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C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e
Transformers
Introduction
6.1
Electromagnetic voltage
transformers
6.2
Capacitor voltage
transformers
6.3
Current transformers
6.4
Novel instrument
transformers
6.5
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6.1 INTRODUCTION
Whenever the values of voltage or current in a power
circuit are too high to permit convenient direct
connection of measuring instruments or relays, coupling
is made through transformers. Such 'measuring'
transformers are required to produce a scaled down
replica of the input quantity to the accuracy expected
for the particular measurement; this is made possible by
the high efficiency of the transformer. The performance
of measuring transformers during and following large
instantaneous changes in the input quantity is
important, in that this quantity may depart from the
sinusoidal waveform. The deviation may consist of a
step change in magnitude, or a transient component
that persists for an appreciable period, or both. The
resulting effect on instrument performance is usually
negligible, although for precision metering a persistent
change in the accuracy of the transformer may be
significant.
However, many protection systems are required to
operate during the period of transient disturbance in the
output of the measuring transformers that follows a
system fault. The errors in transformer output may
abnormally delay the operation of the protection, or
cause unnecessary operations. The functioning of such
transformers must, therefore, be examined analytically.
It can be shown that the transformer can be represented
by the equivalent circuit of Figure 6.1, where all
quantities are referred to the secondary side.
1/1
Rp
Lp
Rs
Ze
79
Ls
Burden
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C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
where:
Kn is the nominal ratio
Vp
IpXp
IpRp
Ep
-V
Vs
Ic
Im
Ie
IpL
Ie
6.2.1 Errors
E
s
Is
Ie
Im
I
Vs
IsXs
= exciting current
I
Ip
Es
IsRs
s s
I
I
Accuracy
class
= secondary current
= primary current
0.1
0.2
0.5
1.0
3.0
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Accuracy
class
3P
6P
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6.2.5 Construction
Time
rating
1.2
continuous
1.2
1.5
1.2
continuous
30 s
continuous
1.9
30 s
1.2
continuous
1.9
8 hours
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
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Residual
voltage
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
C
P
P - primary winding
C - coupling windings
S - secondary winding
S
a
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C1
L
C2
C2
Zb
C1
Zb
T
L
C2
Zb
Rp
Rs
C1
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
Chap6-78-97
Vi
Ze
Zb
L - tuning inductance
Rp - primary winding resistance (plus losses)
Ze - exciting impedance of transformer T
Rs - secondary circuit resistance
Zb - burden impedance
C - C1 + C2 (in Figure 6.6)
Figure 6.7: Simplified equivalent circuit
of capacitor voltage transformer
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If the burden impedance of a CVT were to be shortcircuited, the rise in the reactor voltage would be limited
only by the reactor losses and possible saturation, that is,
to Q x E2 where E2 is the no-load tapping point voltage
and Q is the amplification factor of the resonant circuit.
This value would be excessive and is therefore limited by
a spark gap connected across the auxiliary capacitor. The
voltage on the auxiliary capacitor is higher at full rated
output than at no load, and the capacitor is rated for
continuous service at this raised value. The spark gap will
be set to flash over at about twice the full load voltage.
Amplitude
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
Time
6.3.3 Ferro-Resonance
The exciting impedance Ze of the auxiliary transformer T
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6.4.1 Errors
Z=21.2
IsRs
Burden
10VA
300/5A
Es
IsXs
(a) Physical arrangement
Iq
Ir
0.2
Z=21.2
'Ideal'
CT
E=6350V r=300/5
j50
150
Ip
Vs
0.4
Is
Ie
0.2
E = Secondary induced e.m.f.
Vs Secondary output voltage
Er =6350V x 60
=381kV
j50
150
0.4
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
E=6350V
Ie
Figure 6.9: Derivation of equivalent circuit
of a current transformer
Is
Iq
Is
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Class
5P
10P
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
3
5
50
3
5
Current error at
Phase displacement
Composite error at
rated primary
at rated current
rated accuracy limit
current (%)
(minutes)
primary current (%)
+/-1
+/-60
5
+/-3
10
Standard accuracy limit factors are 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30
120
3
5
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VK
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+ 10%V
V
Exciting voltage (V
Vs)
+ 50%IIeK
IeK
Exciting voltage (IIe)
Figure 6.11: Definition of knee-point
of excitation curve
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CTs for measuring line currents fall into one of three types.
6.4.6.1 Overdimensioned CTs
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
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Equation 6.1
Ep
= system resistance
= system inductance
i p = I p sin t + e ( R
2
L) t
...Equation 6.2
( R L) t
where:
R 2 + 2 L2
[ sin ( t + ) + sin ( ) e
Ep
t2
= K t vdt
1
Equation 6.3
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
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3 2
A
= KR b I s
sin t dt
KR b I s
= KR b I s e (
R L) t
dt =
...Equation 6.4
KR b I s L
R
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
0.1
0.15
0.2
1 +
...Equation 6.6
1.0
0.9
-
0.8
0.05
Time (seconds)
wL
X
=
R
R
T = 0.06s
4
12
...Equation 6.5
16
-1
e T
0.7
L
= 1 + T
R
1
T1
0.6
Ie
0.5
0.4
0.3
TF = 1 + 2fT = 1 + 2T
0.2
0.1
i's
0
Time
-0.1
Ie = Transient exciting current
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Let:
is = the nominal secondary current
...Equation 6.7
also,
Le
di e
= R b i s
dt
...Equation 6.8
whence:
di e
R i
R i
+ b e = b s
dt
Le
Le
which gives for the transient term
ie = I1
T
e t T e t T
T1 T
1
...Equation 6.9
where:
T = primary system time constant L/R
T1 = CT secondary circuit time constant Le/Rb
I1 = prospective peak secondary current
6.4.10.2 Practical conditions
Practical conditions differ from theory for the following
reasons:
a. no account has been taken of secondary leakage or
burden inductance. This is usually small compared
with Le so that it has little effect on the maximum
transient flux
Exciting current
Time
Current
Primary current
referred to
secondary
Time
0
Secondary current
Residual flux = 0
Resistive burden
Power system T.C. = 0.05s
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
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C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
HV
Bus
Insulating
function
Sensor
E/O converter
+
Communication
Sensing
function
Instrument
Transformer
Electronic
interface
Communication
+
O/E converter
Secondary
output
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'Odd' polariser
input
polariser
output
polariser
optical
fibre
optical
fibre
in
sensing
light
detector
out
light source
45
90
optical
sensing
medium
1.0
0.5
0.5
1.0
+
t
reference
light input
intensity
t
modulated
light input
intensity
Figure. 6.18: Schematic representation of the concepts behind the optical sensing of varying electric and magnetic fields
93
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analysing circuitry.
In sharp contrast with a
conventional free-standing instrument transformer, the
optical instrument transformer needs an electronic
interface module in order to function. Therefore its
sensing principle (the optical material) is passive but its
operational integrity relies on the interface that is
powered in the control room (Figure 6.21).
'Floating'
electrode
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
Electro-optic
sensor
AC line
voltage
Optical fibres
Reference
electrode
Reference
electrode
Light
path
AC line
voltage
Electro-optic
sensor
I AC line current
Reference
electrode
Optical fibres
Optical fibre
AC line current
I
Optical fibres
Junction
box
Gapped
Magneto-optic sensor
magnetic core
(b) 'Field-shaping' type
Optical
interface
unit
AC/DC source
Figure 6.21: Novel instrument transducer concept
requiring an electronic interface in the control room
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AC line current
Electro-optic sensor
(bulk-glass transducer)
Electro-optic sensor
('all-fibre' transducer)
AC
line I
current
H1
H2
Bulk-glass
sensing element
Light in
Optical fibres
Light out
Fibre optic
cable conduit
Insulator
column
AC line current
I
Sensor #2
Light in
Fibre
optic
cables
Optical fibres
Light out
Fibre
sensing element
(b) 'All-fibre' sensor concept
C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
Sensor #1
Conductor
95
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C u r r e n t a n d Vo l t a g e T r a n s f o r m e r s
Electrical to optical
converter/transmitter
I
Burden
Optical
fibres
Current transformer
Figure 6.26: Design principle of a hybrid magnetic
current transformer fitted with an optical transmitter
Magnetic
g
concentrator
(gapped magnetic core)
Air core
toroidal coil
i
Electrical to optical
converter
V
Optical
fibres
Sensing current
Sensing element
Figure 6.25: Conceptual design of a Hall-effect
current sensing element fitted in a field-shaping gap
Current carrying
conductor
Figure 6.27: Schematic representation
of a Rogowski coil, used for current sensing
96