons with their cell bodies in the
ventral horns
Neurons that are part of the somatic nervous system project to skeletal muscles
Neurons that are part of the autonomic nervous system project to ganglia, which in turn
project to internal organs.

3.5: Five Major Divisions of the Brain

In the vertebrate embryo, the structure that will later develop into the central nervous system is
distinguishable as a fluid-filled tube.
The first indication of brain development are three swelling bulges at the anterior end of the tube.
These three swellings eventually develop into the adult forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain
Before birth, the initial three swellings develop into five.
the forebrain splits into two separate swellings and so does the hindbrain
The five swellings that compose the developing brain at birth from anterior to posterior are
telencephalon, diencephelon, mesencephelon, metencephelon, myelencephelon
Encephelon means inside the head (You can remember the order by remembering that t is at the top,
and the rest are in regular alphabetical order)
The telencephalon, the right and left hemispheres of the cerebral cortex, undergoes the greatest
amount of growth during development.
The other four divisions are often referred to collectively as the brain stem.
Brain Stem: The stem on which the cerebral hemispheres sit. Composed of the four divisions other
then telencephelon.
Medulla: Common term for the Myencephelon division of the brain.
3.6: Major Structures in the Brain
Directional coordinates for the brainstem are the same as for the spine, but rotate by 90 degrees
when discussion the forebrain.

Myencephelon
Myencephalon/Medulla: Composed largely of tracts carrying signals between the rest of the brain
and the body.
o The most posterior part of the brain.
o Reticular Formation: Complex network of about 100 tiny nuclei that occupies the central core
of the brain stem from the posterior boundary of the myencephelon to the anterior boundary of

the midbrain.
o So named because of its net-like appearance. (Reticulum means "little net")
o Sometimes the reticular formation is referred to as the reticular activating system because parts
of it seem to play a role in arousal.
o The various nuclei of the reticlar formation are involved in a variety of functions including
sleep, attention, movement and the maintenance of muscle tone, and various cardiac,
circulatory, and respiratory reflexes.
Metencephalon
Metencephelon: Houses many ascending and descending tracts as part of the reticular formation.
These structures create a bulge on the brain stem's ventral surface called the pons.
The other major division of the metencephalon is the cerebellum.
Cerebellum: Important sensorimotor system located on the dorsal side of the brain stem.
o Damage eliminates the ability to precisely control one's movements and adapt them to changing
conditions
o Cerebellar damage is also associated with loss of decision-making abilities and language
functions as well, implying that it has functions beyond sensorimotor control.
Mesencephelon:
Two divisions
o Tectum: Dorsal surface of the midbrain, meaning roof. Composed of two bumps called
colliculi, meaning little hills.
Inferior Colliculi: Posterior pair of colliculi. Auditory function.
Superior Colliculi: Anterior pair of colliculi. Visual function.
In lower vertebrates the function of the tectum is entirely visual.
Tectum has sometimes been referred to as the optic tectum.
o Tegmentum: Division of the mesencephelon ventral to the tectum
Contains the reticular formation and tracts of passage
Also contains three colorful structures
Pariaqueductal Gray: Gray matter situated around the cerebral aqueduct. Of special
interest to psychologists since it plays a pivotal role in mediating the analgesic effects of
opiates.
Substantia Nigra: Black substance within the tegmentum; component of the
sensorimotor system.
Red Nucleus: Red nucleus of neuron bodies within the tegmentum; component of the
sensorimotor system
Diencephelon:
Diencephelon: Composed of two structures
o Thalamus: Large, two-lobed structure that constitutes the top of the brain stem
One lobe sits on each side of the third ventricle
Massa Intermedia: Joining pathway between the two thalamic lobes; Runs through the
third ventricle;
White layers, or lamina, are visible on the exterior of the thalamus. These layars are
composed of myelinated axons.
Comprised of many psirs of nuclei which project to the cortex.

Sensory Relay Nuclei: Centers within the thalamus that receive sensory information,
process it and direct it to the corresponding area of the brain
Lateral Geniculate Nuclei: visual relay centers within the thalamus.
Medial Geniculate Nuclei: Centers that relay auditory information within the thalamus.
Ventral Posterior Nuclei: Centers that relay somatosensory information within the
thalamus.
Sensory relay nuclei receive information from the centers it forwards sensory
information to as well.
Little is known about the nuclei other then the sensory relay nuclei, but we do know that
most of them receive information from other locations in the cortex, and project out to
others.
o Hypothalamus: Center of the brain responsible for controlling many motivated behaviours
including eating, sleeping and sexual behviour
Located directly below the anterior thalamus.
Part of the regulation of these behaviours comes from controlling the release of hormones
by the pituitary gland.
Pituitary gland dangles from the ventral side of the brain.
Optic Chasm: The point where all the optic nerves from both eyes come together
The X shape of the optic chasm is created because some nerves cross over to the
opposite side of the brain from where they started.
Decussate: When an axon crosses to the other side of the brain.
Contralateral: Projecting from one side of the body to the other.
Ipsilateral: Projecting from one side of the body to the same side of the body.
Mammillary Bodies: Pair of special nuclei on the inferior surface of the hypothalamus, just
behind the pituitary.

Telencephelon
Telencephelon: Division of the brain which mediates the brain's most complex functions; Largest
division of the human brain; Responsible for initiating voluntary movement, interpretting sensory
input, and mediating complex cognitive processes such as learning, speaking and problem solving.
Cerebral Cortex: The layar of neural tissue covering the cerebral hemispheres of humans and
other mammals
o Mainly composed of small, unmyelinated neurons
o Gray because of a lack of myelin. Often called gray matter.
Layer beneath the cortex is mainly composed of large, myelinated axons, which are commonly
referred to as white matter
Convolutions in the cerebral cortex have the effect of increasing the amount of cerebral cortex
without increasing the overall volume of the brain.
Some animals have a smooth brain, not a convoluted one.
o It used to be thought that convolutions denoted intelligence in a species, but it has been since
discovered that all large bodied mammals have convolutions.
Fissure: Large furrows on the surface of a convoluted cortex.
Sulci: Small furrows on the surface of a convoluted cortex.
Gyri: Ridges between fissures and sulci.
Longitudinal Fissure: Largest fissure of the brain; Separates the left and right hemispheres.

Cerebral Commissures: Tracts spanning the longitudinal fissure to connect the right and left
hemispheres.
Corpus Collosum: The largest cerebral commissure. Connects the right and left hemispheres.
Major landmarks on the surface of each hemisphere are the central fissure and the lateral fissure,
which partially divide the brain up into the four lobes.
o Frontal Lobe: Most anterior of the cerebral lobes.
Contains the precentral gyri, one of the largest pairs of gyri in the brain.
Two distinct functional areas within the frontal lobe
The precentral gyrus and adjacent frontal cortex tissue has motor function
Frontal cortex anterior to the precentral gyrus performs complex cognitive functions
such as planning a sequence of responses and evaluating the significance of the
behaviour of others.
o Parietal Lobe: Cerebral lobe located directly posterior to the frontal lobes.
Contains the post central gyri, one of the largest pairs of gyri in the brain.
two large functional portions of each parietal lobe.
The post central gyrus analyzes sensations from the body
Remainder of the parietal lobe to the posterior of the post central gyrus allows us to
perceive the location of objects and our own bodies. It also helps direct attention.
o Temporal Lobe: One of the four major cerebral lobes. It is adjacent to the temples and contains
the amygdala and hippocampus.
Contains the superior temporal gyri, one of the largest pairs of gyri in the brain.
The cortical tissue within the temporal lobe has three main functions
the superior temporal gyrus is involved in hearing and language processing
The inferior temporal gyrus identifies complex visual patterns
The medial portion of the lobe is important for certain types of memory function.
o Occipital Lobes: The most posterior of all the lobes. Its function is primarily visual.
o Cerebral lobes are not functional units. The brain is a mass of neurons that, due to spacial and
pressure constraints, folded in on itself and created fissures and, sulci and gyri.
o Neo Cortex: Six-layered cortex of relatively recent evolution. Constitutes 90% of the human
cerebral cortex.
Layers of the neocortex are labelled I through VI starting from the surface.
Neocortical neurons neurons fall into one of two categories
Pyramidal Cells: Large, multipolar neurons with pyramid shaped cell bodies, a large
dendrite called an apical dendrite that extends from the apex of the pyramid straight
towards the cortex surface, and a very long axon.
Stellate Cells: Small, star-shaped interneurons.
The six layars of neocortex differ from each other in terms of the size and density of of their
cell bodies and the proportion between pyramidal and stellate cells.
Many long axons and dendrites course vertically (perpendicular to the cell layers)
Columnar Organization: Neurons in a given vertical column of neocortex often form a
mini-circuit that performs a single function; The functional organization of the neocortex
into vertical columns.
Even though there are six layers that make up the neocortex, different layers can be different
sizes in differing areas of the brain.
o The hippocampus is an important area of the cortex that is not made up of neocortical tissue.

o Hippocampus: Hippocampus plays a major role in some kinds of memory, particularly

memory of spatial locations.
Has only three major layers
Located on the medial edge of the cerebral cortex as it folds back in on itself in the medial
temperal lobes.
The folding of this structure produces a shape similar to a sea horse in a cross section.
(Hippocampus means sea horse)
The Limbic System and the Basal Ganglia
It is not entirely clear what these systems do, which structures to include in them or even whether
or not it is appropriate to consider each of them a unified system.
Limbic System: Circuit of midline structures that circle the thalamus. Limbic means ring.
o Involved in the regulation of motivated behaviours, including eating, escaping, fighting and
copulating
o Major structures of the limbic system include the mammiliary body, the hippocampus, the
amygdala, the fornix, the cingulate cortex and the septum
o Amygdala: Almond-shaped nucleus in the anterior temperal lobes.
Involved in emotion, particularly fear.
o Cingulate Cortex: Large strip of cortex in the cingulate gyrus on the medial surface of the
cerebral hemispheres. Encircles the dorsal thalamus. (Cingulate means encircling)
o Cingulate Gyrus: Large gyri located on the medial surfaces of the frontal lobes.
o Fornix: Major tract of the limbic system; also encircles the thalamus; Leaves the dorsal end of
the hippocampus and arches around the third ventricle to terminate at the septum; fornix means
arc.
o Septum: Midline nucleus located at the anterior tip of the cingulate cortex.
Basal Ganglia: A collection of subcortical nuclei that have important motor functions.
o The amygdala is considered to be part of both the limbic and basal ganglia motor systems.
o Striatum: Meaning striped appearance, is composed of two structures, the caudate and the
putamen.
Caudate: Runs from the posterior of the amygdala around in almost a complete circle;
caudate means tail-like.
Putamen: Located in the center of the caudate and connected by a series of fiber bridges.
o Globus Pallidus: Meaning pale globe, located medial to the putamen - between the putamen
and the thalamus.
o Nucleus Accumbens: Thought to play a role in the rewarding effects of addictive substances.
Located in the medial portion of the ventral striatum.