Blood

Blood volume
The blood volume of an average-sized
adult male 56
litres.
An average adult female 45 litres.
Whether blood is bright red or a dull brick
red is determined by Its degree of
oxygenation. The more oxygen it carries,
the brighter red it is.

19-2

Composition of Blood
Plasma
(percentage by weight)

Connective tissue

Albumins
58%

Proteins 7%

Percentage by
volume

Blood makes up about

8% of total body weight

Globulins
38%

Water
91%

Fibrinogen
4%

Ions
Nutrients

Plasma
55%
Buffy
coat

Formed
elements
45%

Other solutes 2%

Formed elements
(number per cubic mm)
Platelets
250400 thousand
White blood cells
510 thousand

Waste products
Gases
Regulatory
substances
White blood cells
Neutrophils
6070%
Lymphocytes
2025%
Monocytes
38%

Red blood cells

4.26.2 million

Eosinophils
24%
Basophils
0.51%

19-3

Plasma- 55%

Liquid part of blood.

Colloid: liquid part that dont settle out of solution .
# 91%- water.
# 9% - proteins, ions, nutrients, waste
products, gases, regulatory substances
Proteins: * Albumins: 58%

* Globulins: 38%
* Fibrinogen:4%
Nutrients are- Sugar (e.g., glucose), lipids
(fatty acids), amino acids, vitamins
Gases are- Oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Ions are- Na+, Cl, Mg2+, HCO3, K+, Ca2+
19-4

Formed Elements/ Blood cells

Red blood cells (erythrocytes). Biconcave disc,
enucleate, contain hemoglobin; 95%
Function- transports oxygen and carbon dioxide.
White blood cells (leukocytes)-5%, 2 types
Granulocytes: cytoplasm contains large granules.
Three types: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
Agranulocytes: cytoplasm contains small/ no
granules. Two types: lymphocytes and monocytes
Function-Protect body against microorganisms
and remove dead cells and debris.
Platelets (megakaryocyte):
Function- release chemicals necessary for blood
clotting.

19-5

Formed Elements
Erythrocyte
s

Neutrophils

Platelets

Red Blood Cells

Red blood
cell

White blood
cell

Platelet

Found in higher
concentration in
male than in female
plasma
Components

SEM 2600x

1/3 Hemoglobin
2/3 Lipids, ATP,
carbonic anhydrase

(a)

7.5 m

2.0 m

White blood cells

(b)

Top view

Side view

19-7

Erythrocytes

Formed Elements/WBC

19-9

RBC Function: Transport

Oxygen from lungs to tissues: 98.5%
attached to hemoglobin; 1.5% dissolved in
plasma.
Carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs.
7% dissolved in plasma
23% in combination with hemoglobin
70% transported as bicarbonate ions
produced as a result of combination of
H2O and CO2 because of enzyme
carbonic anhydrase found within RBCs
19-10

Hemoglobin Composition
Four Globin (polypeptide chains) and
four Heam molecules
Four globin molecules ( polypeptide chains):
Transport carbon dioxide .
Four heme molecules, each containing one iron
atom: transport oxygen.
Iron required for oxygen transport. Iron absorbed
in upper small intestine; absorption increased by
stomach acid and vitamin C. Iron lost in urine,
feces, menstrual fluid.

19-11

Erythropoiesis
Production of red blood cells is called erythropoiesis.
RBCs last 120 days in circulation (enucleated), then die.
Erythropoietin: This hormone stimulates RBC
production; It produces by kidneys in response to low
blood O2 levels.
For the erythropoiesis, the followings are needed:-

A. iron.
B. vitamin B12.
C. Folic acid

19-12

Erythropoiesis
Decreased
blood
oxygen

Increased
blood
oxygen

Red blood cells

Kidney

Increased
red blood cell
production

Red bone
marrow
Increased
erythropoietin
(EPO)

19-13

Leukocytes formed in bone marrow

Neutrophil

Eosinophil

Basophil

Lymphocyte

The cells have nuclei

Monocyte

Neutrophils

Eosinophils.

Neutrophils: after leaving bone

marrow, stay in circulation 10-12
hours then move into other
tissues. Become motile,
phagocytize bacteria and other
foreign matter. Secrete lysozyme.
Last 1-2 days. Number- 60-70%
of the WBC. It is most numerous
leukocyte.

Eosinophils. Leave circulation

and enter tissues during
inflammatory response and in
allergic reactions. Release
chemicals that help destroy
tapeworms, pinworms, and
hookworms. Total number- 24% of the WBC.
LM 1200x

19-15

Neutrophil

Eosinophil

Basophils: Total number- less than 1% of the

WBC. play a role in both inflammatory
response and allergic reactions. Produce
histamine and heparin

(b)

Lymphocytes: Total number- 20-25% of the

WBC. Responsible for antibody production.
(a)

Monocytes: Total number- 3-8% of the

WBC. Remain in circulation for 3 days, leave
circulation and go to tissue and become
macrophages. Phagocytic cells.
LM 1200x
(c)

19-17

Basophils:

Lymphocyte

Monocyte

Megakaryocyte /Platelets
Important in Clot
formation and preventing
blood loss.

Megakaryocyte

Terminology
Transfusion: transfer of blood or blood components from
one individual to another
Infusion: introduction of fluid other than blood.
Agglutination/clumping: Reaction between antigen
and antibody
clumping or rupture of RBCs
hemolysis (breakdown of RBC)
Antigen/ agglutinogens: present on surface/ membrane
of RBC. They are A antigen, B antigen,
Antibody/ agglutinins: Protein, present in plasma.

19-20

Blood Grouping
Blood Groups: ABO and Rh
ABO are:
Rh are :
Rh positive: Have these
1.Type -A
antigens on surface of
RBCs
2. Type-B
3. Type -AB
Rh negative: Do not have
these antigens .
4. Type-O
Most common ABO blood type is O .
Least common AB
Blood groups of an individual is determined by
antigens (agglutinogens) that are present on
surface of RBC
19-21

Blood Groups and their antigens

Type A blood group means A antigen present in RBC.
Type B blood group means B antigen present in RBC
Type AB blood group means both A and B antigen
present in RBC
Type O blood group means no antigen present in RBC

Blood Groups and their antibodies

Type A blood group has anti-B antibody in plasma;

Type B blood group has anti-A antibody in Plasma
Type AB blood group has no antibody in plasma.
Type O blood has both antibodies in plasma.
19-22

Agglutination reaction
Reaction between the antigen of donor and antibody of
recipient.
Donor A antigen reacts with anti-A antibody in
recipient.
Donor B antigen reacts with anti-B antibody recipient.
Donor AB antigens react with both anti- A and anti-B
antibody in recipient.
Donor Type O blood has no A and B antigen. both
antibodies present in plasma. No reaction.

19-23

ABO Blood Group

Antigen A

Antigen B

Anti-B antibody

Anti-A antibody

Antigens A and B

Neither antigen
A nor B

Red blood
cells

Neither anti-A nor

anti-B antibodies

Anti-A and anti-B

antibodies

Plasma

Type A
Red blood cells with
type A surface antigens
and plasma with anti-B
antibodies

Type B
Red blood cells with
type B surface antigens
and plasma with anti-A
antibodies

Type AB
Red blood cells with both
type A and type B surface
antigens and neither
anti-A nor anti-B plasma
antibodies

Type O
Red blood cells with
neither type A nor type B
surface antigens but both
anti-A and anti-B plasma
antibodies

19-24

Agglutination Reaction
(a) No agglutination
reaction. Type A blood
donated to a type A
recipient does not
cause an agglutination
reaction because the
anti-B antibodies in the
recipient do not
combine with the type
A antigens on the red
blood cells in
the donated blood.

(b) Agglutination
reaction. Type A blood
donated to a type B
recipient causes an
agglutination reaction
because the anti-A
antibodies in the
recipient combine with
the type A antigens on
the red blood cells in
the donated blood.

+
Anti-B antibody
in type A blood
of recipient

Type A blood of donor

Antigen and
antibody do
not match.
No agglutination

+
Type A blood of donor

Anti-A antibody
in type B blood
of recipient

Antigen and
antibody
match.
Agglutination

19-25

Transfusion
Donor: gives blood. Recipient: receives blood
Universal donor- Type O. Why?
These RBCs have no A, B, or Rh antigens on the cell
membrane, reducing the chance of a transfusion
reaction.
Universal recipient-Type AB

19-26

Diagnostic Blood Tests

why are hematologic studies of blood so important in the
diagnosis of disease?
Specific changes from the normal numbers of formed
elements and/or plasma constituents are characteristic of
certain disease states.
Type and Crossmatch: determination of ABO and Rh
blood types.
Complete Blood Count:
Red Blood Count: number of RBCs/ microliter of blood
Hemoglobin Measurement: grams of hemoglobin/100 mL of
blood. For a male, 14-18, female 12-16 g/100 mL
Hematocrit Measurement: percent of RBC in blood.
White Blood Cell Count: 5,000-10,000 /microliter of blood 19-27

Hematocrit-percentage of total blood

volume occupied by RBC
Centrifuge blood in
the hematocrit tube
Hematocrit tube

Hematocrit scale

100
90
80

Plasma

70
60
50

White blood cells

and platelets form
the buffy coat.

40
30

Red blood cells

20
Withdraw
blood into
10
hematocrit
tube.
0

19-28
Male

Female

 Differential White Blood Count: determines

percentage of each of the five types of WBC

Neutrophils: 60-70%
Lymphocytes: 20-30%
Monocytes: 2-8%
Eosinophils: 1-4%
Basophils: 0.5-1%

Clotting
Platelet Count: 250,000- 400,000/microliter
Prothrombin Time Measurement: measures how long
it takes for blood to start clotting. 9-12 seconds.

Blood Chemistry: composition of materials

dissolved or suspended in the plasma. Used to
assess functioning of many body systems.
19-29

Ex- cholesterol, LDL, HDL levels in plasma

Normal range for plasma cholesterol is 130200 mg/100 ml

What is the relationship between high blood cholesterol levels

and cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, heart
attacks, and strokes?
High LDL levels favor cholesterol uptake and deposit in
arteriosclerotic plaques, which, in turn (1) narrow the vessel,
reducing blood flow to more distal tissues, and (2) increase the
risk of thrombus formation. Narrowing of blood vessels is
one cause of hypertension. Attached thrombi or detached thrombi
(emboli) are common causes of heart attack and stroke.
19-30

Diseases and disorders of Blood

Iron-deficieny

anemia Caused by insufficient intake or absorption of iron or by

excessive iron loss; leads to reduced hemoglobin production

Folate-deficieny anemia
Hemorrhagic anemia

Hemolytic anemia

Thalassemia

Folate is important in DNA synthesis; inadequate folate

in the diet results in a reduction number of red blood cells

Results from blood loss due to trauma, ulcers, or

excessive menstrual bleeding
Occurs when red blood cells rupture or are destroyed at an
excessive rate;
Autosomal recessive disease that results in insufficient
production of globin part of hemoglobin

19-31

Leukemia

Cancers of the red bone marrow in which one or more white blood cell
types is produced; lack of normal immunological functions

Thrombocytopenia

Reduction in the number of platelets that leads to chronic

bleeding through small vessels and capillaries;

Hemophilia

Genetic disorder in which clotting is abnormal or absent;

occurs almost exclusively in males

Acquired immunodeficiecy
syndrome (AIDS)

Caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV),

which infects lymphocytes and suppresses immune system

19-32

Terminology
condition of too few RBCs or of RBCs with
hemoglobin deficiencies is called anemia
abnormal increase in the number of WBCsleukocytosis
abnormal decrease in the number of WBCsleukopenia
abnormal increase in the number of RBCs-;
polycythemia
abnormal decrease in the number of thrombocytes19-33
thrombocytopenia

Test

Normal values
(healthy male
adults)

Total WBC
count

400011,000/mm3

Total RBC
count

46 million/mm3

Hematocrit

4252 volume %

Hemoglobin
determinati 1318 g/100 ml
on
blood
27 min (Ivy)
Bleeding time 05 min (Duke)
Coagulation
time

26 min

High values

Significance
Low values

infection, metabolic
disease, haemorrhage, or
poisoning

decreased body
protection or
chemical toxicity,
or disease states
anemia or bone
polycythemia due to high marrow cancer
altitude or pulmonary
disease

polycythemia,
dehydration, congestive
heart failure, shock, or
surgery
polycythemia or
dehydration
deficient or abnormal
platelets
hemophilia, leukemia,
increased clotting time

anemia

anemia
(particularly irondeficiency
anemia)

high platelet
count
thromboembolytic
disorders
19-34

Assignments
# Draw and label the blood cells
# Write down the components of blood.
# Write down the name of blood groups.

19-35